AGRIE. DFPT.

THE CULTIVATED ORANGES AND LEMONS, ETC.,

OF INDIA AND CEYLON.

I LIBRAF

UNIVER...

THE CULTIVATED

' »

ORANGES AND' LEMONS

ETC.

OF INDIA AND CEYLON

WITH

RESEARCHES INTO THEIR ORIGIN AND THE

.DERIVATION OF THEIR NAMES, AND

OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION

WITH AN ATLAS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

BY,

E. BONAVIA, M.D.

BRIGADE SURGEON, INDIAN MEDICAL SERVICE

LONDON

W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE
PALL MALL, S.W.

1888

'

"I do not know whether you ever had the feeling of having thought so
much over a subject that you had lost all power of judging it."

C. DARWIN to C. LYELL,
"Life and Letters," Vol. III., p. 72.

CONTENTS,

PAGE

PREFACE vii

INTRODUCTION. xv

CHAPTER I.
THE SEVILLE GROUP i

CHAPTER II.
THE "KHATTA" GROUP 10

CHAPTER III.

THE PORTUGAL OR MALTA ORANGE GROUP . . -19

CHAPTER IV.

THE "AMILBED" AND PUMMELO GROUP ... 29

CHAPTER V.

THE "SUNTARA" GROUP ... 44

CHAPTER VI.

THE MANDARIN AND "KEONLA" GROUP . . -53

CHAPTER VII.
THE "JHAMBIRI" GROUP 60

CHAPTER VIII.

THE CITRON PROPER GROUP . . . 63

282765

vi Contents.

CHAPTER IX.

PAGE

THE LEMON GROUP ... . 73

CHAPTER X.
THE "LIMA" AND LIME PROPER GROUP ... So

CHAPTER XL
CULTIVATION OF THE ORANGE, LEMON, ETC. ... 90

CHAPTER XII.

THE USES AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS 139

CHAPTER XIII.

THE ORANGE AND LEMON TRADE OF INDIA. . . . 154

CHAPTER XIV.
THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE CITRUS 175

CHAPTER XV.

DISCUSSION ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ClTRUS IN INDIA

AND THE DERIVATIONS OF ITS VERNACULAR NAMES 214

CONCLUSIONS . 245

APPENDIX,

CONTAINING A TRANSLATION OF THE CHAPTERS ON THE
CITRUS IN THE "FLORA OF AMBOYNA," BY RUMPHIUS,
BESIDES INFORMATION WHICH MAY BE USEFUL TO
PLANTERS AND COMMERCIAL PEOPLE IN INDIA AND
TO FUTURE INVESTIGATORS OF THE NATURAL HIS-
TORY OF THE CITRUS 247

GLOSSARY 361

INDEX . 367

PREFACE.

ALTHOUGH entitled " Oranges and Lemons," this work
treats of all the varieties of Citrus.

I originally commenced it with a commercial object,
that is, to show the numerous varieties of oranges,
lemons, &c., now to be found in India, and their
economic value. If not for export, at least there is
room for an extended internal trade in these fruits,
and for the development of certain industries from
them in India. Besides the fresh fruit, the preserves
made from it might be largely supplied in India in-
stead of importing them. Then, essential oils and
citric acid might, in due course, be also manufactured.
The fact, however, was that the more researches I
made, the more interesting the whole subject became,
and as I found that not much of a satisfactory nature
had been recorded regarding the cultivated citrus of
India, I was tempted to extend my researches by ask-
ing friends to send me samples of citrus from various
parts, which I had not any opportunity of visiting. I
take this occasion to cordially thank all those who have
helped me with specimens, drawings, books, and by
their correspondence, and with statistics of trade in
India connected with oranges and lemons. In the
course of these investigations, one thing led to another,
facts led to this and that speculation, and the present
work, whatever may be its worth, has been the result.

viii Preface.

With the exception of those courteously contributed
by Mr. McLeod from Assam, and Mr. Stevenson from
Sylhet, and those borrowed from other works, all the
outline drawings in the accompanying Atlas were
made by myself from the samples I obtained.

I need not say that the illustrations are very poor,
and no doubt there is a certain amount of audacity in
presenting such a collection of rough drawings to the
public, when it is accustomed to highly-finished and
artistic illustrations. The question, however, in this
case, was not one between poverty and richness, but
whether the illustrations were to be such as they are,
or none at all. There are probably few who will not
admit that an outline drawing, however rough, is better
than nothing. It goes without saying that the draw-
ings of the accompanying Atlas were not intended as
works of art, but simply as a help to understand the
text ; and to intelligent persons, a rough outline of
anything is often as good as the most elaborately-
coloured picture, and far less expensive. Moreover,
as I had the opportunity of seeing and handling a
large number of forms of this most important genus
to man (many of which are not known, and have
never been seen out of the localities where they are
grown), I thought it of some importance to preserve
a record of them, however rough, for the benefit of
any future student of this interesting genus. At this
time of day it cannot any longer be said that cultivated
forms of fruit are of no significance to botanists.
There is, I believe, more science to be got out of
cultivated forms of plants, than was once suspected.

The drawings were all made of natural size, but
owing to the expense of getting them printed of that
size, they had to be much reduced. I hope, however,
that the scale of inches given in each plate will enable

Preface. ix

the reader to form an idea of what the different kinds
may be like.

The reader will understand that the grouping of
these citrus, is in some cases rather arbitrary, for want
of sufficient knowledge of the different varieties. This
is the case especially with the lemon group. The
smaller varieties resembling the limes proper would
form an interesting study for anyone with leisure, and
a garden in which he might grow them both from
seed, and in other ways.

The chapter on morphology is entirely speculative,
and may possibly be found of little value. In investi-
gating-anything, new ideas seem to be called up in
oije's mind beyond what is immediately visible. These
have sometimes led to new standpoints for further
investigations. It does not, however, follow that these
new ideas always turn out true, or that it is wise to
record them. In connection with these speculations
about the citrus, I have entered upon some explana-
tions, according to my views, on three allied genera —
the GEgle, the Feronia, and the Limonia. Outlines of
these will be found among the miscellaneous drawings
at the end of the Atlas.

Some specimens arrived after I had arranged and
numbered the plates ; I have placed these at the end
of each group. For similar reasons, and also because
I don't know much about these varieties, I have placed
Mr. McLeod's interesting drawings of Assam citrus,
and those sent by Mr. Stevenson of Sylhet, all to-
gether in the miscellaneous part of the Atlas.

Some repetition has occurred in the various chapters,
but this could not well have been avoided. I thought
it preferable to repeat a few sentences here and there
than to refer back the reader to what I said before.

The Appendix may be thought too big. In my

x Preface.

researches, however, I found a great deal that was in-
teresting regarding the citrus, both from scientific and
economic points of view. As this information was
scattered in different books and journals, I thought
that by putting it all in the Appendix it might be use-
ful to some future investigator of the citrus family, and
also to planters, &c. Moreover, in looking over the
" Flora of Amboyna " of Rumphius, I found, as I
thought, that his chapters on the citrus threw consider-
able light on the origin of some varieties of citrus now
very common in India. I made a translation of these
chapters for my own use. The more I looked into
them the more interesting I found them, and as I am
not aware that any translation of Rumphius's " Flora "
has ever been made, I thought it might be useful to in-
clude these chapters in the Appendix. I trust the tran-
slations will be found sufficiently accurate for all practical
purposes. I have in addition given tracings in the
Atlas of all the citrus delineated by Rumphius, but as
they are not made to any scale, it is often difficult to
judge of their sizes. In describing them, however, he
gave rough dimensions, which will help the better
understanding of his drawings. For the opportunity
of making these translations, I am indebted to Dr. G.
King, the director of the Royal Botanic Garden at
Seebpore, who very kindly lent me the copy of Rum-
phius in the botanical library. That copy has the
additional advantage of having notes at the back of
each plate, made by Hamilton Buchanan's own hand.
The Appendix contains other information, which I
trust may be found of some value.

The notes, wherever found, and not otherwise stated,
are mine.

I have added a Glossary to help the general reader in
understanding the terms which are not in common use.

Preface. xi

In the Appendix, I have quoted figures, wherever I
could find them, to show what is being done. Orange
growers in India and Ceylon, with their command of
cheap labour, might, I think, advantageously compete
in the London markets with the growers of Florida
and their dear labour. An English or American
labourer is paid 53. $d. per day, and skilled gar-
deners get higher wages ; that is, about ten times
the wages of an Indian mdli ; calculating that a
good orange grower in India might probably be
obtained for four annas a day, or eight rupees a
month, or even less, if a commission were allowed
him on the profits. It should be remembered that
a sufficiently good orange grower, if he has the right
soil, requires very little knowledge beyond that neces-
sary for raising seedlings, budding them, and manur-
ing and watering the trees at the proper times, all
which he might learn in a month. If garden labour
in India is ten times cheaper than that of Florida, it
would require that the carriage from Florida to
London should be ten times cheaper than that from
Bombay and Karachi to London, to enable the former
to compete on equal terms with the latter. It will be
seen, moreover, that in Florida, as stated in Appen-
dix, No. 31, frosts are occasionally so severe as to turn
all the orange crop into ice-balls, and ruin it, besides
killing all the young stock in the nurseries, if it do not
also injure the adult trees. There is, perhaps, no part
of India, where oranges are grown extensively, which
is subject to destructive frost, such as that which is
said to have occurred in Florida in 1885-6.* Another
object of some parts of the Appendix is not only to show
planters in India what is being done in this line, out of

* Recently a book has been published called "Florida the Orange
State."

xii Preface.

India, and how important in many respects the citrus
tree is, but also to warn them what to avoid, and how
to turn this industry to the best account. As a rule,
when an industry in India succeeds, and yields a fair
profit, many rush in to spoil it by competition. Few
ever attempt to strike out a new line for themselves.
Theyfotf one who succeeds in any new line has usually
an advantage, especially where trees require some
time to come into full bearing, which it would be
difficult for others afterwards to keep up with.

In the accompanying Atlas I have described as fully
as I could all the specimens that came under my
notice. I have given so many drawings of the same
type, in order to show them from different climates
and soils, as some kinds of citrus are much affected by
changes in their surroundings. Moreover, I thought
it would be of some value to leave records of any dis-
tinctions that may be made out by the senses of one
and the same person, as the same colour, scent, and
taste might be differently interpreted by different
persons.

There may be some varieties which I may not have
met with or heard of. If so, they must be left for
some other investigator to discover and describe.*

As this work is intended mostly for India, I have
entered fully on the cultivation of oranges and lemons
in that country. This has made that chapter rather
voluminous. I hope, however, that this may be a
defect on the right side.

The list of dates in the Appendix might perhaps be
considered unconnected with the subject of this work.
But their aim is to elucidate the antiquity and fre-

* The observations on the leaves of young seedlings are frag-
mentary ; but as I had so many varieties of them, I thought some
record of them might be useful.

Preface. xiii

quency of trade with the places mentioned, and the
opportunities there were of disseminating this useful
tree. The remarks of Renaud are especially interest-
ing, as they show that trade between Western Asia,
India, the Malay Archipelago, and China, dates from
the time of the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans.

There ought properly to have been added a chapter
on the insects which are inimical to the citrus tree.
Some of these may, however, be of use to it, although
they feed on its leaves. Researches in Entomology,
however important, would have made this volume
interminable, and might have possibly put off its pub-
lication for ever.*

Wherever there is a want of fulness of description
in the text, it may be found supplemented on the back
of the plates of the Atlas.

In some plates I have not been able to give draw-
ings of typical leaves. It is difficult in corresponding
with persons in various parts of India to impress them
with the necessity of sending typical leaves. I have,
therefore, been often obliged to give only the outlines
of those that came with the specimens. These leaves,
however, have often, I think, a morphological interest
of their own. By typical leaves I mean the fully
developed ones of the adult tree or adult branch, and
such as give the character to the tree. This defect
in some of the plates will, however, be found gene-
rally supplemented by typical leaves of the same
variety in other plates.

I have always thought that a good Index to a book
is one of its most useful parts ; and so I have endea-
voured to make one as full as I could. Through the

* Recently an illustrated work has been published by the Italian
Government, entitled " Studi sugli Agrumi," and the author is said
to be Penzig.

xiv Preface.

Index, the information given in the Appendix will be
easily got at.

In the Conclusions, I have mentioned what, accord-
ing to my view, appear some of the more prominent
results of this investigation.

INTRODUCTION.

WHAT is the difference between an orange and a
lemon ? Various examples occur, which do not agree,
either with the popular definition of oranges and
lemons, or with that given by botanists. For instance
the k/ratta citrus of India has an orange leaf, an
orange exterior, an orange pulp, yet its fruit is
prominently mammillate, and its flower is tinged purple.
Again, the acidless citrus, the* mitha-nimboo, has a
lemon-yellow exterior, a white pulp, and it is mammil-
late ; its leaves are like those of a lemon, yet its flowers
are pure white. The jkamblri proper has orange-like
leaves, the flowers are slightly tinged with purple, the
pulp, varies from white to pale yellow, or orange, and
the fruit is mammillate, and of two kinds externally,
either of an orange colour, or of a lemon-yellow, and
possibly also of a fawn colour.*

Then are these intermediate forms the result of
natural crossing ? Without having made direct and
careful experiments, I cannot say whether the mingling
of the orange and lemon, by crossing, is even possible.
All my observations, and the records of others incline
me to the conclusion that the different varieties of
citrus do not readily cross. Plants raised from seed,
however, are said to vary within certain limits, even
without crossing. The Seville orange, the khatta,

* Vide pi. 259, for a still more curious apparent mixture of
orange and citron in one fruit. (?)

xvi Introduction.

orange, and the true lime have rarely, if ever, been
raised in India in any other way than by seed, and
from being grown together, and flowering at the same
time, there must have been frequent opportunities for
centuries, for natural crosses to have occurred, if these
could easily happen ; yet in no case, either in the leaf,
the fruit, the flower, or in the general habit of the tree,
have I noticed the slightest suspicion of disturbance,
which could be attributed to crossing.

It will be seen that there are two distinct types of
sweet oranges, viz., the close skinned Portugal orange,
and the loose-skinned suntara orange of India.*
Their trees are quite distinct. The former appears of
comparatively recent introduction in India, while the
latter must have existed from a very remote period,
on the Eastern Border. In Emperor Baber's time it
was hardly known in the plains of India, and even in
Roxburgh's time it appears to have made very little
progress. Now, however, it is found under various
forms, all over India and Ceylon. In the time of
Rumphius it was well known in the Malay Archi-
pelago, under the name of China orange. Although
from its prevalence on the Eastern hills in a semi-
wild state, it might be thought indigenous in India, all
my researches point to its being of foreign origin,
either directly from Cochin China, across the Eastern
border, or by way of the Malay Archipelago ; although
now, and for a very long time back, it . has become
naturalized. Some future student of the Indo-Chinese
languages, and ancient writings, may perhaps succeed
in throwing new light on this point, f

* It may be possibly found that its proper designation was
originally seng-tara.

t Vide Appendix, No. 41 (;«), regarding the Chinese names of
oranges, Bit-cam and Seng-cam.

Introduction. xvii

All citrus will change features to some extent, by
change of climate, soil, and culture, and if grown from
seed, under changed circumstances, probably further
changes might be obtained by selection. The smooth-
ness or wartiness, the thinness or thickness of skin, the
sweetness or sourness, the dryness or juiciness, and the
size of the fruit are particularly liable to change, and
therefore all the characters of the tree, flower, fruit,
and seed, should be considered, in grouping the
various forms of citrus. In my researches I have
met with no evidence tending to show that any of the
sweet oranges are direct descendants of the bitter, or
Seville orange.

At the end of the lemon group, I have delineated
specimens of double lemons. I have given these
because I believe that this doubling of the citrus
fruit, that is the fusion of two ovaries, and not the
addition of carpels in the same ovary, has played a
considerable part in the production of the large kinds
of citrus. First these double citrus may have attracted
attention, as curious novelties, and then by repetition
and selection through the seed, a more perfect, and
large variety may have been established. These twin
fruits are moreover interesting on account of their
connection with the game of " Philippine," which the
natives of India call Faramosh (vide Appendix,
No. 21).

Fortunately, I have been able to examine a large
number of citrus with "my own" eyes, olfactory and
gustatory nerves, which circumstances, I think, have
great advantages. Probably no two persons would
see things in the same way, or detect the same shades
of taste and scent. It is by these means that I have
been able sometimes to make out varieties of the same
groups, such as the Seville and Portugal oranges.

6

xviii .Introduction.

The balance of evidence at present obtainable is
not, I think, in favour of the true lime being a variety
of the Citrus medica proper.

There are many varieties of citrus in India, that
might without much difficulty, be referred to the
C. medica ; but in the Malay Archipelago, in the time
of Rumphius, there was a whole group of cultivated
citrus, referable with more probability to the citrus
hystrix, which is said to be found in a wild state in
Burma, not improbably the true lime may belong to this
group. The facilities for its being transported to
India at some remote period appear to have been
great. I believe that the Malay Archipelago, with its
numerous islands, its temperature and moisture, has
played an important part in giving birth to new
varieties of citrus. 1 further believe that those
numerous islands have acted as a sort of half-way house
for the dissemination of the Chinese varieties of citrus
to India, Africa, Western Asia, and Europe. At
each place, new varieties resulted from the sowing of
the seed, under different conditions of climate, soil, &c.

In the following chapters I have entered fully into
all that concerns each group of citrus. That on the
Pummelo may be found interesting to Botanists, as
hitherto they have considered it a separate species.
For reasons given, I do not think it so.

It is, I think, of some importance to have established
by these researches that one of the best pummelos in
the world, is to be found in Bombay in December
— a red, thin-skinned juicy fruit, as large as a
man's head ; that Tanjore possesses the best Portugal
orange in all India ; that Butwal on the borders of
Nepal, north of Gorruckpore and Gonda, grows in
a semi-wild state, perhaps the sweetest orange to be
had in any part of the world ; that Gujranwala in the

Introduction. xix

Punjab can grow a blood orange, equal to, if not
superior to, that of Malta. That Delhi can grow in
the shade of trees, one of the finest oranges to be
found in India; that Almora possesses a citron from
which a candied peel can be made superior to that of
Leghorn ; that the Malta, Portugal or Sicilian lemon,
identical with that of the English shops, can be grown
all over India, from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin,
and Ceylon, and that sliced and boiled in a certain
way, it is a very efficient remedy for intermittent fever
and enlarged spleen, the two real and always present
plagues of the rural population of Hindostan.

Many of these important points were not known
before, beyond the immediate neighbourhood where
the different kinds were grown. This work gives in
detail, not only the history of the citrus in India, as far
as it can be made out, and its mode of cultivation in
different places, but also outline drawings of every
variety of orange, lemon, citron, lime, pummelo, &c.,
to be found in India, with the places at which they can
be procured.

ORANGES AND LEMONS OF INDIA.

CHAPTER I.

THE SEVILLE ORANGES.

THE Emperor Baber, in his memoirs, mentions the
" naranj " as one of the kinds of Citrus he found in
India. I don't, however, believe that he meant by
this name the bitter or Seville orange.* He says little
about the Indian oranges, but a good deal about those
of Central Asia, and the N.W. frontier of India. He
adds that in the latter part it is called ndrank. The
kinds he alludes to are evidently sweet oranges of
some sort (vide Baber's memoirs, Appendix No. i (a)\

It is more probable that his kirneh\ is the Seville
orange. He says it is acid. There is, however,
much confusion in Indian names of Citrus. Kama
is one of the names given to a true Seville, on the
western coast. While another totally different kind
—the khatta of most places — is, by some, also called
karna. I am informed that the latter name in
Sanskrit means "bitter."

Risso, in his monograph, gives " narandj" as the
Arabic Synonym of the Citrus Bigaradia, the Seville
orange, and Alphonse de Candolle credits the Arabs

* Although Risso gives narandj as synonymous with Seville orange,
t Appendix, No. i (/').

B

'-£ : ?\ i*\ :''- "Qrcwges. fond Lemons of India.

with having transported the bitter orange from
Western India to Persia, Arabia, Syria, Northern
Africa, and Spain. The Arab physicians are known to
have used it in their pharmaceutical preparations. The
Arab name ndranj may or may not have been derived
from nagrung, the supposed Sanskrit name for orange.

Sir J. Hooker, following Brandis, places the bitter
or Seville orange, as Var. 2, Bigaradia, of Citrus
aurantium, Linn., and says " petiole usually winged,
flowers larger, and more strongly scented (than those
of the sweet orange), rind very aromatic, pulp bitter."
And the original of which this is supposed to be
only a variety, he considers is C. aurantium, Linn.
" Arboreus, rarely shrubby, young shoots glabrous,
greenish white, leaflet elliptic or ovate, acute, obtuse
or acuminate ; petiole often broadly winged, flowers
pure white, bisexual, fruit globose, generally oblate, not
mammillate." He adds that the wild Citrus aurantium
is found in the " Lob valleys, along the foot of the
Himalaya, from Garwhal eastwards to Sikkim, and in
the Khasia Mountains — a small slender tree, flowering
in the rains and fruiting after them, growing where I
found it, in the very bottoms of valleys, and where it
did not occur to me to doubt its being indigenous.
The fruit was somewhat flattened, or nearly globose,
about two in. diam., high-coloured, and uneatable,
being (if I remember aright) mawkish and bitter."

It is not improbable, in my opinion, that the
description given above of the wild species belongs to
one section only of the orange tribe, viz., those which
are now semi-cultivated — semi-wild — in various places
along the .foot of the Himalayas. They appear to
belong to the suniara and kamala section. All these
have " a slender tree." As to their flowering in the
rains, almost all the Citrus flower twice ; some flower

The Sdville Oranges. 3

all the year round. The main crop of flowers comes
out in February or March, which corresponds to the
Indian spring. The fruit of this crop ripens about
December. The second and much smaller crop of
flowers comes out in the rains with the rain-foliage.
The fruit of these, which natives call Dumrfa, ripens
in the ensuing April or thereabouts.

I must here first observe that, in my opinion, a
great deal of confusion has arisen in describing
oranges, by grouping all the sweet ones under the one
name of sweet oranges. It appears to me that the
so-called sweet oranges are distinctly divisible into
two great sections, one, the Malta or Portugal
orange — the Citrus aurantium sinense of Gallesio, and
its varieties ; and the other, the suntara orange
of India, the Citrus aurantium sinense of Rumphius
and its derivatives. The former is a close skinned
orange, with a distinct tree, not at all slender, and
with a distinct, not very aromatic leaf. The latter
is a loose skinned orange, often baggy. Its tree is
also distinct and slender, with a distinct aroma in its
leaves. Neither of them is ' totally sweet. When
unripe they are sour, and as they ripen the acid
changes into sugar, and their charm, even when ripe,
is to possess in their pulp a pleasant mixture of sweet
and sub-acid flavour. The only true sweet orange I
know is a variety of the Malta orange, which has an
acidless pulp from beginning to end, like the sweet
lemons of India. I have never seen this acidless
orange in India. Another source of some confusion
comes from calling the Seville orange bitter. I have
tasted the pulp of many Sevilles in various parts, and
rarely have I found the pulp bitter. It is simply sour.
Sometimes I thought the pulp had a " soup9on " of
bitterness in it, but very rarely. I think the mistake,

B 2

4 Oranges and Lemons of India.

if it be a mistake, has arisen from the way of tasting the
pulp. If you cut a Seville orange in two transversely,
and then give the pulp a bite, you will probably say it
is bitter But in biting the pulp with the upper teeth,
your lower teeth and lip graze against the rind, which
is intensely bitter, aromatic and pungent. The
bitterness of the rind mixing with the juice in the
mouth makes you think the pulp is bitter-sour. While
if you use a spoon and scoop out a bit of the pulp
without touching the rind and taste it, you will
probably say it is only sour*

Wherever I have met with the Seville orange,
whether smooth or subwarty, whether large or small,
whether in Upper India, Southern India, or Ceylon, it
had the same character : rind very aromatic, bitter
and pungent ; pulp sour (in some cases I thought it
slightly bitter) ; leaves of a deep green, always typically
with a winged petiole, oftener with large wings to their
petioles, and always with a distinct, and what I consider
a characteristic, strong and very pleasant aroma in its
leaves. It is on account of this aroma in the leaves
that by preference in Europe they are distilled for
their essential oil, which perfumers call " petit-grain."
I have examined Sevilles from Malta, from Lucknow,
from Gonda, from Etawah (the latter said to have
been got from the Punjab), from Mooltan, from Cal-
cutta, from Kandy, and Newra Ellia in Ceylon ; all
with that characteristic scent in the leaf, and all have
the same charactered fruit — viz., bitter, aromatic and
pungent rind and sour pulp. The two combined make
the best marmalade. Wherever I had an oppor-
tunity of examining the flowers they were highly
scented. It is difficult, owing to the above sources of

* Possibly the envelopes of the quarters, or carpels, in which the
juice vesicles are contained, may sometimes be bitter.

The Seville Oranges. 5

confusion, to satisfy oneself regarding the wild parent
of the cultivated Seville orange. De Candolle says
that the Citrus fusca of Loureiro, is wild in China
and Cochin China. Loureiro says that his C. fusca
corresponds with the Aurantium acidum, of Rumphius,
given in plate 33 (not 23 as is stated in De Candolle's
book;* the latter is a Tamarind), Vol. II. Flor.
Amboyn. The figure on that plate is certainly, both
in leaf, spine, and fruit like the small Seville I saw in
Newra Ellia. But curiously enough, Loureiro says
" the leaves have an unpleasant odor, and the flowers
are not very scented" (sub-odorous). In other respects
his description corresponds exactly to that of the
Sevilles I have seen. With regard to the scent of the

o

leaves and flowers, without laying much stress on this
character, I would observe, that some people see
green, that which is red ; and others cannot hear
certain sounds. It is therefore likely that the
olfactory nerves of all of us do not recognize the same
shades of odor, so that it is not impossible Loureiro 's
olfactory nerves were differently impressed by aromas,
which others might call distinctly and strongly sweet.
It is not impossible also, that a wild plant might be
differently scented from a cultivated one. It is, how-
ever, rather strange that the leaves of all the Sevilles
I have seen should retain so persistently and exactly
the same fine aroma in their leaves. None of them
could be called cultivated, but rather, not wild. Only
one — the ndrtun of Tanjore, which I think is a
Seville — had an unpleasant resinous scent in its leaves.
Nevertheless, the young seedling of this same
ndrtun had in its young leaves the characteristic
aroma of all the others I had met with. The flowers
of the ndrtun I have not seen. Not improbably
* Origin of Cultivated Plants — English translation.

6 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Loureiro's C. fusca may have been like the ndrtun of
Tanjore.

The Seville orange, or the Citrus bigaradia of Risso,
the " Bigaradier franc" of the French, the " Arancio
forte" of the Italians, and the ndranj of the old Arab
physicians, is probably not an Indian Citrus, but origin-
ally a Chinese variety, and probably one of the most
ancient varieties of Citrus. Being used medicinally,
it may have reached Western India (possibly across
South India) before any other kind of Citrus, and was
adopted by the Arab physicians in their pharmacopoeia.
As alcohol is also an old Arab production, it is not
impossible that those ancient physicians extracted
whatever there is of active principle in the ndranj
peel, by means of alcohol, which was afterwards handed
down to us as "tincture of orange peel," and is now
principally used for disguising the unpleasant flavours
of other medicines.

It is not easy to make out whether Sir J. Hooker's
wild orange of the Himalayas is this, or some sour
variety of the suntara type. I incline to the latter
view, especially as the suntara type of orange is so
common all along the outer hills of the north-eastern
Himalayas. That the Seville is found wild in Cochin
China is pretty clear from the researches of Loureiro,
where he calls it "citrus fusca," which in turn corre-
sponds with Rumphius's aurantium acid^lln of Am-
boyna, which again Miquel asserts is the same as
citrus vulgaris of Risso — the Seville orange. Being a
medicinal plant, it is not impossible that from South-
E as tern Asia it may have found its way to Eastern
India through the Malay archipelago, and thence
across South India to the Western Coast, whence it
was in course of time taken to Europe, via Syria. The
only place in India where I have heard of its being now

The Seville Oranges. 7

wild is in the forests near " Devikulam " in Southern
India, from which wild trees Mr. John Payne sent me
some leaves. In my opinion these are unmistakably
of the Seville variety ; but whether this is indigenous in
South India, or has become naturalized there, it is
impossible to say. I have been told that in the Nil-
ghiris there is a place called the " Orange Vale,"
where some kind of wild orange grows, but what this
is I don't know. I tried to obtain information about
the " Orange Vale " trees, but have not succeeded.
There does not appear to be any indigenous Citrus in
Ceylon, although the Seville orange is well known and
grown there in many places under the name of Amool
Dbdan.

In Europe the Seville orange stands the cold better
than other kinds, and that may be the reason why the
Italians have given it the qualifying name of " forte/
In Florence I have seen it growing in the open, under
a south wall, while the Portugal or Malta oranges
cannot be grown at all there without artificial heat, and
all the lemon trees grown there are protected under
roofs in winter.

Another reason why I do not think the Seville
orange an Indian Citrus is that it has many names,
most of them being names of other kinds of Citrus.
In Lucknow it is called ndranj ; in Gonda, sadaphal ;
in Mooltan, khatta, which simply means sour ; in Cal-
cutta, goralemboOy or common Citrus ; in Mangalore and
Mysore, karna, or kanchikai ; in Ceylon, amool dbdan
which means sour and round.

In my opinion it is hardly possible that this Seville
orange, or so-called bitter orange, could have been the
direct progenitor of one of the sweet oranges, the
Malta or Portugal orange, the Citrus aurantium sinense
of Gallesio. Had it been so, it would be hardly possible

8 Oranges and Lemons of India.

that the distinctive aroma of the Seville leaf should not,
at some subsequent period, reappear in some of its
sweet descendant varieties. I have seen several
varieties of the Malta or Portugal orange in India,
and never have I met with the Seville scent in their
leaves. This need not, however, trouble us much.
Man, who is supposed to have originated from some
animal with an external tail, never now reproduces
that character except in embryo. The internal tail in
the fully formed man has become so fixed a character
that no reversions are ever met with. In the same
way we never see the horse reverting to his three -toed
progenitor. I may, however, briefly state why I don't
think, as botanists do, that the bitter orange is the
direct progenitor of the sweet Malta or Portugal
orange (C. aurantium sinense).

(a.) Gallesio, during an experience of 60 years, found
that on no occasion did seedlings of the Malta orange
ever revert to the Seville.

(b.) The counter-statement of Macfadyen that it does
sometimes revert, is tainted with the suspicion that
sufficiently accurate records were impossible in the
West Indies, where negroes were concerned (if negroes
were then the gardeners). Even in India, where
natives are supposed to be more intelligent than
negroes, the people can never be relied on for accuracy
in anything.

(c.) Wherever I have seen the Seville orange it has
always had a bitter pungent rind, sour pulp, and a
highly scented leaf, with a very distinct aroma ; and
wherever I have seen the Maltaor Portugal orange (and
of this type there are many varieties in India) it has
alwrays had a characteristic scent, a sour-sweet pulp,
and a totally different and weak scent in its leaves.
Never have I found in the leaves of the Malta orange

The Seville Oranges. 9

type anything approaching the scent of the Seville
leaf. Had these two been related, as mother and
daughter, it is hardly possible that the latter would
never have reproduced some of the characters of the
former. The two have nothing in common except a
close skin, orange colour, white flower, and the general
characters of the gemis.

(d.} The Seville has been grown for ages from
seed. Probably it has never, or very rarely, been pro-
pagated in any other way. If it once produced a sweet
orange, is it likely that this phenomenon would never
have been produced a second time. Both Gallesio and
Macfadyen state that they never knew an instance of
the Seville seed producing a Portugal orange. There-
fore I am inclined to think that these two oranges are
no more related to each other than both are related to
the Suntara orange, which also has a red skin and a
white flower. They are not improbably two distinct
branches of some common and much more ancient
stock. I should, moreover, not wonder if direct expe-
riment were to prove that they are not even miscible
by hybridization. Although the two have been grown
side by side for centuries I can find no evidence that
they ever crossed and produced intermediate forms.
All the varieties of each, which I have seen, form as
distinct groups as those of any two species.*

In the " Atlas " drawings of the Seville oranges are
given from pi. i to pi. 18.

* The following appears to confirm my conclusion, arrived
at from observation. In the " Bot. Mag.," iii., 6807, under the
heading of Bijou Lime, it is stated that " Mr. Rivers finds that the
bitter orange will not hybridize with the sweet, nor the limes and
lemons with the orange. . . . On the other hand, Darwin (Cross-
and Self-Fertilizing of Plants, p. 394) says that he has collected
evidence on the natural crossing of varieties of the orange, and cites
the authority of Gallesio for the fact."

IO

CHAPTER II.

THE "KHATTA" OR "KARNA" ORANGES.

THE Emperor Baber, in his memoirs, just mentions
the kirnek, and all he says, is that it is " tart, and
may be about the size of & gulgul lime." *

It is impossible from this mention to make out
whether Baber's Kirneh, is the same as the Khatta or
karna of moderns. In Mangalore, what they call
karna is a Seville orange, and I have been told, that
in Mysore the karna is the same as the Mangalore
one. The khatta or karna of Upper India is totally
different from the Seville orange. It is not improbable
that Baber's kirneh is the orange in question. If so,
he makes no mention of the Seville orange, and the
latter appears to be the oldest known in Western
India, as it is stated it was from there that the Arabs
introduced it into Syria, and the Mediterranean. This
however may not be accurate, as the Arabs traded also
with the Malay archipelago, and with China, whence
the Arabs may have got it. The translators of Baber's
memoirs under the heading of ndranj, say "or
Seville orange." This, however, is only the translators'
notion, for surely Baber could not have said of the
Seville orange, that in Lemghanat, Bajour, and Siwad,
" it was both plentiful and good," considering that its
popular name is the " bitter orange," and its pulp is
very sour. Then Baber also states that " the size of

* Vide Appendix, No. i (/').

The " Khattd" or "Kama" Oranges. n

the oranges of Bajour may be about that of the quince,
and their juice is more acid than that of other
oranges."* He evidently could not have been des-
cribing by these a thoroughly sour orange, but a
sweetish one, and that it was not .so sweet as others he
knew. He then ends by saying that " the men of
Bajour and Siwad call ndranj, ndrank" and the
translators go on to say, " or perhaps rather ndrang"\
Unless Baber has mixed up the sweet with the bitter
orange, it is hardly possible that by ndranj (which is
given by Risso as the Arabic synomyn of the Seville
orange) he meant any other than some sweet kind of
orange. If so, he has left out the Seville orange
altogether, unless he has mixed it up with the khattd
or karna of moderns.

There are other names which natives give the
common khattd. One mali told me that the khattd is
the gulgul. Another said that men call it khattd, and
women gulgul, and that in Caw n pore it goes in-
differently, by the name of either gulgul or khattd.
From Jubbulpore it came under the name of attdrra,
lime, and others have called it common sour lime.
Major Duller kindly sent me a number of specimens
of the khattd orange from the Gonda district, from
some of the gardens of the late Maharaja of Bulrampur.
Two were somewhat warty, and were called pahdree
chakotra, or hill Pummelo ! Other smooth varieties
were ticketed iirna nimboo, bijbra nimboo, turunj
nimboo, kdrna nimboo, and chakotra tursh, or sour
Pummelo I It is hardly possible that the malis did
not know that these were all one and the same thing.

Vide Appendix, No. i (a).

t This is an indication that in the Jaghatai Turki there is no g
hard as in the Persian, and that, as I said in another place, the
translators' kilkil probably means nothing but gulgul.

i 2 Oranges and Lemons of India.

With the exception of karna nimboo, I think all these
names must have been inventions of the people about
the late Maharaja, who may have deceived him with
these new varieties, in order to get bakshish out of him,
probably under the persuasion that they were sweeping
the country for novelties for him. All those mentioned
above, including the warty ones might, however, have
been taken off one tree.

This khatta orange is not alluded to in any botanical
book that I have seen, and Alph. de Candolle in his
" Origin of Cultivated Plants " apparently had not even
suspected its existence ; yet it is a very distinct sour
orange, and very common, and must not in any way be
confounded either with the Seville orange, or with the
citron as some people sometimes call it, including
probably the translators of Baber's memoirs.

Wherever I have seen this khatta orange, it has
had always the same characters. Probably it has
never been raised in any other way than from seed,
as no one would think it worth the trouble of budding,
or grafting it on other stock. It is largely raised from
seeds, and used for budding other better kinds on, as
the seed germinates freely, and the young plants make
rapid and vigorous growth. In order to prevent any
further mistakes about it, I shall endeavour to give as
minute a description of its botanical characters as I
can.

It is a strong growing tree, not at all slender,
spinous, sometimes its spines are formidable. The
typical leaves are dark green and ovate, rather serrate
than crenate, from three to four inches long, but larger
and smaller are also found. Its very young shoots
and leaves are pale green, only tinged with ochre-
colour. This is much more pronounced in young
seedling plants over a year old. The petiole is slender

The "Khatta" or "Kama" Oranges. 13

and usually only margined ; the leaves have scarcely
any scent. The flowers are large, usually five-petalled,
tinged red externally, like those of the lemon ; other-
wise, as in other oranges. The scent of the flowers is
weak. The fruit is of two forms ; either smooth, and
only just rough to the touch, or very warty, as seen in
pis. 27, 28, and 29. It is mostly mammillate, with
furrows round the mammilla, leading to its point.
Sometimes the mammilla is pronounced, at others it
is flattened ; and some rather rare specimens are ob-
late, as in pi. 20.

The smooth forms belong to the regular crop, the
flowers,of which come out in February and March, and
develop in the hottest and driest weather ; while the
warty forms belong usually to the Dumrez, or after-
crop, the flowers of which come out in the rains, and
develop during the hottest and moistest weather. Pis.
27, 28, and 29, show to what extent the two forms
differ. I took the two specimens of pi. 29 off the same
branch, and Major Duller got the two specimens of
pi. 27 off the same tree, and said "it would hardly be
believed that both came off the same tree." That in
pi. 28 was the first I got from Khoorja. It came
under the name of khatta ; it was unripe, and very
warty, and as it came alone, I did not know what to
make of it, until I saw the two forms growing on the
same branch in Benares.

It is not impossible that these two forms, so distinct,
occurring on the same tree may help to throw some
light on the bizzarria, and so-called trifacial oranges,
although, in these, distinct parts occur in the same
fruit. There is no reason to suppose that the two
forms of this khatta orange have anything to do with
hybridism. They belong to two different crops of the
same tree, and appear to be caused by external

14 Oranges and Lemons of India.

conditions, or the environment of the two distinct
seasons of Northern India. As I said the flowers of
form a, pi. 27, come out in March, and their fruit
develops in the hottest and driest part of the year.-
They are the main crop of the tree. While the
flowers of form b come out in June, when the rains
commence, and their fruit develops in the hottest and
moistest part of the year. They are the second, or
Dumrez crop of the tree.

All citrus trees in India give a second crop when
the commencement of the rainy season gives a fresh
start of vigour to the trees, and the two crops differ in
form and characters more or less ; but I have never
noticed such a difference as is shown in the case of the
khatta. Whether form b could be perpetuated and
fixed by selection is more than I can say. (Vide
Appendix, No. 65.)

If, therefore, a simple change of season with change
of hygrometric conditions of the atmosphere and soil,
(as well as any possible change of electric influence) is
capable of producing such very distinct forms of citrus
in the same tree, and in the same locality, one can
without much difficulty, conceive that a total change
of climate, soil, and environment, might effect still
greater changes, without any influence from hybridism,
and without the necessity of origin from a distinct
species. For instance, if a variety of citrus raised from
seed in South Europe were transported to the islands
of the Malay archipelago, or to the Tarai at the foot
of the Himalayas in India, and there further genera-
tions raised from its seeds (the latter inevitably
partaking of the effects of any influences caused by
change of climate and soil) one can readily imagine
that great variations would be possible. These then
might be eventually perpetuated, and fixed by selection

The "Khatta" or "Kama" Oranges. 15

through human agency, or otherwise. I think we are
ignorant of what initiates changes in the most impor-
tant part of a tree, viz., the seed. A seedless egg-
orange plant transported from Malta to Lucknow gave
oranges which were crammed with seed !

^}\£. gulgul vi Jubbulpore, pi. 31, appears to belong
to the khatta orange group, but whether it is only a
Dumrez form, or that of the regular crop, I do not
know. The gulgul of Lahore, a formidable citrus,
pi. 32, belongs I think also to the khatta group, and
so do two still more formidable ones, sent by Major
Duller from the Maharaja of Bulrampur's gardens, on
the Nepal border, under the name of kutliairee
ntmboo (or jack nimboo), and rus kankur (or juicy
kankur), pi. 35.

One had a girth of 22f in. and another, too big to
be pictured, from Toolshepur, with a girth of 24
inches, a length of 10 inches, and a diameter of 7-^
inches. It is the largest Citrus, excepting apummelo,
which I have yet seen, These large warty khattas
have the same curious mammilla — semi-pronounced or
semi-flattened as that of pi. 2-9.

In the smooth form the ripe khatta orange is softish
and elastic, and soon becomes flabby by keeping.
When ripe the exterior is of a delicate maize-orange,
with a thick skin, sometimes very thick ; the pithy
part of which is white, and very spongy. The pulp is
either orange or pale yellow-orange, and very sour,
without any bitterness, hence its name khatta. The
warty forms are of the same colour when ripe, and pale
green when unripe. Their warts are very prominent.
The huge kinds, shown in plates 32 and 35, and which I
consider a sub-variety of the common khatta, have a
lumpy surface, like round nodules ofkunkur, with the oil
cells large and very distinct. They have a lumpy pro-

1 6 Oranges and Lemons of India.

nounced mammilla. The skin of the largest is upwards
of an inch thick. The pithy part is white, very soft and
spongy, and the pulp of those from Lahore and Gonda
is white, with an imaginary tinge of very indistinct
pale orange, while the pulp of that from Jubbulpore,
pi. 31, is pale orange-yellow. The seeds in all are
white, when cut, and the largest was seedless. Major
Buller says that the thick skin of the kathairee nimboo
is the only part which is eaten, the white part being
sweet.

These citron-like fruits might, from a superficial
examination, be pronounced Citrons proper, but their
foliage is orange-like, and the pithy part of the skin
spongy, like that of the pummelo, while the same part
of all true Citrons is hard and of a dense carroty con-
sistence. The khatta Citrus is very distinct, and
cannot come under any of the other groups. In its
foliage, colour of rind, consistence of skin, and colour
of pulp, it is an orange ; in its flower and mammilla it is
a lemon or citron. Botanists say that the flower of the
true citron and its descendant, the lemon, are tinged
purple, and the fruit is mammillate, while the flowers of
the orange are pure white, and the fruit is generally
oblate. In the Benares garden I saw a true citron
tree, with citron foliage and pure white flowers ; and I
have seen an oblate specimen of a khatta fruit. Most
of the keonla and naringhi oranges have a flattened
mammilla. The jhambiri, a kind of Citrus, has one
variety with a yellow exterior like a lemon, and another
with a red exterior like an orange ; otherwise they are
indistinguishable. The khatta has had time enough
to sport and revert, having been, from time immemo-
rial, raised from seed, and it must have had infinite
chances of becoming crossed with other Citrus ; yet
its characters are very constant, and, with the excep-

The "Khatta" or "Kama" Oranges. 17

tion of wartiness and size, which belong to the same
tree, I have not noticed any other variation, although
it is the commonest Citrus, and of which I have seen
innumerable specimens.

It must be left to some future student of this in-
teresting Citrus to decide whether it is an orange or a
lemon. As the majority of its characters are those of
an orange I would propose to call it Citrus aurantium, .
van khatta. It would appear, however, that there is
not much difference between the orange and the lemon,
botanically speaking. We know how easily a white
flower is born of other coloured flowers in crossing.
In the -morphological development of the Citrus the
yellow variety probably was anterior to the orange
variety, both tints being probably no other than those
which many leaves take in withering, or ripening, viz.,
the yellow first and the orange or red later on. What
is more practical, however, and perhaps more im-
portant, is this : I am informed that this khatta orange
makes a good sweet jelly, and also a good marmalade.
I know the decoction of its fruit is a good febrifuge,
and also a good splenifuge. It is well known also that
it makes a good and vigorous stock for budding other
kinds of Citrus on, whether it makes a very durable
one I do not know ; and there is some suspicion that
it is not the best stock for budding the sweet varieties
of Citrus on.

I have seen many specimens of this Citrus from
various places, but as they all had the same character,
differing only in size, I did not think it necessary to
multiply the drawings any further.

What exactly causes the extreme wartiness of the
Dumrfa form I do not know, nor do I know whether
all khatta trees produce this warty form. It is quite
evident, however, that wartiness and smoothness

c

1 8 Oranges and Lemons of India.

cannot be taken as specific characters, since the two
opposites can be produced on the same tree. It is not
improbable that two very distinct races of khatta might
be raised by selecting the seeds of only the one variety,
and keeping the trees separate. This might be readily
ascertained within five or six years in any of the horti-
cultural gardens of India.

Unless seen on the tree, it would hardly be believed
that these two forms can be produced on the same tree.
It only shows how careful one must be not to take a
single character as indicating a specific distinction, and
how necessary it is to see the fruit on the tree at
different seasons, in order to come to a right con-
clusion.

The two larger specimens on plates 32 and 35 have
their pulp like that of a lemon, or rather paler, with
only a slight tinge of orange. These large specimens
require to be studied further on the tree, in order to
determine whether they really belong to the khatta
group or not. That on pi. 35 was called kathairee
nimboo, from kathar, or kathal, a jack fruit, as in size
and shape it is not unlike one. It is also called rus
hanker. Although kunker means the lime nodules of
which roads are made, it also (pronounced differently)
means a kind of melon, and I am told that kunker,
kanker, or kankree, all mean kakree, a variety of
melon, and rus kanker is probably meant to indicate
a juicy melon, the size of many specimens approach-
ing that of a good-sized melon.

The specimens mentioned in this chapter are shown
on plates 19 to 39.

CHAPTER III.

THE MALTA OR PORTUGAL ORANGES.

IT should be understood that I give the above
names to this type of oranges, not because all those
I have seen have been introduced from Malta or
Portugal, but because these are simple names of
this variety of orange. In India, moreover, there is
no indigenous name for this type of orange, as
there is for those of the suntara type. This would
point to the notion that oranges of the Malta or
Portugal type in India are of foreign origin. More-
over, in the time of Risso the blood orange was known
in Paris as the Orange de Matte, while the bloodless
variety of the same type was- known as the Orange
de Portugal.

Tien's Manual of Colloquial Arabic for Orange
gives burduqdn or berdqdn, which are evidently cor-
ruptions of PortugdL

The Latin name given to this type of orange by
Gallesio is Citrus aurantium sinense, which would
indicate that the notion then was that it originally
came from China.

I am unable to identify any of the oranges mentioned
in Baber's memoirs with this type of orange,* unless
it be his ndranj\ which he compares, as I said in
another place, with the sweet oranges of Lemghanat,

* Vide Appendix, No. i.

C 2

2O Oranges and Lemons of India.

Bajour, and Sewad (Swat ?), where, he says, it is both
"plentiful and good." Therefore, I repeat, hiswdranf,
although supposed so by his translators, could not have
been the ndrandj of the Arabs (the Seville orange).

A. de Candolle, in his ''Origin of Cultivated Plants,"
under the heading of orange (Citrus aurantium of
Linnaeus) gives the following, which is hardly appli-
cable to the oranges I know. " Oranges are distin-
guished from Shaddocks by the complete absence of
down on the young shoots and ; leaves ; by their
smaller fruit, always spherical, and by a thinner rind.
They differ from lemons and citrons in their pure
white flowers ; in the fruit, which is never elongated,
and without a nipple on the summit ; in the rind
being smooth, or nearly so, and adhering but lightly to
the pulp."

I shall take these characters seriatim, and show that
in my opinion they do not at all fit in with the reality.

(a.) — Not only are the young unexpanded shoots of
almost all orange trees hairy, but the young leaves
and shoots of the large at anni orange are as downy
as those of most Pummelos or Shaddocks. Moreover
there are undoubted varieties of Pummelos, as I shall
show further on, which are glabrous (without down).

(b.} — As to size, the bandir orange of Tanjore, pi. 43,
and the punchi jambole of Kandy, pi. 56, are as
large as the Pondicherry Pummelo, and the Shaddock
of the English market, pi. 92, fig. b. The At
Anni orange, pi. 112, is much larger than many
Pummelos*

(<:.) — As to oranges being always spherical, the
plates will speak for themselves. Many are egg-
shaped, pyriform, and also flattened.

(d.} — As to their differing from lemons and citrons
in having white flowers, no nipple, smooth skin,

1 he Malta or Portugal Oranges. 21

adhering but lightly to the pulp, I have seen what I
considered an undoubted citron tree, with white
flowers ; the sweet lemon I have never seen but with
white flowers ; the khatta, which has most characters
of an orange, is usually with a pronounced nipple ;
almost all the keonla oranges have a flat nipple ; the
keonla of Aurungabad, pi. 125, fig. a, the mussembi
of Poona, pi. 44, fig. f, and many specimens of the
Seville orange, are decidedly warty ; and many
varieties of the Malta orange in the English market
have their skin so adherent to the pulp that it is next
to impossible to remove it without cutting it with a
knife.

The fact is, it is rather puzzling sometimes to have to
decide which is an orange, which a pummelo, and which
a lemon, or citron. I am afraid it has been taken too
much for granted that the lemon must be yellow,
elongated, and with a mammilla and red flowers, and
that the orange must be red, spherical, without a
mammilla, and with white flowers. There is no good
natural reason for this. It would appear much like
Linnaeus's classification of plants by the number of
stamens.

The question whether the bitter and the sweet
orange are merely varieties, one of the other, or
distinct species, has not been satisfactorily answered.
I would here ask which sweet orange is meant ? The
Malta or Portugal, and its varieties ; or the suntara or
kamala and their varieties ? I have elsewhere shown
that there are two distinct types of sweet oranges,
which may owe their parentage possibly to distinct
wild kinds. The attempted replies, however, to De
Candolle's question are very unsatisfactory, and he
considered them contradictory. He quoted from
Gallesio's " Traite du Citrus " : — " I have during a

22 Oranges and Lemons of India.

long series of years sown pips of sweet oranges,* taken
sometimes from the natural tree (seedlings), and some
times from oranges grafted on bitter orange and
lemon trees. The result has always been trees bearing
sweet fruit, and the same has been observed for more
than sixty years by all the gardeners of Finale. There
is no instance of a bitter orange tree from the seed of
sweet oranges, nor of a sweet orange tree from the seed
of bitter oranges. In 1709 the orange trees of Finale
having been killed by frost the practice of raising sweet
orange trees from seed was introduced, and every one
of these plants produced the sweet-juiced fruit."

The foregoing is either true or not true. If true,
it is, I think, good evidence in favour of the two
kinds having a distinct parentage, and that not
improbably they are distinct species ; considering the
opportunities both must have had of intercrossing,
the latter surmise becomes stronger.

Curiously enough, however, De Candolle goes on
to record that Macfadyen, in his " Flora of Jamaica,"
says "It is a well established fact, familiar to every
one who has been any length of time in this island,
that the seed of the sweet orange very frequently grows
up into a tree bearing the bitter fruit, well attested
instances of which have come to my own knowledge.
I am not aware, however, that the seeds of the
bitter orange have ever grown up into the sweet
fruited variety. We may therefore conclude that
the bitter orange was the original stock." Macfadyen
asserts that in calcareous soil the sweet orange may
be raised from seed, but that in other soils it
produces fruits more or less sour or bitter. Duchas-
saing says that in Guadaloupe, the seeds of sweet

* Presumably of the Portugal type, as the suniara type of orange
appears to have been then unknown in Europe.

The Malta or Portugal Oranges. 23

oranges often yield bitter fruit, while according to
Dr. Ernst, at Caracas they sometimes yield sour, but
not bitter fruit. The foregoing is all taken from De
Candolle's recent book on the origin of cultivated
plants.*

In my opinion the value of the three latter state-
ments depends a great deal on two circumstances, viz. :
(a) whether in Jamaica, Guadaloupe and Caracas, they
had besides sweet orange trees also bitter ones ; (b)
whether the sowings were made by professional Euro-
pean gardeners or light-hearted negroes. If in all the
places the two varieties existed and the seeds were in-
terfered with by negroes, then the chances are that the
latter, like the natives of India, never cared whether
they were doing things accurately or almost so. The
Indian has a saying : Unnis, bis, — that is, 19 or 20,
it's all the same ! This is the maximum of accuracy he
ever attempts. Not impossibly, therefore, the "familiar
and well-attested facts " may after all only be " popular
errors." Let any one ask any Indian mali of the
plains, " What comes of sowing the seeds of a sweet
orange ? " he will reply, " Without doubt a sour orange
tree." The fact is he knows nothing at all about it, as
in the Khasia hills all the sweet Suntara oranges sup-
plied to the Calcutta market come from trees raised
from seed, and in no other way !

Gallesio, on the contrary, appears to record the
sowings of professional European gardeners, and he
speaks with no uncertain words.

When all is said, the fact remains that the Malta or
Portugal orange, in its unripe state, is sour, and that,
therefore, it probably originated from some sour wild

* It should be however noted that the writers describe only the
flavour of the fruit and give no other characters of the tree, and
the flavour may alter very much.

24 Oranges and Lemons of India.

parent; but for reasons stated in the chapter on " Seville
Oranges," I doubt whether the bitter or Seville orange
could have been the parent of this " C. aurantium
sinense " of Gallesio. Probably also the Seville and
the Portugal oranges are more closely allied to each
other than both are to the suntara type of Indian
oranges. *

I know that recently the Malta or Portugal type of
orange has been on various occasions introduced into
India. In Gujranwala, Colonel Clarke introduced the
Malta blood orange between 1852-56. I introduced
the same, with other varieties of the Malta oranges, in
Lucknow in 1863. Mr. Nickels introduced the blood
orange from England, and the Portugal orange by seed
from Suez in 1872. In Colonel Yule's u Glossary," it
is stated in a note to page 490 that one of the writers
sent from Palermo a large collection of all sorts of
orange trees to Lahore in 1873. Then in Poonathey
have a variety of this type called mussembi, which
evidently means Mozambique, and may have originally
come from that coast of Africa. Over the south of
India, the Malta varieties bear the name of aranj. In
Tanjore, a yellowish variety is called by Europeans
the Spanish orange. In Ceylon, this type of orange
goes by the name vi peni-dbdan, which simply means,
I am told, sweet round orange. Curiously enough all
over the N.-W. Provinces, natives call the Portugal
orange Sylhet. How this name came to be adopted I
don't know, the Sylhet orange being a suntara, and of
a totally different type. It is only in Tanjore that I
found a variety of the Portugal orange called by a
native name, bandir. What this may mean I do not
know.

* Possibly the seed of the Portugal orange may have produced a
sour and bitter orange, but not the bitter or Seville orange.

The Malta or Portugal Oranges. 25

Therefore, taking the want of an indigenous name
in India for this type of orange and its varieties, it
would appear that when the Arabs carried the Seville
from Western India further west, and finally into Spain,
this sweet variety had not yet reached Western India,
or at all events those parts of India then known to the
Arabs.

A. de Candolle, quoting from Gallesio, gives some
interesting historical data regarding this orange. He
first proves that the orange trees brought from India by
the Arabs into Palestine, Egypt, the south of Europe,
and the coast of Africa, were not the sweet-fruited ones.
Up to .the fifteenth century Arab books and chronicles
only mention bitter or sour oranges. However, when
the Portuguese arrived in the islands of Southern Asia,
they found the sweet orange, and apparently it had not
previously been unknown to them. The Florentine who
accompanied Vasco de Gama, and who published an ac-
count of the voyage, says : "there are plenty of oranges,
but all sweet." Neither this writer nor subsequent tra-
vellers expressed surprise at the pleasant taste of the
fruit. Hence Gallesio infers that the Portuguese were
not the first to bring the sweet orange from India,
which they reached in 1498, nor from China, which
they reached in 1518. Besides, a number of writers
in the beginning of the sixteenth century speak of the
sweet orange as a fruit already cultivated in Spain and
Italy. There are several testimonies for the years
1523 and 1525. Gallesio goes no further than the
idea that the sweet orange was introduced into Europe
towards the beginning of the fifteenth century, but
Targioni quotes from Valeriani a statute of Fermo, of
the fourteenth century, referring to citrons, sweet
oranges, &c., and the information recently collected
from early authors by Goeze, about its introduction

26 Oranges and Lemons of India.

into Spain and Portugal, agrees with this date. " It
therefore, appears to me probable," says De Candolle,
" that the oranges imported later from China by the
Portuguese were only of better quality than those al-
ready known in Europe, and that the common expres-
sions, Portugal and Lisbon oranges, are due to this

circumstance."

De Candolle adds that " in the Malay archipelago
the sweet orange was believed to come from China.
It was but little diffused in the Pacific Isles at the time
of Cook's voyages." And he concludes by saying,
"We come back thus by all sorts of ways to the idea
that the sweet variety of the orange came from China
and Cochin China and that it spread into India perhaps
towards the beginning of the Christian era."

All these researches would have been far more in-
teresting, if one could feel sure which sweet orange was
meant. There is, however, not much doubt that the
Portugal sweet variety is meant.

Gallesio's " Traite du Citrus " was published in 181 1,
and Risso and Poiteau's " Histoire Naturelle des
Grangers "was published in 1818. The latter gives
only two plates of oranges which come anything near
those of the suntara type, viz.: the " Bigaradier
Chinois " and the " Bigaradier a feuilles de myrte."
And he adds these were then rare in Europe. So that
the sweet oranges which De Candolle refers to in the
fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries can hardly
mean any other race than those of the Portugal type,
of which Risso gives a large number of plates, and de-
scribes many others, all then known in Europe. All
these European varieties very probably originated
from seed, as in 1 709 the gardeners of Finale intro-
duced the practice of raising orange trees largely from
seed. It would appear, therefore, that up to the time

The Malta or Portugal Oranges. 27

of Risso, in 1818, or at all events Gallesio's in 1811, in
Europe, the sweet orange meant was that of the Por-
tugal type, the round, close-skinned, subacid and sweet
orange (when ripe) — the Citrus aurantium sinense of
Gallesio.

At the beginning of the sixteenth century (A.D. 1519)
the Emperor Baber, in his memoirs, besides the
oranges of Lemghanat, Bajour, and Sewad, mentions
those of Khorassan, and that there was a trade in
oranges between Asterabad and Samarkand. For
oranges to be so plentiful there as to be carried to
distant places (about 1 100 miles), it would presuppose
that this sweet orange had been introduced into Cen-
tral Asia at least one, or perhaps two centuries before.
But whether it found its way there from Western India
and the Persian Gulf, or from the Mediterranean, by
way of Syria, I have no means of ascertaining.

In the " Flora of British India," under the species
Citrus aurantium of Linnaeus, var. i, aurantium
proper — little is given beyond what I have already
extracted under the heading of " Seville Oranges."
The author adds for this variety " petiole naked or
winged, pulp sweet, yellow, rarely red."

In order to distinguish the two types of sweet
oranges, I shall give a more detailed description of
this Portugal orange type. Tree, not slender ; leaves,
typically large, with a. faint and indistinct scent ; peti-
ole, oftener only marginedft&Jb winged ; spines, usually
mere points ; flowers, large white ; fruit, with a closely-
fitting skin, never baggy ; when cut open, a distinctive
odour is emitted, which I found common to all varieties
of this type, and which cannot be described in words ;
pulp, not of a bright orange, often only yellow orange ;
centre, small, and mostly not hollow ; seeds, white when
cut. In some varieties, the pulp is streaked with blood

28 Oranges and Lemons of India.

or claret red ; in others, the whole pulp is of this colour.
The latter varieties have usually a redder exterior than
the bloodless ones. Mr. A. Y. Gubboy, who was in
Canton, informed me that they have there a sour blood
orange which never sweetens.

In Kandy I found a curious and interesting variety
of this type, shown in pi. 56. Some said it was nothing
but a small pummelo ; others called it a sour orange
(amool dbdan). Studying it more closely, it appeared
to me an overgrown, thick-skinned and yellow orange
of the Portugal type (C. aurantium sinense Gall.). It is
not impossible that this Kandy yellow orange may be
an intermediate form between the Portugal type of
orange and the Pummelos proper, the latter being still
more elephantine in the growth of all their parts, in-
cluding the enormous wings of their petioles.

Nota bene. — I believe the Aurantium verrucosum of
Rumphius, shown on the Atlas plate 59, figs, dfand e,
is of the Portugal orange type (vide Appendix, 41 (m) ),
although Miquel in his " Flor. Ind. Batav." calls it C
decumana, var. verrucosa. Pis. 40 to 58 show oranges
of the Portugal or Malta type.

29

CHAPTER IV.

THE " AMILBEDS " AND THE PUMMELOS.

REGARDING the amilbed, all that the Emperor Baber
said about it in his memoirs is this : " I have seen it
first during this present year (I suppose he refers to
the year in which he was writing his memoirs). They
say that if a needle be thrust into the heart of it, the
needle melts away. Perhaps this may proceed from
its extreme acidity, or from some other of its properties.
Its acidity may be about equal to that of the orange
and lime."

It should here be observed that the words " orange
and lime " are the translator's words, and as these have
been often abused, and ,given to totally different
varieties, it is not easy to tell what they may mean.
Anyhow, we have in Baber's time, an extremely acid
citrus called amilbed* It appears to have been then
far from common, that is about 300 years ago, other-
wise he would have hardly troubled himself to write,
" I have seen it first during the present year."

With regard to the pummelo, Baber's memoirs make
no mention whatever of this citrus. Had it been
known in Hindostan in his time, it is not likely that
so large and striking a citrus would not have been
presented to him. It is therefore reasonable to infer
that in Baber's time, or about 300 years ago, the

* Vide Appendix, No. i (/).

30 Oranges and Lemons of India.

pummelo proper, as we see it to-day, was not known
in India. Moreover, Roxburgh says that the pummelo
was brought to Calcutta from Java.

In support of Roxburgh's statement, there are other
circumstances. The Bengalis, even at the present day,
call the pummelo batabi lemboo (Batavian citrus).
They have no v in their language, and therefore batavi,
would naturally be transformed into batabi. Then,
as this citrus was propagated, and crept up country
from Calcutta, still under the name of batabi lemboo,
its name underwent another transformation. Natives
of India have often a curious way of assimilating a
foreign name, by calling it by some Indian familiar
name, which sounds like it, irrespective of spelling.
For instance, the proper English name Newberry, is
at once turned by them into lomree, the native
name for a fox ; and the English name of Bidler is
turned by them into gooler, the name of one of their
numerous fig-trees (Ficus glomerata ?). So that it is
not improbable that they soon turned the foreign name
batabi into maJitabi, like a moon, mahtab being the
Persian name of that satellite. Curiously enough, the
large oblate pummelo is not, in size, very unlike the
apparent size of the moon. Another native name for
the pummelo is chakbtra. This also is good evidence
of this fruit being of foreign origin, the old name of
Batavia having been Jacatra. In the same way that
learned natives have derived the name of mahtabi from
maktab, the moon, so did Pundits endeavour to give a
Sanskrit origin to the word chakbtra, as will be seen in
the chapter on the derivations of citrus names. Further,
all the south Indian names of this fruit, though strangely
transformed, bear the stamp of a foreign derivation.
There remains little doubt then that the pummelo
proper in India, came from Java, and probably after

The "Amilbeds" and the Pummelos. 31

Baber's time ; now, however there are many varieties,
and natives in Upper India call one variety mahtabi,
and another chakbtra.

I do not think there would be much advantage in
separating the amilbeds from the pummelos. They
may no doubt have had a different origin, but at
present the difference in the fruit is slight. The
amilbeds are sour, and some have a pulp of an orange
tinge, while the pummelos are sour-sweet, with a dash
of bitter, and some have a pink or red tinge. The
leaves do not differ much, the wings of the petioles of
the latter being larger than those of the former. At
the most, they might be considered as varieties of
some older parent. Anyhow, the amilbeds appear to
have been overlooked by botanists, as, not even has
their name been mentioned. It is impossible to say
whether they came into existence in India, or are of
foreign origin.

With regard to the pummelo, Alph. de Candolle, in
his " Origin of Plants," says : " Rumphius believed it to
be a native of Southern China, neither he nor modern
botanists saw it wild in the -Malay archipelago ....
according to Loureiro, the tree is common in China,
and Cochin China, but this does not imply that it is
wild. It is in the islands to the east of the Malay
archipelago, that the clearest indications of a wild
existence are found. Forster formerly said of this
species, ' very common in the Friendly Isles.' Seeman
is yet more positive about the Fiji Isles. ' Extremely
common,' he says, ' and covering the banks of the
river.' It would be strange if a tree, so much
cultivated in the south of Asia, should have become
naturalized to such a degree in certain islands of the
Pacific, while it has scarcely been seen elsewhere. It
is probably indigenous in them, and may perhaps

32 Oranges and Lemons of India.

yet be discovered wild in some islands nearer to
Java."

De Candolle, from the foregoing, evidently thinks
that the pummelo is a distinct species, and that its wild
progenitor, yet undiscovered, will, by further search,
turn up somewhere. This may or may not happen ;
but what I should like to ask is this : Is the cultivated
C. decumana so different from others that it is im-
perative it should owe its existence to a distinct wild
species ?

Alph. de Candolle says : " I take this species first,
because its botanical character is more marked than
that of the others. It is a larger tree, and this species
alone has down on the young shoots and the under
sides of the leaves. The fruit is spherical, or nearly
spherical, larger than an orange, sometimes even as
large as a man's head. The juice is slightly acid, the
rind remarkably thick."

Sir J. D. Hooker, in his " Flora of British India,"
under the heading of Citrus decumana, Linn. (Shad-
dock, Pummelo, Pompelmoes), says : " Young shoots
pubescent, petiole broadly winged, flowers large white,
stamens 16 to 24, fruit large pale, globose or pyriform,
rind thick, pulp pale, sweet or acrid. Commonly cul-
tivated in India. A native of the Malayan and Poly-
nesian islands. A tree 30 to 40 feet, leaflets 6 to 9
inches. Fruit often very large, pulp yellow, pink, or
crimson, sweet or acrid, vesicles distinct."

I made special observations on the Citrus in various
parts of India and Ceylon, with the view of ascertain-
ing how far the supposed distinctive character of
piibescence on the young shoots and leaves of the pum-
melo is based on fact. The result of my researches I
am afraid is that this pubescence, or minute hairs, on
the young shoots and leaves of the pummelo, as a

The "AmMeds" and the Pummelos. 33

distinctive specific character, will have to be abandoned.
I found that the young unexpanded leaves of almost
all the Citrus — orange, lemon, citron, lime — are
covered with hairs. They can be easily made out by
means of a good magnifying glass, on the edges of the
leaves and underside of the mid-rib and petiole. I
had young seedlings of the amilbed and of the dfanni
kalan (a pummelo) ; both of them had pubescence on
the young leaves and the young stems. The only dif-
ference that I could find was that the pummelo seed-
lings had a little more of it. The Lahore gulgul,
pi. 32, has the young leaves and stem, and old leaves
also, as tomentose as most pummelos ; and the kathairee
nimboo of Bulrampore, pi. 35, is similarly furnished,
and has tomentum also on the calyces of the flowers,
which are purple. This belongs to a totally different
race of Citrus from the pummelo proper. The fact,
however, which removes all doubt about this point is
this. In the Etawah Public Garden there is a row of
ten pummelo trees, three of which are of the per-
manently pubescent kind, and one of these is less
pubescent than the other two, while the remaining
seven trees are entirely glabrous from the commence-
ment, that is, as glabrous as the orange, the lemon,
the citron, and the lirne trees. Moreover, Loureiro, at
p. 467, under the head of " Citrus decumana," des-
cribes it as " spinous and glabrous" and Rumphius, in
describing the 4th sp. of pummelo, says : " The leaves
beneath are not downy, as in the common kind. Its
fruit is the largest of all." See Appendix 41 (a).

No one would "think that all these ten trees in
Etawah are not pummelos. Three of them — the
tomentose — are of the rather pyriform variety, there
called mahtabi ; and seven of the glabrous variety.
The latter have oblate fruit, and are called there

D

34 Oranges and Lemons of India.

chakotra, and one of them bore the enormous gourd-
like pummelo outlined on pi. 80.

So that all the pummelo trees I have examined can
be divided into three sub-varieties, as far as pubescence
is concerned, viz. :—

(a.) Pubescence, as in other Citrus, on the young
unexpanded leaf buds only.

(b.) Pubescence to a greater degree than (a) on the
young leaves and stems. This pubescence, however,
is afterwards shed, and neither the leaves nor the green
stem show any trace of it. Perhaps a magnifying
glass might detect a few remaining hairs on the edges
of leaves and on the under part of the midrib.

(c.) Pubescence to a greater degree than (b}> with
the additional variation that it is permanent. The old
green stems have it, and the oldest leaves retain it on
their edges and undersides of the midrib and petiole ;
also on the edges of the petiole wings. The more
pubescent kinds may have some slight difference in
the shape of the leaflet, as shown in pi. 82, fig. c. It
is generally more rounded and oftener emarginate,
while the glabrous varieties have their leaflets longer
and more lanceolate, as in fig. a, pi. 82 ; and some-
times they appear to be entire, though the oil cells
of the edges of the leaves are rarely extinct. There
is no other difference that I can make out. With
regard to the size of the pummelo tree, I have only
seen one which could bear being styled a large tree,
and that was in the Padshabagh, in Lucknow ; all
others have been more or less bushy. I fancy the size
depends a good deal on the training, and whether
they are grown from seed or bud. In India they are
usually budded low down on the stock, and are not
trained on one stem, so that they branch out, and in-
stead of developing in height they develop in breadth.

The " Amilbeds" and the Pummelos. 35

With regard to thickness of skin, in the Bombay
market I found a large globose, red variety, which,
with a diameter of seven inches, had a skin varying
from \ to \ inch in thickness. This is the thinnest
skinned pummelo I have seen, and a very fine variety
it is. When cut open, its redness compares strongly
with that of raw beef. But when the vesicles are
removed and put on a plate they are of a rosy crim-
son. Other varieties have a pulp as pale as that of a
lemon, such as the Ceylon pummelo, and some varieties
of the Calcutta pummelos. The shape of the fruit varies
from oblate at both ends, to globose, slightly pyriform,
and distinctly pyriform ; the size, from that of a big
Malta orange, to the " decumana " proper of pis. 80 and
8 1. The colour of the exterior is lemon yellow, but both
in the Central Provinces and in Rampur some had a
distinct red blush over a large portion of their surface.
Now that I have touched on the subject of pube-
scence, I will add that at the Horticultural Garden of
Pondicherry they showed me what they called a wild
Citrus (oranger sauvage). The tree had an emarginate
leaf which was like a small lemon leaf. It had z.great
deal of pubescence on the stem and underside of the
midribs and petioles. It had spines like those of the
lemon, and its petioles had neither wings nor ridges.
They had, however, an indication of a joint between
the leaflet and the petiole. The leaves had slight
crenations. The oil cells and venations of the leaves
were those of a Citrus. The leaves when crushed
gave a faint and pleasant odor of sweet briar.
As I did not see either the flower or the fruit
of this " oranger sauvage," I cannot say what it
exactly was. The tree in question was on the left
hand side of the entrance as one goes in, and
formed part of a hedge which had been clipped.

D 2

36 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Further, in an allied genus, the GEgle Marmelos
(Bcel), the minute leaves are covered on both sides
and edges with a short brownish down. It is shed as
the leaves grow, first off the upper surface, and lastly
off the edges and nerves of the lower side, so that
pubescence, more or less extensive, and more or less
permanent, is a character, I believe, not only of the
whole genus Citrus, but also of allied genera, and
therefore it cannot, in my opinion, be considered as
a specific character of the supposed species Citriis
decumana — the Pummelo proper. It would appear a
question only of degree of pubescence and not of a
distinctive specific character.

Then, if the Pummelo proper (the Citrus decumana
of Willdenow) is not a distinct species, what is it ?
Perhaps it would be better to put a more extended
question, viz., " What are all the ' decumana ' (large)
Citrus in general ? " The origin of the elephant I
consider is an over-fed animal, largely surrounded by
tropical forest, where he required little exertion to
fully feed himself and grow generation after gener-
ation to his present full size. What the elephant and
similar large animals are to the other Mammalia, so
I surmise, the Pummelos and other huge Citrus were
originally to the smaller varieties of Citrus. They
probably originated under circumstances of tropical
or subtropical luxuriance, with their roots branching
among ingredients which tended rather to a sort of
elephantiasis of the fruit than to its sweetness and
juiciness. Once this habit of growth became fixed,
it is easy to imagine that it could be still further
increased under more suitable conditions for this
particular development. The largest pummelos I
have seen came from the district of Etawah — a
rather dry district. It gets regular rain usually from

The "Amilbeds" and the Pummelos 37

July to September, but its soil is noted for the amount
of " kunkur" (lime nodules) it contains. Lime being
a large ingredient of the ashes of the Citrus wood, it
is not improbable that this element, with tropical and
sub-tropical conditions of luxuriance, may have had a
good deal to do with the origin of the Citrus decumana.

Mr. Ridley, of Lucknow, made an interesting
experiment with lime-soil for the Citrus. He planted
several kinds on nothing but demolition mortar and
only watered them. They grew luxuriantly and bore
good fruit. — ( Vide chap, on " Citrus cultivation.")

Taking everything into consideration, not impossibly
the pummelo may have branched off into its present
form and characters from no other source than the
Citrus aurantium sinense of Gallesio, the Malta or
Portugal orange, or both may have sprung from a
common ancestor. At all events the former appears
to have had its cradle in Southern China and Cochin
China.

Leaving pubescence out of consideration now that
we know it does not count, we have a closely fitting
skin like that of the Malta orange. The emargina-
tions at the base of the pulp carpels, as shown in
section, appear to be a repetition of similar ones
often met in that orange, such as those of pi. 82-, c, c.
They are commonest in the pummelo and Portugal
orange. Then the pummelo proper and the Malta
orange are the only Citruses I have seen which
present varieties with red or blood colour in their pulp,
while the amilbeds have often an orange tinge in their
pulp.

The lemon coloured exterior of the pummelo might
perhaps seem a difficulty, the Malta type of Citrus
being orange. Besides different shades of orange in
different varieties, I have shown that in Kandy they

38 Oranges and Lemons of India.

have an orange of the Malta type, with a purely citron-
yellow exterior like that of pummelos. Moreover, I
have seen true pummelos with red cheeks. — Vide
Appendix, No. 26.

Risso, p. 132, says of the pummelos — " en effet, les
pompelmouses ont de Taffinite avec les oranges douces,
et avec les lumies, qui sont deux groupes tres eloignes
Tun de Fautre." While Gallesio groups the " Porno
d'Adamo " of Palestine (a shaddock) with the Seville
orange and says it is intensely bitter.*

Further, the Jhambiri presents two varieties, one
yellow-skinned, the other orange-skinned. Otherwise
they appear indistinguishable. The yellow skin of
the pummelo would naturally carry with it a pale
pulp, which afterwards may by reversion, have acquired
some blood colour, increased later on by selection.
So that we have now white, pink, or beef-coloured
pummelos ; others with mixed colours and entirely
yellow, and also red-checked pummelos. As to the
tomentum of some varieties, it may have originally
been a part of the general elephantisation of the whole
tree ; that is a luxuriant growth of the natural
tomentum found on the young unexpanded leaf buds
of most Citrus. In the pummelo proper we also
find typically huge leaves of a leathery consistence,
and enormous petiole wings which are also indicative
of luxuriance. This increased tomentum in some
varieties may have been subsequently lost by reversion
to its original scantiness.

If the foregoing arguments are well founded, we
ought to find " elephant " varieties in other types of
Citrus ; and so we do, in abundance. The kathairee
nimboo — curiously enough, a very tomentose variety—

* The modern Adam's apple of the English shops, said to come
from Palestine, I found was only sour without bitterness.

TJie "Amilbeds " and the Pummelos. 39

appears to be an elephant form of the warty khatta,
orange group, pis. 32 and 35. . . . The at Anni, also
tomentosc, appears to be the " elephant " variety of the
suntara group, pi. 1 1 2. The Kumaon lemon, or
gulgul, may be taken as the " elephant " variety of the
lemon group, pis. 187 and 188, and the mawling of
Mangalore, and the madhkakree of Almora, pis. 148 and
171, would, perhaps, be the " elephant " representatives
of the Citron group. For all I know, there may be
others, which I may not have come across. It would,
therefore, appear that each type or race of Citrus has,
or may have, its variety decumana. If so, it is no
wonder, that the wild original Q{ the pummelo has never
yet been discovered. It probably only required the
evolution of a yellow orange, like that of Kandy, for
this " decumana " citrus to have come into being, first
as a product of luxuriant growth, and afterwards as the
result of selection. The only parts of this Citrus which
have not been elephantised are the spines. These,
however, are usually well developed under conditions
just the opposite of luxuriance, some of the branch buds,
instead of developing normally, remaining dwarfed as
spines. If grown from seed, however, the spines
of the pummelo might also be large, like that of most
other seedlings.

Alphonse de Candolle, in searching for the cradle of
the pummelo, seems to lay great stress on the observa-
tions of Sleeman, that in the Fiji Isles, it is extremely
common, and covering the banks of rivers. De Can-
dolle appears to infer from this that, being so common,
there must be in that vicinity some centre containing
the wild parent of this supposed distinct species, the
Citrus decumana.

From experiments I have made, I found that most
of the citrus fruit will float in water ; so will that of the

40 Oranges and Lemons of India.

CEgle Marmelos, and of the Feronia elephantum. But
the best floaters of all are the large pummelo s. They
float so well, that half of the fruit remains out of the
water. Moreover, Rumphius says (and this is well
known), that the pummelo lasts a long time without
spoiling, and is taken on long voyages on account of
its keeping quality. Now if only one pummelo seed had
found its way on high ground and got naturalised there
through the agency of birds or other animals, the fruit
of its tree, when ripe, would fall and roll into some
water channel, whence it might be easily carried by
floods into rivers. If the fruit stranded on any bank,
it would eventually rot there, and its seeds would easily
germinate, or they might be further disseminated by
birds and other animals along the bank. Finally the
whole river banks might in the same way become in-
seminated with pummelo trees. Moreover, this fruit
floats probably as well as the cocoa-nut, and although
it might not stand immersion so long as that nut,* it
is not at all improbable that when once the pummelo
tree had found its wray to river banks, and its fruit
dropping into the water, its dissemination to other
islands in the vicinity may have been easily effected by
ocean currents, tide and wind. If it floats so well in
fresh water, it will float much better in salt water.
This is supposing that birds and other animals had
nothing to do with its dissemination, and that the
savages of those islands, who continually paddled from
one island to the other, carrying with them seeds of
every fruit they found fit for food, had no hand in
covering the banks of the Fiji Islands with pummelo
trees. Putting aside, however, the fact that this tree
is one of the hardiest of the Citrus genus, it is asserted

* For all I know, however, the oily surface might keep off the close
contact of the water, and preserve it for a long time.

The "Amilbeds" and the Pummelos. 41

that in South America whole forests of orange trees
have been created through the sole agency of parrots.

Considering the numerous varieties of pummelo there
are in India at the present day — the white, the pink,
the red pulped; the oblate, the globose, the ovoid, the
pyriform ; the very large, the middling, aud the small ;
the sweet, the sour, and the acrid ; the thick-skinned
and the thin-skinned ; those with rounded, emarginate
leaves, and those with long lanceolate leaves ; those
with lemon-coloured fruit, and those with a blush of
red ; finally, the tomentose, the semi-tomentose, and
the glabrous varieties — one might, perhaps, infer from
this richness of varieties that there must be in India
some centre of wild pummelo, from which all these have
originated. Yet nothing appears clearer than that the
pummelo proper is of recent introduction in India, by
way of Batavia and Calcutta, and perhaps also southern
India.

From all that can be gathered, it appears likely that
the pummelo was evolved, or at all events got its modern
characters fixed, in the Malayan archipelago. It should
not, however, be supposed that India was incapable of
evolving a pummelo of its own. Three hundred years
ago, the Emperor Baber attempted to describe the
amilbed. This appears to have originated in a yellow-
skinned variety of some sour orange, not improbably a
close ally of the C. aurantium sinense, Gall. It has a
closely fitting skin, an orange or white pulp, and a leaf
with the characters of the Malta orange leaf. Three hun-
dred years ago, it appears to have been uncommon in
India, and even now it is cultivated more as a curiosity
than for commercial purposes. Being sour, and there
being many other sour citrus of a more convenient
size, it has never become widely disseminated. Never-
theless, pi. 67 shows an amilbed which is larger than

42 Oranges and Lemons of India.

the pummelo proper or shaddock of pi. 92, and in Pondi-
cherry, I found a still smaller pummelo, with a girth of
only twelve inches, that is, half an inch more than the
yellow orange of Kandy. Had there been evolved a
sweet and sub-acid amilbed, the further elephantisation
of this citrus in India would have become easy. Of the
amilbeds figured, one had eight pulp carpels, and nine
others from eleven to sixteen carpels, while of the pum-
melos proper, one had thirteen carpels, and six others
from fourteen to twenty-one, so that the hugeness of
the amilbeds and pummelos may be due, not only to
excessive growth of all parts, but also to a sort of
doubling, or proliferation of the carpels. In that case,
the outer skin would have either to burst, and so lose
one of its great factors in the struggle for existence, as
I have attempted to show in the chapter on Morpho-
logy, or it had to expand and make room for its mul-
tiplied contents. The normal number of carpels-
five — I have only found in the diminutive qumquat ;
in all other citrus there has been a multiplication of
pulp carpels, until we reach the largest number in the
pummelos.

In accounting for the size of certain citrus, we
should not lose sight of the possibility of their huge-
ness having been originated by a. fusion of two ovaries
In pis. 223 and 224 are figures of double lemons,
which I got from the Etawah jail garden, and from
the English shops ; one had no seeds ; but in the
English shops I came across two others, both of
which had seeds. It is therefore not unlikely that by
sowing seeds of double citrus, and by selection,
eventually a large and perfectly round fruit may be
obtained, which may have ceased to show any trace of
fusion of the two ovaries, except in the increased
number of carpels, and size of the fruit. Pis. 72 and

The "Amilbeds" and the Pummelos. 43

83 show pummelos with a suspiciously elongated
centre, which probably tells a tale of its birth, although
its exterior may have lost all trace of its origin.

Finally Dr. John Shortt, writing from Yercaud, in
the Shevaray hills, says " We have the pummelo, which
fruits largely, some weighing four or five Ibs., but
worthless, as the pulp is acrid, bitter and sour. The
pummelo is a most delicious fruit, about the coasts of
South India, both the white and the pink varieties ;
but plants or seeds, introduced up here, from excellent
fruit-bearing trees on the plains, become worthless
here. It is apparently the fault of the soil and climate.
Our pummelos are not wild kinds, but of the best
cultivated varieties. When brought up here, they go
like that." This shows how cautious one should be
in declaring a citrus wild simply because it happens to
be acrid and uneatable ; all fruit trees are liable to
variation by change of climate and soil, but there is
none perhaps which is more sensitive of change of
soil and climate, than the sweet kinds of citrus in
cultivation.

Pis. 59 to 92 give figures of amilbeds and pum-
melos.

44

CHAPTER V.

THE "SUNTARA" ORANGES.

IN Baber's memoirs the following occurs, which is
stated to have been said by Humayoon : " In Bengal
there are fruits which have an acid flavour, though
they are not of equal excellence with the amratphal
(sweet lemon). The one is kamilah, the other is the
samtere/i, and are larger than the orange, but are not
sour. The latter is found in Bengal at one village,
called Senargam, and even in Senargam it is found in
the greatest perfection only in one place. There is
no pleasanter fruit than the samtereh."

There is hardly any reason to doubt that the
samtereh and kamilah of Humayoon are the suntara
and /&£<?#/£ of modern Indians. The Bengalis still call
the suntara of Sylhet and the Khasia hills, by the
name of kamlah lemboo. Lemboo is a sort of generic
name, which Bengalis use for all kinds of citrus. It is
a corruption of limo, and in the chapter of derivations
I have endeavoured to trace the origin of the latter
designation.

About 300 years ago the suntara orange appears
to have been rare in India. Then it appeared to
have found its way only to Bengal, and even there
to have been limited to one particular locality, Senar-
gam. At the present day it is to be found almost all
over India. In the Khasia hills, and further north and
to the west, in Bhotan, Nepal, and Kumaon, it grows

The "Suntara" Oranges. 45

in a semi-wild state. In the chapter on the cultiva-
tion of the citrus, I have described the mode of raising
it in the Khasia hills. Primd facie, judging from its
numerous varieties that now exist all over India, and
from its semi-wild state all along the north-eastern
frontier, it might appear an indigenous type of orange.
It is not improbable, however, that it only became
naturalized there at a very remote period,

In Lahore it is now called karna or sungtara. In
Delhi it is grown extensively under the name of
sintra or rungtra. In Bengal under the name of
kamlah. In the Central Provinces it is largely grown
as the stint ara orange. In South India, under various
other names, and in Ceylon, under the name of jawa
narun, and also kbnda narun* All these are
varieties of one and the same orange, most commonly
known by the name of suntara, a pleasant mixture of
sub-acid and sweet pulp, enveloped by a very loose
and aromatic skin. It varies from the very sweet,
such as the sdntola of Butwal in Nepal, to a sour-
sweet orange. The surkh nimboo, the hazara, and
the kumquat, I consider as varieties much allied to the
suntara orange, all three are quite sour, and never
sweeten.

Although in many parts of India it is grown side
by side with the Portugal type of oranges, the suntara
is a totally different kind of orange, and has scarcely
anything in common with them, more than the
characters of the genus.

We are now beginning to see through the tangle of
sweet oranges, and are able to separate them into two
distinct types — the Portugal or Malta orange type

* Both these Ceylon varieties are pictured in Miss North's
Gallery, No. 226, Royal Gardens, Kevv. The kbnda narun, is the
green orange. The other is the jawa narun.

46 Oranges and Lemons of India.

(C. aurantium sinense, Gallesio), and the Suntara
type (C. aurantium sinense of Rumphius).*

If this type of orange were obtainable on the
Western coast of India, at the same time that the
Arabs took from there the Seville orange further
West, they would have probably also taken it,
although the Seville orange is, perhaps, one of the
hardiest known varieties.

If it were easily obtainable in China or elsewhere, at
the time the Portuguese introduced the C. aurantium
sinense into Portugal, they probably would have
introduced this also.

There is evidence, however, that the suntara type
of orange did not get to Europe till much later ; as I
said, Risso, in his monograph, gives only two plates of
what I look upon as this type of orange.

(a.) Bigaradier chinois (pi. 94, fig. /). — Leaves
small, oval-acute ; fruit small, round, oblate at the base,
slightly depressed at the summit, reddish yellow ; skin
thickish and spongy, lightly adherent to the pulp,
which has large vesicles, divided into eight quarters ;
juice acid, and slightly bitter. In South Europe it
resists the winters. In August the fruit is collected
to candy it. In Paris it is very rare, as the demand
for it is small.

The Hazara orange of India (pi. 94, figs, a to d\ a
sour kind, would fit into Risso's description of the
foregoing.

(b.) Bigaradier a feuille de myrte (pi. 117, fig./).
— Leaves very numerous, closely set, and almost im-
bricated on the branches, about the size of myrtle
leaves ; flowers small ; fruit round, reddish yellow,
shiny, chagrined by the oil cells ; pulp in six or eight
quarters, with a sweet juice, and only slight acidity.
* For aurantium sinense of Rumphius, see Appendix 41 (/).

The " Siintara" Oranges. 47

It resembles the B. chinois, and many consider_it only
a variety of the former. In Risso's time a variety of
this, marked (a) in his work, was much multiplied in Paris
on account of its smallness and beauty (often no larger
than represented in the plate). A variety of it existed
in Italy, but was still very rare. Risso having given
only two plates of this type of orange has some signi-
ficance. It was then only recently introduced, and
there was little time yet for new varieties to have
come into existence from seed.

The " B. a feuille de myrte" corresponds almost
exactly with the Mandarin orange, which has an
exterior so shiny that it looks as if it had been var-
nished. Risso and Poiteau published their mono-
graph at the beginning of the present century.

Great confusion has arisen from travellers in the
East mentioning only a sweet orange that they may
have come across. In the " Penny Cyclopaedia " the
following occurs : " Captain Turner, in the account of
his journey to Teshoo Loomboo, mentions the orange
as delicious ; and Mr. Saunders, who accompanied
him, describes many orange- and lime trees as found
at the foot of the hills in approaching Buxadwar?
Alph. de Candolle, at p. 185 of his "Origin of Cul-
tivated Plants," repeats this passage, quoting it from
Royle's " Illustr. of the Himalayas."

There is little doubt in my mind that the sweet
orange here mentioned by Captain Turner is that of
the suntara type, as even up to this day it is grown
in those parts in a semi-wild state.

It would appear that botanists have either over-
looked the fact that there existed two types of sweet
orange, or may have thought the distinction unim-
portant. In truth, neither of them is quite sweet ;
but a mixture of more or less sweetness, with more

48 Oranges and Lemons of India.

or less sub-acidity, according to the soil and climate
and amount of cultivation they may be subjected to,
and their degree of ripeness. Unripe, they are both
acid, the acidity decreasing and changing into sugar
as ripeness proceeds.

The sweetest orange of the suntara type is that
known as the Butwal orange. Natives also call it
suntolah, or suntowrea. Butwal is the district on the
borders of Nepal, where it grows semi-wild. The
sourest varieties of this type are the acid szirkh
nimboo of the natives, and also the hazara, or qum-
qitat, orange. As I said, these never sweeten.

Sir J. Hooker, under the heading of " Citrus auran-
tium," says it is found in the "Hot valleys along the
foot of the Himalayas, from Garwhal eastwards to
Sikkim, and in the Khasia mountains. A small,
slender tree, flowering in the rains and fruiting after
them, growing, where I found it, in the very bottom
of valleys, and where it did not occur to me to doubt
its being indigenous. The fruit was somewhat flat-
tened, or nearly globose, about two inches diameter,
high coloured, and uneatable, being (if I remember
aright) mawkish and bitter."* His stating that it was
" a small, slender tree " inclines me to think that he
was describing a sour orange of the suntara type, as
all the varieties are slender trees, with small flowers.
As to its flowering in the rains, all kinds flower more
or less in the rains, but their principal season of
flowering is spring.

I shall endeavour to give a detailed description of
the suntara type of orange tree. A small, slender
tree, with slender lanceolate leaves, sometimes as small
as those of the common myrtle, and with a very dis-
tinct, strong scent ; flowers small, the main crop of
* I repeat this extract here for the sake of convenience.

The " Siintara" Oranges. 49

which come out in February or March, and the after,
or Dumrcz, crop in June or July, during the rains ;
fruit varies in shape, from the flat oblate-globose to
the pyriform, sometimes quite smooth, at others sub-
warty. The colour varies from orange-yellow to
lobster-red, and sometimes in part to tomato-red ; it
is mostly baggy, with a loose skin, sometimes so loose
that the pulp-ball wabbles inside it ; the white pithy
part between the rind and the pulp is frequently
almost absent, and the large oil cells of the rind can
be easily dissected into balloon-shaped vesicles ; the
colour of the pulp is often much deeper than that of
the bloodless kinds of the Portugal type. The flavour
varies from very sweet to a mixture of sweetness and
sub-acidity (which most of them have), and to a pure
acid. The centre of the pulp is mostly hollow, and
the carpels loosely adherent. The seeds are green,
when cut.

It is possible that this type of orange may be indi-
genous to the north-eastern border hills of India,
but probably it was naturalized there at a very re-
mote period ; that it originally came from China, or
Cochin China, either directly across the border or
by way of the Malayan peninsula. The reasons for
taking this view are given in the chapter on the
Origin of the Citrus.

De Candolle, under the heading of " Sweet Orange,"
states : " Royle says that sweet oranges grow wild at
Sylhet (meaning no doubt those of the suntara type,
now still semi-wild), and in the Nilgiri hills, but his
assertion is not accompanied with sufficient detail to
give it importance. . . . On the other hand,
Brandis and Sir J. Hooker do not mention the sweet
orange as wild in British India; they only give it as
cultivated. Kurz does not mention it in his ' Forest

50 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Flora of British Burmah.' Further East, in Cochin
China, Loureiro describes a C. aurantium with sour-
sweet pulp, which appears to be the sweet orange, and
which is found both wild and cultivated in China and
Cochin China. Chinese authors consider orange trees
in general as natives of their country, but precise in-
formation about each species and variety is wanting
on this head. From the collected facts, it seems that
the sweet orange is a native of Southern China and
Cochin China, with a doubtful and accidental extension
of area by seed into India."

It would have been much more interesting if we
knew, as I said, to what type of sweet orange De
Candolle refers in the foregoing. With regard to the
suntara type of orange, his conclusion would appear
as the probable one.

He goes on to say, " If the sweet orange had been
cultivated in India, it would have had a special name
in Sanskrit ; the Greeks would have known it, after
Alexander's expedition, and the Hebrews would have
early received it through Mesopotamia. This fruit
would certainly have been valued, cultivated, and pro-
pagated in the Roman empire, in preference to the
lemon, citron, and bitter orange. Its existence in
India must, therefore, be less ancient."

I would here mention that although India is a very
small word, it means a very big thing. I believe that
Alexander's expedition did not reach much beyond the
Indus, and in those days of difficult communication,
although the suntara orange may have been already
naturalised on the eastern border, it may not have
reached Western India. Even at this day, although
it is semi-wild in the east of India, it is scarce in the
west. For similar reasons, both the Romans and
Hebrews may not have got it. Its extensive and

The " Suntara " Oranges. 5 1

semi-wild existence on the eastern border certainly does
not indicate a very recent introduction.

As to its Sanskrit name, I have made great efforts
to ascertain whether the words narang, or naranghi,
and suntara may be of indigenous or Sanskrit origin,
but from the chapter on " Derivations of Native Names
of Citrus," it will be seen that this question is pretty
much where it was, that is, not satisfactorily solved.*
In the appendix and chapter on derivations, I have
given every information that I have been able to collect
on this subject, for the benefit of future investigators,
as the derivation of native names may throw some
light on the source from which the various kinds of
citrus now in India came. Suffice it to say that the
suntara orange appears to have been known on the
eastern border from pre-historic times. Whether it
came from a distinct sour variety I am unable to say.
This I know, that at the present day, there appear
to be various sour varieties of this same Suntara
type, viz. : those called kumquaty hazdra, and surkk
nimboOy and not improbably Sir J. Hooker may have
come across some of these, and which he describes as
" a small slender tree, in the very bottom of valleys,
along the foot of the Himalayas, from Gurhwal to the
Khasia Hills, with fruit about two inches in diameter,
uneatable, mawkish, and bitter." This type of orange
is shown in pis. 93 to i i6A.

It should not be forgotten also that certain animals,
especially parrots, are fond of the citrus pulp whether
sweet or sour, and are quite equal to carrying its seeds
to long distances. Moreover the flavour of the orange
pulp is liable to great change, according to soil, climate,
&c.

* Perhaps Rumphius may again help us by his mentioning the
seng-cam of China.

E 2

5 2 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Taking everything into consideration, including the
information collected from Rumphius's " Flora Am-
boin.," it is not improbable that the suntara orange
also had its cradle in southern China ; but as the dis-
tinctive name Sinense is already applied to the Portugal
type of sweet orange, it would be well to distinguish
this by some other appellation to prevent further con-
fusion.

CHAPTER VI.

THE KEONLA* AND MANDARIN GROUP OF ORANGES.

THESE varieties of oranges, with others, are much
allied to the suntara race. They are totally different
from the Portugal orange type. Although in Uppei
India natives make a distinction between a suntara
and a keonla orange, the Bengalis call the suntara
of Sylhet kamlah lemboo. Then, although nardnghi
is a generic name for oranges in general, there is a
variety, belonging I think to this group, which natives
call nardnghi proper ; others call it narlnghi. But
there is so much confusion in the names of the
Citrus in India that, as a rule, no reliance can be placed
on vernacular names as affording distinctive characters.
Then in Ceylon they have the mandarin proper,
but in the markets all the suntaras are called
mandarin oranges.

Although there may perhaps be varieties which may
be considered as on debateable ground, the keonla
orange is quite different from the suntara. The
leaves of the keonla have a different scent, which when
once recognized is not to be mistaken. Moreover
the shape of the leaf is generally different, distinctly
crenated and not pointed, but usually emarginate, as
shown in pi. 124, figs, c and d. The principal dif-
ference, however, is in the fruit. When ripe, it is

* Keonla or kanwla are only corruptions of kdmala.

54 Oranges and Lemons of India.

chagrined and much redder than a suntara, and
unless over-ripe it is so sour that it is almost uneatable.
Natives don't think much of it, except for keeping
after all other kinds have gone out of season. They
either keep it for a long time on the tree till it sweetens,
or collect it and keep it in its cut state until it becomes
sweet. It is usually a very good cropper.

There are many varieties of keonla in different parts
of India. Whenever I could get the leaf also it was
not difficult to group a specimen ; otherwise I have had
to rely on the name given to it, which is often decep-
tive ; or on the greater redness of the exterior, which
is more of a lobster red than of a yellow orange.

The distinction of one kind by the name of
naringhi is not of much value. It may be a variety
that sweetens earlier than the keonla proper. It is,
however, rarely found in the markets by this name,
but only in collections in native gardens.

In the Saharunpore Botanic garden, and in the
Delhi public garden, I came across a variety called
kokni) shown in pi. 127. The skin is very oily and
strongly aromatic, and the leaf has more of the keonla
scent than any other. It is redder than the kiimquat>
which never sweetens, while the kokni becomes sweet.
It is not common, and I have met with it only in these
two places.*

Another variety is that called reshmi, shown in
pi. 122, figs, a and e. This name is sometimes given
to that called hazara, which latter is either the
kumquat itself, or an enlarged variety of it. The
reshmi is a very curious orange. The typical form
is very flat, and with many folds, not unlike a tomato.

* In Rumphius, under aur. verrucosum, occurs a very small sweet
orange from Madura, aur. pumilum Madurense. It may be this. —
Vide Appendix 41 (/;/).

The Mandarin Group of Oranges. 55

Its apex or distal end is often so red that it is not un-
like the colour of a red tomato. It sweetens late and
is not very juicy. Its leaves have the keonla scent.
It is not common and only found in collections in
native gardens. In Kandy they called it heen-ndrun.

The Mandarin orange proper, I think, belongs to
this group, but is a totally distinct orange. I believe
it to be the same that Risso called Bigaradier a
feuille de myrte. Its exterior is so shiny that it looks
as if it had been varnished. PI. n6(A) is taken
from the Flor. Amboin., of Rumphius. He calls it
Aurantium sinense. His description of it coincides
with that of the suntara orange of India. Loureiro
refers to this plate under the name of Citrus nobilis,
and De Candolle, under the name of Mandarin, gives
Loureiro's botanical designation. Loureiro, however
says that his C. nobilis agrees most with the A.
sinense of Rumphius, but even this, he says, does not
coincide with his description of C. nobilis.

A. de Candolle, regarding this variety, says " This
species, characterized by its smaller fruit, uneven on
the surface, spherical, but flattened at the top, and of
a peculiar flavour, is now prized in Europe, as it has
been from the earliest times in China, and Cochin
China. The Chinese call it kan* Rumphius had
seen it cultivated in all the Sunda islands, and says
that it was introduced thither from China, but it had
not spread into India. Roxburgh and Sir J. Hooker
do not mention it, but Clarke informs me that its
culture has been greatly extended in the district of
Khasia. It was new to European gardeners at the
beginning of the present century, when Andrews
published a good illustration of it in the " Botanist's

* Rumphius says the generic name of the orange in Chinese is
kam.

56 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Repository " (pi. 608, vol. 10.) — (Vide note at the end
this chapter, p. 57.)

It would appear that two distinct things are here
mixed up. The one alluded to by Rumphius appears
to be a suntara proper, and the one extensively grown
in the Khasia hills is also a simtara proper, although
not having seen all the varieties grown on those hills,
I cannot say whether they have there also the true
mandarin. However, had they it to any extent, it
would certainly have found its way to the Calcutta
market.

In Lucknow in 1863 I introduced the mandarin
orange, together with the Malta orange and lemon,
and from there it has been distributed to many other
places. Neither at Lucknow nor at Etawah does this
variety do well. The Mandarin tree is very delicate,
and although the suntara of Sylhet and of Nagpore,
and the keonla do well there, this choice variety
(mandarin) is half killed every year by the hot winds,
and its fruit when unripe is very sour, and when
ripe almost juiceless, so different from its delicious
fruit when grown in a suitable climate and soil.

In Ceylon I found the true mandarin in the
Peradeniya Botanic Garden. Dr. Trimen informed
me that, in 1847, H.H. Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, sent
a collection of orange plants to Peradeniya, and that
probably this true mandarin may have come there
with that collection. Both the scent of its leaf and
that of its rind, were unmistakably those of a true
mandarin. I did not, however, see it anywhere out
of Peradeniya, and the oranges in the Colombo and
Kandy markets, which go by the name of mandarins,
are only varieties of the suntara and keonla oranges,
and not true mandarins. The solitary fruit I found
on a tree at Peradeniya was good, and probably this

^/ie Mandarin Group of Oranges. 57

variety would suit the Ceylon climate, if it were taken
up by planters. There may be many other parts of
India, free from too much cold, and from hot winds,
which might also suit this choice orange. I don't know
whether it has ever been tried in the Central Provinces,
the black soil of that country might suit it. There are
some varieties of oranges which suffer much by change
of climate and soil, others don't change, and lastly,
others vastly improve.

The leaves of the mandarin are the smallest I
know. Some branches are covered with leaves not
larger than those of myrtle. Its typical leaf is pointed
and more like that of a suntara, and hardly ever so
emarginate, or crenate, as those of the keonla orange ;
their scent, however, is sui generis, and when once
tried, can be recognized again by the same person
with his eyes shut. The scent of the rind and the
flavour of the pulp, in a perfect fruit, such as those
found in English markets, are also very distinct. The
fruit also of the mandarin can be recognized by its
scent and flavour alone.

(Nota dene, I have looked at the illustration of
the Citrus nobilis — mandarin — mentioned by De Can-
dolle, as given in Andrews' "Botanist's Repository,"
pi. 608, British Museum. I was startled to rind it
called mandarin. It does not in the least resemble
the mandarin orange tree, neither in leaf, flower,
nor fruit. The leaves, as given in the plate, are
immense, and nothing like those of the mandarin
orange known in Europe and India. Then the colour
of the fruit is given as an ora.nge-6rowu. Admitting
that the illustration may have become discoloured by
time, although all the others appeared to have retained
their brilliant colouring, then even the size of some of
the fruit is enormous. It does not correspond to any

58 Oranges and Lemons of India.

mandarin in commerce, or to any which I have seen.
The true mandarin is noted for the smallness of its
leaves, what Andrews' citrus can be I do not know.
The only other illustration of citrus in the Repository
is that of a Bergamot, which is like one, and therefore,
it is presumable, the illustration in question must be
like the one which Andrews, or his artist painted ; but
it is very different from a true mandarin, as we know
it now.

In the "Botanical Register," vol. 3, 211, I came
across a mandarin orange, which looks more like the
real thing. Its fruit is pictured about 2\ inches in
diameter, and its leaves are more like those of pi. 1 1 7,
fig. c, and pi. 1 1 8, figs, c and h of the Atlas. The
" Botanical Register " adds that this is " the variety
minor, and that in Andrews' " Repository/' 608, the
variety major is given, which sometimes has a
diameter of five inches, and is of a deep saffron colour,
and flattened." Both varieties were introduced into
England by Sir Abraham Hume. The laroo of
Poona has a very wide and flattened fruit, as seen in
pi. 126, figs, a and b. (Can this laroo be any con-
nection of the variety major mentioned above ?)

In Baber's memoirs (Appendix, No. i (/i) ) in a note
by Humayoon, the kamilah is only mentioned, as
" growing to the size of an orange ; many hold it to be
the larger lemon, but it is much pleasanter than the
lemon. It has not an elegant appearance or shape.''
Nothing can be made of these few lines, but Humayoon
was evidently alluding to some citrus which was sour,
much like our modern keonla. He mentions the
suntara also, by the name of samtereh, and says
there is no pleasanter fruit than the latter. It would
appear that in Humayoon's time, both these were
known in Bengal.

The Mandarin Group of Oranges. 59

It should be here noted that Baber mentions a
"sengtera," which the translators call common orange
vide Appendix No. i (d). Not much can be made of
Baber's description. He says it is like an orange in
colour, like a smooth citron in shape, and acid. This
would correspond more with the khatta, and probably
that was the reason why the translators thought it
the common orange (?).

The keonla and mandarin group are given in
pis. 117 to 128.

6o

CHAPTER VII.

THE JAMBHIRI GROUP.

NATIVES of India give this name in different ways,
as jamir, jamiri, jambhiri, or jambira, and also
zamiri. Although by some, limes proper are mixed
up with this group, it is mostly a citrus with rather
orange characters, such as are shown in pis. 1 3 1 and
132, which goes by this name. Even in the days of
Baber it was this particular group, it appears, which
went by the name Q{ jambiri. He says in his memoirs,
that the jambiri is an acid citrus, of a deep yellow
colour, " resembling an orange, but which is not an
orange."

From a commercial point of view it is not in de-
mand, and, therefore, it is mostly found in gardens of
native collectors of fruit trees, and grown more as a
curiosity. From a natural history point of view, how-
ever, I think it a very interesting group of citrus.

The general character of the fruit and foliage is that
of the keonla and suntara oranges. The flowers I
have not seen, excepting in that of Hagkala. The ex-
terior of the fruit varies from smooth to chagrined and
sub warty. It is mostly mammillate. The colour of the
rind is either lemon-yellow or orange colour. Some
have a curious fawn-coloured epidermis, like that of a
potato. Whether this is an excretion formed by some
insect or not, I do not know. I have not, however,

The Jambhiri Group. 61

seen it in any other type.* The colour of the pulp
varies from white to pale with an orange tinge, and to
orange. All are sour, and never sweeten, and the
internal arrangement of the pulp is like that of a
keonla or suntara orange. The leaves I have seen re-
semble mainly those of the keonla group, excepting that
of pi. 1 36 from Hagkala in Ceylon. Some of the leaves
of this were enormous. This may be owing to climate
and excessive moisture, or to their growing on young
luxuriant shoots. Several kinds of citrus on the young
shoots, which grow from the base of the stem, often
produce unusually large leaves. The flowers and
young shoots of this Hagkala tree were tinged purple,
and the pulp pale orange.

Whether this group has any connection, by descent,
with the keonla group of oranges or not, it is impossible
to say. Direct experiments in crossing the different
varieties of citrus may possibly throw some light on
this point.

Many authors give this name ofjamiAirj as of San-
skrit origin, and, therefore, conclude that it is indige-
nous to India. Others deny that any genuine Sanskrit
work makes any mention of any citrus whatever. f
Supposing, however, that some Sanskrit work did
mention \hejambhlri, it is next to impossible to make
out which of the many Indian varieties of citrus is
meant. Brandis gives the lime proper, the kaghzi-
nimboo, the Sanskrit name of jambira, but natives
give this name mostly to the forms on the plates men-
tioned, which are not those of the kaghzi-nimboo.
Moreover, it is doubtful whether the lime proper is

* In another place I mention that a South American gentleman
informed me that in Monte Video they have good oranges, which
are brown externally, like the brown apples of the English shops.

f Vide Chapter on " Derivations of Citrus Names."

62 Oranges and Lemons of India.

indigenous. In addition, English writers have often
given the name of lime to citrons, lemons, sweet
lemons, sour oranges, &c., so that it is impossible to
make out what is really meant. In this work by lime
proper is always meant the kaghzi-mmboo and its
varieties, which corresponds to the Montserrat lime,
and to the Limonellus or Limo temtis of Rumphius.

What I consider specimens belonging to the group
of Baber's/#;;zfoW are given in pis. 129 to 138.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE CITRON GROUP.

THE Emperor Baber in his memoirs, under the head-
ing of " taranj," says that " the inhabitants of Bajour
and Siwad call it ' baleng.' On this account marma-
lades of citron peel are called ' baleng-marmalades.'
The Hindostanis call the 'taranj/ the * bajouri.' It
is of two species : one is insipid and sweet, but of a
sickly sweet, and is of no value for eating, but its peel
is used for marmalade. The citrons of Lemghanat are
all of this sickly sweet. The other kind is the citron
of Hindostan and Bajour, which is acid, and its sherbet
is very pleasant and tasteful. ... Its skin is rough,
rising and falling in knobs. Its extremity is thin and
knobbed."

In Mangalore the citron is called " mauling," and it
is not impossible that this is only a transformation of
the " baleng " of Baber, or vice versa. The Arabs
were among the oldest traders on the western coast of
India, and the modern Malabari Moormen of that
coast are probably descendants of those Arabs.

Sanskrit scholars say that the word bajoura comes
from the Sanskrit bfja-pure, "full of seeds," which
both the tiirunj and the bajoura of India often are.
But from Baber's memoirs, it would appear probable
that the " bajoura " is so named after Bajour, a district
on the N.W. frontier.*

* Vide Appendix, No. i (c)

64 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Some natives consider the turunj and the bajoura
as one and the same thing. But mostly natives call
the real citron turunj, and an intermediate form be-
tween this and the lemon bajoura (a sort of citron-
lemon).

In Kandy the citron by some is called natterun, by
others siderun.

In Concani, I am informed, it is called mauling, and
in Tulu, mdpala.

Mr. A. Y. Gubboy informed me that, in Hebrew,
the citron is called etrog ; in Arabic, turunj ; and in
Bengali, shutrunj. By another gentleman I was in-
formed that turunj is a corruption of the Arabic
word utruj, and means a lemon. Utruj and atrog,
or etrog, however, have a family resemblance.

Sir J. Hooker, under the heading of " Citrus Medica,
Linn.," states : "Young shoots glabrous, purple, leaflet
glabrous, flowers often unisexual,* petals generally
more or less pink, fruit globose, ovoid, or oblong, often
mammillate at the apex. Found in the valleys along
the foot of the Himalayas, from Gurhwal to Sikkim,
ascending to 4,000 ft; the Khasia mts., Garrow mts.
(Roxburgh), Chittagong (H.f. andT.), and the Western
Ghats, and Satpura range in Central India,"

" A shrub or small tree, flowering and fruiting at
most seasons, growing where I found it, on steep hill-
sides (in Sikkim). Leaflet 3 to 6 in., elliptic-ovate,
or ovate-lanceolate; petiole naked, or winged. Flowers
5 to 10 in a raceme, small, or middle-sized. Stamens
20 to 40." Then follow the varieties, which, he thinks,
have originated from the C. medica, Linn., of which,
he says, he found " one truly wild in Sikkim, with an
oblong leaflet 4 in. long, margined petiole, pink flowers
i in. long, narrowly ellipsoid rough fruit, 6 in. long,
* I have found most citrus with male and hermaphrodite flowers.

The Citron Group. 65

of which the upper 2 ins. are contracted into a long
conical mammilla ; the rind is very thick, and pulp pale
yellow. The petals pass into stamens, which would
suggest its not being indigenous ; but I did not doubt
its being so when I gathered it, mainly on dry sunny
slopes, totally urisuited for any kind of cultivation,
where it formed large bushes."

Of course, when a botanist says he found a certain
plant wild in a certain place, he probably does not
mean that it has been there from the beginning of
time, or even from the very commencement of the
citrus family on this earth. The site where Sir J.
Hooker found this wild citrus may have been the
scene of many previous changes, not only geological
and meteorological, but also those produced by human
agency. It may have been the scene of invasions,
and destruction by fire, and of subsequent new forest
growth ; it may have been the scene of peaceful clear-
ings for villages, &c. In those days I fancy villages
were very primitive — such as might be made of wood,
leaves, and perishable materials. If the tribes hap-
pened to be nomadic, and the- site was abandoned, in
a very short time the place would become reforested,
and not a trace of such perishable materials would
remain. We can rarely know to what extent man
and other animals may have aided in carrying seeds
of plants from place to place. Who can tell what
part parrots, especially, have played in disseminating
citrus seed, carried with the pulp to their nests for
their young, and dropping it on their way in various
places ?

Therefore, in most cases, it is next to impossible
to decide, whenever a citrus is found wild anywhere,
whether it was there, or in the vicinity, from the

F

66 Oranges and Lemons of India.

beginning of its family history, or whether it became
naturalized 'there through the aid of birds, &c.

From the description of the variety Sir J. Hooker
found wild in Sikkim, it would appear that it had
already gone through a considerable amount of selec-
tion ; but whether this had been naturally effected, or
artificially by the aid of man, it is impossible to say.
It should be remembered that the citrus fruit, whether
red or yellow, would have been a very prominent
object among the green foliage, and would therefore
have attracted attention very early in the history of
man. From the description of this wild citrus, I gather
that it was neither more nor less than a fully developed
turunj — a citron scarcely differing from some now
found in cultivation.*

The first variety of the Citrus medica described by
Sir J. Hooker is : "Var. i, C. medica proper ; leaflet
oblong, petiole short, margined or not, flowers usually
numerous, fruit large, oblong, or ovoid, mammilla
obtuse, rind usually warted, thick, tender, aromatic ;
pulp scanty, sub-acid." — Synonyms. " Brandis, For.
Flor. 52, C. aurantium, var. medica ; W. & A. Prodr.
98, C. medica, Linn. ; Wall. Cat. 6387; Dalz. and
<Gibs., Bomb. Fl. Suppl. 13 — The Citron."

From a large number of citrus which I have exa-
mined, I would think that the whole series, descended
probably from the Citrus medica, may be, perhaps,
more naturally divisible into the following branches,
although, of course, one runs into the other : —

Ca. Chhangura (or primitive
i. C. medica proper (Ci- ! citron).
trons proper). \ b. Turunj.

c. Madhkunkur.

Vide Appendix, No. 44.

medica,
joura.

The Citron Group.

var. Ba-^a. Lemon-citrons.
\b. Citron-lemons.

C. medica, var. limomim
(Lemons proper).

C. medica, var.
melo-lemons.

(a. C. limonum vulgaris of
Risso (Malta, .Italian,
and Portugal lemons,
and varieties).

b. Nepal lemons.

c. Sweet lemons (not

limes). C. Lumia of
Risso.

Pum- (a. Sadaphal.
Attarra.

.(a.

\b.

N.B. — It is doubtful whether the latter (No. 4)
ought to be included in this group.

For reasons stated elsewhere, I thought it better to
exclude from the C. medico, group the true limes (C.
acida of Roxburgh).

From the citron proper to the lemon proper I have
found many gradations or intermediate forms, so that
the relationship is not difficult to trace. The most
useful, however, appears to be that form which, in
the hands of the cultivators of the south of Europe,
combined all the best qualities of a sour citrus, viz.,
very aromatic and not too thick-skinned ; neither too
large, nor too small a fruit ; abundant and pure acid
juice ; and ease of propagation and cultivation. It
contains all the good qualities in one fruit, making it
the most desirable variety for general cultivation ;
hence its vulgarization, which, in other words, means
that it became very common. A good thing is always
in demand, and sooner or later it must become very
common, if it admit of easy propagation and cultiva-
tion. This variety is the Citrus limonum vulgaris of
Risso, the sour lemon of Europe, and may be some

F 2

68 Oranges and Lemons of India.

smaller varieties of lemon of India. The French still
call this lemon " citron."

In the foregoing attempt at the classification of the
C. medica I have put the chdngurd first, because
if it is not the same pre-adamite citron continued to
our days, it is, in my opinion, probably a reversion of
some cultivated form to an ancestral type ; that is, to
a form in which, according to my view, there had not
yet been developed a regular juice pulp, but instead
of it an inner whorl of rind. From the latter, as I
have ventured to explain in the chapter on Morpho-
logy, the whorl of carpels, containing the juice vesicles,
may subsequently have become developed.

This Chdngurd, or primitive form of citron, is
shown in plate 139, fig. a, and plate 140, fig. a. Its
leaves (that is, those sent with it) resemble more those
of a citron than those of a lemon.

I found that, practically, natives made a distinction
between the turunj and the bajoura. The larger
specimens, shown in plates from 142 to 147, and
others, they call turunj. Their pulp is usually sour
and dry. Their skin is very thick, giving the pulp
an insignificant position. The white part of the skin
is of a carroty consistence, and sweet. Not im-
probably these large turunj may have been selected,
and their skin thickened, as an article of food, on
account of its sweetness, while the pulp in these may
have been looked upon as of secondary importance.
The leaves of the turunj proper are usually oblong,
and often deeply emarginate, as shown in plate 155,
figs, c, d, e. They have a short petiole, with its wings
often continuous with the blade of the leaflet, with, or
without a distinct joint between the petiole and the
leaflet. The edges of their leaves are oftener serrate
than crenate.

The Citron Group. 69

The bajoura on the contrary, has a thinner skin,
and a much larger pulp, with abundant acid juice. Its
leaves usually resemble more those of the lemon
than those of the citron proper, like those in plate 161,
figs, c, d, and e.

Natives also make a distinction between the turunj
and the madhkankur. The latter name appears to be
of Sanskrit origin, but may be of recent application
and a mere translation of the sweet melon-like
character of the fruit.

I may mention that many natives consider the
bajoura as the real sui-gul of tradition, or needle
melter. This would indicate that its juice is very acid
and abundant. It is, not improbably, an intermediate
form between the sour citron and sour lemon. Speci-
mens of the bajoura are shown in plates 159 to 162,
&c., while those of the madhkankur are shown in
plates 171 and 173, and others.

From Nepal I received a citron under the name of
bhtmra. I am informed that " Bhi'm " is the Hindoo
Hercules. Although this specimen was small, it may
have come from a tree bearing also huge citrons.

To recapitulate, then : under the head of Citriis
medica, we appear to have the primitive and pulp-
less chdngurd ; the uncivilized turunj, madhkankur,
and others ; the semi-civilized bajoura, and the
thoroughly civilized group of lemons. I have used
the term " civilized " intentionally. The association of
the different stages of this interesting group with man
would, I think, indicate that in his uncivilized state he
cared little about the pulp, and only wanted something
large, solid, and sweetish, to fill his stomach with, and
satisfy his hunger, without much consideration of
choiceness of flavour ; the intermediate stage would
indicate that man had begun to appreciate an acid juice

7o Oranges and Lemons of India.

either for quenching thirst in sickness, or for other
purposes in the arts and cookery. Finally, the lemon
stage would appear to indicate a largely extended use
of an abundant acid juice for the various purposes of
civilized life, and that man had ceased to encourage
much any great thickness in the skin, the latter
becoming now a much less important part of the
fruit.

The specimens of citron represented in plates from
142 to 148 I obtained from the Bombay market,
and I was told they came from the places mentioned.
By Bassein is meant the place of that name near
Bombay. With the experience gained from the fruit
of the khatta orange, as shown in plate 29 and others,
one need be careful in accepting all these forms as
products of distinct trees. Unless the fruit has been
seen on the tree, and in different seasons, it is impos-
sible to say whether two or more of these Bombay
market citrons may not have been the produce of one
and the same tree.

After having read all that has been said regarding
the origin of the C. medica, and its derivatives, I am
still in doubt whether it is indigenous in India. It does
not appear to have any ancient Sanskrit name, and
the number of varieties, if they are varieties, on the
western sea-coast is suggestive. It is curious that
they should be found on the area which came most in
contact with foreigners. The huge sweet variety of
Almora may have been easily introduced from
"Lemghanat" on the Afghan border, and become
further improved by acclimatization in that genial
moist clime.

It has been stated that the Citrus medica proper —
the citron — had already reached Italy from Media,
about the third or fourth century, and that the Jews

The Citron Group. 71

used its fruit in the Feast of Tabernacles. Now, in
South India, near Cochin, there is a Jewish colony,
established there, it is said, since 490 A.D. The jews,
in their own country, in Western Asia, must have
used the citron in their Feast long before this date,
and therefore, it is not improbable that the Jewish
colony, when they emigrated to South India, took the
citron with them, and sowed its seed in their new
home ; it is a fruit which keeps long without spoiling,,
Nevertheless, if India ever possessed an indigenous
citrus, it is probably the C. medica proper.

If the reader will turn to Appendix, No. 58, he
will see -that the chdngurd citron — what I call the
primitive form of citrus — was well known in China.
From the use the Chinese made of it, it would appear
that it was not only an occasional monstrosity, pro-
duced on an ordinary citron tree, but probably a
variety that always produced that form of fruit. Its
rarity may have been due to the impossibility of re-
producing it from seed, as it probably had none.
About two hundred years ago, according to Rumphius,
the Chinese inhabitants of the' Malay archipelago did
not know the art of budding or grafting, although they
appear to have been acquainted with a mode of layer-
ing. This, therefore, may explain the rarity of the
fingered citron in China, as stated in the appendix
above mentioned. We know, moreover, that not
only Orientals, but civilized Europeans also, dislike
the idea that a rare thing they may possess should
become common.

Whether the citron had its cradle originally in China,
like most other citrus, and came to India afterwards,
or vice versa, it is perhaps impossible now to make out.
That in ancient times, and especially in Buddhistic
times, there had been intercourse between China and

72 Oranges and Lemons of India.

India across what is now the north-eastern frontier, is
very probable, and this might explain, supposing the
Citrus medica also to have been introduced from
China, how it came to be wild in many places along
the north-eastern border of India. It would explain
also the fact of there being so many varieties of citrus
along that border.

Note. — In the " Babylonian and Oriental Record"
for May, June, and July, 1888, in an article on the
" Cone-fruit of the Assyrian monuments," I have
endeavoured to show that it is possible this "cone-
fruit " may have been intended for a citron, and not
for a pine-cone, as Assyriologists had supposed. More-
over, in the same Record for July, 1888, Prof. Dr. T.
De Lacouperie has stated that he has traced commu-
nications between Mesopotamia and North China as
early as the twenty-third century B.C.

Figures of the citron group are given in pis. 139
to 177.

CHAPTER IX.

LEMON GROUP.

THE Lemon-group is, properly speaking, a continu-
ation of the Citron-group.

In Baber's memoirs there is mention of the limoo*
and by this the translators thought the true lime was
meant. It is impossible to say which kind Baber
really meant. In Bengal every Citrus is called
lemboo. In Upper India many varieties go by the
name of nimboo. Some, however, pronounce it lim-
boo. Had the true lime, or kaghzi nimboo, been known
to Baber, he would probably have written its name as
kaghzi limoo had it then been known by that name.

In the same memoirs mention is also made of the
kilkil,\ as the translators have called it. This kilkil
gave me some trouble to trace. All the natives I
asked about this Citrus said they never heard of any
kind called kilkil. On one occasion I happened to
ask a subordinate of mine whether he ever heard of
it. He said I have not heard of kilkil, but I have
heard of gulguL Another native standing by then
showed me how easy it is in the native character for
kafto be changed into gaf by the addition of a simple
line. New light then began to dawn upon me. One
day I asked a native scholar whether the alphabet of
the Jaghatai Turki, in which Baber wrote his memoirs,

* Appendix, No. i (£). t Appendix, No. i (e).

74 Oranges and Lemons of India.

had any g hard in it. He said, no. I then came to the
following conclusion : — Baber, writing in a language
which had no gaf wrote the name of the lemon
" gulgul " — kulkul. Of course the short vowels are
omitted, and he wrote klkl. This might be interpreted
either as kulkul or kilkil. The translators, probably
not knowing this kind of lemon, read it kilkil. It is
a very large lemon, and the Punjab gulgul, shown on
pi. 1 86, figs, e and/; corresponds almost exactly with
that described by Baber, viz. : " In shape it is like a
goose's egg, but does not, like the egg, taper away at
the two extremities. The skin of this species is
smooth like that of the sengtereh. It has a remark-
able quantity of juice."

Another lemon mentioned by Baber is the
amratphal* or sweet lemon, which moderns univer-
sally call sherbetee. They say that the latter name,
the amratphal and the mitha nimboo, all mean one,
and the same variety, the sweet lemon, and which is
mostly called sweet lime. Under the heading of
amratphal the translators of these memoirs state that
Humayoon said that " Its juice, though not ex-
tremely sweet, yet is very pleasant. Its acidity
when unripe resembles that of the orange. While
yet very acid its sourness affects the stomach, but in
course of time it ripens and becomes sweet."

I have a suspicion that Humayoon made some
mistake. The amratphal or sherbetee is acidless from
beginning to end. I have not been able to find that any
native knows of any kind of sherbetee lemon, f which
is acid when unripe, and sweet when ripe. The young
unripe sherbetee I tasted was as sweet or as acidless

•* Appendix, No. i (Ji).

t From Calcutta a sour Citrus came ticketed sherbetee pati.—
( Vide pi. 207, figs. / and/.)

Lemon Group. 75

as the ripe one. Probably the following is the mistake
Humayoon made : — The kalan kaghzi nimboo, shown
on pi. 189, figs, a, c, and e, when ripe, is indistin-
guishable in all respects from the sherbetee nimboo
shown on pi. 191, fig. a, except that the former is sour,
while the latter is sweet. Both are globose thin-
skinned lemons, and Humayoon may have tasted an
unripe kalan kaghzi lemon, mistaking it for an unripe
amratphal.

The Pundits of Benares quote a much older work
than Baber's memoirs, in which the Citrus is men-
tioned. This work is called madanpal m'ghnnt—Zi
Sanskrit book on medicine, written about the year
1354 A.D. and is therefore upwards of 500 years old.
In it, they say, are mentioned nimboo and raj -nimboo.
Which kinds are meant it is impossible to say, but
by the latter name possibly some large variety, like
ihegulgut) may be meant.

Under the heading of Citrus Medica Limetta, Alph.
de Candolle groups the C. limetta and C. lumia of
Risso, and says that the only difference from the other
varieties of C. medica is that it has spherical fruit
and sweet, non-aromatic juice. There are, however,
several sweet citrons proper, and they have been also
referred to by Baber under the name of Lemghanat
citrons. De Candolle also says that in India this
Citrus is called the sweet lime. Wrongly so-called, I
think, because it appears to me no other than a sweet
lemon. He also says that " the botanist Wight affirms
that this last variety is wild in the Nilgiri hills." (?)

Sir J. Hooker makes the sour lemon, var. 2, C.
medica limonum ; and of the sweet lemon, var. 4, C.
medica limetta, and includes in the latter the sweet
lime and sweet lemon of Risso. Of the sour lemon,
he says " leaflet ovate, petiole margined or winged,

76 Oranges and Lemons of India.

fruit middle-sized, ovoid yellow mammillate, rind thin,
pulp abundant, acid. Synonym-s. — Brandis, I.e., 52 : C.
aurantium var. limonum ; W. and A. Prodr. 98, C.
limonum; Wall. Cat. 6,389; Dalz. and Gibs., Bomb. Fl.
Suppl. 13 ; C. medica, Willd., according to Roxburgh,
Fl. Ind. iii. 392 — the lemon."

And of the sweet lemon, he says fruit globose, three
to five in. diam., rind thin, smooth, juice abundant,
sweet, not aromatic. " Synonyms — Brandis, I.e. 52,
C. aurantium, vars. limetta and lumia W. and A.
Prodr. 98 ; C. limetta of Risso, Dalz. and Gibs., Bomb.
Fl. Suppl. 13 , Wight, Ic. t. 958, Wall. cat. 6385."

Without seeing the tree, with its fruit at different
seasons, and its flowers, and also the young tree
grown from seed, it is not an easy matter to group
the lemons of India, without a good deal of arbitrary
placing. I have given in pis. 179 and 180, a number
of outlines of the Malta lemon, to show how easily
one or other of these forms might be taken for
some other kind, unless one had seen them on the
tree.

The following is an attempt to classify the lemons,
but a much closer study of the whole group is required
to do this satisfactorily. Each variety requires to be
studied on the tree at different seasons, while in many
cases, I had only the opportunity of seeing the fruit.
When leaves were sent, the chances are they were taken
at random, without regard to their being typical or
not.

Lemons Proper.
(C. Medica, var. limonum.)

1. Digitate or primitive lemon.

2. (C. limonum vulgaris of Risso) — Malta lemon.

Lemon Group. 77

3. Round, thin skinned ( (a) Kalan Kaghzi— sour.

lemon j (6\ Sherbetee — sweet.*

4. " Gulgul " varieties.

5. Nepalee nimboo.

6. Gungolia.

7. Behari.

> The position of these is doubtful.
9. Attarra \

With regard to the sweet lemon, it is difficult to de-
cide whether it should be classified among the lemons
or among the oranges. All the sweet lemon trees I
have seen had p^lre white flowers, and one of them had
vastly more numerous male flowers than hermaphro-
dites. Most of them, however, are slightly mammillate,
but there are mammillate oranges also.

The citrus limonum vulgaris of Risso has been
recently introduced into India by several persons. The
lemon shown on pi. 183 came from Mr. Stalkartt's
garden at Goosery, near Calcutta. He says it has
been there since 1833. Mr. Blechynden, secretary to
the Agri-Hort. Society of India, says that it is probable
the trees of this lemon, which they have in the Society's
gardens, came from Goosery. He adds that Firminger
alludes to this lemon, under the name of " Common
Spanish," and gives its native Bengali name as korna-
nimboo. He further says that in the Hortus Ben-
galensis of Roxburgh, the korna-nimboo is given as
"Citrus Medica, common lemon," and the date of
its introduction into the botanic gardens of Calcutta is
given as 1796.!

* It is not impossible that the sweet lemon may have descended
directly from the sweet citron, and the sour lemon from the sour
citron.

f He does not, however, mention where it was introduced from.
Possibly it may be an improved jora tevga of Assam, vide pi. 239.

78 Oranges and Lemons of India.

I introduced the Malta lemon into Lucknow in
1863, together with other citrus. Thence it has been
distributed to numerous places.*

Mr. Nickels, of Jaunpore, introduced this lemon tree
from England in 1872. It is given in pi. 185.

At Pondicherry I found this lemon also, and, as I
have not met with it anywhere else in South India,
the chances are it was introduced there by the French.
It is given in pi. 184, figs, a and b.

Is the petiole of the lemon leaf margined, or naked?

There were in Etawah upwards of 300 Malta lemon
trees which I had propagated. In the petioles of all
the margins had entirely disappeared, and it required
a magnifying glass to discover the remnants of the
margins in two slight elevations on the upper part of
the petiole, which is short and yellow. I offered the
native gardener four annas (sixpence) for a leaf with a
margined or winged petiole, but among the 300 trees,
he was not able to find one. This shows how fixed a
character the naked petiole has become in this variety.
I attribute its absence in all these trees to their all
having been raised by budding from the original trees
in Lucknow. I would not be sure, however, that the
young leaves of its seedlings would not have margined
petioles, losing them when the tree became adult, and
its leaves perfected. Other varieties have margined
petioles in their typical leaves.

The descriptions of the lemon plates in the Atlas
give all I can further say on this important group.
Their forms differ, perhaps, more than in other groups.
The whole group requires to be studied more minutely,
and experiments require to be made to ascertain how
far its varieties may cross with each other. The seed-

* Recently also to Assam, Calcutta, Bangalore, Tinevelly, and the
Punjaub.

Lemon Group. 79

ling forms, and the adult forms, grown under different
conditions of soil and climate, would also require to be
learnt, in order to obtain an accurate notion of their
affinities. The specimens given on pis. nos. 209 to
214 do not, I think, belong to this group. The
" Sadaphal " appears to be a distinct thing from all the
rest. Some which I included in this group may not
impossibly be varieties of the lime proper.
Pis. 178 to 224 give figures of this group.

8o

CHAPTER X.

THE TRUE-LIME GROUP, AND THE "LIMA.

THE only statement in Baber's memoirs which might
incline one to think that his limoo is the true-lime,
is his qualifying it by " it is very plentiful/'* The
only Citrus which is now found all over India is the
true-lime — the kaghzi nimboo — and its varieties.

According to Brandis, the Sanskrit name of the
true lime (C. medica acida) was jambira. In my
opinion the jambiri is a totally different Citrus, and
owes its parentage to a different source from that of
the true-lime. Both the word lime in English, and the
jambiri in the vernacular, have been much abused,
and have caused great confusion.

Sir J. Hooker, in his " Flora of British India,"
following Dr. Brandis, places the lime as a variety of
the Citrus medica — the Citron. He says, under the
heading of C. medica, Linn. : " Van 3 — acida — leaflet
elliptic, oblong, petiole many times shorter than the
leaflet, linear or obovate, racemes short, flowers small,
petals usually four, fruit usually small, globose or
ovoid, with a thick or thin rind, pulp pale, sharply
acid," the same as C. acida of " Roxburgh's Flora
Indica." The large fruited states of this Citrus appear
to assume the form of Citron, and the small to ap-

* Vide Appendix, No. i (b).

The True- Lime Group. 8 1

proach the West Indian lime, which is, however,
described as a bush with white flowers."

I have seen undoubted limes with purely white
flowers, but usually the flowers are slightly tinged with
purple. Wherever I have seen the kaghzi nimboo it
was always a good-sized bush. I have never heard
that it is propagated by budding, but always by seed,
and it flowers in about four or five years.

I do not think that much reliance can be placed, for
purposes of classification, on either the colour of the
petals or that of the young shoots. I have seen young
lime shoots more or less deeply tinged. Sometimes
they only have a slight tinge of ochre. I have seen
the young shoots of the Seville orange, the khatta
orange, and the pummelo having the same tinge ; and
I have seen a citron with white flowers and green
young shoots.

Besides the smallness of the fruit, in the true-lime
there is a character which is very constant in typical
leaves — I mean their winged petioles.

Were I inclined to give great weight to the
doctrine of reversion, I would urge that, as the lime
tree is always raised from seed, it would have had
ample opportunities for its foliage to revert sometimes
to its supposed ancestral forms — that of the lemon
and citron ; but it never does this, as far as I have seen.
Its foliage has a stamp which is very different from
that of either the lemon or the citron proper.

In Ceylon, one day, I asked Dr. Trimen to be good
enough to show me what he had in the way of Citrus
trees in the Royal Botanic Garden of Peradeniya.
While going over the ground, his foreman placed in
my hand a Citrus fruit which I had never seen before,
and which he said he had brought from an adjoining
cocoa plantation. In Ceylon this Citrus is called

G

82 Oranges and Lemons of India.

lima, or kudalu dehi (leech-lime), and also Caffre-
lime, by the Europeans.

It then flashed across my mind that possibly I held
in my hand the wild form of all the cultivated trite-
limes. Dr. Trimen and myself then visited the tree
together. The immense winged petioles of this
lima rather staggered me. The spines, large and
small, the leaflet and the flowers, were those of the
cultivated forms of lime. I collected some small leaves
of this interesting Citrus, and compared them with
the well-developed leaves of an adjoining cultivated
lime tree, and found that the undeveloped petiole of
the " lima " corresponded with the fully developed
petiole of the lime (see pi. 225, figs, /z, i and/). The
lime leaves are thinner, and so is the skin of the fruit.
Thin leaf and thin skin, or the reverse, usually go
together, though not always.

I afterwards learnt that this "lima" is never
eaten ; that it is used, boiled, as an insecticide for
washing the head ; that it is used by estate coolies,
and others, for smearing over their feet, as an anti-
dote against land-leeches, and hence its acquired
name of "kudalu dehi," or leech-lime ; that it is often
grown near villages, and is sometimes found in jungles.
This " lima" appeared to me to have the characters of
a wild species. Its fruit is warty and thick skinned ;
the rind has an aromatic resinous scent and a bitter
acrid flavour. Its essential oil tinges paper perman-
ently of a gamboge-yellow. The pulp is sour and of
an unpleasant taste. A riper specimen of this fruit,
which I afterwards obtained, had an aroma sui
generis in its greenish pulp, not unlike that of the
true-lime, although mixed up with unpleasant flavours.
It appeared to me much less common in Ceylon* than

* Dr. Trimen has recently informed me that he found it common
about villages.

The True- Lime Group. 83

the cultivated limes. I could never find it in the
markets either in Kandy or Colombo. In the former
place I offered eight annas for a ripe specimen, and
did not get it. In Colombo I offered four annas for
one. There was none in the market, and I only got
one next day from some village. Of cultivated limes
I could get any number of ripe fruits. PI. 225 gives
outline drawings, drawn to scale, of both the fruit and
foliage of this lima. Figs, k and i are lima leaves,
and fig. j is a true-lime leaf, given for comparison.
The petioles of h and j are identical.

By the courtesy of Dr. Trimen I had the opportunity
of looking over Rumphius's " Flora of Amboyna." I
found that this Ceylon lima had the characters of
his Limo ventricosus* vol. ii. tab. 26, fig. i. Making
allowance for his artist's inaccuracies, I think the two
are one thing ; the flowers are pictured with four
petals, and he says " it is used for washing the head"

Before going any further, I should mention that later
on I obtained, through the kindness of Dr. King,
another copy of Rumphius, from the library of the
Botanic Garden of Seebpore, near Calcutta. It pos-
sessed the great advantage that on the back of each
plate it had comments by Buchanan Hamilton in his
own hand-writing. I have now seen three copies of
Rumphius's " Flora of Amboyna," including that of the
British Museum. All three have the same mistake,
on tab. 26, figs, i and 2, vol. ii. Somehow, either by
an oversight of Rumphius himself, or of his editor,
Burmann, in the Explicatio, these two figures have been
reversed. In the letter-press, the description of Limo
tuberosus martinicus corresponds with fig. 2 (and not
with fig. i, as is given in the Explicatio\ the latter

* Not tuberosus. The numbers in the Explicatio of this plate are
by mistake reversed. Vide N.B. at end of (c) Appendix, No. 41.

G 2

84 Oranges and Lemons of India.

having a totally different foliage. Again, the descrip-
tion of Limo ventricosus corresponds with fig. i, and
not with fig. 2, as given in the Explicatio. Buchanan
Hamilton, in the copy referred to, had noticed this
mistake, and on the back of the plate wrote the figures
with the right names they ought to have borne, ac-
cording to the descriptions, viz.:

Fig. i. Limo ventricosus.

Fig. 2. Limo tiiberosus martinicus.

The latter has the naked petiole of a lemon, and the
former the large-winged petiole of the lima.

There is yet, I think, another mistake in this same
plate. The Explicatio says, fig. 3 is a branch of the
limo feriis. Now limo ferns appears to be altogether
a different thing, and fig. 3, in my opinion, is no other
than a smooth form of fig. i.* Their foliage is
identical, while the limo ferus is different both in fruit
and foliage (?). I have given an outline of the latter in
pi. 226, fig. c, and in Rumphius it is shown more com-
pletely in tab. 28, vol. ii.

I also found that in Rumphius there was a series of
citrus with large-winged petioles. It appeared to me
probable that they were all more or less connected with
Limo ventricosus. Some had less tubercled exteriors,
and some very small fruit, even smaller than that of
the true lime, yet retaining their large-winged petioles.
Outlines of these are shown in the accompanying
Atlas in pi. 226, fig. b, Limo agrestis ; pi. 226, fig. c,
Limo feriis ; pi. 227, figs, c c, Limonelhts aurarius.
Finally, we have in pi. 227, fig. £, the Limo temns
(shown in Rumphius on tab. 29, vol. ii.). This is the
most important of all. It corresponds both in picture
and description with the true lime of Ceylon, India, and

* Vide pi. 227, fig. a.

The True- Lime Group. 85

Montserrat. Judging from its flowers, spines, and
form of leaflet, it appears to be related to the series
with large-winded petioles, and, perhaps, the reason
why I have invariably found the true lime with a winged
petiole, though generally small, may possibly be its
descent from one with a much larger winged petiole.

Some might say, if so, why do we never find any
reversion in the lime to its ancestral large winged
petiole ? Perhaps this objection might be answered
better by a series of questions, (a) If it is, as botanists
say, that the true lime is a variety of Citrus medica,
why does it never revert to the petioles and leaves of
the citron, which are so different ? (&) Why does man's
internal tail never revert to the external tail of his
progenitors, except in his embryonic state ? (c) Why
do birds never revert to their lizard-like ancestors ?
(d) Why does the horse never revert to his five-toed
progenitor ?

The only reply to all these and similar questions is,
that there must be a limit to reversion. They probably
do revert, when only recently emerged from their
ancestral types, by some "break," as horticulturists
call it ; but continued selection, natural or artificial, for
other more tiseful and important characters, apparently
often extinguishes the power of reproducing certain
other characters. This law can only be deduced from
the fact that animals and plants actually dont go on
reverting for ever to all the characters of their ancestors.
If they did, there would hardly be any room for selec-
tion. It is only by the suppression of some character,
or exaggeration of another, or evolution of some new
one, that things can become different, and continued
selection in any particular direction must, sooner or
later, suppress or dwarf some of the least important or
disadvantageous parts.

86 Oranges and Lemons of India.

In my opinion, with every generation that passes
without reversion, the power of reverting will become
weaker, until it is entirely extinguished.

There is probably nothing in connection with the
citrus better established than that it has descended from
a progenitor with a compound leaf. The Citrits tri-
foliata plainly indicates this ; allied genera, the ^gie
marmelos, the Feronia elcphantum> and Limonia acidis-
sima and others point in the same direction. More-
over, the almost universal joint between the leaflet and
petiole of all the cultivated citrus (only absent in some
leaves of some citrons, and the two first leaves of young
citrus seedlings) prove it to have descended from an
ancestor with a compound leaf. Nevertheless, of some
hundreds of seeds of about fifty varieties of citrus that
I have sown, only three produced a few leaves with a
trifoliate character. These are shown in pi. 246, figs.
d, e,f*xAg.

Is it, however, a fact that the petiole of the true lime
never reverts to some ancestral and larger form ? In
pi. 226, figs, d, e, f and h, I have given specimens of
true lime leaves, with large wings to their petioles ;
and in pi. 233, figs, a and b, I have given others taken
from seedling trees about five years old.

I may as well note here that Loureiro's Citrus
limonum (" Flor. Cochin Chin. ") is given as a variety
of C. medica, and he refers the reader to Rumphius's
" Flora Amboyn.," vol. ii. tab. 29. Unfortunately this
plate gives two very different things, viz. : fig. a, which
I believe to be a lemon with unwinged petiole, and
probably descended from C. medica ; and fig. b, a true
lime, like the Indian kinds, and pictured with four
petals. Rumphius says that on rare occasions the a
form is produced, but he does not mention whether on
the lime tree proper, or on a totally different tree.

The True- Lime Group. 87

After having exhausted Rumphius's interesting
chapters on |the citrus, I turned to Kurz's " Flora of
British Burmah," and under the name of Citrus hystrix,
D.C., Shouk-pot^ I found the identical lima of Ceylon,
and the Limo ventricosus of Rumphius, in what appears
to be a wild state. If I were writing a description of
the lima of Ceylon, I would take Kurz's C. hystrix.
" It is armed with longer or shorter straight axillary
spines ; all parts glabrous ; leaves oval or ovate, i\ to 2,
rarely 3 inches long ; unusually blunt or retuse, almost
entire, or crenate, glabrous ; petiole i-i£, often 2 or 3
inches long, leaf-like, expanded, and often larger than
the blade itself, obversely cordate, or obovate ; oblong,
at the base contracted in a single petiole ; flowers, 4-5-
merous small white,* on very short glabrous pedicels ;
ovary obovate, terminated by a very thick style.
Berries obovate, or irregularly globose, the size of a
citron, or larger, f very uneven and warty, almost
juiceless, with a thick yellow skin ; not infrequent in
tropical forests of the Martaban hills ; also in upper
Tenasserim ; often cultivated in native gardens."

Dr. Trimen also thought that the lima of Ceylon
and the C. hystrix of Kurz are the same thing.
Possibly this lima got into Ceylon through the Dutch,
having been brought from the Malay archipelago by
their servants, as an insecticide, and by change of
climate and soil its fruit may have varied. But more
probably, judging from its name lima, it was a
Portuguese introduction from the same direction.

In the Malay archipelago the Limo ventricosus
of Rumphius occurred in Celebes ; in almost all the
islands of Amboyna, as also in Banda. " Everywhere,

* In the Ceylon lima, I found them slightly tinged purple,
t A rather vague size. I have seen citrons from three to ten
inches long.

88 Oranges and Lemons of India.

however, it is not common but rare." In his time, it
appears that this citrus had already undergone a certain
degree of cultivation, as he describes the skin as
having a scent "pleasanter than in any other Indian
lemon, and better than that of the Spanish lemons, or
equal to them." He says it is the skins of these
lemons that are most used for scrubbing the head ;
and the juice, which is very acid, is mostly used for
paints.

With regard to the Limonellus, or Limo tennis of
Rumphius (corresponding to the kaghzi nimboo of
India), he says it is " vulgatissimus et usitassimus"
" It is found from Java to all the East Indian islands,
not in the forests, but everywhere near habitations,
plan ted and carefully cultivated." For it to have been
so much used, and so much disseminated in the
Malay archipelago, about 200 years ago, it probably
must have been introduced, if it did not originate in
some of those islands, some hundreds of years before
the time of Rumphius. If, as I surmise, it descended
from thfte^Aj/y/^y'^. it probably had its birth either in
the Malay peninsula, or in the islands. And as it was
much used for all domestic purposes, kept well, and
was taken on long sea voyages, nothing would have
been easier than for it to be carried along the coast up
to Bengal, and to both the Eastern and Western
coasts of India, as well as to Ceylon, by Arab traders,
and others. As its seeds germinate easily, and the
seedling trees fruit in four or five years, its naturaliza-
tion all over India would then have been a matter of
time.

In the chapter on Derivations of native names of
citrus, I have discussed the probable derivation of the
the word nimboo or Hindoo, which probably also has a
Malay origin. The true lime is evidently a variety

The True- Lime Group. 89

only found in cultivation, and its characters fixed by
long association with man. Whether it originally
came from the C. medica, or from the C. kystrix, the
change has been equally great. The final solution of
this interesting problem, however, viz., the origin of
the true lime, must now be left to others, if its
solution be possible.

Note. — In the Linnean Society's Journal — Botany
—vol. xxii., will be found a paper on the " Probable
wild source of the whole Group of Cultivated True
Limes" (read on 4th February, 1886). That paper,
however, contains the mistake, then undetected, to
which I, alluded on p. 83, viz., that in the Explicatio
of Rumphius the figs, were transposed.
Pis. 225 to 233 give figures of this group.

CHAPTER XL

CULTIVATION OF THE ORANGE AND LEMON IN INDIA.

IN the Journal of the A.H.S. of India (Part IV. New
Series, vol. i, of 1869, p. 372), kindly lent me by Mr.
Blechynden, secretary to that Society, I found a des-
cription of the orange groves of Shalla, in the Khasia
hills, by C. Brownlow, Esq. He says : " Here, in one
large connected piece, of about 1,000 acres, is the
garden that supplies a great part of Eastern, as well as
Western Bengal with oranges. One may walk for a
good hour or two, always under the shade of orange
trees, without reaching the limits of cultivation, and
when, as in December and January, every tree is
laden with ripe fruit, no sight can be more enjoyable.
I have been through the Sorrento gardens, but this
beats Sorrento, and the Neapolitan orange growers
would find some difficulty in selecting out of their
entire 'piano/ a piece at all approaching this." *

" The way the oranges are gathered in the Khasia
hills is this. A man with a net-bag open at the
mouth by a cane ring, and slung on the back by a
strap passing over the right shoulder and chest,
climbs a bamboo ladder, plucks the oranges and puts

* It should be kept in mind that the Shalla and Sorrento oranges
have no connection, other than that both are oranges. Those of
Shalla are of the suntara type. Those of Sorrento are of the
Malta orange type.

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 91

them into the bag. Before descending, he removes
all the dead branches, moss, and parasites, within his
reach ; after descending, he empties the bag, and
climbs to another part, and so on. A dhaw (or
hatchet-knife) sticks in his belt, to chop off any dead
or cankered branch, or to cut out a bunch of the
bandha parasite (Loranthus species).* The orange
trees receive no other handling than the above. They
are never systematically pruned, or thinned, and are
allowed to retain just what fruit they set, and yet the
crop turns out wanting neither in size, flavour, nor
abundance. Contrast with this the elaborate summer
and winter pruning of the French gardens, and the
systematic cultivation and manuring of the Genoese. f

"There is no regularity in the planting of the orange
trees, but no vacancies are left. In 1869, no grafting
or layering was ever practised, but all the Shalla
plantations were raised from seed.

"In the Shalla groves there are trees of considerable
age, that have lived out at least three generations of
men. These old trees are great fruit bearers, and are
valued accordingly.! Some yield i,cco oranges.
Whatever may be their age, they never grow to a
greater girth than 3 ft. (about one foot diam.), or to a
greater height than 20 ft. Should a tree of this age
be blown down, they endeavour to right and prop it
up. Trees frequently get sickly, and gradually perish,
without any assignable cause, before reaching maturity,

* This parasite infests many trees, especially the mango , in Upper
India. It should be cut out and burnt.

f In the chapter on the commercial products of the orange and
lemon tree, will be seen the reasons, why in the South of Europe
so much attention is devoted to these trees.

% Here is a hint for selection. Instead of selecting seed from any
tree, select from those which are much valued.

92 Oranges and Lemons of India.

as well as after ; and, from the quantity of dead trunks
stacked for firewood, the rate of mortality seemed high.*

11 The windfalls are peeled, and given to pigs and
dogs, and it is remarkable to see how dogs have
become by habit to relish them, f

" The enemies that have to be contended with are
crows, parrots, hornbills, and monkeys. Boys with
pellet bows are employed to drive these robbers off.

" Besides the sweet orange (kamla lemboo), the
shaddock (sokowif), the citron, sour oranges, limes and
lemons are cultivated in groves, all scattered about
promiscuously. The Khasias are very fond of the
sour orange, \ and eat it with salt.

"The orange tree thrives best on the left bank.
There are trees on the right bank, but they don't
thrive so well. The orange land forms a wedge,
interposed between the Shalla river and one of its
branches. It is inundated to a depth of 4 to 6 ft.
several times in the course of the rains, the water,
however, never stands on the land more than a few
hours. Towards the interior, the height of the
inundation may vary from 6 ft. to knee deep. The
houses of the watchmen are raised on stout posts of
'jack,' or toon wood, driven in deep. The house
proper is 15 ft. above the level of the ground. During
a flood, the pigs, dogs, fowls, and goats take refuge on
a lower platform, beneath the house proper.

" Limestone first appears a short way above the
orange gardens, and first below Shallapoonjee."

The Shalla villagers depend entirely upon the pro-

* This may probably be from exhaustion, want of manure, and
no care, or from injury to roots by underground insects, &c.

t In South America, and other places, cattle are fed on oranges
and lemons.

J It is impossible to say what sour orange this may be. Vide
Appendix, No. 43 ; also pis. 257 and 258.

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 93

ceeds of their permanent plantations. These hill
tribes are conterminous with the Sylhet facing, and it
is along this facing alone, and the valleys and slopes
which descend into the plains, that permanent planta-
tions of oranges, jack, betel palms, and pineapples are
to be found, together with villages also of a permanent
character, and yearly improving.

To make the oranges keep after gathering, the
Khasias expose them on machdns* in their houses,
with the wind blowing through, and turn them over
frequently.

Mr. Brownlow sent a sample of the soil from the
orange groves ofShalla to Calcutta. It was analysed
by Mr. David Waldie, F.C.S., and found to contain
the following ingredients : —

Dried at 212° Fahr.
Alumina. .....

Peroxide of iron ....

Lime ......

Magnesia .....

Alkalies (by difference) and loss
Silica solut. .....

Sol. in Hy. Chi. acid 12*29

Then —

Alumina, chiefly with a little oxide of iron

and a little lime .... 3-49

Dissolved by heating with Sulphuric acid,
organic matters, and combd. water
lost by burning .... 5-66

Silica and quartz 78*56

Parts loo'co
* Stages made of bamboo, or other material.

94 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Mr. Waldie notes, " It will be observed that this is
a very siliceous soil, proceeding from the decomposition
of siliceous rocks alone. It contains no carbonate of
lime, and is a very open and porous soil " (p. 393 of
the above-named journal of the A.H.S. of India).

Liebig's analysis of the ashes of the orange-tree
wood gives : — •

45 Lime.
E Iron and manganese. | In 100 parts of the

6 Silica. }- ashes insoluble in

7 Magnesia. water.
1*9 Phosphoric acid.

ico parts of the total ashes give —

Soluble in water .....
Insoluble in water ....

Parts loo'o

And 100 parts of the insoluble ingredients give 45 per
cent, of lime, that is, nearly half the quantity of the
ashes, insoluble in water, is lime.

But Mr. Waldie says that the Shalla soil sent him
contained only 0*19 in 100 parts, or less than -g- per
cent.

The inference is that either Mr. Brownlow took his
sample from some one particular spot, or did not reach
the calcareous soil.

The orange wood requires, it appears, a considerable
amount of lime to make healthy growth ; in Shalla,
oranges grow very well ; therefore, the soil of Shalla
should contain a considerable amount of lime. More-
over, it is hardly credible that in a district where lime-
stone forms one of the exports, that no lime detritus is
ever washed down with the floods, which are said to

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 95

be frequent in the rains, and often flood the orange
groves of Shalla to the depth of 6 ft.

Mr. Brownlow's description of the orange groves of
Shalla was written in 1869. Recently I asked Mr.
G. Stevenson, Depy. Comr. of Sylhet, to kindly furnish
me with some details, which would bring the subject
up to date. Some part of the information he court-
eously gave me is placed under the head of the
" Orange and Lemon Trade of India," Chapter 13.

In forwarding the following note (28th October,
1885), he said, it was made by the sub-divisional officer,
in whose sub-division lie the best groves. He added,
" At Shalla I have seen a kind of orange, small and
round, something like a blood orange, but rather
lighter in colour. It is not so sweet as our common
orange (the kamla lemboo], but the people here call it
' Royal orange.' "*

The sub-divisional officer says, " My informations
have all been compiled from the two large orange
producing tracts in the northern boundary of this sub-
division, I mean the Shalla and the Phorarpungi
tracts (at the base of the Khasia hills). They are, in
fact, the only tracts on this side which carry on an
extensive business in oranges. I met with the greatest
difficulty in compiling these statistics. The Khasias
received my inquiries with suspicion, and tried to
mislead me as much as possible. I have, however,
used so many different tests, and have so carefully
corrected all doubtful points by personal observation,
that I may fairly claim for them approximate accuracy.

" Soil. — The soil must be sandy. This seems to be

an essential condition. The trees thrive most where

this sandy soil is mixed up with either red or black

ferruginous earth. It is also necessary for success

* This may be the usoh sim or raja orange. Vide Appendix 43.

96 Oranges and Lemons of India.

that the soil should be capable of retaining a good deal
of moisture. The difference of production is great in
dry and moist soils. In the latter if there be fifty
oranges per tree, in the former there would be only five
to ten. Generally speaking, a garden would do well
in a soil made up of half sand and half earth, and most
of the gardens on this side are under these conditions.

"Situation of gardens. — From their peculiar situa-
tion, the gardens here have natural advantages, which
I doubt if gardens in California possess. There are
several hill streams, some small, some comparatively
broad, coming down from the Khasia hills into the
Surma river ; and the gardens extend for miles along
both sides, spreading also to a considerable distance
inland. They are, in fact, situated between a network
of small hill streams, which overflow their banks during
heavy downpours. This answers for irrigation. The
rush of water is very strong, so long as the downpour
lasts, but the flood subsides within a few hours.
During these freshets, every part of the garden goes
under water, not infrequently 5 or 6 ft. deep, or more.
The gardens thus get thorough washings more than
once during the rains. Being situated on river sides,
their soil naturally retains some moisture, even in the
dry season. Hence, perhaps, artificial irrigation
becomes unnecessary. The Khasias never irrigate
their orange gardens. They do not even water young
trees. They entirely depend upon nature here. When
questioned, they laughed at the idea of people making
orange gardens by irrigation.

"Raising Plants.— Seeds are taken out of mature
oranges in February and beginning of March. They
are well dried in the sun for two or three days.* A

* There is a general notion that when orange and lemon seeds are
dried too much they don't germinate well. Is this so ?

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 97

nursery is prepared either on the ground or on a
raised 'rnachan.' The earth, to the depth of about
nine inches, is finely powdered and sifted. The surface
being smoothed, the dry seeds are spread over it and
are then covered over with finely powdered and sifted
earth to the thickness of an inch. The ground is then
covered over with plantain and other leaves, during
the heat of the day, the covering being removed in
the evening and some water sprinkled over the sur-
face. This process goes on till the seeds germinate,
generally between 20 to 30 days. In the seed nursery
the plants are allowed to remain till they are about four
inches high. Then they are transplanted into a second
nursery and placed eight or nine inches apart, either
in May or June of the same year. The soil of the
second nursery is lightly hoed before transplanting and
then it is kept free of weeds and foreign trees. Here
they are allowed to remain till, in the end of the 3rd
or 4th year, they have grown to a height of four or
five feet. They are then finally planted out in the
gardens. In the second nursery no hoeing or water-
ing is necessary, and all that the Khasias do is to clear
any jungle trees with their dhaw twice, and some-
times three times, in the year. The garden is never
hoed or harrowed before receiving the orange plants.
It only once undergoes a thorough clearing of all
jungle with the 'dhaw,' and a hole dug for the plant.
After planting, all that is done to the orange garden is
to clear it of jungle growth twice or thrice a year.
Neither hoeing, nor harrowing, nor irrigation, is re-
quired. The seasons selected for jungle clearing are
at the beginning and end of the rains. The Khasias
always put in the plants obliqiiely. The reason they
give is that new and straight shoots are given off near
the root, and the original oblique one withers away.

n

98 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Then the leading root-shoot is left, which grows more
vigorously and forms the future orange tree. In an
orange garden, on an average, about 300 trees go to
an acre.

" Fruit Bearing. — In good soil the trees will bear
fruit about the sixth year from the date of germina-
tion, and about the third year after planting in the
garden. In exceptional cases they have been known
to bear fruit by the fifth year. In average soil, how-
ever, the age of fruiting is calculated about the eighth
year. The first year of fruit bearing the number of
oranges is from five to ten per tree ; the second year
about 50 ; the third about 150; the fourth about 500 ;
and the fifth year of bearing about 800 oranges per
tree are given. After this they continue to yield about
this average (800) per tree every year. In the eighth or
ninth year of bearing, however, the yield reaches not
infrequently 1,500 oranges per tree, and in rare cases
even 2,000. My informant showed me one tree which
last year had borne 2,250 oranges. This was, how-
ever, a very exceptional instance, and I could not dis-
cover another tree in any part of the garden which had
been so fruitful.

" In good soil, an orange garden retains its fruit-
bearing condition unimpaired for about 50 years,
and in average soil between 30 and 40 years.

" Rent, &c. — The Khasias have no rent to pay for
their lands, which appear to be the ijmali property
of the Pungi. Each takes as much land as he can
conveniently manage. Whole Pungis sometimes
make joint orange gardens, which are the ijmali
property of all. The Khasias neither know nor un-
derstand any measurements, and they have no idea
whatever of the extent of their gardens."

Mr Brownlow stated that the Khasias sow the

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 99

orange seeds thickly, in January and February, in
troughs or boxes. He has also seen them sown in a
canoe, but preferably they are sown on raised ma-
clians (there called machang] to keep them out of
the reach of pigs. Nets are also thrown over them
to keep off rats and squirrels. The mac/idn is a
raised platform, on supports, made of bamboo matting,
well supported beneath by slabs of betel palm. On
these about six inches of soil is laid. These nurseries
can be located anywhere. They are well looked after
till the seedlings get through their first few leaves. In
the ensuing rains they are pricked out in a second
nursery, in the ground, by shaking the earth from
their roots, without injury. They are eventually
planted out in gardens.

In the Indian Agriculturist of loth October, 1885,
an " Old Mallee " writes that he " realizes eight annas
a score for Sylhet oranges, which he grows in Bengal ;
that his income from orange growing is Rs. 700 per
acre, at 10 feet apart." This, he says is too close. The
expenses of growing them he puts down at Rs. 100, so
that he nets Rs. 600 per acre.' He considers well-
decayed night-soil, cowdung, and black tank-soil, with
an admixture of slaked lime, or old mortar finely
powdered, the best manure for orange trees. He
buds on the khatta stock. He grows principally the
Sylhet suntara variety, but has also the Delhi
suntara. The latter variety, he says, does not fruit
so well in Bengal as the former. He says he has been
an orange grower for thirteen years, and has found that
after the trees have given a full crop for three succes-
sive years they begin to die off most unaccountably.*

* Probably from exhaustion. In the Azores, before dying, the
trees produced enormous crops. Ruraphius mentions the same
thing.

H 2

ioo Oranges and Lemons of India.

& j

So he plants out a fresh lot of young trees between
the older ones as soon as the latter come into bearing.
By this method his plantation is periodically renewed.
He says the extra expense is trifling, and the gain is
great.

It would appear that the suntara race of orange
trees do not live so long as the Malta orange race, or
the Sevilles.

There appears, however, something decidedly wrong
in the " Old Malice's " orange garden. It is not im-
possible that after a certain age the roots of his orange
trees get into bad soil, or that in Bengal his garden is
imperfectly drained, or that it may be a mistake to bud
the suntara, instead of raising it from seed. Growing
it on its own roots from seed or layers might prolong
its existence. When an orange tree has come into full
bearing, it would appear bad economy not to prolong
its life as much as possible. Decayed night soil, cow-
dung, and black tank-soil are all good in their way ; but
the orange tree should not want the mineral ingredients
which have been shown to enter into the composition
of the orange wood. Even when all the ingredients
required are given without stint, a bad subsoil, and, in
damp climates, bad drainage, and over-cropping, which
is the vice of all Indian cultivators of fruit, may defeat
all other efforts. A dog may nurse only a limited
number of pups comfortably, but an orange tree, they
think, can nurse an infinite number of oranges year
.after year without harm.

With regard to the cultivation of the suntara orange
.about Delhi, the " Old Mallee" makes the following
-statement : " In the Goorgaon district, Delhi division,
are to be seen miles of orange plantations, and
nowhere have I seen this delicious fruit grown to
greater perfection, although apparently little or no care

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 101

is devoted to its cultivation. In Goorgaon they sell
oranges from four to six rupees per maund. I saw
there old trees, but they were gnarled and seedy-look-
ing, and the Mallees assured me that they were always
replacing these old trees by young ones raised by
budding."

The little observation which is here made, viz. :
" apparently little or no care is devoted to its cultiva-
tion," may probably explain the reason why the orange
growers of Goorgaon "are always replacing these old
trees by young ones raised by budding." *

Where the natural condition of the soil, as the
natives express it, kabool karta, or " consents " to
nourish vigorously a variety of orange tree, and make it
productive, little manure may be necessary at first, but
it should be always remembered that the right mineral
ingredients of a soil are not always in that condition
which enables the roots to utilize them freely, and, there-
fore, they are not inexhaustible.

Someone might here ask, how is it that in primeval
forests, without any manuring and without any care,
immense trees go on growing, 'so to speak, for ever ?
The answer is not difficult to find. ist. The trees of
a natural forest have been specially selected on account
of their suitability to those surroundings. 2nd. Tons
and tons of produce are not removed from the forest
and taken elsewhere, in many cases to find their way
under other forms to the bottom of the sea. 3rd.
From the first year of life of a forest tree, it returns to
the soil, in the shape of fallen leaves, all it takes, ex-
cepting what goes to form its wood. The bark, in
many cases, is also shed, and when a tree decays and
dies, its wood also is soon reduced to powder by

* Further on I have given my own experience of the orange
gardens of Delhi.

1O2 Oranges and Lemons of India.

myriads of fungi, and serves as nourishing mould for
other trees. Then, such forests are always tenanted
by animals, birds, &c., which probably drop in the
forest more than they remove. There is, therefore, a
natural system of conservation in a forest which the
owner of an orange grove would be wise to imitate.
All manner of rubbish and refuse might be utilised as
manure — pigeon, fowl, and pig's dung being, perhaps,
among the best.

With regard to the value of manures, the following
occurs in the Gardeners Chronicle, of April 25th,
1885, p. 535, on the " effect of manures on the growth
and quality of fruit." In this article it is sufficiently
proved that certain mineral ingredients in the manure
and soil are essential to the production of good fruit.
It is there shown that manured fruit trees produced
better, sweeter, and finer fruit than the adjoining un-
manured trees. It is also stated that many of the dis-
eases of plants classed under the names of mildew,
blight, &c., can be escaped by proper manuring, thus
furnishing the mineral ingredients necessary to the
healthy growth of the tree, and production of healthy
fruit and seed.

In the Khasia hills the kamla orange tree is
simply stuck in the ground and then left to nature.
The only help it gets from the cultivator is to free the
soil roughly from competing jungle trees, and to cut
off once a year any parasitic plants and dead wood.
In the several annual floods, however, he may have
a compensating element. The floods not only irrigate
the orange gardens, but deposit a silt which may
be perpetually renovating the surface soil, and it is
presumed the fallen leaves remain there. Even
under these favourable conditions, Mr. Brownlow
says that orange trees there frequently sicken and

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 103

die without any assignable cause, before reaching
maturity as well as after, and from the quantity of
dead trunks stacked for firewood, the rate of mor-
tality seemed high.

The orange planter should always keep before him
what has been stated in Appendix, No. 32. " In the
Azores, the finest orange gardens in the world, the
trees up to 1836 were in perfect condition; no care,
no attention, and no labour was given them, save
that of picking, packing, and exporting the fruit.
The trees were left without manure, without draining,
and may be without pruning. The people sang, they
danced, and amused themselves, while the trees
pumped out of the soil its essence to feed the
oranges. When ripe they exported the most valuable
part of their soil in the shape of oranges to London,
and then perhaps they sang and danced and enjoyed
themselves more vigorously by the aid of the pro-
ceeds of the sales, without giving a thought to the
need of compensating the soil for its annual loss.
They woke up one day, however, to find disease
spreading among their orange groves, and to see trees
200 and 300 years old, and producing each from 6,000
to 20,000 oranges, disappearing ! "

G. W. Septimus Piesse, in his " Art of Perfumery,"
published in 1879, gives us some idea of the care
and attention given to the orange tree in the South
of Europe. He says : — " Before planting the orange
(sweet Portugal or bitter Seville), a tree which
attains great age, the soil upon which it is to live
must be well prepared, otherwise the after life of
the tree will not be of that thriving condition which
we could desire. The soil should be trenched at
least to the depth of four feet, and well manured.
The care bestowed on the infant plant will be seen

IO4 Oranges and Lemons of India.

50 years, nay even a century afterwards. A tree
requires 1 5 years to reach maturity, but will produce
both flowers and fruit in four or five years. When
in full vigour each tree yields an average of 25
pounds weight of blossoms annually. Many plan-
tations at Nice are more than 100 years old.
At Fontainebleau there are now to be seen orange
trees planted by an ancestor of mine 200 years
ago."

It should be remembered that in the South of
Europe, besides taking the excess of flowers for per-
fumery purposes, enough are left to produce an ordinary
crop of fruit. A given tree can only support a given
amount of fruit, but the flowers are far in excess of the
amount of fruit which it will carry, and so this excess
is gathered and sold fresh daily to perfumers.

The following, taken from the Gardeners Chronicle
of 20 June, 1885, p. 796, may help to impress the
reader with the value of manures and good general
tilling of the soil, especially when a large quantity
of the soil, &c., in the shape of fruit, is annually
removed.

"Food of plants derived from the atmosphere and
the soiir

"No plant can attain full development without
a sufficiency of potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen.
Besides these, lime, magnesia, sulphuric acid, chlorine,
and perhaps silica, are sometimes, if not always, in-
dispensable to produce perfect growth, though in some
cases they are only required in fractional proportions.

" The largest constituent of plants is water, which
forms nearly f to ^ of the weight of common garden
plants. The next largest constituent is the organic
matter, which is from seven to 25 per cent. And
finally, the ash constituents which remain after the

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 105

plant is burnt, form from one to six per cent, of the
plant in its natural condition.

"The roots not only suck up solutions in water, but
also attack solid ingredients of the soil, and they do
this by exuding an acid juice which the roots
contain. This important function of roots is carried
on in different degrees in different plants at the point
of contact with the root. This action plays an impor-
tant part in the supply of phosphoric acid, potash,
lime, and nitrogen to the plant, the latter being taken
up in the form of nitrates.

" The soil is made up of its ' natural strength,' that
is, made. up of disintegrated rocks, with the aid of air,
moisture, warmth, and frost, and also by the agency of
minute bacteria. This action goes on, whether the
soil is cultivated or not ; at the same time proper
tillage aids the work wonderfully. Even without the
latter, the stock accumulates as long as less than it
contains is taken. It is in this way that fallow ground
recuperates, and that virgin soils have acquired their
richness. What the soil will thus do for itself slowly,
the gardener may do for it more quickly by manuring.

" For this purpose we have at command —

" (i.) Stable and farm manure, and refuse of various
sorts.

" (2.) Rubbish of all kinds, ashes, marl, lime, and
other cheap materials.

"(3.) Commercial fertilizers.

" The first contain all plant food, but are slow in
their action. They, however, improve the texture of
the soil.

' The second contain less plant food, but they im-
prove the texture of the soil also, and change the
dormant constituents of the soil more readily, and turn
them into assimilable forms.

io6 Oranges and Lemons of India.

(i The third (like potash-salts, phosphates, bones,
guano, ammonium-salts, and nitrate of soda) contain
plant food in very concentrated, and readily available
conditions. Their principal ingredients are phosphoric
acid, potash, lime, and nitrogen.

" These mineral ingredients, and the quality of the
soil, in addition to climate, are, however, only one part
of the whole business. The other parts are the rare
qualities of a successful agriculturist, or horticulturist,
by whichever name he may be called, although, in
reality, there is no difference between the two. These
are ' shrewd observation, watchful care, and un-
ceasing industry,' qualities which are much sharpened
if one's living depends on them."

The following is a memorandum on the mode of
cultivating and propagating the Nagpur orange,
drawn up by the Superintendent of the Government
Garden, and kindly favoured me by Mr. J. B. Fuller,
Commissioner of Settlement and Agriculture, Central
Provinces : —

" The orange delights in a rich, black, loamy soil,
properly drained. It is propagated by budding, and
sometimes by inarching. Plants raised by budding
are much hardier, though slower to fruit, than grafted
ones, and hence this mode of propagation is more
generally employed. The operation of budding is also
simpler than that of inarching.

" The sweet lime is generally used as stock to bud
or graft the orange on. Citron* stock is also used for
this purpose. Seeds of the ripe fruit of the sweet lime
or citron are sown about the middle of January, care
being taken to sow the seeds as fresh as possible.
Most of the seeds fail to germinate, if left even for a

* I fancy by citron here is meant the khatta orange, which by
most English is called citron.

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 107

few days to dry, after being taken out. In the
beginning of the rains, the young seedlings are trans-
planted into another nursery, giving the plants one
foot of space every way. By September of the next
year, the plants make sufficient growth to allow of
their being budded on. The budding is continued
till about December. When the budded plants have
sufficiently grown, they are transplanted into their
permanent quarters in lines, 1 5 ft. apart, and with the
same distance between the lines. The trees begin to
bear about the fifth year, but it is not till the tenth
year that they are considered to be in full bearing.
They bear two crops in the year, viz., the ' Ambia-
bahar,' so-called from its setting at nearly the same
time the mango crops set, at the end of February and
in March. The fruit of this crop ripens in December
and January. The other is called ' Miragbahar,'
because it sets with the beginning of the rains, in
June and July. The fruit of this ripens in February,
and onwards till May.* The trees are generally
allowed to bear only one of these crops. In March
watering is gradually lessened, and is completely
stopped in May. Then, as soon as the soil is dry,
a few inches of earth round the trees is removed, to
expose the roots. This exposing of the roots con-
tinues from a week to a month, according to the
richness of the soil. Manure is then heavily applied,
and the roots covered up with fresh earth. Water is
then freely given, and in a few days the tree is full of
blossoms and new leaves."

It is presumed that this treatment is given to those
trees which are set aside for the " Miragbahar " crop,
which in the North- West Provinces is called Dumrfa
crop.

* This is the Dumrfa of other places.

io8 Oranges and Lemons of India.

The following is the mode of cultivating and
propagating the Delhi smtra, there called also
rungtra. This information has been kindly favoured
me by Mr. George Smyth, Deputy Commissioner of
Delhi. The memorandum was drawn up by the
Tehsildar of Delhi.

" The rungtra orange can be raised from seed, but
the fruit of seedling rungtra is very sour,* and the
tree knarled. In consequence of this notion, in Delhi
orange trees are not raised from seed, but by budding
the rungtra on the young khatta stock, when the
latter are three years old from sowing time. Three
years after budding, the rungtra will bear fruit, and
later on will be in full bearing. The fruit the trees bear
is large and sweet. It is not raised by layers and
cuttings, because in Delhi they have a notion that
these do not bear fruit. Provided the rungtra orange
tree is manured and watered regularly, it will continue
to fruit annually for a hundred years. f

" The budding is usually done in January, on khatta
stock, raised from seed, as has been stated. The
plants that have done well are then transplanted into
permanent orchards, in carefully prepared and manured
holes, and watered regularly. Weeds should be kept
down, and the soil stirred frequently. If due care be
given to the trees, each orange tree will bear from
twenty seers to two maunds of oranges annually. "J

Mr. Ridley, the Superintendent of the Horticultural
Garden of Lucknow, has for several years been
conducting some interesting experiments on orange
cultivation. He has very kindly given me the result

* It should be noted that natives believe that if any sweet orange
seed is sown, the result is a sour orange tree ; this is not true.

t From my own observations, given in another place, this is
very doubtful.

I A seer is 2 Ibs. ; a maund is 80 Ibs.

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 109

of his experience and experiments, in the following
paper on the cultivation of the orange, lime, and
other varieties of citrus.

" In the cultivation of the orange, as with other fruit
trees, the most important consideration after climate,
is that of soil. Jt has of course been amply proved
that the orange will grow and even flourish in soils of
various quality ; but the best results, both immediate
and continued, can only be realized in a soil possessing
the necessary ingredients and qualities required for
the proper nourishment and development of the tree,
and its produce. In India, owing to long continued
cultivation, and other causes, such a soil is, I should
think, rarely met with, and the intending orange or
lemon grower has consequently to consider the
deficiencies of the ground he intends to devote to
this culture, and to take steps to supply the same, as
far as possible, A rich, rather heavy loam, of an
open and free texture, is well suited for growing
oranges, lemons, &c., and in such a soil the trees
would probably give very satisfactory results, without
the addition of manure or other fertilizing stimulants,
for a number of years.

" In starting a plantation, I would strongly recom-
mend that the ground be trenched to a depth of two
and a half or three feet. If the soil is either poor or of
too heavy and tenacious a character, the opportunity
should be taken of improving it, by the addition
of manure and new soil as the trenching proceeds.

" In the case of a light sandy soil having to be
dealt with, a liberal addition of strong clayey soil, or
turf, from a river bank, or jheel, * should be given ;
also leaves, bazar-sweepings, indigo refuse, horse
and cow dung, with a small addition of powdered
* Small lake, or big tank.

no Oranges and Lemons of India.

lime. Excepting the last, the other additions should
be freely used. If the trenching is done during the
rains, all these ingredients may be applied fresh, as
they will soon decay at that season. Care should be
taken to thoroughly incorporate these fertilizers with
the whole soil, as it is turned over, and not to bury
them all at the bottom of the trench, and so place
them for years out of the reach of the roots of the
young trees which they are intended to nourish.

" For stiff clay soil, brick kiln refuse, — the rougher,
the better, — coal ashes, wood ashes, indigo refuse,
leaves, stable litter, bazar sweepings, and lime should
be used, either the whole, or in part, as may be
available, the object being to counteract the natural
adhesiveness of the soil, and make it as friable as
possible. A free open soil is, I believe, a matter of
great importance for the successful growth of the
whole of the orange and lemon tribe, and what is of
still equal importance is good subsoil drainage. A
wet, waterlogged soil, I would pronounce as utterly
unsuited for growing oranges and limes.

" The soil of the Azores, where the famous St.
Michael's oranges are grown, is described ' as
generally a friable loam mixed with volcanic matter ;
for the most part this soil is said to be of considerable
depth, but many orange gardens are formed in places
where there is not more than fifteen or eighteen
inches of soil above the shattered mass of rocks and
rubble.' This very clearly points to the desirability
of a free, open soil, and also of a good subsoil drainage.

" Some experiments bearing on these two important
points were begun in the Horticultural Garden of
Lucknow in 1879. The object at first was to
ascertain if the common ' kaghzi* lime would grow
in old demolition mortar, but subsequently the effect

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 1 1 1

of drainage, trenching, and various fertilizers was tried
in addition.

" For convenience of reference, the series of experi-
ments undertaken are here called A, B, C, and D.

" A consisted of a ridge three feet high, ten feet wide
at the base, sloping to six feet wide at the top ; the
whole composed of demolition mortar, and a fair amount
of broken brick mixed up with it.

" B, a similar ridge as to dimensions, but composed of
two parts natural soil (a poor yellow loam), one part
alluvial clay, one part decayed sweepings,. and one part
demolition mortar as used in A.

11 C. A trench four feet deep and ten feet wide was
dug. In its bottom large lumps of fused bricks
(kun/ur*) were laid to a depth of one and a-half feet.
To keep the soil from washing in and filling the inter-
stices a thick layer of palm leaves and other leaves was
laid over the kunjur. The trench was then filled to
the surface level with the following compost : Three
parts natural soil, one part alluvial clay, two parts de-
cayed sweepings, all being well mixed together.

" D. A line ten feet wide was trenched two feet deep,
and the soil to that depth enriched, as the trenching
proceeded, with night soil, decayed sweepings, and
alluvial clay.

"When all the soil of these experimental plots had
consolidated, two plants of each of the following were
put down on each plot, viz.: Sylhet, Nagpore,t and
Malta oranges, and Lucknow and Agra kaghzi limes.

" With reference to growth in the case of the kaghzi
limes, the trees are mostly equal in development and
vigour on all plots, a slight advantage being perceptible

* I believe in England these are called "clinkers," and nre used
for rock-work.

t Sylhet and Nagpore oranges are simtaras.

1 1 2 Oranges and Lemons of India.

in those on C. Their foliage is of a deeper green, and
more healthy-looking, but the yield of fruit on all plots
appears to be the same, both in quantity and size.

" Of the oranges, the Maltas have made least growth
on all the plots, but the trees are more healthy and
better developed on C than on the other plots. They
have also yielded the best fruit. In point of general
success, the second place, in the case of the oranges, is
held by D plot.

" On the whole the result very clearly demonstrates
the beneficial effect of subsoil drainage, and also of
trenching, both for oranges and limes, and the fact that
both having made good growth and fruited well when
planted on pure demolition mortar, affords, I think,
strong evidence that the tribe they represent appreciates
an open free medium for their roots, and also a good
amount of lime in their soil.

" Next, if not of equal importance for the successful
growth of the orange tribe, is shelter. In the Azores,
the groves are said to be surrounded by high walls and
lines of trees, while guava and other fruit trees are
grown among the orange trees to afford shelter and
protection from the strong sea breezes. In Spain, too,
it appears, the orange plantations are chiefly placed in
sheltered valleys.

" This question of shelter, for not only orange but all
fruit trees generally, is not, I fear, sufficiently attended
to in Northern India. The strong, hot and dry west
winds which prevail during May and June, act very in-
juriously on vegetation in general. They are, how-
ever, particularly hurtful to trees carrying a crop of
young fruit, which all the citrus tribe do at that season.
In Upper India, shelter is chiefly wanted on the west
side. In the case of small gardens, a single or double
row of guavas might be planted on that side. The

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 113

kumruk tree has dense foliage, and it would answer
for either small or large gardens ; while for the latter,
jacks, seedling mangos, or a thick line of Inga Dulcis
might be tried, the shelter lines of trees being repeated
at intervals in large plantations. For the same reason
I would recommend moderately close planting of the
orange and lime trees themselves.

" In good soil the keonla, and Malta orange trees
should be planted fifteen or sixteen feet apart each
way, the distance being reduced two or three feet in
poor soils. The Sylhet does not spread much, and ten
to twelve feet will be sufficient space for it. The same
may be given to kaghzi limes, and chakbtra pummelos ;
and for mastabi* pummelo, Malta lemon, sweet lime,
khatta orange, Nagpur and Seville oranges, twelve to
fourteen feet would be enough.

" Planting may be done from the commencement of
the rains to the end of January, but the best time for
putting in the trees is during the rainy season. If the
ground to be planted has been trenched and manured,
it will not be necessary to put any manure into the
holes with the trees when planted, but if a little well-
decayed cow or horse dung can be spared, it would prove
advantageous by promoting root action and aiding the
trees in establishing themselves in the new sites.

" A circular bed (thald) should be made round each
tree for the purpose of irrigation during the dry season.
This may be small at first, but care should be taken
to enlarge its diameter as the tree develops. The
branches and roots spread in about equal proportion ;
it therefore follows that watering a small bed imme-
diately around the stems must leave the greater por-
tion of the roots without water, and that probably at a

* This is the same as mahtabt\ and a further corruption of
batavi.

I

H4 Oranges and Lemons of India.

time when the leaves and branches are making their
greatest call for moisture.

" From the time of planting onwards the whole of the
ground should be dug over at least once a year, the
object being to keep a loose open surface. If a second
digging can be given all over the surface of the plant-
ation it would prove highly beneficial.

" Weeds and grass should be rigorously kept down,
and the surface of the beds around the trees should be
stirred as frequently as possible.

" From the time the trees commence bearing, an
annual surface dressing of manure will help them
greatly. When the soil has been well prepared,
however, or is naturally rich, it will not perhaps
be necessary to give any manure for three or
four years after the trees begin to fruit, but it is
most undesirable to defer manurial aid till the trees
show evident signs of suffering from want of proper
sustenance.

"In England camel dung is considered the best
manure for orange trees, but as it is not generally
available in quantity, either cow, horse, sheep dung,
or night-soil, singly or combined, may be used. A
good sprinkling of wood ashes, lime, or broken bones
being added. The best time for applying this surface
dressing is during the rains, as the fertilizing ingre-
dients contained in the manure are immediately
carried down into the soil and to the roots by
the rain. The trees being then in a growing state
are able to appropriate at once the nourishment
given.

" In applying the manure one or two inches of the
surface soil of the bed should be loosened and drawn
aside. The manure should then be spread over the
surface, forked into the soil, and the whole immediately

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 115

vered over with the same soil, which has been drawn
aside. If a fork is not available a ' koddr' will answer
for digging in the manure.

" In the case of trees which have been planted in poor
and untrenched soil, and which may not be thriving
satisfactorily, substantial benefit may be afforded by
digging a trench around the trees, 2 or 2\ feet deep,
and of the same width. This trench should then be
filled with a liberal addition of new soil, alluvial clay,
and such manure as may be available, care being taken
to mix the whole well with the earth taken out before
the trench is re-filled.

''The distance which a trench of this kind should be
from the stems of the trees depends in a great measure
on the size of the trees, but three or four feet may be
regarded as a minimum distance. The point to be
kept in view is to bring the fertilizing matter as near
as possible to the main body of the roots without
destroying many of them in doing so. When the
trees appear to have exhausted this new material, a
second trench, with similar materials, may be dug out-
side the first, if the space, between the Citrus trees
admit of it."

If the reader will look over the various modes of
cultivating and propagating the orange tree, he will
see that there are various ways of raising young plants
of almost any sort of Citrus.

In Sylhet, and presumably in Bootwal also, no other
method of raising orange plants, except from seed, is
thought of. The Sylhet orange is admittedly a very
good orange, and the one grown in Bootwal is the
sweetest of the suntara type. The Sylhet orange of
Lucknow was originally raised from seeds of oranges
obtained from Calcutta by Mr. Hodges. It maintains
its upright habit like its parent in Sylhet. It is now

I 2

n 6 Oranges and Lemons of India.

largely propagated by budding, and is one of the best
varieties they have in Lucknow.

Both in Nagpore and in Gujranwala they bud on
the stock of the sweet lemon (mitha nimboo, or
sherbetee]. The Nagpore orange is the best flavoured
of the suntara type, and the Gujranwala blood orange
the best of the Malta type. It is perfect. There is,
therefore, reason to believe that the stock on which
the bud or graft is inserted may have some influence
on it, and so modify to some extent the flavour of its
fruit. It is a point well worthy of attention in Govern-
ment experimental gardens. If confirmed by further
experiments, the sweet lemon stock might become the
stock for all sweet oranges, while the khatta or sour
orange might be used solely for all sour oranges,
lemons, and limes. Probably even the Pummelo might
be much sweetened and improved by budding on the
sweet lemon.

The reason the khatta stock is so universally
used is that the seeds germinate well and produce
strong, hardy plants, which make rapid growth. The
malis in Lucknow state that the khatta seed
germinates better if taken from the unripe fruit about
August. It certainly germinates then, but I fancy the
reason is that August is warm, and the winter, when
the khatta is ripe, is cold. Of a large number of
Citrus seeds of all kinds, from various parts of India,
sown in the winter, very few germinated till February
and March, when they came up by hundreds.

I do not see why layering the Citrus is not prac-
tised. It would give strong, healthy trees on their
own roots. If layered in the beginning of the rains,
rooted layers would be obtained before the end of the
rains, while at least two years are required to raise
stock/ bud it, and make plants fit for planting out ;

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 117

and to raise plants from seed of good kinds for planting
out, about the same time would be required, and they
take longer to fruit. (See Appendix, No. 42.)

I have layered the Malta orange, the Seville orange,
the kaghzi lime, and the Malta lemon. The latter,
however, is the one which roots with the greatest
rapidity. I have raised hundreds by layering it in
pots. (See Appendix, No. 42.) I have seen branches of
the Malta lemon that simply touched the ground, root
at the point of contact and fix themselves to the
ground ; and I have seen the kaghzi nimboo
flower the second year after the layers were planted
out, although there is no advantage in trees either
flowering or fruiting when they are so young. All
the vigor, however, and all the early fruiting will much
depend on the amount and quality of nutriment given
to the plants at starting, irrespective of the way they
have been raised. In the Etawah Jail Garden, in
1882, I found some seedling kaghzi limes. They
told me they were about a year old. I planted them
out in big holes, 13 feet apart, filled with demolition
lime pounded fine, ashes, and -manure, and watered
them regularly. I gave them only 13 feet between
the plants, thinking they would not make rapid pro-
gress. Now, four years after planting, they are 1 3 feet
high and their branches have met, so that the plot has
become a thicket. Almost all are bearing fruit. Every
year, in the hot weather, the soil round them gets
several dressings of dry leaves, so as to economize
water ; these leaves in the rains, together with the
fallen leaves of the trees themselves, form a superficial
layer of nourishing leaf-mould.

With regard to cuttings, I found that those of the
Malta lemon will strike readily in the rains, in the
shade, and I had several of them thus raised planted

n8

Oranges and Lemons of India.

out. I have not tried to raise other kinds by cuttings.
But Mr. C. Nickels, of Jaunpore, has frequently pro-
pagated the Citrus by means of cuttings. The follow-
ing he has very kindly sent me as the result of his
experience in this mode of propagating.

" Oranges and lemons, especially the latter, are very
easily raised from cuttings. The best time is during
the rains and the early part of the cold weather. I
strike my cuttings in a mixture of pure sand and
charcoal, under a glass. It is essential that the sand
should be pure. This is obtained by boiling the sand
in water in a clean vessel, and then washing it in
several waters, when it can be dried and kept for use.
The charcoal should be reduced to powder. When
required, a mixture of 1 1 parts of prepared sand to one
part of charcoal is made, and a sufficient quantity put
into small 4-inch pots. Then take your cuttings from
a healthy tree. Cut off several branches and bring
them to the potting shed. I select shoots about six or
eight inches long, with a heel of ripe wood and bark.
These I pull off and plant all round the pot, but never
in the centre. About a dozen cuttings go comfortably
into a 4-inch pot. The pots should then be watered
and each buried up to the rim in a larger pot of com-
mon sand, and covered over with a bell glass. In
the absence of regular bell glasses common wall shades
(fanoos) can be used, stopping the opening at the
top. A glass frame or glass box will do just as well.
The leaves of the cuttings must on no account be
shortened, as the more leaves are on the slips the
sooner they will strike.

" Every night the pots or boxes should be placed
out in the open air, and taken in again in the morning.
Water should be given as they require it, and twice
a day they should get fresh air for a few seconds by

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 119

taking off the bell glass or opening the glazed box or
frame.

"When struck, which will be known by their begin-
ning to grow, they should be gradually hardened.
This is done by opening the glass, or removing the
bell, for a short time towards the early morning, and
keeping it open for half an hour. The second day it
might be kept open for an hour, and so on till the
plants are thoroughly hardened. A week or ten days
is sufficient for the hardening process. When the
cuttings can stand the open air all day long without
injury, they are ready for potting.

" The rooted cuttings should then be turned out of
the pots, and the sand and charcoal washed away.
Each rooted Cutting should then be carefully potted
separately in 4-inch pots, taking care that the new and
tender roots are not broken. The best soil for them
at this stage is a mixture of two parts leaf mould, one
part roasted turf, and one part sand, well mixed
together. (I should feel inclined to add a good
sprinkling of pounded demolition mortar or lime. —
E.B.) After they have been- carefully potted and
watered, a piece of potsherd should be applied to the
drainage hole at the bottom to prevent its being
stopped by the outside earth, the pots should be
buried up to the rims in the open ground. For a few
days, however, they should be protected from the sun
by means of a mat covering, removing the latter at
night. Here they can remain for six weeks or so,
when they require a shift into larger pots. When
these pots are filled with roots, the young trees are
ready for the final planting out.

" For this operation I dig holes in the ground 6 ft.
wide, and 4 ft. deep. The soil dug out I remove,
and replace it with silt from the bottoms of tanks,

120

Oranges and Lemons of India.

adding leaf mould and sand. The proportion I use
is two parts silt, one part sand, and one part leaf
mould. (It should not be forgotten that lime enters
largely into the composition of the citrus wood, and
that if the soil does not contain it as kunkur, or in
some other form, it should, I think, be added. — E.B.)
When the holes are filled with the above mixture
they should be watered, and the soil allowed to settle
down. After planting, you should water liberally.
The after treatment consists in mulching (top dressing)
with leaf mould and cow manure.

" The kaghzi nimboo is rather difficult to strike from
cuttings. With lemons, 80 to 90 per cent, will strike,
and with oranges, I consider 60 per cent, a good
average.

" The advantage of layering is that you get a rooted
plant with greater certainty, but the process is no
quicker than propagating from cuttings. Of course
you can obtain a larger plant by layering than you
can from cuttings in a given time."

The Suntara Orange Gardens of Delhi.

In the month of October, 1886, I visited the Delhi
fruit gardens in search of information about the
suntara orange. In Delhi this orange is called
either sinlra, sungtara, or rungtra. I expected to
find there first-rate gardens of this fine orange, but
was much disappointed. Everywhere I saw very
great slovenliness of cultivation. Forest trees are
allowed to become mixed up with the orange bushes.
Nowhere did I find a neatly-cultivated orchard of this
suntara variety.

The Delhi cultivators say that it likes the shade of
other trees, and does best under the shade of the

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 1 2 1

bair (Zizyphus sp.). It is well-known that this
delicate orange and its varieties get scorched on the
sunny side by the direct sun-rays. The scorched
fruit is almost worthless, while that shaded by the
tree and its leaves is perfect.

However, in Delhi the fact is that this orange is
jumbled up under all sorts of forest trees, which either
were there before the orchards were planted, or ger-
minated afterwards, and were allowed to remain
there.

The long road between Delhi and Kurnaol, to a
great extent, is lined on both sides by extensive fruit
gardens, and wherever the suntara orange tree is
planted, forest or other trees must suck up both
manure and moisture, so that this unfortunate and
delicate orange bush is everywhere either starved or
otherwise damaged.

All cultivators say that this orange tree likes a
kunkur (or stony) soil, and there appears plenty of
stone in and around Delhi, which in many places
crops above the surface. Mr. Lionel Jacob, Execu-
tive Engineer, Western Jumna Ganal, informs me that
the Delhi stone is a quartzite.

Orange growers in Delhi are unanimous in stating
that well water is better for the suntara orange than
canal water. They say that the fruit is sweeter in the
former case than in the latter ; and that the tree
perishes earlier when irrigated by canal water than by
well water. The latter, however, is an expensive
mode of irrigation. In a large garden, three or four
wells are required to be worked constantly, more or
less, for two-thirds of the year. This entails several
sets of men, and several pairs of bullocks, while canal
irrigation is much cheaper. Mr. Lionel Jacob informs
me that in Delhi " the canal water-rate for gardens is

122

Oranges and Lemons of India. ,

Rs. 3, 2 annas per bigah, or Rs. 5 per acre. In addition
to the above, there is the owner's rate for irrigated
lands, which is half the water rate, or for gardens would
be Rs. 2, 8 annas per acre. The owner's rate is paid
by the owner of the land, and the water-rate by the
cultivator. Of course, they may, or may not, be one
and the same person. I should mention that the
above rates are for gardens irrigated by flow; if
irrigated by lift, the water-rate and owner's rate is
two-thirds of those noted. The gardens about Delhi
are, however, almost entirely irrigated by flow. The
depth of water from the soil varies a good deal. A
large number of the Delhi wells are filled with canal
water, to make them sweeter drinking. In these, and
in the wells situated in irrigated lands, the water is
nearer the surface than in wells at a distance from the
canal. Speaking roughly, the water would be in the
wells of the neighbourhood about 25 ft. from the
surface of the ground. The Delhi soil is, generally
speaking, rausli, or loam."

It is probable, as cultivators say, that canal water is
not so good for the suntara orange tree as well water,
but I take it, not because it is canal water, but because
it is cheap, and, therefore, too much of it is given.

I was shown a plot in one garden, which was said to
have been planted some twelve or thirteen years ago
with suntara orange trees, and irrigated by canal water.
All the trees, they said, perished in about ten years.
The plot was then replanted with sherbetee nimboo
(sweet lemon). Cultivators say the latter does not
mind canal water.

In another garden, newly formed, I saw orange trees
which had been planted some four or five years before.
They were all in a most wretched condition. I saw
water lying on the surface, and was told that canal

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 123

water had been given three or four days before. The
ground appeared as if it had been just irrigated. It
was no wonder the poor orange trees looked wretched
and dying. The whole ground was water-logged, and
hardly fit for even plantains ; it might have suited
rice.

In the Saharunpur Botanic Garden, which is irri-
gated by canal water, I noticed the same unhealthy
condition in the citrus trees. It appeared to me the
soil got too much water. Mr. Gollam observed that
all the orange trees everywhere about Saharunpur were
in a similar condition. I do not know whether all these
also were irrigated by canal water.

The suntara orange tree does not appear to mind
excess of water occasionally, provided the soil be well
drained. In the Khasia hills, the suntara orange gar-
dens are several times during the south-west monsoon
flooded, it is said to the height of six feet, but the
drainage, after the water retires, is so good, that the
trees do not suffer by these floods.

In one garden near Delhi, owned by one Mohamed
Shah, near the bridge called Anda moghul ka pul, I
saw the following interesting mode of cultivating the
suntara orange tree in combination with other plants.
The garden was irrigated by well water, and, of course,
the usual slovenliness and indifference about mixing up
trees, &c., was there also in full force.

In this garden the orange trees were mostly shaded
by bair trees. It must not be supposed, however, that
there was any system of planting. The bair trees
appeared to have germinated spontaneously, and at a
certain age been grafted in the usual way with the large
cultivated Zizyphus. Natives say that the orange tree
does best under this tree, because its time of pruning,
shooting, and fruiting suit the times of the orange tree.

124

Oranges and Lemons of India.

Moreover, the suntara orange tree is more of a bush
than a large tree. In this particular garden, a third
plant was combined with the bair and orange trees,
viz.: the Jasminum sambac, or b£la. I shall, there-
fore, enter into some details about the management of
this particular garden, however rude its method may
be.

When the bair trees have been grafted and grown
to a certain size, suntara orange trees are planted
among them, and between the latter again, the low
bushes of the b£la jessamine are planted. The
strongly-scented flowers of the latter are much appre-
ciated by all natives, and, therefore, find a ready sale,
while the large, egg-shaped bair fruit are devoured in
great quantities by natives during their season.

The grafted bair trees shed their leaves towards the
end of winter. At the beginning of spring they are
severely pruned back, and after a month or so they
begin to shoot out again. Without this severe pruning,
natives say the bair tree does not fruit satisfactorily.
Pruning hardly describes their method sufficiently—
amputation would be the better term. At that time,
the orange trees, freed from the bair tree shade, get a
good deal of direct sunlight. This enables them to
ripen their younger wood for the production of next
season's flower twigs. During the winter the soil is
turned and kept dry for about two months. When the
orange trees flower and the fruit sets, manure is given,
water saucers round the trees, and water channels are
made, and the ground irrigated three or four times a
month. In winter, while the fruit is still on the trees,
they are watered about twice a month. The orange
trees and the jessamine bushes flower about the same
time, the latter continuing longer in flower. The
owner of this ground said that canal water is injurious

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 125

to the orange tree because too much is given, and then
the heat of the sun kills the young, newly-formed root-
lets. Probably he meant that they are partially stewed.
He said leaving the fruit for a long time on the tree,
although it fetches a better price, weakens the tree,
and prevents it from fruiting well next season. Some-
times it is allowed to remain on the tree for a month
after Christmas. The weakening effect might, I think,
be easily modified by leaving only a small proportion
of the fruit on each tree.

As the young oranges swell, the vigorous new shoots
of the bair trees lengthen and spread, and eventually
make an umbrella-shaped head to the tree. The bair
foliage is small and not very dense, so that a great deal
of diffused light reaches the orange trees. In due
course, the long bair branches become covered with
tiny flowers, and then with fruit. The bela flowers
are gathered daily as they blow, and the bair fruit as
soon as it becomes of full size and ripe. I believe
Furukabad and Shahjahanpur are noted for the best
varieties of grafted Zizyphus. Some of the best fruit
is as large as small hen's eggs.

I have no doubt that if this mixed cultivation of
bair, orange trees, and bela were carried out syste-
matically by planting the bair and orange trees
regularly, in alternate rows, giving each a sufficient
space, with the low jessamine bushes between the
other trees, good profit might be made, and with
advantage to the orange crop, provided regular
manuring and watering were given. After the
oranges had swollen to a certain size, the umbrella
shaped and tall bair trees, if properly trained would
afford just the amount of shade needed by this variety
of orange, to prevent scorching by the direct rays of
the sun, in Summer ; and at the time of pruning the

126 Oranges and Lemons of India.

bair trees, the orange bushes wonld get a sufficiency
of direct sunlight at the period they most wanted it,
that is at the period of shedding their leaves, and
ripening their wood for flowering. I think this system
if intelligently carried out, for cultivating the suntara
orange in the plains of India, has a great deal to
recommend it. The aforesaid Mohamed Shah, of
Anda moghul ka put, claims to have been the first
to have struck out this new method of combining
the B£la with the orange and bair trees.

There is little to add to Mr. Ridley's memorandum
on the cultivation of the citrus. As he has, however,
proved that the whole tribe, planted in nothing- but
demolition mortar, thrive well, there is in my opinion
no need to fear using it liberally. I never hesitate to
use it in basketfuls, and I see no reason to fear its
liberal use. I think that demolition mortar, besides
acting as manure, tends to open the soil, especially
where it is of a tenacious nature. Of course, where
there is plenty of kunkur in the soil, that will furnish
enough lime for the wants of the citrus trees. The
other manures which I found very useful are wood or
charcoal ashes, manure of all sorts, and rotted leaves.

There is a source of manure which few think of ;
I mean brick-kiln ashes. As a mineral manure, I
should say few equal it. If we consider what fuels
natives use to burn their bricks with, we shall soon
learn to look upon brick-kiln ashes with favour. They
use wood, kanda (dried cow dung), night-soil, and
town refuse of all sorts. The latter, especially in
Mahomedan cities, contains a large proportion of bones.
All these calcined, and mixed up with burnt and
powdered clay make one of the best possible mineral
composts. Then the addition of leaf mould, decayed
animal droppings, lime, and ordinary garden soil

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 127

would make a perfect bed for all the citrus tribe ; all
ingredients, however, should be thoroughly mixed
up together. Of course, unless the general soil is
naturally rich, or is annually renewed by inundations,
as in the case of the Shalla orange groves of the
Khasia hills, the trees should be annually manured,
when they attain their fruiting age.

Iron appears to be an important ingredient in the
orange soil. It exists in that of the orange groves
of Shalla. The red soil of Ceylon is said to be
impregnated with iron, and probably the similar red
soil of South India, also contains it. I do not know
what the composition is of the black soil of the
Central Provinces, and other parts ; but probably it
contains iron, as the Nagpore oranges do so well in it.
I have a notion that iron gives flavor and juiciness to
the orange, but to decide this, very careful and pro-
longed experiments would be required. However, I
may perhaps have discovered a simple mode of detect-
ing the presence of iron in the soil, especially when
this is not naturally black. I have noticed that in
the light coloured soil under - babool trees (Acacia
arabica\ after rain, the surface becomes blackened.
Tannic acid, with persalts of iron, and gallic acid with
proto-salts of iron give a black colour. The babool
bark and leaves contain tannin, and the rain falling
over a babool tree would naturally wash some tannin
on to the ground beneath, tannic acid being soluble
in water, in the proportion of ten parts in eight of
water. So that it would, I think be possible by the
simple means of strewing babool leaves on the ground
and watering them, or by irrigating the surface with
an infusion of babool bark, to discover the presence
of iron in the soil. Anyhow, the probability is that
the citrus tree requires it in small quantity, and in

128 Oranges and Lemons of India.

case the soil were totally devoid of it, it could be
easily added in the shape of the cheap cassis, or
sulphate of iron of the Bazars.

In North Western India, and in all places where
hot winds prevail, shelter from hot winds is a very
important provision for many varieties, especially
those of the suntara type, so much so, that, in my
opinion, the mandarin orange, the most delicate of all,
cannot be grown in places subject to the hot winds, as
it is all but killed by them every year.

In places where the soil is suited to orange culture,
and where there are facilities for irrigation, it would
pay to have high mud walls, tiled on top, all round
the orchard. They are not very expensive to make,
and with an annual plastering of cow-dung would last
long. If the soil be of tenacious character, the mud
for the wall might be dug from the ditch outside,
which would make the wall still higher for thieves.
This would admit of the orchard being under lock
and key, which is of great advantage when the fruit
begins to ripen ; because then a caretaker by day
and night with a couple of country dogs to help him
would completely secure the crop from thieves, how-
ever late it might be left on the trees.

If, however, the orchard be on a large scale, and
no facilities at hand for erecting mud walls, then other
means of shelter might be available. Mr. Ridley
recommends for this purpose guavas, kumruk, jacks,
seedling mangoes, &c. But I think that perhaps a
more useful wind-break, at the same time that it acts
as a hedge, is to be found in the common kaghzi
nimboo tree.* If raised from seed, or from layers, it

* Curiously enough, in the " Botanical Miscellany," vol. iii., p. 29,
Dr. Macfadyen recommends the lime tree also for a fence in
Jamaica.

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 129

makes a high bush, with the lower branches close to
the ground. And if the trees are planted,, even at
i oft. apart, in a good-sized trench filled with good
soil, and the ingredients mentioned before, it is
wonderful how soon an impenetrable and high lime-
tree hedge can be made. In an extensive orchard,
lines of lime trees, planted in the same way, and
running north and south, might be very advantageous
as hot wind-breaks. The little kaghizs are great
favourites, and are always saleable. The reason for
preferring this lime tree for hedges and wind-breaks
is this ; although I think it originally an imported
citrus, it has, for ages, been raised from seed every-
where, so that it has had ample time to naturalize
itself, and, in all these generations, adapt itself to the
surroundings of a hot-wind climate. It has, therefore,
become hardy, and the hot winds do it little or no
harm. During the process of making a lime-tree
hedge, some temporary fence might be made.

I think it would be advisable, in Government
gardens, to raise plants of all useful varieties of citrus
from seed. This practice might result in hardier
varieties being bred, and more suited, by both natural
and artificial selection, to their local surroundings.
It should not, however, be the principal aim of an
experimental and acclimatizing garden to pay its way.
It will pay indirectly by introducing useful and
suitable fruit trees among the population.

A few words may be now useful, regarding the
operation of budding, for the advantage of beginners.
This is done in the same way as for budding roses,
by inserting one or more buds of the desired variety
under the bark of either the khatta, Seville, or sweet
lemon. The best time for this operation is in January
and February, when the returning warmth produces

130

Oranges and Lemons of India.

activity in the juices of the trees. Then the bark can
easily be separated for the purpose of budding. The
best thickness of the stock is that of a thick pencil up
to half an inch in diameter. This thickness, under
favourable conditions, will be attained in about two
years. The best knife for this purpose is what is
called a budding-knife, procurable from any hardware
merchant. Its ivory handle has a fine edge, by which
the bark can be lifted, without cutting or injuring
it. Any handy mistry might, however, imitate these
budding-knives, and the handle can be made of any
hard and polished wood. The great advantage of
budding is that, if stock is at hand, cuttings suited to
budding might be obtained by post from a distance,
and each bud carefully detached and inserted on th(
stock ; so that in one season hundreds of any desired
variety might be raised. Most native gardeners can
bud plants, and, if not, they can be easily taught to
do it. The operation is done as follows : Stock ol
the right size is selected, and the lower thin branches
are shaved off with a clean cut close to the stem.
Then a clean piece of stem of the tree to be budded
is selected, with good plump buds, at the angle of th<
leaves, and free from spines. Half an inch of each
leaf -stalk is to be left attached to the stem. It forms a
convenient handle to lift the bud-shield by (chasma).
The most convenient way of detaching the shield ii
this : Make a sufficiently long cross cut through t/
bark a quarter of an inch above the bud, and a similar
cut at the same distance below the bud. Unite the
two on the left side by a longitudinal cut at the sam<
distance from the bud, and, finally, make a similar cui
on the right side ; detach and lift the shield by th<
edge of the knife, and tilt it into a cup containing
little clean water. In this way detach all the buds yoi

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 131

require at the time, each with its shield of bark, and
drop them into clean water before you commence
their insertion. If your stock is well grown, and has
long stems, two buds may be inserted on one stem,
one above the other, on the north, or shady side of the
stem. If the stems are short, one bud will do. For
the thicker stems, select cuttings which will give
shields of about the same thickness ; for thinner
stems, smaller shields are better. Make a longitudinal
cut through the bark in the middle of the stem to be
budded on about an inch long, and three or four
inches from the ground. Slightly bend the part cut
so as to make a sort of concavity towards you. This
bending will enable you to lift the bark of the stock
much more easily. By means of the handle edge of
the budding-knife lift up the bark on both sides
sufficiently so as to enable you to slip in a shield.
Take the shield by its little handle and insert it, bud
upwards, carefully under the bark of the stock, so as
to place the bud and handle in the middle of the slit ;
adjust the shield neatly to the wood beneath, and
straighten the stem. By this the two bark edges
will close tightly over the shield. See that the
latter is flat against the wood. Finally, bandage the
stem tightly above and below the bud.

The best bandage is that of dry plantain stem, soaked
in water, and cut into thin strips a quarter of an inch
or so wide, and cleaned of all pith. If sufficiently
soaked, it makes a pliable, strong, and efficient band-
age. The bandage should be applied from below,
with one end secured under a loop, and after two or
three turns below, and as many above the bud, the end
of the bandage should be drawn through a loop and
tightened, so as to secure it firmly. The object of the
bandage is not only to keep the bark, shield, and wood

K 2

132

Oranges and Lemons of India.

in close proximity, till they all unite, but to prevent air
getting into the slit, and drying the bark and shield.*
The whole length of the slit, therefore, should be
evenly bandaged. The shorter the slit, consistent with
ease in inserting the shield, the better the operation.
A practised hand can bud hundreds of plants in a day,
and the more practised it becomes, the more neatly
and safely will this easy though delicate operation be
performed. It is a good plan to irrigate the ground
one or two days before budding. The budding opera-
tion had better be done in the evening or early morning,
and a full watering should be given to the budded
plants immediately after. These appear trifling pre-
cautions, but upon them will often depend the success
or failure of budding. If the young trees are in the
shade, such as that of agast trees, planted especially,
so much the better.

A week or so after budding, if successful, the handle
of the shield will drop off on the slightest touch. This
means that the shield has adhered, and is fed by the
stock. If the handle is dry, and will not easily drop
off, the chances are the shield is dead, and a few days
later this same stock can be rebudded higher up or
lower down.

As the weather grows warmer, the foreign bud will
begin to grow, and then the main shoot or shoots ol
the stock should have their tops pinched off so as
check their growth and help that of the new bud.
Should any of the stock buds appear on the stem, they
should be removed with the same object. Watering
should now be carefully attended to, and slight surfaa
leafage will economise water. As the bud grows, the
stock stem may be gradually reduced. I think it a

* For this reason, perhaps, the middle of January is a better time
for Upper India than later, provided the bark can be easily detached.

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 133

mistake to remove all the stem and leaves of the stock
at once. The leaves are needed to keep up the circu-
lation of the sap and feed the bud. When it has grown
to the length of about five or six inches, the stock stem
can then be completely removed to within an inch
above the bud. This operation will have to be done
carefully, as the foreign shoot is still fragile and easily
broken off. As the shoot grows, thin stakes should be
driven into the soil, and the shoot secured by some soft
tying material, to prevent its being broken off by the
wind, until it becomes strong.

The successfully-budded trees will be fit to plant out
in their permanent places, in the rains, and any stock
shoots which may appear below the bud should be re-
moved. Those trees in which the bud failed to take
should be shifted into a new nursery in the rains, and
a new shoot encouraged near the root, so that it may
be trained for budding on next February, the old stem
being cut off close above the new shoot.

When the buds begin to start and grow, all they
require, beyond what has been said, is to watch for
caterpillars and destroy them when found.

Although budding has its advantages, it requires
time at first to raise the necessary plants for budding
on. The plants require at least two years from the
seed, in a rich soil, with all necessary care, to fit them
for receiving the buds. Some say they require three
years for this purpose. In my opinion, where facilities
are available for keeping the khatta fruit on the trees,
it is better to take the seeds of these ripe fruits and
sow them rather thickly in pans containing rich soil,
and placed in the shade of trees, and sheltered from
hot winds. They will germinate freely in March, and
if caterpillars do not destroy them, and if they get
regular watering, they will be fit to prick out in a well

134 Oranges and Lemons of India.

prepared nursery a foot or more apart by the ensuing
rains. The most forward then can be budded in the
following February.

Native nurserymen who raise citrus plants for sale
always keep khatta stock on hand. They manage
their nurseries very well, and are experts in budding
and shifting young citrus trees. Anyone starting orange
or lemon plantations on a large scale would do well to
employ a good native nurseryman from one of the large
cities, to raise stock, and bud it for him with any
variety he may prefer. This should be done in the
vicinity of the plantation. The long, cane-like branches
of the previous rains generally furnish the best buds
for inserting on the stock. Having once secured plants
of any desirable variety, it is not difficult to propagate
them by layers, which can generally be easily taken
from the lower branches.

If the plants are in a nursery, they should be taken
up carefully with a large ball of earth. Natives usually
lift plants with too small a ball of earth, and, therefore,
too much of their roots is unnecessarily chopped off.
The evening is the best time for planting. Regular
watering will be required throughout the hot dry
weather. No watering will be needed during the wet
season, provided there be an average rainfall, and
during the winter only an occasional watering will be
required. Of course these rules hold principally for
all those parts of India subject to the hot winds. In
other parts these rules can be modified according to
circumstances.

In heavy rains, surface drainage should be attended
to, as too much water lying at the roots will cause some
of the fruit to drop off. In hot, dry weather, as I
have repeatedly stated, surface leafage — to be renewed
when the leaves crumple up and decay — will econo-

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 135

mize water. Care should be taken, however, not to
mass dead leaves round a tree, as, when wetted in
large masses, they heat and might injure the roots. In
addition to its own fallen leaves, this surface leafage,
if properly attended to, adds annually to the leaf
mould and nourishes the surface roots.

With regard to pruning, a little observation will
show that the flowers of the Citrus are produced from
the small twigs of the previous year. These, there-
fore, should not be pruned off. On the contrary,
when the tree has attained a certain age they should
be encouraged in preference to the strong cane-like
branches, which rarely bear fruit, till they have given
off small side twigs. Therefore, when a tree has
attained its full bearing age these cane-like branches
might be removed — except when wanted to fill up a
vacant space — in order that the fruit-bearing twigs on
the surface of the tree may be encouraged and multi-
plied. The object of pruning, besides removing any
dead and weak branches, is either to give shape to a
tree or to reduce the unproductive wood, with the
view of increasing the fertility of the fruit tree. In
this way, the annual nourishment given to it, after it
has attained its full size, will go mainly to the produc-
tion of fruit. This art is managed to a nicety by the
French orange growers in the South of Europe. There
is, perhaps, no fruit tree known which responds so
readily to any attention and care it may receive.

In a large plantation it would, perhaps, be advisable
to set apart a portion of the trees for a Dumrez or
rain-crop alone. At first this might be done experi-
mentally, and then, if it turns out profitable, this alter-
nate cropping might be carried on systematically. In
Nagpur it is said each tree is made to bear only one
crop, either the spring or the rain crop. The Dum-

136 Oranges and Lemons of India.

rez crop of oranges in the N. W. Provinces has
usually a dry pulp. I think this is because in that
climate the same tree cannot nourish satisfactorily two
crops. But if the fruit of the spring crop were all
picked off some trees, so that in the rains, they might
give a larger Dumrez crop — which would be the
main crop of those particular trees — a valuable lot of
fruit, ripening in the hot weather, might be the result.
Some experiments, I think, are needed in this direc-
tion to ascertain whether this system would pay.

There are two modes of training orange and lemon
trees suited to this country, viz., either on one stem,
with a bushy head, or on many stems, making a large
bush from the ground upwards. The latter is the
result of allowing the tree to grow as it chooses. The
former is brought about by selecting a strong upright
branch, when the tree is young, and removing all the
side weak shoots below a certain height. This requires
some care to do neatly. In Sylhet they plant their
seedling orange trees in a slanting position instead of
upright. Close to the root are then thrown up strong
shoots, one of which is trained as a standard, while
the original tree eventually withers away. Something
of this sort might be tried with budded plants. The
original stock which is budded low down, might be
planted in a slanting position, with the base of the
bud slightly under the soil, so that the latter may be
trained upright. This might have the additional
advantage of enabling the shoot to give off roots of
its own, if it be of a variety which would easily do so.

Finally, never allow the bhoojwa, or gramparcher,
to come near your orchard to sweep up the leaves
for heating his oven. I maintain that one of the
best manures for a tree is its own decayed leaves,
and if you prevent their being removed they will, by

Cultivation of the Orange and Lemon. 137

decaying, add to the surface soil the ingredients which
the tree most requires. If, in addition, you give a
careful surface leafage from any other trees every hot
weather, you will in some measure imitate the process
by which nature conserves its forests. This, however,
will not be all that is required, as you will, of course,
remove every year the fruit, which has to be provided
against by means of manurial ingredients. If you
attend to this annually, and stir up the surface soil
regularly and frequently, there is no reason why, in
good soil, your orchard should not stand for many
generations, if you take the precaution to shelter it
from the destructive hot winds where those prevail.

Before I quit this subject, I may as well recom-
mend to intending planters two trees which may be
useful for hedges. One is the Carissa carandas, —
the carawnda of natives. It is a thorny, stiff-leaved
bush, which in time becomes an impenetrable fence ;
moreover it produces an olive shaped berry, which
is useful for tarts, and also for chutny. The other
is the Cappans scpiaria, — hisaree or hains of natives.
It is a wild small-leaved plant, with umbels of minute
white flowers, and covered with small and large hooked
thorns. Once you get entangled in it, every effort to
disengage yourself from it will hook you on to fresh
thorns. With a little observation, patience and trouble
you might so fence in your orchard, as to make your
fence equal to a solid wall, as far as thieves and cattle
are concerned. Where possible, however, a high wall
round your orchard has great advantages. It sucks
nothing out of your soil. While your young trees are
growing, you can take low crops from the ground
between the trees.

I have found that the agast tree (Sesbania grandi-
flora ; akhatti of Ceylon) is very useful for giving

138 Oranges and Lemons of India.

light shade for nurseries. The seed of this small tree
should be sown in lines, north and south, about a
yard apart, at the commencement of the rains. The
lines should have at least fifteen feet between. In
one year, this tree, in good soil, will grow twenty feet
high. As the trees grow, they can be thinned out to
about twelve feet or so apart. This small and quick
growing tree does not live a long time, but it can be
easily renewed ; moreover, it would be advisable to
change the site of the nursery every five or six years.
Besides quick growth, the agast has the great
advantage of affording just the amount of shade
needed for an orange nursery. The leaves are pinnate
and not too dense. In South India and Ceylon,
natives eat both the leaves, flowers, and young pods
of the agast, cooked in their various dishes. I have
often given its leaflets, mixed with other native plants,
to prisoners, as a vegetable.

139

CHAPTER XII.

THE USES AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS.

EVERYBODY is acquainted with the ordinary domestic
uses of the orange, lemon, and lime. The charming
combination of sweet and sub-acid in a good orange
is known to most people. The acid, however, should
only be sufficient. The riper and sweeter the orange
is, the nicer is the proportion of sweet and sub-acid.
The small suntola orange of Butwal, perhaps, is the
sweetest of that type of orange. In Malta there is an
acidless variety of the Malta orange, which is quite free
from acid from beginning to end. It occupies the
same position among oranges, as the sweet lemon,
or sherbetee occupies among lemons, and the madh-
kakree among citrons. The sweet lemon, though
acidless, is a great favourite among natives, and they
give a better price for it than they generally do for
oranges. Varieties of sour-sweet oranges which give
a large Dumrez crop, are worthy of selection and pro-
pagation, on account of this very useful and profitable
late crop. It ripens in the hot weather, when a juicy,
sour-sweet orange becomes a luxury indeed. All
those varieties of lemons and limes which give a
heavy Dumrez crop are also very useful and profitable,
as such late lemons and limes would be invaluable in
the hot weather. The sadaphal, a tasteless, and there-
fore useless citrus, flowers and fruits all the year

140 Oranges and Lemons of India.

round. The Malta lemon often nearly approaches this
character of perpetually flowering and fruiting. If
these two could be crossed, a variety of juicy acid
sadapkal might result, which would be extremely
desirable.

In the hot weather, when the skin is acting pro-
fusely some people call for a peg. The moment this
is imbibed, a profuser skin action occurs. This to a
wise person would be enough to prove that although
a peg* is a valuable drink in case of exhaustion,
it is no remedy for thirst in the hot weather. Even
water alone, whether iced or uniced, is no remedy for
thirst in the hot weather ; no sooner do you drink a
tumbler of water, than it all comes out through the
skin, doing some good no doubt, but leaving your
thirst as it was, a few minutes before. Let the juice,
however, of either half a lemon, or a wrhole lime be
squeezed in a tumbler of water, and it will be seen
what a difference it makes in quenching thirst. I do
not know how the lemon juice acts, whether by con-
stricting the vessels which feed the sweat-glands, or
by other ways ; the fact, however, remains, that lemon,
lime, and sub-acid orange juice are good quenchers of
thirst. Just see then, how valuable fresh lemons and
limes would be in the hot weather, to everybody, but
more especially to European soldiers, among whom
there are now-a-days numerous teetotalers. The sick
in hospital, of all denominations, would be grateful for
a cool drink of lemonade, or orangeade. The latter
is rarely used ; but even in winter, a hot orangeade, to
a sick person, is very grateful. Few would, therefore,
deny that fresh lemons, limes, and oranges in the
hot weather, would be, not only very desirable, but
wrould fetch a good price.

* Brandy and soda-water.

Uses and Commercial Products of the Citrus. 141

The most useful sour citrus for domestic purposes
are, perhaps, the limes, when only a small squeeze of
juice is wanted. When, however, a larger quantity of
juice is needed, the Malta or Sicilian lemon is prefer-
able ; moreover, its juice is of a purer acid. I have
been told that a Malta lemon does not give so much
juice as a kaghzi-nimboo. In August I compared the
quantity of juice of a small Malta lemon with that of
the largest lime. Each gave a little less than half a
wine-glass of juice ; a large Malta lemon gave a full
wine-glass of juice. The rind of the Malta lemon,
moreover, is the best for flavouring sweet dishes. A
ring of the outer fresh rind, stirred in with custard
while on the fire, and taken out before serving, is
enough to flavour a bowl-full. Then the Kumaon
lemon or gulgul, is very useful, when a still larger
amount of juice is wanted at one time.

If the cultivation of lemons and limes in India
should at any time become so extensive as to make the
fresh fruit of little value, I need hardly say that citric
acid can be manufactured from their juice, both for
pharmaceutical purposes and for aerated waters, of
which the consumption in India must be enormous.
At present, so-called aerated lemonades do not deserve
that name. They are, in most cases, if not in all, really
tartarades, or, perhaps, sulphurades. Tartaric acid,
being much cheaper than citric acid, is largely used for
making these so-called lemonades. Sulphuric acid,
largely diluted, is often, I think, also used for the same
purpose, I have no means of ascertaining how much
citric and tartaric acid are imported for this pur-
pose, but there can be little doubt that if citric acid
could be manufactured cheaply in India, the genuine
lemon and lime acid would be largely used for lemon-
ades. It might be manufactured also from all sour

142 Oranges and Lemons of India.

oranges, and any sour citrus with sufficient juice
in it.

As to the uses of the citrus in perfumery, the per-
fumer had better speak for himself.

G. W. Septimus Piesse, in his book on the " Art of
Perfumery," published in 1879, fourth edition, says : —
" During the season, there is at Nice a public market
for orange blossoms. The bitter orange flowers
(Seville) fetch three francs per kilogramme ; those of
the sweet orange, two francs. The market season for
orange flowers at Nice lasts for more than a month,
and during that time there are sold from fifteen to
eighteen tons of flowers daily (!!!), and a ton of
flowers will yield more than a kilogramme of otto, say
forty ounces, worth 2O/. sterling, and the residuary
water (orange flower water) highly saturated with odour,
is worth another io/. note. Two distinct odours are
procurable from the orange blossom, varying according
to the methods adopted for procuring them. This
difference of perfume from the same flower is a great
advantage to the perfumery factor, and it is a curious
fact, worthy of inquiry by the chemical philosopher.
This duality of fragrance is not peculiar to the orange
flower, but applies to many others, especially the rose
— probably to all others.

"When orange flowers are macerated in a fatty
matter, by what is called ' enfleurage,' eight kilo-
grammes are required to enflower one kilogramme of
grease, divided over thirty-two infusions. This poma-
tum is then digested in rectified spirits, which takes up
the essential oil, and forms extract of orange flowers.
This scent is so fine that it cannot be recognized from
that of the flower. From it 'Sweet Pea,5 'Magnolia,'
and other scents are made up. If orange flowers are
distilled with water, the Otto, or ' Oil of N&oli/ is

Uses and Commercial Products of the Citrus. 143

produced. This appears originally to have been dedi-
cated to the memory of the Emperor Nero. He is
stated to have had perfumed showers come down from
the roof of his dining hall. He was evidently a great
patron of perfumers. The finest otto is considered
that which is extracted from the flowers of Citrus
aurantium (Portugal or sweet orange). It is called
' Neroli Petale,' or ' Neroli Douce,' sweet Ne>oli.
The next quality is that from the flowers of the Citrus
Bigaradia, or Seville orange. It is called ' Neroli
Bigarade,' or bitter Neroli.

"Another otto is distilled from the leaves and young
unripe fruit of different varieties of citrus. It is called
' Petit Grain,' from the little oil specks in the leaves.

"The 'Nerolis' are largely used for 'Hungary
Water' and ' Eau de Cologne,' and * Petit Grain ' for
scenting soap.* Of the latter there are various kinds,
according to the kind of leaf from which it is distilled."

(NoTE. — In Lucknow I once distilled " Petit Grain"
from the leaves of the common keonla orange, and
also some " Neroli" from the pummelo flower.)

All kinds of citrus leaves,and flowers will yield, more
or less, an otto by distillation.

Orange flower water can be used for the skin, the
hands, and the eyes as a lotion. Its use for confec-
tionery and for mixing with nauseous medicines is well
known. It is also a good carminative.

The orange and lemon peels are rasped by a little
machine called " Ecuelle " ; or by a larger but similar
machine. The latter is a sort of barrel or drum with-
spikes inside. In this larger machine 100 or more
lemons are rasped at one time. The rasped rind is
then pressed in hair bags, and the oil is afterwards

* There are now soap manufactories in India, and the distillation
of orange and lemon leaves might prove advantageous.

144 Oranges and Lemons of India.

allowed to stand and deposit impurities. It should be
kept cool and in the dark, as the mucilage in it is said
to cause decomposition and to spoil the essential oil.
The best way to get rid of this mucilage is to shake
the oil well with warm water, and then allow it to
stand, and when clear decant it close to the water.
The expressed oil of the lemon is the finest, and has an
intense odour of lemons. This oil is called " Citron
Zeste," while that distilled from the rind is not of the
finest quality, but probably keeps better, and is called
" Essence of Lemon."

England imports 85,000 to 90,000 pounds weight
annually of the otto of lemon and " Citron Zeste." It
comes principally from Messina, where there are
hundreds of acres of lemon groves. Indeed, the
extraction of the ottos of lemon, orange, and bergamot
constitutes the chief industry of Sicily, particularly
in the vicinity of Palermo. Nevertheless, what
England gets from the South of Europe does not
meet the demand.

The acid pulp of the lemon, after rasping off the
rind, is pressed for citric acid.

The otto of the Citrus peel has many uses in per-
fumery, and is the leading ingredient in " Lisbon
water " and " Eau de Portugal."

Mr. Piesse further says that " No tree is so profit-
able to the flower farmer as the orange, and emigrants
to any of our warm colonies should make a note of
this, and fix on their memory that the leaves of the
orange tree yield an otto worth (in 1879) three shillings
an ounce ; the flower, an otto, worth ten shillings an
ounce. That the flower, by ' enfleurage,' yields a fat
worth eight shillings a pound, and the rind, an otto,
worth twelve to sixteen shillings per pound. More-
over, if the fruit cannot be sold by the score in the

Uses and Commercial Products of the Citrus. 145

market, cut up and mixed with bran it makes a capital
food for cattle."

The object Mr. Piesse had in writing the book on
the " Art of Perfumery " was to induce the British
colonies to take up the manufacture of ottos of various
kinds. He then hoped that the extensive " Orangery "
near Sydney, belonging to Richard Hill, Esq., J.P.,
might soon send its products from " our antipodean
colony."

With regard to the lime, Mr. Piesse says : " It
grows most prolifically on Monserrat, one of the Lee-
ward Carribbee islands, and is now almost indigenous
there. A Monserrat Company has been formed, under
the management of Mr. J. Sturge. It annually pro-
duces no less than 1,000 pounds of the true otto of
Citron, all by the Ecuelle process, and it is so pure
that it is worth ' twice its present price in the market,'
but the products of Sicily compete with it to its dis-
advantage. Mr. Sturge says his citron* orchards con-
sist of 500 acres ; and that each acre contains about
200 trees. It takes seven years from the seed for
them to come into full bearing. They flower, more or
less, when they get rain, and the fruit ripens in about
four months after the flower appears. They bear fruit
all the year round,f but the chief harvest is from
September to January."

Any further information regarding ottos and the
preparation of scents can be obtained from this
interesting work on the "Art of Perfumery." I
have only extracted from it what concerns the Citrus
family.

It should not be forgotten that in addition to foreign

* Probably lime is meant. Vide pi. 228, fig. a.
t For this reason, the kaghzi nimboo is called " bctra mdsi " by
natives of India.

L

146 Oranges and Lemons of India.

trade, Orientals are intensely fond of scents. More-
over, when Africa is opened out it will be probably
found that the savages of Africa will appreciate scents,
and will largely patronize perfumers. Most natives of
India, however, prefer " ottos " pure and simple, rather
than " bouquet " scents.

It may not be, perhaps, generally known that the so-
called " aerated lemonade," if well made, is flavoured
with "lemon oil" — the otto of the lemon rind, imported
into India from Sicily.

In my experience I found that the plains of India
are not very favourable for obtaining a large quantity
of " otto " from any plant. The hot, dry atmosphere
appears to dissipate a good deal of the essential oil of
flowers and seeds, such as coriander, &c. Therefore,
the orange flowers would have to be collected before
sunrise in the morning, otherwise a cooler climate
would be preferable for extracting ottos profitably-
such as the Himalayan hills, wherever the Citrus can
be grown without being destroyed by frost in winter.
Wherever tea could be grown probably the orange,
lemon, and lime tree could also be grown. It is said,
for instance, that in Kumaon many kinds of Citrus
grow to perfection ; also in Buxa, Assam, and the
Khasia hills.

Besides the extraction of essential oils from the
Citrus rind, the latter can be made into " candied peel "
for purposes of confectionery. A combination of citric
acid, flavoured with lemon oil, I believe, enters into the
composition of lemon-drops. In Appendix, No. 45 and
No. 50, I have given a receipt for making candied citron
and lemon peels, taken from the " American Grocer,''
and from an Italian cookery book. It is not an article
likely to be made for export, but it may be service-
able for domestic purposes, and the internal trade of

Uses and Commercial Products of the Citrus. 147

India. I have always found that the imported candied
peel has an unpleasant turpentmy flavour. The essen-
tial oil of the rind loses its charming aroma by keeping
any length of time, however well bottled, while that
freshly made is very fine. Moreover, imported peels
are always very hard. As the Malta lemon is likely
soon to be largely cultivated in India, these receipts
may be of some use. Citron is already largely cul-
tivated.

The Seville orange, I found, is grown in most parts
of India and Ceylon. There is, perhaps, none better
for making marmalade, and this preserve will improve
by keeping. In the same Appendix, No. 49, I have
given a receipt for making marmalade, taken from
Francatelli's " Cook's Guide." The Seville or bitter
orange has a very aromatic and bitter rind, and a
sour pulp.

One of the best citrus preserves I have tried is the
" lemon jelly," a receipt for which is also given in Ap-
pendix, No. 51. I think it was originally taken from
the Queent and kindly given to me by a friend.
The best jelly is that made from the fresh Malta lemon,
but any acid citrus fruit taken fresh from the tree can
be preserved in the same way, such as the Seville
orange, the lime, the amilbed. The proportion of acid
pulp to rind can always be regulated according to in-
dividual tastes by lessening the one and increasing the
other, and if the fruit used is not sufficiently acid, more
juice can be added from some other kind. One thing
must be strictly attended to, however. The sugar
used for this jelly must be of the white crystalline kmti,
such as that of Cossipore ; otherwise the slightest
amount of treacle in the sugar will make a. jam, and
prevent the jelly setting.

Finally, the citron peel is preserved in syrup in

L 2

148 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Rampur, Rohilcund, and in Lucknow, under the name
of turunj ka murabba. Some kinds of citron peel
that are not too bitter, can also be candied. A friend
in India made some candied citron from the peel of the
madhkakree of Almora, according to the receipts given
in the Appendix. It succeeded admirably, and all who
tasted it pronounced it delicious. It cannot be imagined
how different the fresh, soft, and aromatic candied
peels are from the stale hard peels imported at a high
price from Europe. Tons of marmalades and jams
are annually imported from Europe, while all could be
made in India of a nicer and fresher flavour.

We now come to a very important use to which the
citrus family can be put. My belief is that in India
the worst plague we have to contend against is inter-
mittent fever, with its consequent disorganization of
the blood, disturbed secretions, enlarged spleen, &c.

In 1885, in the Etawah Jail Garden, I had about
three hundred Malta lemon trees in full bearing. At
that time I read in the medical journals * that Dr.
Maglieri of Italy had found that the peasants used a
decoction of lemon to recover from the cachexia left by
intermittent fever. He tried the experiment himself,
and published the results. Then Dr. Lauchlin Aiken
of Rome made other experiments with this decoction
in cases of fever, and found it very valuable. As I
had a large quantity of the same lemon on the trees, I
undertook an extensive series of experiments to ascer-
tain the real value of this remedy. I shall not here
trouble the reader with the details of my experiments.
They have been reported to Government, and pub-
lished in the medical journals, and in " Braithwaite's
Retrospect of the Medical Sciences." The conclusions

* British Medical Journal ', of October 4th, 1884, p. 653, and
" Braithwaite's Retrospect," ending June, 1885.

Uses and Commercial Products of the Citriis. 149

I came to from the series of experiments I made were
the following : — (a) For simple intermittent fever, with-
out any other complications, the decoction of lemon
and of the khatta orange is almost as good a febrifuge
as quinine, and acts with rapidity, even in tertian and
quartan fever, (ti) In cases of weakness and loss of
appetite after fever the effect is even more quickly de-
veloped. It shows itself after the second dose, im-
proving the appetite and digestion, and diffusing vigour
through the nervous and muscular systems. I tried
three kinds of sour citrus in such cases, and they ap-
peared equally good, (c) Incases of recently enlarged
spleen, even when of three or four months' standing,
these decoctions (excepting the fluoride of ammonium,
which is equally good) are the best splenifuges I am
acquainted with, (d) When the spleen is very large
and of years' standing, it takes a prolonged treatment
to reduce and soften it. In such cases, probably neither
the decoction of citrus nor any other remedy known will
make the spleen entirely disappear, that is, reduce it to
its normal size. To test the value of these decoctions
in very large and old spleens, such as we often see in
natives of India, it would require that the patient
should voluntarily submit to the treatment for several
months.

I believe all the sour citrus would be valuable in the
above diseases ; but I had not the opportunity of trying
them all. The most numerous trials were with the
decoction of lemon ; then came a less numerous series
with the decoction of khatta orange. I made some
experiments also with the Seville orange and the
ordinary lime. They were all valuable, but the most
pleasant to take is, I think, the decoction of lemon.

It would appear, therefore, that in the genus citrus
we have a remedial agent of much potency for inter-

150 Oranges and Lemons of India.

mittent fevers and their consequences.* If chemists
could be induced to take up the subject, and endeavour
to extract the medicinal principle in some cheap form,
a new departure in febrifuges and splenifuges might
be brought about. The raw material can be grown
everywhere, and during the season of 1885-6, it was
stated that the fruit was allowed to rot on the trees in
Sicily, because it did not pay the growers to pack and
ship it to other countries, prices having been consider-
ably lowered by competition from various parts of the
world. If, therefore, the active principle could be
cheaply extracted, not only the superabundant fruit of
the world would be utilised, but a more extended market
found for this important fruit. In Appendix, No. 48,
will be found the receipt for making this decoction,
according to the method used by the Italian peasants.

It would be interesting to find out whether the active
principle exists ready-made in the fruit, or is brought
out by the action of the boiling citric acid on the
essential oil and bitter principle of the rind, and whether
it exists only in some citrus, or in all the fruits of the
genus, and whether it also exists in the leaves, bark,
and wood of these trees. In Appendix, No. 46, c and dy
are given the native modes of administering the lemon
or lime for spleen, and in No. 52 similar uses are made
of a kind of orange.

In the " Penny Cyclopaedia" the following occurs :
" In the West Indies, lemon juice, with common salt,
is used in dysentery, remittent fever, dry belly-ache
(colic), putrid sore throat, &c. Dr. Wright also
recommends it in diabetes, and lientery."

" According to Sir G. Blane, the solution of citric
acid is not so efficacious in preventing and curing sea-
scurvy, as the recent lemon-juice."

* Vide Appendix, No. 52, and pi. 40, fig. d.

Uses and Commercial Products of the Citrus. 151

" Externally, slices of lemon form useful applica-
tions to scorbutic and other sores, and also at the
commencement of hospital gangrene."

The Seville orange, besides making the best marma-
lade, is used for making tincture of orange peel, which
is mixed with nauseous medicines, to disguise their
revolting taste. From its skin, orange candied peel
is made. It is also used for flavouring the Curagoa
liqueur.

Natives of India make a very nice pickle out of the
whole pulp of the lemon. Before they were acquainted
with the Malta lemon, they made it from the pulp of
the true lime (kaghzi nimboo] ; but those who have
tried the lemon say that it makes a much finer
flavoured pickle, and would not again use the lime
if they could obtain the lemon. This lemon-pickle is
not only nice, but will keep, with care, for a whole
year. In Appendix, No. 46, are given receipts for
making lemon-pickles of all sorts.

There appears to be yet another use, and a very
important one, for sweet oranges. Latterly experi-
ments have been made to ascertain the value of the
juice of sweet oranges for making wine, and I believe
this beverage is already manufactured in considerable
quantities from sweet orange juice. Considering that
in many parts of the world the phylloxera has ruined
the vineyards, and that in consequence "chemical
wines," of all sorts, have been abundantly poured on
the markets, the news of a genuine wine, made from
genuine oranges, will be acceptable to every one ; at
all events to all those who are not teetotalers. With
reference to this new industry, the following occurs in
the Gardeners Chronicle of I3th February, 1886,
p. 209. Under the head of " Wine from oranges,"
and quoting from the Queenslander it says : "In

152 Oranges and Lemons of India.

response to our request for practical information, a
vine grower, and wine maker, who has within the last
few years visited many of the European continental
vineyards, called upon us. He informs us, and wishes
the fact to be made widely known, that a most
excellent wine can be made from the juice of the
orange, and that since the troubles caused by the
phylloxera, a large proportion of the " sherry " of
commerce, is "orange wine." The article adds, that
in Florida, wine is being made from oranges.

Sugar forms a considerable part of the sweet orange
juice. In addition, some varieties contain also vary-
ing proportions of mucilage and citric acid. There
is no reason why wine of some sort should not be
made from orange juice. There are very few parts of
the world, where the cold is not too great, in which
some variety of sweet orange could not be grown.
Cultivation, and other methods would increase the
amount of sugar. Who can say that the Bootwal
sweet orange would not make a good palatable wine ?

Upon the whole, many of the citrus fruit, especially
the sour ones, are so useful and important in many
ways, that villagers should be everywhere encouraged
to grow them in their back yards, and anywhere, out
of the reach of goats and cattle, near the villages.
The daily drainage of water from their wells, bathing,
and washing of pots and pans, if led by a channel to
the lemon trees, would suffice as a daily watering in
summer, so that once sown or planted, no further
care would be necessary. The kaghzi nimboo, the
Malta lemon, or bukhdr ki nimboo (as it is now some-
times called) and the kkatta orange, are all so easily
grown from seed and layers, that these useful remedies
ought to be readily brought to the door of every
villager in India, to be utilized on his first getting

Uses and Commercial Products of the Citrus. 153

intermittent fever.* If the properties and general
usefulness of limes, lemons, &c., were taught in
schools, it would not take much persuasion to induce
every zemindar in a village to have a small garden,
near a well, where some lemon or lime trees could be
grown. The school is the best channel for intro-
ducing useful ideas among the people of India. The
rising generation will then be almost sure to make
them household sayings.

* It should be noted that natives believe that for the first three
days of intermittent fever, nothing should be done ! This is Hakim-
nonsense. The sooner intermittent fever is dealt with, the sooner
it will be cured, and the less consequences will occur.

154

CHAPTER XIII.

THE ORANGE AND LEMON TRADE OF INDIA.

UNDER this heading will be of course included, not
only the trade in oranges and lemons, but also in limes,
citrons, and pummelos.

It would appear that on the North Eastern border
of India, there are two or three places at which suntara
oranges are grown to some extent for exportation to
other places. Nagpore and its surrounding country,
in the Central Provinces, is another centre of consider-
able trade in oranges. Delhi is another. There does
not appear to be any more centres of orange cultivation,
except for local consumption, and for export to the
immediate surroundings of the place, where they may
be grown. Of course each station has its few orchards
of oranges, but these are a mere nothing, and their
produce is either locally consumed, or finds its way to
the railway stations in the vicinity ; so that a small
trade is carried on at almost all large railway stations
in the orange season.

Mr. G. Stevenson, Deputy Commissioner of Sylhet,
has very courteously furnished me with the following
statistics of the trade in the Sylhet orange, called in
Bengal kamala lemboo, it is said from the name of
one of the rivers, in the vicinity of which this orange
is largely grown : —

Orange and Lemon Trade of India. 155

Boat Traffic.

Quant, in Mds.

Value in Rs. ^

...

i88o-8i

,20,398

2,40,796

1881-82

,46,592

not known.

1882-83

,02,631

1,28,288

1883-84

,14,969

2,27,062

1884-85

,20,884 .

2,47,352

This averaged about 1,21,095 maunds of oranges
per annum, worth from i J lacs to lilacs of Rupees, in
favourable years. These statistics only deal with
exports to Bengal, and mostly to Calcutta. No account
is kept of oranges consumed locally, and in the im-
mediate surroundings of the orange groves.

Mr. J. D. Anderson, Officiating Deputy Com-
missioner of Sibsagur, Upper Assam, further states
that this orange is also called sumthira tenga, and
that the traffic is carried on first by the barki boats
of the hill streams, and then by the larger country
boats of the beparis, who - take them to Dhaka, and
Goalundo. From the latter place they are, I believe,
railed to Calcutta.

Mr. C. Brownlow, writing in the Journal of the
A.H.S of India (part iv., new series, vol. i. 1869,
p. 372), on the orange groves of Shalla, says that the
trade of this district in 1869, was in limestone, oranges,
potatoes, India-rubber, and other minor articles. The
oranges came from Shalla. The orange mart is at
Chattuck, or South bank of the Soorma river, and
directly opposite to the mouth of the Shalla river (a
tributary of the Soorma). The custom was to count
the oranges in fours, and 750 fours made a sou of
3,000, and the prices were so much per sou. Rain

156 Oranges and Lemons of India.

is injurious to the fruit when in bulk. It then soon
moulds, and goes bad. This keeping property is im-
portant, as far as the Calcutta trade is concerned. So
that the finest oranges, with delicate thin skin, are
mostly kept for local consumption, as they don't bear
transport well. Even of the thicker skinned ones,
which are sent to Calcutta, a certain percentage rots as
they are sent in heaps in boats. No mode of packing
was used to prevent them from spoiling on the way.

The oranges at the " Phalli " Bazar were of inferior
quality (as far as keeping properties were concerned),
being thin-skinned and small, but of exquisite
sweetness and flavour. They were, therefore, all sold
locally and quickly. At the ghat their price was
Rs. 6 per sou (3,000), being less than the Shalla
oranges, at the groves, and yet in the case of the
" Phalli " oranges, Rs. 6 includes the labour of cultiva-
tion as well as carriage, at the rate of ten men to a
sou. A Khasia reckoned his labour worth 8 annas
' per day, and as only half his day must be reckoned,
the remaining half being occupied with victuals, it
would appear the oranges might be sold at the
poongees at the rate of about 15 for a pice. Mostock
is immediately above Shalla, at about 1,000 feet eleva-
tion. Mr. Brownlow got very good oranges there at
eight for a pice. From some of the poongees, as
well as from the Mhowmloo Valley, oranges are carried
to Cherrapoongee, where, when in season, they sell at
five to eight for a pice, and are of a delicious thin-
skinned variety. At Cherra, they may be had a month
or more after they are out of season. These late
oranges, which are much relished by some, sell some-
times at one pice* each.

From 1869 to date, I have no other information

* A pice is about one farthing.

Orange and Lemon Trade of India. 157

about the trade in the so-called Sylhet oranges, except
that kindly sent by Mr. G. Stevenson from Sylhet,
previously given.

" Buxa Dooar " is another place where fine oranges
are grown. I have seen specimens of the Buxa orange,
kindly sent to me by the Surgeon in charge of that
station, at the request of Colonel Rutherford, com-
manding the 33rd Regiment N.I. The Buxa oranges
are of the suntara race, and as good as, though not
better than, those of Sylhet. I have no statistics, if
there be any, of the trade in Bhootan oranges.

We come now to the borders of Nepal, north of
Goruckpore. Beyond the Raptee and within the
Nepal border, there is a place called BootwaL In
this district a small orange of the suntara type
grows. It is the sweetest, although the smallest of the
suntara race, excepting the kumquat, one of the speci-
mens sent from Buxa, was not unlike the Bootwal
orange in size.

Major Buller, District Superintendent of Police in
Gonda, Oudh, has been good enough to send me the
following information regarding this interesting little
orange : —

" A head constable of mine says that he had a kohar
once, who had visited Bootwal. This is the name of
a large town beyond the Raptee. It gives its name
also to a kergh. The orange is called suntolah
and is not known in Nepal under the name of
Bootwal orange. The orange trees grow wild, not in
the valley, but on the hills. However, the hills are
all parcelled out between different persons, and
although the fruit trees are not in any way cultivated,
the produce cannot be plucked and sold by any one,
except the owner of that particular plot. The oranges
are brought down and sold at bazars, on market days,

158 Oranges and Lemons of India.

in towns adjacent to our territory They are bought
by koonjrasy kbhars, and other dealers, and by them
taken to Goruckpore, Bustee, Fyzabad, Benares, &c.

" Dr. Cameron's mali in Gonda, says that this
orange is called suntowrea, and that it is grown at
Bootwal, and there alone.

" I met a havildar of the ist Goorkha regiment.
He confirms what I told you about the suntolak
orange. It grows wild in the hills, and not in the
plains of Nepal, the Rap tee valley, &c. By cultiva-
tion, the orange becomes sweeter, bigger, and has a
thinner skin, otherwise the wild and cultivated oranges

are one."

This small sweet suntolah, orange from " Boot-
wal," was hardly known beyond Goruckpore some
time ago, but now, since the railway has been opened
north of the Ghagra, this curious little wild, and very
sweet orange, averaging about 6J inches in girth, has
found its way to Benares, and no doubt, in time it
will reach other places. Kumaon also, has some local
trade in oranges.

Next to Sylhet, and its vicinity, the largest centre
of orange trade is Nagpore and its surroundings, in
the Central Provinces. Mr. J. B. Fuller, states that
"this orange is the great speciality of the black soil
country in the fruit line."

In my opinion the Nagpore orange is the best
flavoured of all the suntara type of oranges, and Mr.
Fuller thinks it is " decidedly the best of any which
he has tasted in India." That from Bootwal is sweeter,
but many think it is too sweet, and that a mixture of
sweetness with sufficient acid to make an agreeable
flavour, such as that of the Nagpore orange, is pre-
ferable. The Bombay market is largely supplied with
oranges from the Central Provinces, and there is

Orange and Lemon Trade of Inaia. 159

probably little doubt that the black soil of those
Provinces has a great deal to do with the fine flavour
of the suntara orange grown there.

Mr. J. H. Fisher, C. S., collector of Etawah, who had
been, at one time stationed in the Central Provinces,
has kindly given me the following information.

" It is now ten years since I was in the Nagpur and
Chattisgurh Divisions of the Central Provinces, and
so I speak from memory. In the Wardha district, as
in Nagpur, there were a good number of large orange
groves, the produce of which was sent down to
Bombay. The tree there ripens fruit twice a year, in
the late autumn, the crop being called, amha bar ;
and in the late spring, when it is called mirrik bar*
The trees thrive prodigiously in the rich black soil of
the country, which being decomposed trap rock, is
highly calcareous, so that they get the lime that the
whole tribe of citrus so delight in. The orange
groves are planted not only near the railway, but at
considerable distances from it. I remember some in
the Arvi Tehsil of the Wardha district, and also in the
Sausar Tehsil, in the south of the Chindwara district.
The groves that I remember were planted out in the
open, without reference to any shelter or protection
from large trees.

4 'When I was in camp in 1873, in the South-east
corner of the Raipur district in the zamindari of
Khariar, I remember the Rajah of Kalabandi, a
feudatory state in the neighbouring district of Sam-
balpur, coming to see me. He brought with him
some huge baskets full of oranges, the produce, he
told me of wild orange trees, which grew in certain
places in the forests on his estate. As they were out
out of my district, I never had an opportunity of
* This is the Dumrtz, or after crop of other places.

1 60 Oranges and Lemons of India.

seeing these wild trees, and forming an opinion, as to
their origin, i.e., whether they were really indigenous,
or were the descendants of trees brought from else-
where. In any case, the oranges, though not so
large as the cultivated variety, had the same charac-
teristics as the Nagpur orange, and were very sweet.

"When at Chindwara in 1876, I imported (with
vines, olive grafts, figs, and mulberries) some varieties
of oranges from Naples. One or two of the plants I
took with me to Jabulpur in 1877, and left them
there in 1878. The others remained at Chindwara.
Whether any of these trees have survived the changes
of district officers that have since taken place, and
established themselves in these districts, I know not."
The Nagpore orange is locally called suntara by
natives.

Mr. J. B. Fuller, has courteously furnished me with

the following statistics of the orange trade of Nagpur.

" Within the last twelve years many new orchards

have been planted in Nagpur, Kamptee, and other

parts of the district ; and orange cultivation is now

spreading rapidly in other districts of the province.

" There is a great demand for the Nagpore orange in

Bombay, and considerable quantities of the fruit are

annually exported to this and other places. In the

year 1885, 22,609 niaunds of orange fruit were

exported from the Nagpur station, out of which

21,400 maunds were exported to Bombay alone."

This paper was drawn up by the Superintendant

of the Government garden of Nagpore.

In addition, Mr. H. J. P. Thomson, secretary to the
Great Indian Peninsula Railway Company, has been
good enough to furnish me with the following particu-
lars of the traffic in oranges from Nagpur, during
1885:—

Orange and Lemon Trade of India. 161

Maunds.

By goods trains 4,326

By passenger trains 22,512

Total 26,838

Delhi and its surroundings is, as I said, another
centre of some orange trade, but it appears to import
more than it exports. The sintra or rungtra orange
of Delhi is sufficiently well known. It is a baggy,
loose-skinned orange, usually without much pretension
to symmetry of form. Mr. George Smith, the Deputy-
Commissioner of Delhi, has kindly favoured me with
the following statistics regarding the orange trade of
that district. The memorandum was drawn up by the
Tehsildar of Delhi.

" The rungtra orange of Delhi is exported to
Meerut, Jeypore, Bombay, and to some other minor
places. About 200 maunds are exported per annum,
valued at 1,600 rupees, or eight rupees per maund.

" Then from Ulwar, Nagpur, Gurgaon, and villages
across the river Jumna, about 2,000 maunds are im-
ported into Delhi, valued at about 24,000 rupees, or
12 rupees per maund."

The latter figures appeared doubtful. I referred
them again to Mr. Smith, who said they were correct,
the imports being made at a later period, when oranges
fetched a higher price.

I have seen the orange gardens of Delhi. The
whole system of orange cultivation there is faulty and
slovenly.* With its fine variety of suntara, its good
soil, canal irrigation, and railway communications,
Delhi ought to export more than Nagpore. While
the latter exported over 26,000 maunds, the former
only exported 200 maunds, and imported 2,000 maunds.

* See Chapter XI. on " The Cultivation of the Orange— Delhi
Gardens."

M

1 62 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Although all these oranges are of the suntara type,
they are different varieties. The Sylhet orange raised
from seed does remarkably well in Lucknow, while
that of Delhi does very badly there. Of two Nagpore
varieties, one does fairly in Lucknow, the other pro-
duces nothing.

We have then the Sylhet orange, kamla lemboo,
the Bhootan orange, the Bootwal, or suntolah, or
suntowrea orange, the Nagpore orange, and the sintra
orange of Delhi, all varieties of the one type of orange,
the suntara of moderns.

This type of orange is found in many other parts of
India, and also in Ceylon. In Lahore a pretty pear-
shaped variety is grown under the name of karna
or sungtara. In Mooltan another round variety is
also called sungtara. A variety grown in Poona is
called suntara. In the Shevarays another curious
variety of the same type goes by the name of
"Country orange." In Yercaud it is given the native
name of kolinje, and about Madras, kitchlee. This
information I obtained from Dr. G. Shortt, who
very kindly sent me a specimen of this interest-
ing " Country orange." I was informed that in
Canarese the orange is called kitle hannoo. The
Western Coast of India, South of Goa, is supplied
from Coorg with an orange of the suntara type. In
Ceylon they have a konda ndrun, almost an exact copy
of the Nagpore orange, although of a different variety;
and a larger variety called there jaw a ndrun.
In Kandy the latter is smooth, but in Colombo
I found some sub-warty, with a more pronounced
pear-shapedness. Somehow these suntara oranges of
Ceylon have got the name of mandarin oranges.
None of the above, however, is true mandarin -,
although the latter is allied to the suntara type of

Orange and Lemon Trade of India. 163

orange. Any one, having once scented the leaf or
the rind of a true mandarin orange, can always recog-
nise it again.*

The kbnda ndrun of Ceylon, which, as I said, is
much like that of Nagpore, is eaten always in its green
state. It could be found in the markets of Ceylon
during all November. It had not an unpleasant
flavour, but appeared to be unripe. Some said, how-
ever, that it is better flavoured in its green state. It
is so habitually plucked, sold, and eaten in its green
unripe state, that the people there may have come to
look upon it as a green orange which never turns of an
orange colour. As I had never heard of a green
orange, and as I did not believe in one, I bought two
dozen of these green kbnda ndrun.\ On leaving
Kandy on December nth, I wrapped each in a bit of
newspaper, and packed them loosely in a covered
bamboo basket. They travelled with me from Kandy
to Colombo by rail, crossed the channel to Tuticorin on
the igth, and travelled all the way by the South India
Railway, Madras, G. I. P. and E. I. Railways to
Etawah, where I reached on January ist. On opening
the basket, I found only one spoilt. All the others
were either turning or had turned yellow. I kept
them till January 2oth unpacked, when I took them
out of their papers, and all had turned of a yellow-
orange colour, and only one more had spoilt in the
meantime. All the rest (twenty-two) were sound, and
of a nice flavour, and juicy. I sent some to Mr.
Ridley, Lucknow, who found them also very nice. It
would appear, therefore, that the green orange has no

* For the probable origin of the true mandarin in Ceylon, see
Chapter VI., on "The keonla and mandarin Group."

t Rumphius, however, mentions a similar orange which is eaten
while green.

M 2

164 Oranges and Lemons of India.

locus standi* The fact is, in Ceylon, not only the
orange is gathered unripe, but all other fruit. I was
never more astonished than when I visited the Ceylon
markets.

All the fruit I found was unripe. Even pine-apples,
which ought to be the glory of Ceylon, were unripe,
and worse flavoured than those grown in Philibeet.
The only fruit worth having, then, was the plantain,
and this is one of the few which can be gathered in
an unripe state and hung up to ripen, without losing
much flavour, although if cut too early, this also will
lose flavour.

It should not be supposed, however, that people in
India are innocent of the vice of gathering fruit in its
unripe state. They everywhere do so, more or less —
ist, because sometimes it pays them better to do so ;
2nd, because the longer they leave it on the tree, the
longer they have to watch it ; yd, if they do not
watch it, it is likely to be stolen, or eaten by parrots,
monkeys, &c. In the Etawah Jail Garden, the pur-
chaser of the fruit gathered all the Malta oranges in
October, in their green state. There was a mela (fair)
on, and he said he could get a good price for them.
The palate of the people of India has been spoilt,
because they have rarely had a chance of tasting a
delicious fruit, well ripened on the tree. The mango
and the plantain are perhaps exceptions, as they can
be ripened off the tree, and retain their flavour if not
plucked too early, although they often spoil mangoes
also by endeavouring to bring them too early into the
market. If a fruit is pluckedy^^ before it ripens, then
its own freshness enables it, off the tree, to continue
the change to full ripeness.

* It may probably be a variety which is late in taking on colour.
The Nagpore variety, I think, colours earlier.

Orange and Lemon Trade of India. 165

Besides oranges of the suntara type, which are
smooth, and of a yellowish orange colour, there are
those called naranghi and keonla. The latter word
appears nothing but a modification of kamla. They
are both redder, rougher, and usually smaller than the
suntara orange, otherwise they are much of the same
shape and size. Moreover, they have often a flat-
tened mammilla on the apex. Natives make a distinc-
tion between naranghi and keonla, but I could not find
any distinction. If there be any, it is that some
naranghi are sweeter than the keonla. The latter, in
its unripe state, is very sour, and unless thoroughly
ripened on the tree, or, as some say, off the tree, it is
hardly edible. By December and Christmas time all
the suntaras are gathered. They are left so long on
the trees, because they fetch a good price during
Christmas week. But they would, as a rule, improve
vastly in flavour if left on the trees for another fort-
night or three weeks. Some varieties, however, if left
too long on the tree, dry up and become juiceless,
especially if the trees are not watered.

The keonla sweetens , later, and is therefore
better for being kept on the tree till the end
of January and later ; so that it comes in as a
late orange. It does not appear, however, in great
favour, probably on account of its sourness. It is,
nevertheless, a good cropper. It is found every-
where, but I am not aware that there is anywhere
in India any centre of great trade in the keonla
orange, as there is in its more popular sister — the
suntara orange.

Besides the foregoing type of orange, there is
another, and a totally distinct one. It is larger and
closer-skinned, and with a totally different flavour. I
mean that of the Malta orange type. Although I

166 Oranges and Lemons of India.

have found oranges of this type in many parts of
India and Ceylon, there does not appear to be any-
where any special trade in this kind of orange. As I
have written fully of these in another chapter, I need
only enumerate their varieties here, viz., the peni-
dbdan of Ceylon ; thebandir or chinee, and " Spanish"
oranges of Tanjore ; the Mussembi of Poona ; the
Malta and paenbagh oranges of Lucknow ; the Suez,
and blood-oranges of Jaunpore ; and the famous
blood-orange of Gujranwala. All these are of the
Malta or Portugal sweet orange type.

Although India has so many fine varieties of citrus,
and so manydifferent climates and soils to grow them in,
the reader would perhaps hardly believe that Bombay
imports oranges and lemons from Africa and Arabia.

Mr. Moore, the Acting Commissioner of Customs,
Bombay, has very courteously favoured me with the
following statistics regarding the imports of oranges
and sweet lemons from Zanzibar and Muscat. The
figures for 1885-86 are from ist April to 22nd March,
1886.

1884-5.

1885-6.

Rs.

Rs.

Zanzibar Oranges

i>743

836

Muscat sweet Lemons ....

1.555

1,695

Although the Seville orange is to be found in many
places, both in India and Ceylon, there is no demand
for it. It makes the best marmalade. Who knows
how many tons of tinned marmalade are imported
annually from England ?

The Mandarin orange is only suited to moist
climates, where hot winds do not prevail, such as
Bengal, the Western Coast and Ghats, Ceylon and

Orange and Lemon Trade of India. 167

Burma. There is no reason why Ceylon should not
supply Bombay and Calcutta with this delicate
orange. It has only to be made known for a demand
to grow up.

The khatta orange is mainly utilized for its seeds.
They are sown in most places for the purpose of rais-
ing young stock to bud on. It appears, however,
that seedlings of the sweet lemon ought to replace
it for budding sweet varieties on.

There now remain the pummelos, citrons, limes,
and lemons.

The best pummelos I have seen are the thin-
skinned red pummelos of Bombay. They come in
about Christmas, are juicy, and of the colour of raw
beef internally, and of globose shape. There is no
reason why this fine kind should not be extensively
grown. All the other varieties of pummelo I have
seen in India and Ceylon are not to be compared with
this, and hardly worth propagating to any extent.

The citrons are very little used, except for medi-
cinal purposes. On the western coast of India they
have many large varieties, and at Mangalore they eat
the thick sweet skin after peeling off the bitter rind.
In Lucknow and in Rampur, Rohilcund, and other
places, they make a preserve of the thick skin of the
citron, which they call turunj. All the citrons,
both sweet and sour, have a dry pulp.

From the borders of Nepal I received a citron-like
khatta orange, of the size of a small jack-fruit,
with a girth of 24 inches, 10 inches long and 7^ inches
diameter. There it is called rus kankur, kat-
thairee nimboo, or beora. It had no seeds, a pale
sour pulp, and a thick sweet skin, which is the only
part eaten. These specimens were sent to me by
Major Buller. Mr. Hein, of the Lahore Government

1 68 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Garden, sent me a smaller specimen of this same
variety, which he says is there called gulguL

The limes are the most used. They are to be
found everywhere, and where no other Citrus is found
some kind of lime is sure to be found. Nevertheless,
it is astonishing that so common a thing, so useful a
fruit, and a tree so easily raised from seed, is not to be
found in villages of the N. W. Provinces. There is
not a village in the whole of India, perhaps, where the
kaghzi nimboo would not readily grow.

A large and profitable trade might be made from
the sweet lemons. They are much appreciated by
natives, and fetch a good price. They call them
sherbetee, or mitha nimboo, and also amrutphal.
The best flavoured sorts are grown in dry climates,
such as those of Mooltan and Muscat. Bombay
is supplied with this mitha nimboo, both from Nag-
pore and from Muscat. From the latter place two
sorts are imported. A round one, of the size of the
Indian sweet lemon, and a large pear-shaped one.
(Vide plate 195, fig. c.) These sweet lemons are well
worth the attention of any one desirous of growing
fruit for profit. Natives appear to prefer them to any
other kind of Citrus, and give a higher price for them.
To the European palate, however, the total absence of
a sub-acid is a disqualification, though certainly not in
the opinion of all.

The sour lemons, finally, may be divided into
bajouras, a sort of citron-lemons, with a good deal
of sour juice in them ; lemons proper ; and a group of
Citrus known by the name of gungolee and behari
lemons.

Neither of these have I seen in any market except
that of Pondicherry. They have there a lemon which
appears like the Malta lemon, but smaller. The

Orange and Lemon Trade of India. 169

French there call it Citron, as they do the lemon in
France.

The Malta lemon is now known and grown in
many places. It is one of the easiest to grow, and
has thrived wherever it has been tried; its fruit is
one of the most useful for various purposes. No trade
in lemons, however, has yet grown up. The bajouras,
or citron-lemons, on account of their thick skin, are
never likely to be much used, except for their peel.
On the contrary, the lemon, besides being of a con-
venient size, has a thin skin, and is full of a fine
flavoured acid juice.

In the Punjab they have a large sour lemon, about
two or three times larger than the Malta lemon. It is
called gulgul. It is a very good lemon where a large
quantity of juice is wanted at one time, or for making
lemon jelly, or bottled lemon juice. They have a
somewhat similar one in Kumaon, which is there
called " Kumaon lemon." It is also found in Saha-
ranpore, and I have been told that during the month
of April it is largely sold in Mussoorie. There are
other sour lemons, but they are not common.

All these lemons would keep well if left on the
trees, a certain number on each tree, so as not to
prevent the spring flowers from setting. Natives are
always in too great a hurry to gather and sell their
fruit. If left on the trees till the hot weather, espe-
cially where there are extensive groves, these sour
lemons would vastly increase in value.

In my opinion the Citrus trade of India, although
many of its varieties are almost indigenous to this
country, is absurdly small. It would admit of great
expansion, with profit to the grower and the con-
sumer, and now, with the network of Indian railways,
there are few places to which they might not be

1 70 Oranges and Lemons of India.

carried in a short space of time. There is probably no
part of India, from the Himalayas to Ceylon, and
from Sylhet and Bhootan to Sindh and Bombay,
where either one variety or another might not be
largely and profitably grown.

As I have shown in the case of the Mandarin and
Malta oranges, every soil and every climate will not
suit all oranges. This is a great advantage, as every
soil and climate would create a speciality of one or
two varieties of citrus, which would be best suited to
that locality. In this way the varieties would not
compete with each other and flood the markets with
the same kind, at the same time. I may here sketch
a sort of geographical distribution of the various kinds
of citrus which now find favour with the public, and
of others which should be more widely known ; but of
course this sketch is very imperfect.

Gujranwala and Jaunpore might grow, with advan-
tage, the late blood and other Malta oranges; Kumaon
its " Bagheshwar " orange ; Nepal its sweet little sun-
tolah orange, and the little known Nepal lemon ;
Bhootan and the Eastern hills, the kamla lemboo ;
Delhi, Nagpore, and Ceylon their own fine special
suntara. That of Ceylon is the green orange, which
travels so well. Bengal, Ceylon, and West Coast of
South India and Burma might probably grow the
delicate mandarin. Tanjore might largely grow its
fine bandir ; Aurungabad, Deccan, its fine warty-red
keonla. Poona might make a speciality of, and im-
prove its flat laroo, a kind of keonla, and of its
furrowed mussemfo, one of the Malta type. Bombay,
or wherever it is grown, would do a service if it made
a speciality of its fine thin-skinned and red juicy round
pummelo, and supplied half India with it. From
Mooltan and Sindh would come the best flavoured

Orange and Lemon Trade of India. 171

sherbetee nimboo, or sweet lemons. Although this can
be grown in other places, I do not think it is so well
flavoured. Lucknow might make a speciality of its
fine large behari nimboo, and its kaghzi kalan.
In this locality also grow well the seedling Sylhet
orange, and fazpaenbag/i orange of the Malta type.
And Lahore has its pretty pear-shaped karna.

The large sour and juicy lemon, called gulgul,
grows well in the Punjab, Kumaon, Saharunpore,
and on the borders of Nepal, and would probably
grow well in many other places, as I saw it growing
well in Benares. Finally, the Malta lemon and the
different varieties of true limes appear to grow well
all over India ; and as they are very useful, both medi-
cinally and for various domestic purposes, it would be
a great advantage to grow them, not only in every
city and large town, but in every village in every part
of India.

By restricting the varieties to be grown on a large
scale, to those most suited to a particular locality, a
race of growers would be trained, who would
thoroughly understand the wants of that particular
variety, and would grow up from their childhood
thoroughly conversant with the best mode of dealing
with it, both with regard to pruning, propagating, and
cultivating it generally ; and the best mode of packing
and keeping its fruit for a long time. The secret of
profit is to watch the markets and not flood them with
all kinds at the same time, as natives often do.

Then for carrying the oranges, lemons, &c., from
place to place, quick steamers are wanted, good coal
in India for the return journey, and refrigerators.
Perhaps petroleum fuel may yet be cheap enough to
be used extensively as a fuel. Then as Indian wheat
competes favourably, in the European market, with

1 72 Oranges and Lemons of India.

American wheat, so might, not impossibly, Indian
oranges, of a dozen different varieties, compete
favourably with Florida, Trinidad, and Brazil oranges.

Excluding Europe, however, there is looming in
the distance an opening for an extensive trade in the
oranges and lemons of India. The Russians are
hurrying on their railways from the North, and the
British from the South-east. These two railway
systems must meet sooner or later, because it will
probably be the interest of both empires to make
them meet. When that time comes, the orange and
lemon trade of India should receive a great impetus.
The Russians are great tea-drinkers, and their favourite
mode of drinking tea is with a slice of lemon with
sugar, and the hot tea poured over them, without the
use of milk. This Russian mode of drinking tea is
extremely nice, especially in the hot weather. Now
supposing each Russian used one lemon per day, it
can easily be seen what a vast number Russia would
consume. The Central Asians are also great tea-
drinkers, and they will not be slow in adopting the
Russian mode of drinking tea with a slice of lemon ;
so that the future prospects of the lemon trade of
India are not at all bad.

But, again, leaving the foreign trade entirely out of
the question as chimerical, there is no reason why the
internal trade in oranges and lemons all over India
should not be largely developed ; and there appears
no good reason why with management the supply of
oranges should not be kept up from December to
July, considering the many fine varieties that India
possesses. Then some sort of sour lemon, lime or
orange should be procurable all the year round. In
Italy the time lemons are most used is in the summer,
for making granlta, or iced lemonade. And there is

Orange and Lemon Trade of India. 173

no doubt that India, with its numerous varieties of
sour citrus, could supply its internal trade all the
year round. To effect this, cheap and quick railway
transit for fruit is needed. A waggon or two for fruit
might perhaps be attached to mail trains, and fruit
carried at the cheapest goods rates. Thus convenience
and advantage to everybody might be the result.
There is also no reason why in each passenger train
fruit sellers should not have a stall in one of the third-
class compartments, wired in to prevent stealing. In
my opinion enough sensible use is not made of pas-
senger trains.

The following will show to what distance fresh fruit
can be carried, provided it is sound and carefully
packed. In the Gardeners Chronicle, of March 6th,
1886, p. 306, under the head of "Fruit from the
Cape," the following occurs : — " Messrs. Webber and
Co., of Covent Garden, last week received a small
consignment of pears — Louis Bon and Beurre Super-
fin — in splendid condition, after a voyage of 8,000
miles. They anticipate in the future from the same
source a regular supply of various sorts throughout the
spring months."

Then, during the Colonial Exhibition in London, it
is stated that from Australia, apples, pears, oranges,
grapes, &c., &c., arrived in excellent order in London
weekly.

From an experiment I have myself made, I found
that the kbnda narun of Ceylon stood a long journey
very well, even packed in a very rough way.

Finally, some lemons sent to me from Mr. Stalkartt's
garden in Calcutta stood the following journey perfectly.
First they were sent to me in Etawah ; I examined
them, repacked them, and sent them all the way to
Bangalore, via Bombay and Madras.

1 74 Oranges and Lemons of India.

I sent dozens of Malta lemons, simply wrapped in
common paper and packed in boxes, to Lahore, and
to the interior of the Himalayan mountains. They
all reached their destination in perfect condition.

It is a wonder to me that ships continue to take
unpalatable lime juice in bottles, when they could take
fresh lemons or limes, packed in this way, which would
remain in a good condition for a long time, and if
kept in a refrigerator they might possibly be taken all
round the world without being damaged. But as either
lemons or limes are now found all over the world, a
ship might replenish its supply of these fresh fruits
every fortnight or twenty days. India especially has a
great variety of citrus of a large size, which, owing to
their thick skin, would probably travel better than any
others, such as the amilbeds, gulguls, Kumaon lemons,
khattas, and so-called sour pummelos. If some one
would undertake to make some experiments with these
large sour and juicy citrus a new opening might be
found for them. Instead of taking a bottle full of un-
palatable lime juice, a large citrus full of nice fresh
sour juice would be taken. Even in the time of Rum-
phius, when there were only sailing boats and ships,
both the lime and the pummelo were taken on long
voyages, as they kept well.

CHAPTER XIV.

MORPHOLOGY OF THE CITRUS.

" Without some reflection it will appear all rubbish ; perhaps it
will appear so after reflection." CHARLES DARWIN.

IN this chapter I have attempted to give form to
various ideas which arose in my mind while studying
the numerous cultivated varieties of oranges, lemons,
&c., of India. I have attempted to show the changes,
according to my views, which the citrus might have
gone through, and the devices, so to speak, it has re-
sorted to, in order to " struggle for its existence," and
to push itself into notice, and into the position it occu-
pies at present. Some parts of this chapter are to be
found in text books, being accepted by botanists ;
others, however, are in no way endorsed by botanists,
and are mere speculations. I have hazarded also a
speculation on the embryology, so to speak, of the
citrus leaf, which, next to its fruit, is the most interest-
ing object of study.

In Appendix, No. 62, will be found an endeavour to
explain why the sides of the pulp carpels are usually
free of juice vesicles, and in Appendix, No. 39, will be
found extracts from Dr. Masters' work on "Teratology,'*
which in many places appears to strengthen my view.
(Vide b, c,f, itj, /and m of Appendix, No. 39.)

In order that the general reader may understand
what I say about the morphological history of this in-

176 Oranges and Lemons of India.

teresting genus, as I view it, I shall have to begin at
the beginning.

The citrus tree, like many others, commences its
existence by a bud, which is protected from external
influences by the seed shells or coverings. It is also
protected against starvation during its infancy, and
until it perfects its own organs of nutrition, by a small
store of food enclosed within the same shells in what
are called the cotyledons. Under certain circumstances
this bud germinates and starts into growth. Even at
this early stage, the stem of the young citrus and its
first leaves are studded with essential oil glands. As
we shall see in another place, these oil glands may be
of importance to the adult plant, but I am not sure
that they are not a disadvantage to it while it is a
young seedling. Anyhow, I suppose, like all of us,
plants and animals, we must make the best of what
means we happen to possess, in order to compete suc-
cessfully with other individuals.

It would appear that the leaf of any plant is simply
an expansion of the bark. The leaf of the citrus is
studded with two or more sets of oil glands, viz. : large
ones at certain distances, the intermediate spaces being
filled with secondary and tertiary oil cells, as shown in
pi. 1 8 1, fig. a. This arrangement is universal, what-
ever the variety may be. The edges of the leaves are
crenated, that is, shaped like little festoons. In a well
developed leaf, the big crenations have smaller crena-
tions. The angles formed by the big crenations have
each a large solitary oil cell, and the angles formed by
the smaller crenations have each a smaller oil cell also.
In many orange leaves these crenations are found only
towards the tip half of the leaf. In the citrons, lemons,
and allied varieties they often commence close to the
petiole. There is such a thing, however, though rare,

Morphology of the Citrus. 177

as a variety with most of its leaves without any crena-
tions, although the oil cells at the edges are not extinct.
These would appear to mark the position of the crena-
tion angles. A tree of the same family, the Feronia
elephantum (kaitha) has the oil cells sometimes only
at the angles of the crenations, and none visible on the
blade of the leaf. These crenations or serrations,
whatever botanists may like to call them, I take to be
simply abortive leaflets, and the angles between them
I take to mean the abortive axillce of those leaflets.*

There is a most interesting little plant (Bryo-
phyllum calycinum), called by some natives ghao-
patta. On the edges of its leaves it has large crena-
tions, with what I would call secondary axillce between
them. In these secondary axillae are dormant buds.f
In old Byrophyllums these buds can often be seen
developing into little plants with roots and leaves,
while the parent leaves are still attached to the plant.
These leaf-bud plantlets, detached and put in the
ground, will grow into individuals similar to the
parent. They are, in fact, simply seeds without the
seed-j^^//^, and as they begin to germinate before they
are separated from the parent leaf, they have no need
of the stores of food called cotyledons, or of the pro-
tecting seed shells. In fact, the parent leaf performs
in this case the function of cotyledons. In other words,
they might be considered as rooted buds, developed
from the axillae of the abortive leaflets — the crenations.

Now, the simplest form of fruit is, I think, that of
the pea we eat. The pea-pod is a leaf folded over
itself, with its edges united together. From the
axillae of its crenations (apparent or not) the seed buds
are developed, each being provided with a small store
of food and a shell to protect the whole. In this case

* Vide Appendix, No. 60. t Vide Appendix, No. 39 (b).

N

i /8 Oranges and Lemons of India.

a store of food and a protecting shell are needed.
The seed bud does not germinate while it is still
attached to its parent leaf, or carpel, and without such
protection, it would perish before it came under con-
ditions which would enable it to start into independent
life. These seed buds, with their little store, are the
peas we cook.*

The leaf of the Bryophyllum calycinum, however
illustrates a stage of fruit development anterior to
that of the closed peArpod. It is a fruit which has not
yet evolved the habit of folding itself up into a pod
for the protection of its buds while young, but remains
expanded and produces its peas, or seed buds, at the
axillae of its crenations.

Having premised the foregoing, we shall now, per-
haps, be better able to understand the composition of
the fruit of the Citrus — say that of an orange. I had
stated before that the orange leaf is an expansion of
the stem bark. In the Citrus, from the normal axillae
of the leaves two or more buds are produced, which
either become regular fully- developed branches, or
remain abortive and become what are called the spines
of the Citrus.

The flower is nothing but a transformed branch,
either coming out of the axilla of an ordinary leaf or
from that of an abortive leaf, usually called a bract.
This transformed branch, or flower, in the orange, con-
sists of several whorls of transformed leaves, viz., the
calyx whorl, the corolla whorl, the stamina whorl or
whorls, and the ovary whorl or whorls, f The latter, in
the Citrus fruit, I take to consist ordinarily of two

* I am aware this is elementary matter, but the general reader
may, nevertheless, not know it.

t Tt is considered that the parts of fruits in general are transformed
leaves, called carpels.

Morphology of the Citrus. 1 79

distinct whorls* — the outer, or rrW-whorl, and the inner,
or /^-whorl. The two combined form the orange,
or lemon. They are best examined in a ripe fruit.

Usually the outer covering of the orange or lemon,
in my opinion, consists of a whorl of carpels, united so
well together by the whole length of their edges, that,
in many cases, they appear one uniform and continuous
protecting case. The rind of the Citrus, however, is
not always so even as we see it in a " suntara " or
Portugal orange. For instance, sometimes the join-
ings of the carpel edges remain remarkably distinct,
such as in the following specimen, taken from Risso's
monograph, " Bergamottier mellarose " (pi. 241, fig. c],
and also in a number of citrons proper.

This fruit, besides distinct carpels, agglutinated
together, exhibits also an extra and inner whorl of
rind carpels round the apex. Almost all the Berga-
mottes illustrated by this author have the joinings of
their carpels quite distinct. The fruit of the double-
flowered Bergamotte (pi. 241, fig. a) is another
example of the persistence of distinct carpels. Several
others might be quoted. The following, however,
are perhaps more convincing. They are also taken
from Risso's monograph. They prove that the ordin-
arily uniform and smooth Citrus rind is nothing but
an agglutination of originally distinct carpels. Fig. g,
pi. 240, is the fruit of the " Granger a fruit cornu."
Here we have one of the carpels insisting on remain-
ing separate, and only partially united to the rest. It
sticks out like a horn on the side of the orange. All
the fruit of that variety were horned like this, some
more, some less prominently so. Every large appendage
of this sort had a separate pulp carpel within it. A

* Botanists do not admit that the Citrus fruit consists of two
whorls ; but further on I have given reasons for considering it so.

N 2

i8o Oranges and Lemons of India.

still more interesting specimen, from a morphological
point of view, is that shown in fig. c, pi. 240, which is
the fruit of the " Bigaradier a fruit cornicule." The
surface of this Citrus has many horns, indicative of a
greater tendency to separation of the carpels. The
section shows three distinct pulp carpels, belonging
to the three larger horns. The " Limonier a fruit
digite " gives a still more striking example in fig. a, pi.
178. So do the fruits 'of the " Chhangura," or digi-
tate citrons of India and China, shown in fig. a, pi.
139 and fig. a, pi. 140. The digitate lemon shows a
single whorl of rind-carpels only, the pulp whorl
being suppressed, according to Risso, while the digitate
citrons show an outer rind whorl and an inner whorl,
also of rind carpels, indicating, I take it, a very remote
stage in the history of the Citrus fruit evolution. The
inner whorl of carpels, which in the perfect fruit forms
the pulp, I consider is here still in the crude condition
of rind. By their reversion to what I consider ances-
tral forms, these interesting digitate fruits give us,
I think, a glimpse of some of the stages through
which the Citrus may have passed in evolving the
pulp carpels, and, by continued selection, eventually
becoming the fine fruit we now cultivate.

Double flowers are often produced by the growth
of additional whorls of petals. So in my opinion, are
double, and even multiple citrus fruits produced by the
development of extra whorls of carpels. Risso, in
a specimen shown in fig. a, pi. 241, gives an extra-
ordinary example of carpel multiplication in the citrus
fruit. It is the fruit of the " Bergamottier mellarose a
fleur double." To begin with, in this example, the
rind carpels are all distinct, and ununited at their
distal ends, where they form a sort of rim of a cup,
out of which, an inner series of rind carpels protrude,

Morphology of the Citrus. 181

like the bracts of an artichoke. The section (V) of
this fruit shows a most complicated structure. Within
the outer rind, is the usual whorl of pulp carpels ;
within each of these is a double series of both rind and
pulp carpels (b'\ each pair forming miniature elements
of another complete orange.* Within this circle
again are imperfect carpels, some having rind attached
with essential oil cells, as at A. Then in the centre of
all is a ring of simple rind carpels, with essential oil
cells. Not only is the flower of this singular tree
double, but its fruit is also very double.

What formerly were supposed to be examples of
" superfoetation," appear nothing but specimens of
fruit-doubling. The peculiarity of these fruits exists
in the ovary before fertilization, and the fruit exhibit-
ing it, may develop without having been fertilized.
Fig. a, pi. 240, is an example of what Risso called
" Bigaradier a fruit fetifere." Its fruit however
appears nothing but another specimen of fruit doubling.
It had rarely any seeds, and, when present, they were
very small and imperfect, and the fruit of the
" Bergamottier mellarose a Heur double" had no trace
of seeds. Such instances of seedless fruit plainly show
that this so called superfoetation, could not have been
the result of excess of fertilization, as there were no
germs to be fertilized, and had there been any, they
must have been so imperfect that no fertilization could
take place. f The " orange sans pepins," and others,
are similar instances of an orange growing, and having
abundant sweet juice, without its ovules having been
previously fertilized. The orange is not the only fruit

* These inner rinds, in my opinion, all but prove the double
whorl nature of the ordinary orange.

t This result of course, might also occur from imperfection of the
sexual organs.

1 82 Oranges and Lemons of India.

which grows and attains perfection without its ovules
having felt the stimulus of fertilization. All the culti-
vated varieties of plantains are usually so. I have also
seen a variety of mango, the surka of Lucknow, in
which the kernel of the stone was not developed. The
currant, and the Sultana raisins, are in the same
category. All such seedless varieties of fruit in a state
of nature, would be at a great disadvantage, and if they
appeared at all, would eventually be extinguished,
unless perhaps, as in the case of the plantain, the
parent plants may have been aided by other means of
propagation. On the contrary, under cultivation, such
varieties become very important and useful, provided
the tree, as in the case of the citrus, can be propagated
in any other way than by seed. Cultivation can
vastly improve seedless varieties. They are the result
of cultivation and selection.

To recapitulate then, this orange within orange
appears to be nothing but a doubling of the fruit, or
ovary-whorls. It is analogous to the doubling of a
flower. Risso says that the " Bigaradier a fleur double,'*
if left to itself and not highly cultivated, loses by
degrees the character of giving double flowers, and
bears only single ones.

Now we have to examine the curious essential oil
glands which pervade almost every part of the citrus
tree, and which are present in all varieties. The
essential oil differs in scent and quantity, according to
variety. If you take a leaf of any citrus, and, putting it
up against the light, examine it with a lens, you will, as I
have mentioned, see a sort of firmament, studded with
stars of the first, second, and third magnitudes —
possibly other magnitudes also — but usually three sizes
of cells are quite distinct. These are the essential oil
cells or glands. It should be noted that the larger ones

Morphology of the Citrus. 183

are at certain distances from each other, and that the
intermediate spaces are filled with smaller and smaller
oil cells. What the object or origin of these three or
more sizes of .oil cells can be, I do not know, but this
I know, that every leaf of every kind I have examined
has this peculiarity, and it is repeated in the edge of
the leaf, the large oil cells occupying the angles
between the large crenations, and the smaller ones,
those between the small crenations. It is curious to
note that in the rind of many citrus fruits, a similar
disposition of large and small oil cells is maintained.-
This might be taken as another proof that the rind
consists of modified leaves called carpels. Fig. a, pi.
1 8 1, shows a new and fully developed leaf of the Malta
lemon, full size, thin and transparent. There are on
this sketch three sizes of dots, indicating the relative
positions of the different sized oil cells. The largest
sized ones were less numerous along the midrib. The
crenations, large and small, are exact copies of the
original, and they also show the three sizes of oil
cells.

The outer, or rind surface of a citrus fruit often
resembles that of a lump of dough, studded with large
and small pinholes* It is interesting to note that in
cases of large fruit, where the oil cells have plenty of
space to develop in, the three sizes are distinct, the
larger depressions corresponding to the larger oil
cells, the smaller depressions corresponding to the
cells of the second magnitude, and those of the third
magnitude are represented by little miliary eminences.
In short, a longitudinal section of any part of the
rind would very closely, in many cases, resemble
the edge of the leaf of the Malta lemon given

* If the reader will substitute " foveoli " for pinholes^ he will have
their botanical term.

1 84 Oranges and Lemons of India.

in fig. a, pi. 1 8 1. Then in fig. c, pi. 209, I have given
a portion of the surface of the saddphal, at A. The
largest cells are disposed at equal distances, shown by
the larger dots, the smaller oil cells occupying the
intermediate spaces as miliary eminences (see also
pi. 75, fig. a, A). In pi. 47, figs, c and e, are given
exact representations of sections of a citrus rind. The
larger depressions are the openings of the larger oil
cells, and the secondary depressions, the openings of
the second sized cells, while the third sized cells are
often so squeezed together as to be projected into little
convexities between the other openings, instead of
having each a depressed opening to itself. In small
specimens, the third sized cells are either mere
points, or not traceable. The only difference between
the margin of the rind, and the margin of the leaf,
is that in the former, the oil cells are much more
developed, and their essential oil differs from that of
the leaf.

It would appear this is not the sole relationship be-
tween the leaf and the rind. In many cases the out-
line of some of the leaves corresponds closely to the
outline of a longitudinal section drawn through the
centre of the fruit ; and I believe that the mammilla of
the citron, close to the stalk, is only a representative
of the agglutinated winged '- petioles of the original
carpels, and that the opposite mammilla on the distal
end of the fruit may be an agglutination of similar
processes in the original carpels. I have come across
leaves of citrus, the outlines of which represented at
their tips the outline of the mammilla in the fruit.*
Therefore in cases where there is no distal mam-
milla, and the apex is depressed, it is not impossible

* More likely the distal mammilla represents the agglutination of
the acuminate ends of the carpels.

Morphology of the Citrus. 185

that such a fruit was formed by the agglutination of
carpels, the originals of which may have been some-
thing like emarginate leaves. Of these there are many
representatives in almost every citrus tree. This,
however, might have originated otherwise.

We have still the interesting structure of the citrus
pulp to account for.

On one occasion while examining the transverse
section of a citrus fruit, it flashed across my mind that
the juice vesicles of the pulp carpels were only modi-
fications of the oil cells of the rind. Arguing back
from juice vesicles to rind oil cells, and thence to the
oil cells of the leaf, I did not see what else the vesicles
could be but modifications of the oil cells of the leaves
cr carpels ; that is, oil cells transformed to another
purpose, viz., the secretion of acid, sugar, and mucilage,
or whatever the juice vesicles may contain. Often
the juice of a citrus has an aroma sui generis, which
may possibly have some relation to that of the oil cells
of the rind covering. The slight bitterness which some
juices exhibit may also be derived from the bitterness
of the original inner whorl of rind, from which, in my
opinion, the pulp was evolved. In the juice vesicles,
we can, I think, also trace a repetition of the large and
small cells, although as these are squeezed together,
they are often out of shape. Fig. c, pi. 154, shows
the variously shaped juice-vesicles I took out of one of
the carpels of a citrus. The pedicels of the spindle
shaped ones I take to be the lengthened necks of the
larger rind cells, as seen in pi. 66, fig. b. Although
the oil cells of the rind are usually balloon-shaped, I
have met with some which were pointed, as shown in
fig. b, pi. 6, like the spindle shaped juice-vesicles.
PL 1 06, fig. c, and pi. i 24, fig. g, show other forms of
juice-vesicles, as well as pi. 209, figs, g and h. PI.

1 86 Oranges and Lemons of India.

122, fig. k, shows rind-oil cells, which are larger than
many pulp-vesicles. Fig. ey pi. 76, shows a section of
the juice cells in a pulp carpel. It gives approximately
the same disposition of large and small cells, as that
seen in the leaf and rind.

If, however, further proof be required of the relation-
ship between the pulp-vesicles and the rind oil cells, it
can be obtained from a genus which is closely allied to
the citrus. In fig. c, pi. 242, is given a longitudinal
section of the pulp carpel of the CEgle marmelos (the
bcel fruit). The interior surface of its wall is studded
with open mouthed cells, which pour out a transparent
mucilaginous substance, with which the interior of the
carpel is filled. This is the gummy matter of the boel fruit,
and is soluble in water. These opened mouthed cells of
the pulp carpel of the "bcel " fruit, I take it, can be no
other than the homologues of the citrus juice cells on the
one hand, and of the rind cells on the other. In the citrus
they are closed sacks, and develop, not on\y#tuafage,but
also acid and sugar; all these three substances, it would
appear, might be easily changed from one to the other.*

The view I have taken of the morphology of the
pulp vesicles of the citrus is, I think, further supported
by fig. h, pi. 49. It shows some undeveloped juice
vesicles. They are mere projections, tipped with a
hair-like point, not unlike the gum-cells of the CEgle
marmelos, although in this citrus instead of being open-
mouthed, they are closed cells. Moreover in fig. b, pi.
66, we have the large balloon-shaped cells of the rind,
pedicelled, like many of the juice cells. Although the
pulp vesicles are often squeezed into all manner of
shapes, I think it will nevertheless be seen that they
are roughly divisible into three grades, like the oil cells
of the rind and leaves. This, however, is not of much
* See Appendix, No. 59.

Morphology of the Citrus. 187

importance, as the juice vesicles, for want of sufficient
space, must have naturally expanded in the direction
of least resistance. I have given them simply to show
that, even in their sizes, there is a certain semblance
of uniformity with the oil cells of the rind and leaves.
I have in vain endeavoured to discover whether any
author has treated of the morphology of the juice or
pulp cells of the citrus ; but all I can find about this
matter is the following in the " Outlines of Classifica-
tion, and special morphology of plants," by Dr. K.
Goebel ; at page 420, he says, " Allied to the berry is
the fruit of the species of citrus known as hesperidium*
the pericarp of which consists of a firm tough outer
layer, and a pith-like inner layer ; from the innermost
layer of tissue of the wall of the plurilocular ovary,
pluricellular protuberances are developed at an early
stage, which gradually fill the cavity of the loculi of
the ovary, as isolated closely packed succulent lobes of
tissue, and form the pulp."^

The above, of course, does not touch on their origin
or homology. Are they new creations, or a something
originally belonging to the carpel or leaf and modified
in course of evolution ? In the CEgle marmelos we
see, what I take to be homologous organs, instead
of becoming projections, forming depressions, with
their secretions poured into the common cavity of the
carpel, instead of being pent up in separate little
sacks.

Of course my view would require that the citrus
fruit should have originated in two whorls of carpels,
the outer or rind-whorl and the inner or pulp-whorl^

* In the undeveloped ovary the juice-cells appear like hairs, but
at that stage they could not appear otherwise.

t This I base mainly on the inner and outer rind whorls of the
digitate citrons.

1 88 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Sometimes there are many more whorls, as in Risso's
" Bergamottier mellarose a fleur double," shown in pi.
241, figs, a and b, of the accompanying Atlas.

It has been objected that, if the hesperidium con-
sisted of two whorls, the law of phyllotaxis would re-
quire that their segments should be alternate instead
of opposite. To this objection I would reply — (a)
That the rind whorl has been so altered by selection,
that in most cases it has become one uniform casing,
without any trace whatever of the carpel sutures, and
where the sutures of the rind carpels are still visible,
the fruit has been so altered by increase in the number
of its parts, that it is impossible to say now what the
order of the two sets of carpels may originally have
been (if there were two' separate whorls). Le Maout
and Decaisne, "System of Botany" (Hooker), at p.
3 1 8, give a diagram of the orange flower, showing 5
sepals, 5 petals, 20 stamens (in five groups of i, 3, 4,
5 and 7 stamens each), and with 8 pulp carpels ; and
at p. 319 is given a transverse section of an orange,
with 9 pulp carpels* Unless we come across a wild
citrus with 5 pulp carpels and 5 distinct rind carpels
(if such a thing ever existed), we cannot say what the
phyllotaxis of the citrus fruit may have been, viz.:
whether its parts were alternate or opposite, through
torsion, or suppression of an intermediate whorl. The
original wild citrus may be extinct, and may have es-
caped our observation for ever. I have seen only one
orange — the kumquat — which had 5 pulp carpels (pre-
sumably the original number), and the rind had no sign
of carpel sutures.

(b) There are many instances in which the law of
phyllotaxis does not hold good, such as in Dipsacus,

* Vide all the sections of all the citrus throughout the accom-
panying Atlas.

Morphology of the Citrus. 189

many Caryophyllaceae, &c * This is explained by
torsion of the stem, or non-development of an interme-
diate whorl. Is there any good reason, therefore, why
this explanation should not apply to the Hesperidium f
(c) According to Dr. Masters, in his " Vegetable
Teratology " (Science of Monsters and Malformations),
next to Antirrhinum majus, Aquilegia Canadensis,
Brassica oleracea, Daucus carota, Dianthus, Digitalis
purpurea, Fuchsia, Primula sinensis, Rosa, Trifolium
repens, and perhaps Vitis, the genus most subject to
monstrosities (in other words variations or changes) in
its different parts is the citrtis,\ In pages 33, 35, 44,
56, 75, 134, 137, 149, 303, 310, 335, 364, 453, and
502, Dr. Masters gives examples of variations in the
different parts of the citrus plant. However, at p. 75
he states that " De Candolle considers the rind of the
orange as a production from the receptacle,! and this
view is confirmed by the specimens of Duchartre, in
which the carpels were quite naked, or had a common
envelope truncated, and open above to allow the pas-
sage of the styles and stigmas. "§

I should say that not only the rind, but all the parts
of the orange fruit and the whole flower, are productions
from the receptacle, but admitting, for the sake of
argument, that the rind has nothing to do with the
pulp carpels, and that it is sometimes totally sup-
pressed,! or only partially developed, as might occur
with all parts of the citrus flower and fruit, there would
remain, in consequence, the admission that the pulp
carpels are the carpels. If so, then what has become

* Asa Gray's "Structural Botany," p. 121, par. 236.

t Vide Appendix No. 39.

J If so, how is it that the oil cells of the rind have the same
disposition as those of the leaves ?

§ Vide PI. 241, fig. a, after Risso.

|| A whole whorl is sometimes suppressed in certain plants.

1 90 Oranges and Lemons of India.

of the oil cells, which are so constant a character in all
parts of the citrus — bark, leaves, petiole wings, petals,
rind ? My reply would be that they have been trans-
formed into pulp vesicles.

I think the digitate citrus, as I shall endeavour to
explain further on, gives us some idea of how, accord-
ing to my theory, the oil cells of the carpels were
changed into pulp cells.

This transformation might, perhaps, appear a great
stretch of the imagination, but wherever we look, we
find that nature has worked her ways with a compara-
tively small number of organs, fashioning them for all
sorts of purposes as she progressed ; here, using the
hand for progression only, there for progression and
prehension, and afterwards for prehension only, and as
an instrument of the mind. In another instance, we
find the nose, still an organ of scent, immensely
lengthened and becoming also an organ of prehension.
The tail, in other instances, has become an organ of
prehension, and so on with other parts of the animal
organism.

With regard to insects, Dr. Duncan, in his " Trans-
formation of Insects," p. 9, says : "If the skin of a
caterpillar, a chrysalis, and a butterfly be examined,
the marvellously beautiful cells and hairs of the perfect
insect can be seen to be modified epidermal cells, whose
predecessors were infinitely more simple and less
elegant in the immature insect."

At p. 30, he further states, regarding the silk-pro-
ducing organs of insects, that " these long tubes form
the web or silk-spinning apparatus in the larva ; but
after the cocoon is finished, and the first transformation
takes place, not only do they become small, but their
function alters. The small glands of the perfect insect
secrete saliva instead of web, and assist in digestion."

Morphology of the Citrus. 191

The transformation of the oil-cells of the citrus rind
into the vesicles of the pulp would be no more difficult
to understand than the transformation of the mandibles
of the caterpillar into the sucking apparatus of the moth,
which may be several inches long, and, in one case,
probably more than a foot long.

In plants the same organ is now fashioned into
leaves for purposes of breathing and digestion, then
turned into petals and sexual organs, and so forth.

To sum up, my view of the matter is this. The
pulp consists of a series of pods or carpels,* folded on
themselves and placed side by side, and imperfectly
agglutinated together, so that each pod is easily sepa-
rated from its neighbours. These carpels have their
seed edges or crenations turned towards the centre of
the fruit, with seed buds developing from the abortive
axillae of their abortive crenations. Sometimes the
pulp carpels remain open towards the centre, or are
burst open by the expansion of the juice cells like
those of the turunj in pi. 152, fig. b, and others, but
usually the two edges are united together and form
a regular closed pod, like those of most oranges and
lemons. The contained juice vesicles then I look
upon as transformations of the oil cells of the rind
carpels and homologous with them, and with the oil
cells of the leaves and bark.

In studying the relationship between the juice vesi-
cles and the rind oil-cells, I have endeavoured to
find support for Risso's theory — that the shape of the
oil-cells of the rind (or their openings) was " en rap-
port " with the quality of the juice in the pulp. At
page 24 he says : " Nous avons les premiers remarque

* I have tried to explain elsewhere one way by which their number
might have been increased. Vide pis. 223 and 224, and also Appen-
dix, No. 62.

1 92 Oranges and Lemons of India.

un caractere curieux pour distinguer avec certitude une
orange douce d'une orange acide, quelque soit la forme,
la couleur, et la rugosite de ces fruits. L'orange douce
a les vesicales de 1'huile essentielle convexes ; 1'orange
acide les a concaves ; les limes et toutes les varietes a
sue fade, ou indetermine, ont les vesicales planes. II
parait done que la forme de ces vesicales, ou la qualite
de I'huile essentielle qu'elles contiennent, est en rap-
port avec la qualite du sue renferme dans la pulpe,
puisque plus le sue est sucre, plus les vesicales sont con-
vexes, et plus il est acide, plus elles sont concaves."

It is not clear whether Risso meant that the open-
ings of the oil-cells or the cells themselves are either
concave or convex. Anyhow, the mitha nimboo
(sweet lemon) of Furruckabad and other places, and
the kalan kaghzi of Lucknow, and other places, a
thin-skinned sour lemon would, I think, have puzzled
Risso. I look upon them as one thing, and, as far as
I can judge, they are indistinguishable externally, while
the juice of the former is pleasantly sweet, though not
distinctly sugary (what Risso would have called "fade"),
and the juice of the latter is very soiir. In short, not
improbably, the mitha nimboo may be a variety of
the sour form, in which the acid has never been
developed. It is hardly sweet, but acidless ; but
whether they are so nearly related or not signifies
little — their surfaces are indistinguishable. Moreover,
in one stage of the sweet orange — the suntara of
India — its juice is sour, while in another the juice is a
mixture of subacid and sweet ; and when completely
ripe, it has little acid. Yet both in its ripe and unripe
states, the larger cells have their openings concave,
and the smaller ones are represented by minute miliary
convexities. The sadaphal which has scarcely a trace
of acid from beginning to end has also the two sets

Morphology of the Citrus. 193

sets on its surface. Its juice is "fade ou mdetermine*."
Finally, the kuthairee nimboo has its cells, which are
the only ones visible on its lumpy projections, convex,
while its juice is distinctly sour, and nothing else.
In plate 83, fig. a, are shown convex oil-cells (B), and
concave oil-cells (A), on the same fruit.

It would therefore appear that Risso's notion about
the constant relationship of the concave or convex
cells of the rind, to the acid or sweet juice of the pulp,
is untenable.

That there is a relationship between the oil-cells of
the rind and the juice cells of the pulp, I fully believe,
but it would appear only one of descent, from a common
stock — the oil cells of the leaves ; or to put it perhaps
more accurately, according to my view the oil-cells of
the bark, of the leaves, and of the rind, and also the
juice vesicles of the pulp have a common origin, and
are homologous.

Closely connected with its morphology is the des-
cent of the citrus. By this I mean the various phases
it has passed through, and the means by which it has
been able to struggle into the' prominent place it now
occupies. Of course I can only make an attempt to
penetrate its past transformations by means of the
lights before me, and a great deal of what I am about
to say must be speculative. Nevertheless, from what
is before us, we can to some extent argue back to what
has past, perhaps for ever, and obtain a glimpse of it,
somewhat in the way that the Palaeontologist attempts
to clothe a few ancient bones with the forms they
might have had, by piecing together notions he has
obtained from animals now existing. In order to
make my thoughts clear some repetition may perhaps
be pardoned.

I think we have first to divest ourselves of the idea

o

194 Oranges and Lemons of India.

that, because there are at present some wild forms of
citrus, therefore the cultivated varieties we have at
present have descended directly from tliem. This
may be so, and it is reasonable to suppose that it
is so ; but it may also be that both the present wild
forms, and the present cultivated forms, have no closer
relationship to each other than that they all descended
from a common and older ancestor, or ancestors, now
extinct. Alphonse de Candolle, in his " Origin of
Cultivated Plants," thinks that some of the modern
cultivated plants have no longer any wild representa-
tives ; they have become extinct. It must be as easy
for birds to carry seeds from cultivated tracts to wild
ones, as it is for them to do the reverse.

A writer in the Gardeners Chronicle of 2Oth June,
1885, on the oranges of the Argentine republic says,
" that the orange was originally imported into the basin
of the River Plate, and that now, in certain localities,
it grows wild, sometimes forming veritable forests, not
only on the islands of the lower and upper Parana, but
in the forests of Missiores, as well as those of Paraguay.''
He further says that "the orange is produced perfectly
from seeds, and these being scattered everywhere by
the parrots, which are exceedingly fond of the fruit,
explains the fact of its general dissemination." He
adds that " the tree from seed is very robust, and is per-
fectly proof against drought and locusts."

It should not be supposed that only sweet oranges
are eaten by birds. In Etawah I have often seen the
large fruit of khatta orange — a sour variety — hang-
ing like a bird's nest on the tree. Only the skin
remaining, with a hole on one side, and the pulp
entirely scooped out by some bird or other animal.

There must have been a time in the history of vege-
tation, when plants had not begun yet to form what we

Morphology of the Citrus. 195

call seed, but multiplied only by a sort of division of
some of their parts, as inferior animals do, even at the
present day, or by what are called spores, such as those
of ferns and fungi. The latter have the advantage of
flotation in the air, so that they may be carried to long
distances, but, on the other hand, they require special
conditions for starting into life. They cannot with-
stand unfavourable surroundings so well as ordinary
seeds can. Spores may be floating in the atmosphere
everywhere, but nothing comes of them, as the con-
ditions for germination and sustenance of life are
wanting.

Later on, possibly, may have commenced the multi-
plication of plants by buds on their roots, and on
underground stems, and finally by buds on the stems
which rise into the air. The stem bud, or as it might
be called, the bark bud, is probably the ancestral form
of the seed bud, which we find in the fruit. From the
bark, where it usually occupies the axilla of the leaf, or
other representative of the leaf, we may trace it to the
edge of the leaf,* in the angles (abortive axillae), formed
by the crenations (abortive -leaflets), as in the Bryo-
phyllum calycinum. Hence we can finally follow the
bud to the edges of the curled up carpel, or modifica-
tion of the leaf, such as the pea pod, or the pulp quarters
of an orange or lemon — in what we call the seed.

The ripe seed of the fruit is then the finished article,,
furnished with an independent bud. It has moreover,,
as I said, a small store of food to sustain it, while it is
perfecting its organs of nutrition — the roots and the
leaves. The whole is furnished with coverings, which
usually very efficiently protect the emancipated bud,
and its store of food. The efficiency of the seed

'f The leaf, as I have stated in another place, I would consider a
modified branch.

O 2

196 Oranges and Lemons of India.

coverings is certainly no mean advantage in the stru^
for existence in certain plants.

As the seed germ is often stimulated into vitality by
foreign pollen, the mature seed becomes a most im-
portant instrument in bringing about breaks, or distinct
varieties. The seed is then a portion of its own mother
plant, with frequently something superadded from
another plant by means of foreign pollen. The seed
of some plants are so well suited to struggling into
existence, and competing with others, that they are
enabled to float from one shore of an ocean to another.
When stranded, they germinate in due course, and
commence a new colony — such as the cocoanut. All
the fruits of the large citrus float well, and the larger
the fruit, and the thicker its skin, the better it will float.
I believe it probable that many forms of citrus have
become disseminated by the fruit floating down rivers
during floods ; stranding on their banks and islands
beyond the river mouths, and liberating their seeds
by the decay of the fruit. The seeds then germinate,
and eventually found new colonies.

The seeds of some plants can lie dormant for many
years, and when the proper conditions come, they start
into life, and begin new colonies, where perhaps their
species had never been before. I do not know how
long citrus seeds can remain viable, after having been
taken out of the fruit. In the ground, in winter, they
remain viable for months. Irrespective of inheritance,
there is something which we do not sufficiently under-
stand. I mean the "jumps" or breaks, which occur
through the seed. For instance, two distinct plants of
the same species are crossed, and the resulting seeds
sown. Some of the plants will be more like the male
parent ; some like the female parent ; others will par-
take of both ; and perhaps a few, or only one out of

Morphology of the Citrus. 197

the whole lot will be so different from both parents, as
to form the commencement of a new race. What gives
rise to these " breaks," as horticulturists call them, is
not sufficiently understood. Now as breaks do occur,
when plants are artificially crossed, so would they, I
think, be liable to occur, when naturally crossed, either
by insects or other ways. I have no means of knowing
just now whether seeds from the same plant, without
crossing give these decided breaks. The break or new
form can be, it would appear, of three kinds — either a
reversion to some ancestral form, of which we may
know nothing ; or it may be an entirely new form ; or
a combination of both. All breaks cannot be reversions.
Supposing all the forms we see now have been brought
about by a series of breaks instead of by gradual
inheritance of accumulated variations, we must arrive
at a time when there was little or nothing to revert to.

It is not improbable that, besides natural selection
by a gradual step by step process, natural breaks may
have played an important part in producing the infinite
forms we see in nature. Of course a break may be
either much more delicate or -much more robust than
either of its parents. In the first case, it would not
last long, unless it could occupy places untenanted by
other more suitable kinds. In the second case, it
would probably extinguish, and take the place of its
parents. Risso mentions several kinds of citrus raised
from seed in the South of Europe, which were hardier
than their parents, and which could therefore be pushed
further north without being injured by frost, and the
C. trifoliata is stated to withstand a cold climate better
than any other kind.

There are so many varieties of cultivated citrus in
India, China, and the Malay archipelago, that it is not
improbable some may be descendants of the wild

1 98 Oranges and Lemons of India.

species known at present. Some may have been pro-
duced by crossing, and by breaks, and others may be
descendants of some wild extinct species. There is no
reason why some of the original citrus, from which
our forms may be direct descendants, should continue
to exist any more than the Dodo, and other extinct
animals. It is hardly reasonable, therefore, when we
find some variety of citrus which is somewhat different
from others, such as the pummelo, for us to expect
that this must have some wild species in existence, from
which it has directly descended, and although we have
not discovered it yet, further search may probably
bring it forth.

The birth-place of the genus citrus must have been
originally rather circumscribed, because it is not a
plant that can stand a very low temperature without
perishing. Of course now it is found all over the
world, wherever the temperature permits it to exist.
But all this dissemination has been largely done by
the hand of man, and within historic times.

Indian forest officers say that the most destructive
agents to trees are forest fires, and these are often
produced intentionally by herdsmen, in order that the
old grass and scrub may be burnt, and by their ashes
the new grass nourished. If these forest fires can-
not be prevented now, just fancy what amount of
forest firing must have taken place in times when
man was still in a nomadic stage, and principally living
on the produce of his cattle, wandering from place to
place with his herds, firing here and there, never
caring how many timber trees he destroyed, and
how many species he extinguished, as long as he
got new grass for his cattle. Besides fires in the
nomadic stage, later on, during the agricultural stage,
invasions must have occurred, and the total disappear-

Morphology of the Citrus. 199

ance of cultivated places, with their primitive huts and
inhabitants.* Who can tell how often a tract of
country has had its forest cleared, either by fire or
other means, for purposes of cultivation and villaging,
and then become reforested by new forms, to be at
some future time recleared and reforested. It is evi-
dent that, in addition to natural causes, man may have
had a hand in extinguishing many species. I see no
good reason for insisting on there being a wild form
of the pummelo somewhere, especially as the existence
of the cultivated present large forms can, I think, be
accounted for without much difficulty, by fusion of two
ovaries, as in plates 223 and 224. See also plate 83, fig. b.

When we say that the carpels forming the fruit,
and the floral apparatus, are modifications of leaves,
we do not mean of ti\z present leaves, but of some
former expansion of the bark, which eventually was
modified into the present leaves, the present flowers,
and the present fruit. For all we know to the con-
trary, the original expansion of the bark in the citrus
may have been of the nature of the modern green
rind of the fruit.

In the changura or digitate citrons and lemons,
we probably have a glimpse of how the citrus fruit
began to evolve. In the " limonier digite " of Risso,
fig. a, pi. 178, we appear to have, as I said, a single
whorl of carpels, united at their base, and free at the
distal ends, withoiit any inner whorl of pulp carpels.
The whole fruit is rind. In the digitate citrons of
India, fig. a, pis. 139 and 140, we have a further step
— a double fruit, with an outer whorl of rind carpels,
and an inner one, also of rind carpels. The double
digitate citrus is a step in advance of the single one,

* It is enough to read the history of Babylon and Assyria to
realize what can be effected by this means.

2OO Oranges and Lemons of India.

but still a very primitive citron. This stage of fruit
evolution having been gained, it is not perhaps diffi-
cult to pursue the investigation to its possible comple-
tion, according to my views. The inner whorl of rind
carpels would naturally contain a^ hollow space, as in
these digitate citrons (see c (A), pi. 139). The oil-cells
of the outer whorl could not project beyond the rind
of the inner whorl ; but those of the latter could be
prolonged and projected into the hollow interior.
This circumstance, I take it, was favourable for the
development of the elongated juice vesicles from the
short oil-cells of the inner whorl, that is for their be-
coming larger and more differentiated. The oil-cells
of the outer whorl, in the perfect orange, are often
large, orange coloured, and project inwards like bal-
loons (see pi. 122, fig. /&). There is no trace of the
regular oil cells in the pulp carpels of the perfect
citrus, and therefore, supposing the latter to be the
real carpels, the lobes or vesicles, which project
inwards from them, as I have said, can logically
hardly be others than transformed oil-cells. If we
could forget the term essential oil-cell of the rind
and leaf, and replace it by pulp-vesicle-germ, we
might perhaps have little difficulty in believing all
three to be homologues. In order to complete the
history of the citrus fruit, according to my views, I
have something further to suggest.

I believe that before the orange or lemon could
have been perfected, as we see it in our orchards, the
inner whorl of rind carpels must have developed some
sort of buds in the axillae of their crenations (or what
would correspond to them), which, in course of ages,
through the strictest selection, were perfected into the
present citrus-seed. Otherwise it is difficult to con-
ceive how variations of sufficient importance to cause

Morphology of tJie Citriis. 201

further decided progress could have occurred without
the intervention of the seed-buds. By their help, and
with the already enlarged oil-cells of the inner whorl,
we can take another step. It is easy to imagine that
breaks occurred, in which the enlarged oil-cells con-
tained first a mixture of bitter and sour juice, and
subsequently by further selection a sour and sweet
juice, or an acidless secretion.

Figs, d and £, pi. 140, show us how a further step
may have occurred. The free and digitate ends of
the carpels finally curved inwards, like closed fingers,
and by their cohesion, completed the outer casing of
the citrus. Then, after becoming further improved,
human selection for the sake of the pulp, completed
the perfect modern orange and lemon. Risso, in his
" fruits cornus et cornicules," gives us some idea of
how many experiments nature may have made, through
the means of the seed, before she succeeded in giving
us a break with the beautiful and perfect cricket-ball
orange we now possess.

There must have been a stage in the descent of
the citrus, in which birds— probably parrots — have
played a prominent part. The colours of the lemon
and orange I take to be nothing but those of decaying
or ripening leaves. In many decaying leaves of trees,
first yellow and then orange hues come out, and it is
not impossible that the yellow-coloured citrus was
anterior to the orange-coloured variety. Even the
orange is first yellow, and then orange. Anyhow,
both are green like the foliage, before they take on
their special colours. What the brilliant crimson
Hibiscus, against its green foliage, or any similar
brilliant flower, is to the insect, the brilliant yellow
and red fruit is to the bird, nothing less than an
advertisement, and an invitation to come and taste.

2O2 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Now supposing a large variety, in all grades of
development, of citrus fruit undergoing changes from
seed by breaks, the bird might cut open one and be
disappointed perhaps in finding nothing in it. It
would break open the fruit of another tree, and so
on, in search of something to carry to its hungry
young in the nest. If by accident it came across a
tree which was a break in the direction of some
sweet, or even sour pulp, having seeds at the same
time, it would carry the pulp to its young, and return
again and again to that same tree. It would thus
help to disseminate the seed of this improved variety,
exactly as a horticulturist now does.* The seed is
bitter and not nice to eat, and parrots in cages are
often seen sifting the seeds of fruits with their beak
and dropping them. Thus the seeds of the better and
sweeter varieties would have a great advantage, by
wide dissemination, and many chances of being
dropped in rich suitable soils for further variation.
Many varieties of citrus live very long ; and we have
been told that in South America it is proof against
drought and locusts. We also know it to be prolific.
Therefore any good and palatable variety, having
become known to all the parrots of the neighbour-
hood, would be visited, year after year, and infinite
chances would be given it for the seeds to repeat
other and better breaks.

In its seed the citrus fruit contains a very favour-
able condition for future progress ; and therefore it is
important that the fruit should not be advertised, by
changing its green colour, until the seed was perfect
and sufficiently ripe for dissemination.

Further, the Citrus seed has two or more germs

* The selection of the sweet varieties, which may have turned up
from seeds of sour ones, was probably done mainly by man.

Morphology of the Citrus. 203

or buds — that is, out of one seed two or more plants
germinate. This is well known, and is an interesting
fact, because in all the Citrus trees I have examined
I found that in the axillae of the leaves there are
always two or more buds, and therefore the seed buds
appear to be merely a repetition of the buds in the
normal axillae. Of a pair of buds, either one developes
into a spine and the other remains dormant, or one
developes into the usual branch, with a dormant bud
at its base, or both remain dormant, or both develop
into twin branches, or both the spine and the branch
are developed side by side in the axilla of the leaf.

In .the Malta orange tree spines are not easily
developed, and often I have seen two branches in its
axillae. I have seen this also in the lemon. In the
lime, one spine and one branch are almost always
developed, side by side. I have also seen two branches
and one spine in the same axilla of the lime. In the
interesting Citrus australis, a seedling of which was
kindly sent to me from the Botanic Garden of Saha-
runpore, there was the same peculiarity — a spine and
a branch, or two spines, in each axilla. The multiple
buds in the Citrus seed are therefore accounted for by
the multiple buds in the axilla of the leaves, the one
set being homologues of the other.

There are few trees, perhaps, which have perfected
so many curious apparata as the Citrus to enable
them to struggle efficiently with competitors and sur-
rounding enemies, and to obtain allies in helping it on.
It has provided itself with spines, sometimes so for-
midable that, as Mr. Webster says, even " an elephant
refused to face the lemon-thicket." (^^description
of pi. 200.) Its fruit has taken on brilliant colours to
attract passing birds, and has provided them with a
palatable pulp, so that they may not fail to come again

204 Oranges and Lemons of India.

and help it to scatter its seeds to great distances. It
may have done more. Elsewhere I have stated that
the oil cells of the leaves of young Citrus seedlings
were possibly a disadvantage to them. I have seen
pots full of seedlings devoured by the young cater-
pillars of the Papilio Erythronius, a butterfly that
feeds exclusively on the Citrus leaves. The essential
oil glands, however, are, I believe, an advantage to
the adult tree in a wild state. The aura of the " petit
grain " enables the butterfly to find any Citrus tree
readily among other trees, where it may deposit its
eggs to be nursed, when hatched, by the Citrus leaves,
and eventually, in their butterfly stage, to help it to
fertilize its ovary, and thus ensure a crop of seed. The
delicious scent of its white flowers, which is more
powerful at night, may be only another advertisement
for night insects to come and help it in the same
direction. It would therefore appear that this inte-
resting tree, in the days of battling with its surround-
ings of all kinds, became provided with armour against
the larger animals ; a strong scent, which is unpalatable
to destructive locusts, but agreeable to other insects
which help in fertilization ; and brilliant and palatable
fruit, attractive both to the eye and palate of birds
and other animals. Finally, when the Citrus came
under the notice of man, its rapid and further progress
to its present finished state was ensured. He may
now go on and develop any part of the tree which
may suit his purpose — such as the essential oil of
the leaves, that of flowers or rind ; the thickness of its
skin, and the abundance and sweetness of its pulp.

In certain stages of its past history, instead of the
attractive essential oil of the C. limonum vulgaris,
there may have been formed a repellent secretion. In
the lima of Ceylon (C. hystrix), I found that the rind

Morphology of the Citrus. 205

of the fruit had a resinous, acrid, and uninviting taste.
In certain stages the fruit may have been nothing
more than a protected receptacle or womb for the safe
development of the seed — the part intended by nature
to carry on the life of the species. The juice vesicles,
as we see them now, may not have been developed
till long after.

It is not improbable that the wild original man may
have largely helped in the development of the thick
skin of the citrons proper. In Mangalore, where they
have large varieties, I was told that the outer bitter
rind was shaved off by means of a knife, and the thick
white .and sweetish skin eaten raw. The thick skins
of other large Citrus are also eaten elsewhere. It is
probable, therefore, that these large citrons, with little
or no pulp juice, may have been selected for genera-
tions for the sake of their sweet edible skin alone.
Natives of India are very fond of eating carrots, large
radishes, and cucumbers in their raw state, and the
thick sweet citron skin is probably nicer than any of
the above. The wartiness of certain citrons is pro-
bably the effect of rich soil- and abundant moisture,
producing an excess of skin growth. Generally speak-
ing, the thicker the skin the less juice the pulp has.
The pummelo has often a thick bitter skin, and plenty
of pulp, but it is not noted for abundance of juice. On
the contrary, the vesicles are coarse and often concrete
and jutceless. The most juicy pummelo I have seen
is the thin-skinned red pummelo of Bombay. That
the original wild Citrus fruits may have had a thick
warty skin may be probable, for we often see warti-
ness cropping up in cultivated varieties, possibly as a
reversion to ancestral characters — such as certain
varieties of the Seville orange ; the Aurungabad
orange (pi. 125, fig. a] ; the nmssembi of Poona (pi.

2o6 Oranges and Lemons of India.

44, fig. y) ; and the still more striking Dumr£z form
of the " Khatta" (pi. 27, fig. 6).

There is a point upon which I have not yet hazarded
any speculation : that is — How could the oil cells of the
Citrus first have come into existence ? Were they
oil cells from the beginning of time, or were they
transformations of something else ? Taking into con-
sideration that these oil cells now exist all over the
bark ; that the axillae, or angles, of the leaf crenations
contain each an essential oil cell ; that in the Bryo-
phyllum calycinum buds are produced in similar
positions, and that in homologous points of the pulp
carpels seed-buds are developed, the suspicion might
be raised in one's mind that after all these oil cells—
so constant in all parts of the Citrus — may not impos-
sibly be connected with "spore" sacks, or similar
organs, in some ancestral cryptogamic form.*

The same powers which were equal to changing the
five-toed animal into our one-toed horse, the lizard into
the bird of to-day, the lower animal into man, would, I
fancy, be also equal to bring about the changes I have
tentatively endeavoured to sketch in the foregoing
pages.

In discussing the possible morphology of the citrus
fruit, a few words on its leaf may not be out of place.
The leaf is an expansion of the bark, specialised for
certain ends. It consists of two parts, the petiole (or
leaf stalk), and the leaflet (or blade). These are united
by a joint, like those of compound leaves, suggesting
the idea that the ordinary citrus leaf was at some time
a compound leaf. In fact, in the Citrus trifoliata, pi.
254, fig.g", we have a compound trifoliate leaf. In the
allied genus, CEgle marmelos, pi. 242, fig. ft we have

* Vide note at the end of this chapter.

Morphology of the Citrus. 207

also a trifoliate leaf. In the Feronia elephantum
and Limonia acidissima, we see still more compound
leaves ; vide pi. 244, figs, b and c, and pi. 245, figs, a, by
and c.

Moreover, in more than one instance in seedling
citrus which I grew, trifoliate leaves were developed
among the secondary leaves ; vide pi. 246, figs, d, e, f

The leaf stalk of the citrus varies from a wingless
short petiole, like that of the Malta lemon (fig. a, pi.
181), to the enormous wings of the C. hystrix (fig. d,
pi. 225). In many cases, the winged petiole of the
latter is larger than the blade of the leaflet, such as is
shewn in the same figure.

The leaflets of the citrus are emarginate. Even if
the general shape be acuminate, they usually have an
emarginate point, a mere indentation at the tip. Not
impossibly this indentation has a meaning.

Had the remote ancestors of the citrus simple or
compound leaves ? In the embryology of the verte-
brata it has been found that, up to a certain point, the
embryos so resemble each other that they are practically
indistinguishable. Afterwards they become differen-
tiated, and each species progresses in its own way.

The embryology of the citrus leaves can possibly be
studied in the primary and secondary leaves of its
seedlings after germination, and also, perhaps, in the
first leaves of each branch. They are different from
the typical leaves of the adult tree.

The cotyledons of the citrus in germination remain
under ground. In all, the first pair of leaves that show
themselves above the ground are opposite and have no
sign of joint between the petiole and the blade, and no
sign either of margins or wings on the petiole. In
many citrus, the first three or four leaves are also

208 Oranges and Lemons of India.

without joints, especially in the turunj, bajoura, and
lemons. Afterwards begins to appear the margined or
winged petiole, and also the joint between this and the
leaflet. In others, the joint is quite visible as a pale
dot, but the margins of the leaflet are continuous with
the wings of the petiole. Finally, the typical form of
the leaves, whatever they may be, begins to be de-
veloped. If the variety has typically a large cordate
petiole, at first this is small, and becomes larger and
larger as the foliage of the seedling developes, until it
assumes its typical adult proportions, which in the C.
hystrix often exceed those of the leaflet. Of course,
on any adult tree will be found a variety of leaves,
owing to new branches being continually developed,
and these frequently repeat in their first leaves em-
bryonic forms, or, possibly, reversions.

In the nepalee nimboo, many leaves of the seed-
ling have no joint, the leaflet edges coming down low
on the petiole without any sign of joint between the
two.

The qeem citron of Saharunpore has typically large
cordate petioles, but the first four or five leaves of
the seedling had no sign of joint. Then came one
or two leaves with a joint, but with the margins of the
leaflet and petiole continuous. Afterwards the typical
form of leaf began to appear.

The Muscat large sweet lemon has first no joints,
then joints with the petiole margin and those of the
leaflet continuous. Sometimes indentations occur on
the continuous edges on a level with the joints.

As a rule, those citrus which have normally large
winged petioles show this expansion earlier, while the
Malta lemon, the bajoura, and the citron and others
go on for some time without showing any development
either of a joint or separate petiole wings.

Morphology of the Citrus. 209

The lima of Ceylon, or C. hystrix, has its first two
opposite leaves without joints, but the third leaf at
once shows the joint and margined petiole, the latter
becoming larger and larger as new leaves develop ;
see pis. from 246 to 255.

There is, I think, some reason to suppose that the
original leaf of the citrus was a simple leaf. This idea
is strengthened by the enormous winged petiole of the
C. hystrix, and also by the typical emargination of the
distal end of the leaflets in all citrus, whether acuminate
or not. This indentation would appear to be the posi-
tion of another, though abortive, leaf expansion or
bud.* So that not impossibly the original leaf of the
citrus was only the winged petiole of to-day. Then by
another expansion or leaf bud from the petiole emar-
gination at the tip the leaflet originated, and by side
buds the trifoliate leaf was formed. One might, per-
haps, familiarise himself with this view by considering
how the branches of the Epiphyllum, one of the cac-
tacese, are formed. Fig./; pi. 245, gives a diagram of
it. The fully developed leaf of the C. hystrix, pi. 225,
figs, dfand e, would appear only a modification of some-
thing like an Epiphyllum branch. Then, if by pro-
liferation from the joint, which may be considered as a
node, a pair of additional bark expansions occurred, we
would get diagram fig. g, pi. 245, which would resemble
a part of the leaf of the Limonia, Feronia, and others.
In the leaf of the Limonia, pi. 245, a, b and c, there
would appear to be a tendency to this mode of pro-
liferation, carried on almost to any extent. f In such
case, the original trifoliate leaf of the citrus would have

* Such as may have occurred in the leaf of the Limonia referred to.

f The simple leaf being an expansion of the bark, the compound
leaf might, perhaps, be considered as a branch-form expansion of the
same.

P

2io Oranges and Lemons of India.

been one leaflet expansion from the tip of the original
simple leaf (now the winged petiole) and two opposite
leaflet buds from the same node forming the leaf of the
C. trifoliata. Eventually, the middle leaflet, absorbing
to itself most of the nourishment, grew more than the
side ones, and finally extinguished them, and in many
cases dwarfed the petiole leaf. These side leaflets,
however, in the seedlings now and again reappear
among the first or embryonic leaves.

In the citrons proper, and bajouras, leaves like
those of pi. 247, fig. a, and pi. 250, figs, a and b, and
others, are very common, even in adult trees. They
have no sign of joint, and one not knowing the com-
pound nature of the citrus leaf, would take them for
simple leaves. Whether these are reversions to the
supposed ancestral simple leaf, or cases in which the
joint has been extinguished, and the edges of the
leaflet and petiole wings become continuous, it is
impossible to say.

In the Gardeners Chronicle of 5th Nov. 1887,
page 560, the figure of an abnormal Begonia is given.
The ovary, instead of being wholly inferior, as is
usual, is partly superior, with the base of the carpels
open, showing numerous ovules. This is not all.
Between and within the carpels, is a tuft of perfectly
formed stamens. " A more topsy-turvy violation of
morphological sequence can hardly be met with. . . .
Here we have a flower, that is usually unisexual,
becoming structurally bisexual. We have carpels
which are generally closed, so as to conceal their
contents, gaping apart, to disclose the ovules ;
while in the very centre of the flower, within and
between the divergent carpels, are the stamens, some
of which stamens, as it appeared to us, occupied the
place of ovules, and were indeed substitutes for them."

Morphology of the Citrus. 211

In Asa Gray's "Structural Botany," page 171, is
given a monstrous flower of white clover, after
Turpin, in which "the pistil is stalked, and the
ovary open, and the margins bearing leaves instead of
ovules."

As the plumule of the seed, which is the developed
ovule, is homologous to a branch, and as this branch,
according to the monstrous clover, can be transformed
into a leaf, it is reasonable to infer that the normal
leaf is probably nothing but a transformed branch,
arrested in its growth and turned to other pur-
poses. The leaf-like branch of Ruscus androgynus
would perhaps give a better idea of what I mean
by comparing the leaf of the citrus to a modified
branch.

The abnormal Begonia alluded to, shows the same
transformation, viz., of ovules changed into stamens,
which in their turn are modified leaves, and are often
changed into petals or leaves.

According to this mode of reasoning therefore, the
leaf of the citrus, would be a modified branch, the
serrations on its edges, abortive leaflets, the oil cells in
their angles, abortive buds, in abortive axillae ; and to
conclude, the normal bud, the spine, the oil cell of the
leaf and the rind, the juice vesicles of the pulp, the
pollen grains, and the seed-bud would all have to be
considered as homologous.

It is true the leaf is often deciduous, while the
branch is not, but the flower and the fruit, which are
admitted to be modified branches, are also mostly
deciduous, when their function on the tree has been
completed. Moreover, the leaf, or as I take it, the
modified branch, after it has completed its special
function, is more serviceable to the tree off than on.
The old persistent leaves, besides absorbing some of

p 2

2 1 2 Oranges and Lemons of India.

the limited nourishment of the tree, might injuriously
shade other leaves from the sun, while the deciduous
leaves, after decaying, would furnish manure or raw
materials for further growth.

In connection with the trifoliate leaf of the citrus, I
would refer to Dr. Masters, fig. 32, page 74, of his
" Teratology." He gives it as a curious instance of an
anomalous form of orange. I have reproduced it in
pi. 241, fig. d. In this figure, I have endeavoured to
complete by the dotted outline d', this tricarpellar
orange, as I think it possible to have been. It would
appear that each leaflet, or carpel, instead of uniting
with its fellows, to form a round or oblong fruit, had
formed a separate orange, consisting of one carpel,
like that of a pea-pqd, viz., that of the odd leaflet, and
one of the side ones, the third leaflet-carpel remaining
undeveloped. Dr. Masters does not give any details
of this anomaly, so that I cannot say whether this
might be the probable view. Risso gives several
examples of "horned " oranges, in which one or more
of the carpels remained separate, each having within
its rind-carpel, a separate pulp-carpel.

All this chapter is nothing but a speculation, and
the reader may take it for what it is worth. Some-
times speculations have this value. Although absurd
in themselves, they may tempt some one to make
observations and experiments in directions which
possibly he might not think of. Evolution of thought,
like all other evolution, can take place only by slow
degrees, and if what I said will help, in any way, future
investigators in this obscure region, this chapter may
perhaps not be wholly useless.

It is not easy to convey to the reader a clear notion
of what a large part of this chapter is about. One
requires to have pondered over the subject, and to

Morphology of the Citrus. 213

have passed several years in examining citrus fruit and
leaves of numerous varieties, and at all stages, not to
come to the conclusion that all I said justifies the
quotation given at the head of this chapter. This
frequent pondering of course may have the dis-
advantage of producing what the French call idtes
fixes !

NOTE. — The " Physiology of Plants," by Jul. Von Sachs, p. 183,
gives the following : " The internal glands in the skin of the fruit of
the orange are very conspicuous and large ; they abound in ethereal
oils, and appear in transverse and longitudinal section, as roundish
cavities, from which the inflammable ethereal oil spurts out, on the
application of pressure. Such glands originate, so far as investiga-
tion extends, from a single mother cell, which, as it slowly develops,
undergoes many divisions in all directions, so that a multicellular
mass of tissue of roundish form arises, the cells of which subse-
quently become remarkable as containing very granular, apparently
dead protoplasm. Later on, the thin cell-walls dissolve ; the pro-
cess commencing in the middle of the spheroidal group and proceed-
ing outwards. There thus arises a roundish cavity filled partly with
watery sap, partly with drops of ethereal oil or balsam — the pro-
ducts of solution of the mass of cells. The layers of tissue sur-
rounding this cavity fit closely on all sides, without intercellular
spaces, and thus form a kind of wall to the receptacle for the secre-
tion (well seen in the leaves of the Citrus)."

Is there much in this genesis of the oil-cell, which differs from
that of an ovule, whether vegetable or animal ? — E. B.

214

CHAPTER XV.

DISCUSSION ON THE ORIGIN OF THE DIFFERENT VARIE-
TIES OF CITRUS, AND ON THE DERIVATION OF THEIR
NAMES.

THE object of discussing the derivation of the
numerous names of the citrus family is, if possible, to
obtain some clue/ through the name, of the origin of
that particular variety. I shall take them as far as I
can, in the order of their chapters.

The Orange. — We have narunj, narang, and
naranghi, from which probably the European names
have been derived. I have not been able to make out
satisfactorily that this name is indigenous in India. But
to leave no stone unturned, I referred the question to
various orientalists. Their courteous replies are given
in the course of this chapter.

Mr. Growse, of the Bengal Civil Service, states that
no genuine Sanskrit work makes any mention of any
kind of citrus. The Pundits of Benares, however, say
that there is a book on medicine, called Mandanpdl
nighunt, dated 1411, Sumbut (about 531 years
ago), which mentions both the sweet and the sour
orange, under the name of naranghi, as follows : —
(a.) Is sour-sweet. It increases the appetite, and
counteracts flatulence, (b.) Is sour. It is extremely
heating and difficult to digest. It is laxative, and also
counteracts flatulence.

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 215

The Pundits also say that the derivation of the
word is from nag-rang> the colour of sendiir, or red
lead.

Sir Monier Williams states that naranga, an orange,
occurs in a Sanskrit work on medicine, called Susrata,
and that it may be a corruption of naga-rangay
having the colour of naga, which certainly has a
meaning " lead." But he is inclined to think that
naranga is a foreign word, and comes from the
Persian naranj.

Professor E. B. Cowell, of Cambridge, states that
the word nagaranga is found in the amarakosha,
the oldest Sanskrit dictionary, perhaps of the 8th or
9th century A.D.* The contracted form naranga
occurs in the commentary to the old " Unadi sutras,"
which was written about 1300 A.D.

We are here at once met by the difficulty of not
knowing to what type of orange these old works refer
— whether to the Seville sour orange ; the Portugal
sweet orange ; or to the suntara sweet orange, or the
sour varieties of the latter type.

Professor A. Vambery thinks that narang is decidedly
taken from the Persian narandj, which is composed
of nar, pomegranate, and randj (properly rang] colour.

There appears to be no doubt that the Seville orange
was the first orange to get to Europe. This has some
significance — that is, wherever it was taken from,
there could not have been at that time sweet kinds
of any sort commonly known ; otherwise they would
probably have been taken also to Europe, at the same
time.

Moreover, in Baber's Memoirs, Humayoon writes
that in his time — about 300 years ago — the samterak

* According to M. Reinaud it appears that the Amara-cocha was
written in the 5th century.

216 Oranges and Lemons of India.

(siintara) orange was known only in one place in
Bengal.*

Colonel Yule, in his " Glossary/' has the following:
— Abulfeda says — A.D. c. 930, "the same may be said
of the orange tree (Shajr-ul-naranj], and of the round
citron, which were brought from India, after the year
(A.H.) 300, and first sown in 'Oman.' Thence they
were transplanted to Basra, to Irak, and to Syria. . . .
but they lost the sweet and penetrating odor, and
beauty that they had in India, having no longer the
benefits of the climate, soil, and water peculiar to that
country." — Mas'udi II., 438-9.

By "sweet and penetrating odor" Abulfeda probably
refers to the very aromatic rind of the Seville orange.

In South India (Tanjore) they have an orange called
nartun. This I found is no other than the Seville
orange. Colonel Yule in his Glossary, p. 490, has the
following : — " In Tamul dictionaries most words
beginning with nar have some relation to fragrance ;
as narukeradu, to yield odor ; nartum pillei, lemon-
grass ; nartei, citron ; narta manum (read marum), the
wild orange tree, &c." I think, therefore, one would
not be far wrong in concluding that the Seville orange
in South India was either indigenous or had been
naturalized there from prehistoric times. It is worth
mentioning that at Mangalore, on the Western Coast,
I found the Seville orange called karna, which Mr.
Growse informs me means bitter. Neither at Tanjore
nor at Mangalore had this orange the name of narang
or naranj.

Rumphius, in chap. 41, vol. ii., describes the Seville
orange under the name of Aurantium acidum. It does
not, however, appear to have been very common in the

* The sengtereh of Baber's own memoirs appears to be a dif-
ferent thing.

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 217

Malay archipelago in his days. He says, "It does
not occur in all the islands of maritime India. More-
over in Java, Baleya, and Celebes, this orange is
unknown. In Amboyna it is more plentiful, but in
Ternate and Banda they are rarely met with. It was
mainly used for cleaning copper ware, and for washing
the head. The wood was used for handles of imple-
ments, and the fruit was sometimes used as an
ingredient in a sort of rustic punch"

Unless allowed to run wild, there was no good
reason for the Seville orange becoming common in the
Malay archipelago. It was not good to eat, and its
strong seedlings were not used as stock because the
art of budding or grafting was not known there in the
time of Rumphius. Moreover they had the Portugal
sweet orange, and also the suntara orange, the kaghzi
nimboo, and a variety of citrons and lemons ; neverthe-
less the Seville orange was there, and rather plentiful in
Amboyna.

Loureiro, in his " Flora of Cochin China," gives
citrus fusca as similar to that of tab. 33, — Aurantium
acidum of Rumphius — the Seville orange. He further
says that it is very widely spread in Cochin China, and
more rare in China.

I think we have come here near the birthplace of
the Seville orange, but the whole argument of course
rests only on a strong probability.

The following is probably the course the Seville
orange took : — It commenced in China or Cochin
China, and found its way to the Malay archipelago. In
the time of Rumphius there was a great number of
Chinese residing in those islands. From the archi-
pelago, at some very distant time, it found its way to
South India by means of traders, where it became
naturalised, and got the name of nartun on account of

218 Oranges and Lemons of India.

its fragrant flowers, rind, and leaves. Eventually the
Arab or other traders took it thence to Persia, where,
as Professor A. Vambery thinks, it may have got the
name narandj, " like a pomegranate." But as it may
have had already the first part of its name nar in
Tamul, in connection with its fragrance, it is more
likely that this part of its name went to Persia from
South India with it. Then the ranj or rang may have
been tacked on afterwards. From Persia it got to
Syria, Africa, and Spain, under its Arabic or Persian
name naranj, and probably also back to Northern
India, under the name of narang. Such a theory
would appear to fit in with the facts known.

The Khatta Orange. — I call this orange, because it
has an orange exterior, an orange pulp, and orange-like
leaves. It is, however, rather prominently mammillate,
and its flowers externally are tinged red. Natives
almost universally call it simply khatta, which means
sour. Some call it karna, confounding it with the
Seville, and others call \\.gulgul, confounding it with
a large sour lemon. Very little use is made of it, be-
yond sowing its seeds for raising stock to bud other
kinds on. They say the seed germinates better when
the fruit is yet green. It is almost the only kind used
for this purpose. No book that I have seen mentions
it, and nothing appears to be known of its origin.

The Portugal or Malta Orange. — In only one place,
in South India, have I found this variety with a native
name. In Tanjore they have a large fine variety of
this type called bandir, but Dr. Shortt says it is also
called cheenee. It is figured in pi. 43, fig. a. I have
not been able to trace the derivation of the name
bandir. This type of orange is to be found in many
other places in India, and also in Ceylon, but every-
where, for want of a native name, it appears to be of

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 2 1 9

comparatively recent introduction. In Ceylon, it is
either called aranj or peni-dbdan, which is said to
mean simply a sweet round orange. There, sour
oranges are called amool-dbdan. In Poona they have
a variety called mussembi, which is evidently a corrup-
tion of Mozambique. In Bombay they import a nice
variety of Portugal orange from Zanzibar, which they
call either mussembior Malta orange. In the Bombay
market, the one they import from Poona they distin-
tinguish by the name of Poona mussembi. In Tanjore
they have a second variety, which the English there
call Spanish orange. In the Upper Provinces.it is
known by the name of Malta orange or Sylhet. The
orange from the latter place is of a totally different
type, and is the one which goes to Calcutta under the
name of kdmla lemboo. The Portugal or Malta type
of orange I know has been recently introduced in four
or five different places — viz.: Ceylon, probably with
the collection from Egypt ; in Lucknow, Jaunpore,
Gujranwala, and probably also in Lahore, with the
collection from Palermo mentioned in Colonel Yule's
" Glossary. " The best of all is the blood orange of
Gujranwala. It should be noted here that Rumphius
in chap. 43, vol. ii., describes what I take to be a Por-
tugal orange, under the name of Aur. verrucosum. In
Amboina it was called Lemon Tsjina, and mostly cul-
tivated by the Chinese inhabitants. It was then con-
sidered a recent introduction in the archipelago. He
further says that in China there are two kinds of it,
one common, which is there called Bit-cam, that is,
Lima regius ; and the other seng-cam* The latter
is double the size of the common kind.f

* Here we may possibly have not only the first part of kamala, but
also the first part of sengtereh; vide derivation of suntara further on.

t It would appear that the Portugal orange came from China, via
the Malay archipelago.

22O Oranges and Lemons of India.

The Pummelo. — In the Upper Provinces it is mainly
known by two names — the mahtdbi and the chakotra,
while for South India, a large number of extraordinary
names are given in Colonel Yule's " Glossary." The
derivations of mahtdbi and chakotra given by the
Pundits of Benares are very instructive. They show
how little reliance can be placed on any endeavour to
get at the derivation of a word by its resemblance to
some Sanskrit or other word. They say that mahtabi
comes from mahtdb, the moon, from the moon-like size
of the pummelo ; and that chakotra comes from chdk,
a wheel, from the huge size of certain pummelos. In
Bengal, however, the pummelo still retains a similarity
to the name with which it came to Calcutta, viz.:
batabi-lemboO) and this is no other than the citrus of
Batavia, whence it was first brought to Calcutta. The
word chakotra has an equally interesting derivation.
It was Mr. Growse that first called my attention to
p. 54 of Colonel Yule's u Glossary," under " Batavia."
He says : " It is the famous capital of the Dutch pos-
sessions in the Indies, occupying the site of the old city
Jakatra, the seat of the Javanese kingdom." So that
we have here both the new and the old names of the
capital of Java, amply accounting for both mahtdbi Z.K&
chakotra, the pummelo, which is known to have been
comparatively recently introduced into India from
Java.

The names of the pummelo in South India, given in
Colonel Yule's " Glossary," p. 546, are curious. How-
ever, I think they indicate an introduction there inde-
pendently of that in Bengal. Colonel Yule states that
he has not been able to trace their origin. It will be
seen, however, that, with few exceptions, if the words
are properly divided, they resolve themselves into cor-
ruptions of the Dutch name Pompel-moes. What the

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 221

origin of this Dutch name is, I do not know. Dividing
the words as follows, I think their derivation becomes
apparent : —

Poomli-mas,

Pumpali-mas,

Bambuli-mas,

Bombari-masa,

Pampara-panasa.

Then Bambali-naringi is merely dropping the mas of
Bambulimas>&h& substituting the generic name naringi.
Then papannas, papanas, or papanis may be a still
further corruption of Pompel-moes, or of only the
latter part of Pamparapanasa. They all probably in-
dicate that the introduction of the pummelo into South
India was owing to the Dutch.*

Not impossibly also some ancient savant of South
India, who may have possessed a copy of Rumphius's
11 Flor. Amboin.," may have helped to give many of
these names their present aspect by endeavouring to
identify some of them with those given in Rumphius.
Under chap. 37, vol. ii., Lima agrestis (Lemon papedd],
he says : " Another variety of this species is called
Lemon carbou. Externally it is yellow and its pulp is
white and very acid, and of the size of a child's or
man's head." He adds, that to all large things the
Malays apply the name of bull or elephant, and at the
end of the chapter Burmann says: " It may be also
noted, that Lemon papeda, and Lemon carbou, is Limo
bubalinus — a Valent. in Amboinae descript, p. 189."
So that not impossibly this Limo bubalinus may have
given origin to some of the strange names of the

* It is curious to study the native corruptions of European names.
Montmorency they turn into Mackenzicmore.

222 Oranges and Lemons of India.

pummelo in South India. But I think most of them
are more likely to be corruptions of the Dutch Pom-
pelmoes.

In Ceylon the pummelo is called jambole. Dr.
Trimen states that this word is not Singhalese, and
that another name for it is rata-naran, meaning
" foreign orange." Rumphius, in the chapter on
the pummelo, says : " Some in Malay call \\.jamboa,
from the Portuguese samboa, which properly denotes
the Pomp-sires, or Pomum-adami of the Spaniards.
It is not, therefore, improbable that both the name
jambole and the tree itself were introduced into
Ceylon by the Portuguese.

Many of the pummelo-like amilbeds of India may,
for all we know, have been also introduced by seed,
or otherwise, from the Malay archipelago. They are
all sour ; and Rumphius describes various kinds of
citrus, which are lemon-yellow, large and sour. The
name amilbM, the Pundits say, comes from amlavetasa,
amla meaning sour, and vetasa (?).

The birthplace of the pummelo, like many other
kinds of citrus, was probably Southern China or
Cochin China. Loureiro, in his Flora of the latter
place, says of the C. decumana that " There are
many varieties which grow in forests." The pulp is
either red or white, sweet or acid. Rumphius, in
describing the pummelos of the Malay archipelago,
says : " These trees, in these East Indian regions,
are not common, and they are considered as having
been at one time brought from higher regions," mean-
ing probably more northerly regions. Alphonse de
Candolle seems to think that its birthplace was the
islands of the Pacific, under the supposition that the
pummelo is a distinct species and should somewhere
have its wild form.

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 223

I have discussed this point in the chapter on the
pummelos, and have come to the conclusion that it is
not a distinct species, but is possibly an offshoot of
the C. aurantium sinense, Gall., or some similar orange,
and not improbably it had its origin in Cochin China.

The word pummelo is, of course, a corruption of the
Dutch Pompel-moes, through Pummelnose, by first
making it Pummelos, and then turning it into the
singular Pummelo. Shaddock is said to come from
Captain Shaddock, who first introduced it into the
West Indies.

PL 92 gives the figures of the " forbidden fruit " of
the English shops. The fruiterer said they came from
Palestine. I give them for comparison.

The Suntara and Kamala Oranges.

These oranges, as I have already said, although
sweet, are totally different from the sweet Portugal
oranges.

The Pundits of Benares have invented two different
derivations for this word - suntara. (a.) Siintarati,
which is made up of sun, meaning well, and tarati,
a thing that floats, the whole meaning a thing which
floats well. Now the suntara orange floats very well
indeed, and in the rivers of the Khasia hills, whence
these oranges are brought down in boatloads for the
Calcutta market, this phenomenon must have been often
seen, viz., a suntara orange floating down the river.
(6.) Suntunrati, which is made up of suntun, mean-
ing bottom, and rati, a thing which clings to some-
thing else ; the whole meaning a thing which is
adherent in its bottom part. This would also apply
to the suntara orange. These pretty sounding deri-
vations, however, are said to be impossibilities in

224 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Sanskrit, both by Mr. Growse and Prof. Cowell of
Cambridge.

Many insist that suntara or suntra is no other
than Cintra, a town in Portugal, noted for oranges,
and that the Portuguese introduced this type of orange
into India from there, and that the suntra orange is
no other than the orange of Cintra. Of all explana-
tions, this is the least likely, for the following
reasons : —

(a.) The orange of Cintra is the Portugal orange
(C. aurantium sinense, Gall.), with a close-fitting skin.
Of this orange there are now many varieties in the
English shops, viz., the oranges from Brazil, Florida,
St. Michael's, Valencia, Denia, Jaffa, Malta, and others
of the same type. While the Suntara orange is a
totally different thing (A. sinense, Rumph.). I have
seen none of this type in the English shops. It is
loose-skinned, and the nearest approach to this type
is the mandarin orange (called Tangerine in the
English shops).

(b.) If the suntara orange had been introduced into
India by the Portuguese, it would be reasonable to
expect that its cultivation would be now more exten-
sive towards the coasts of India than in the interior,
while it is just the opposite. On the slopes of the
N.E. hills, from Kumaon to Khasia, the suntara
orange is semi-wild ; and, about 300 years ago, in the
time of Humayoon, it had only reached one village
of Bengal, Senargam. Humayoon calls it samtereh,
and no doubt it is the same orange he wrote of.

Colonel Yule in his Glossary says that " Abulfeda
as early as the beginning of the I4th century extolled
the fruit of Cintra," although it is not quite certain
that he meant the orange. Renaud's version says,
" pommes admirables pour la grosseur et le gout."

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 225

The Glossary also says that Hehn supposed the
sweet orange was first brought by the Portuguese into
Europe from China in 1548.

Sir C. F. Bonham, Secretary to the British Legation,
Lisbon, has very courteously obtained the following
information for me. Writing from Cintra, 2nd Sept.
1886, he says : —

" I now forward to you all the information which
Sir Francis Cook has been able to get from old books
in his possession on the subject of oranges. He is a
man of considerable knowledge of plants, and pos-
sesses a large estate in this neighbourhood. In the
course of conversation on the subject, he has told me
that the sweet orange, citrus aurantium of Portugal,* is
undoubtedly of Chinese origin; that the date of its
introduction into Portugal is somewhat uncertain ;
that he has much reason to believe it was introduced
into Portugal by D. Joao de Castro, about the year
1480, and planted on the terraces of Ponha Verde (a
place near here), where its descendants still exist.

In order that the suntara orange of India should
have become so widespread on the N.E. border of
the Peninsula, it is reasonable to suppose that either it
must have been indigenous there, or introduced long
before the dates given above of the introduction of the
sweet orange into Cintra. The probability is that
it was brought from China or Cochin China, across
the N.E. border ^prehistoric times.

I have left no stone unturned in order to get at
the bottom of the origin of this suntara orange, and
possibly at the derivation of its name. It would be
as well to mention all the known variations of this
name. In the Khasia hills it is not clear that it is
commonly known by this name. There, in Bengali, it
* C. aurantium, Gall.

Q

226 Oranges and Lemons of India.

is called kamala, and in Khasi, ^tsoh niamtra* In
Nepal it goes by the name suntola, or suntowrea ; in
Kumaon by the name of shor, and also by the name of
the Bageshwar orange, from the fair where it is largely
sold, and also the Gungoli hat and Ramgunga orange, .
where it is largely grown. f In the plains, it is called
by the educated people suntara, and by others suntra,
sungtra, and in Delhi also rungtra. The Europeans
call the Delhi orange Cintra orange, and by the
English in Calcutta it is known as the Sylhet orange.

I asked Mr. Stevenson, the Deputy Commissioner
of Sylhet, whether the Khasis had any legend about
this orange. He replied : " Nothing is known as to
the time when orange cultivation began in these parts.
From the extracts of the lives of the Lindsays, ap-
pended to Dr. Hunter's ' Statistical Account of Sylhet/
it would seem that there were oranges growing spon-
taneously in the mountains some time previous to the
close of last century (1776). No one knows how the
orange was introduced here. All agree that it is not
indigenous, and the legend has it that Hanuman, a
general of Rama, introduced the plant on his return
from Lanka (Ceylon). Some people say seeds were
brought from Assam proper."

More recently Mr. Stevenson very kindly wrote
again, and said : " I have been endeavouring to obtain
some clue to the derivations of the Bengali-Khasia
names of oranges of all kinds. Their origin cannot be at
all had. I asked the chief Khasia official at Shillong,
and he was quite in the dark. I then consulted the
missionary of the Welsh Presbyterian Mission in the
Khasia-Jaintia hills. I enclose Mr. Jerman Jones's

* Mr. Stevenson says usoh santra (vide Appendix, No. 43).
t Mr. H. Harris, of Sitowli, informs me that these are all one, and
resemble the Nagpore orange.

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 227

reply. He is the oldest missionary in the hills, and
very intimate with the language, the people, and their
legends."

Mr. Jones writes as follows, dating from Shillong :
"The right way of spelling the different names of
oranges is this : —

Bengali. Khasi.

1. Kamala . . . Usoh niamtra.

2. Naringi . . . ,, Sim.

3. Moglai . . . ,, myngor.

4. Satkara . . . „ Kuid.

5. Kaki . . . „ niang-riang.

6. Khaterjanni . . „ Kymphor.

" I have never found a Khasi who could offer the
remotest suggestion as to the derivation or meaning
of niamtra, though I have asked a great number of
persons, and it is the same with regard to the word
sim. The latter is the Khasi term for a Raja. The
Khasis call the best sort of Bananas kait sim. It
may be that the Khasis used to look upon this fruit as
the best among the oranges. They have not any
legend or tradition as to how or whence the oranges
were introduced into this country. The invariable
answer is, ' God put them in our country, and how can
we know anything about them ? ' '

In BlackwoocTs Magazine for September, 1886, there
is an interesting article by Major-General A. R. Mac
Mahon on "Burmese border tribes and trade routes"
(vide Appendix, No. 2). It states that a century
before the Christian era the Emperor of the Han
dynasty fitted out an expedition to find its way through
S.-W. China to India, but his plan was frustrated
by the Shans, who then occupied Yunnan. The Shans
were eventually expelled from their country, and, gain-

Q ^

228 Oranges and Lemons of India.

ing strength, they invaded the Brahmapootra valley
in the eighth century, and completely occupied it in the
beginning of the thirteenth century. But from ancient
Shan records, discovered by Pemberton at Manipur, it
appears that in the beginning of the Christian era the
Shan kingdom occupied the whole of the region from
Yunnan to the S.E. boundary of the Assam valley.
The article also mentions that the Shans are most
ingenious cultivators, and that they equal the Belgians
in the great care and ingenuity they exhibit in culti-
vating their land.

Now China, or Cochin China, is considered by most
authors as the birthplace of oranges, and it is said the
Chinese claim them as indigenous to their country.
If so, we have an efficient cause for the naturalization
of the suntara orange on the N.E. border of India,
This great migration of Shans, which commenced at
the beginning of the Christian era, from Yunnan to
the Brahmapootra valley, could hardly have helped
carrying with it this and perhaps other kinds of
oranges, by means of the seed ; no other mode of pro-
pagation is known in the Khasia hills, even at this
day, than by seed. More especially is this likely to
have been the case when we are told that the Shans
are such ingenious cultivators.

Again, in the Khasia hills the generic name for
oranges is usoh. This very word, slightly modified,
curiously enough occurs as the generic name of the
Citrus in various islands of the Malay archipelago.
Rumphius, in his " Flor. Amboin.," in the chapter on
Limo tiiberosus, says : " Generally, however, all lemons
(Citrus) are called by the Amboinese aussi and nssiy
and by the Chinese they are given the generic name
of cam. In Banda the generic name is usse. And
in chapter 42, vol. ii., he describes the Aurantiiim

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 229

sinense (Lemon manis Tsjina], evidently introduced
from China. Both the picture and the description of
this orange agree entirely with the suntara orange of
India,* and in the days of Rumphius this suntara
orange was found in almost all these Oriental islands,
from Java, Celebes, and the Moluccas to Amboina."
In the latter place this orange was called massussii.

We have here, I think, something tangible to go
by. The community of the generic name usoh, iissi,
or usse, to the Khasia hills and the Malay archi-
pelago, would appear to indicate that it either came to
both these places from a common source, or that one
place got it from the other, probably by way of the
Malay peninsula. In the Archipelago it wras consi-
dered as a Chinese orange.

The only legend that Mr. Stevenson has been able
to get hold of is, that this suntara orange was brought
by Hanuman, a general of Rama. This story would,
perhaps, fit in with the great invasion of Shans into
the Brahmapootra valley.

As to the rest, I have only suggestions to make.
If its introduction in the N.E. border of India wras
effected by the Shans, it may not be impossible that
the first part of the name of this orange — sun — may
have some connection with Shan. Then it appears
that sim, besides being the Khasi name of an orange,
also means Raja — the Raja orange (Usoh-sim). Not
impossibly, also, this word sim, or modifications of it,
may have entered into the formation of the word sun-
tara by way of samtereh, or sintra. In those parts,
they have another variety called usoh niamtra. This
may possibly have given origin to the name rungtra,
which, in Delhi, is a synonym of suntra. Rumphius,
however, says that in China they had two kinds of

* Vide?\. 116 A.

230 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Portugal orange (Aur. verrucosum), viz., the bit-cam
and the seng-cam. Could the seng of the latter have
had any connection with the sung of sungtara f

We have, finally, the other synonym kamala, or
kamla-lemboo. It may not be impossible that kamy
the Chinese generic name for oranges, may have
entered into the construction of this word.* The
keonla orange of the plains, or as some call it kawnla,
is, however, not the kamala of the Khasia hills. The
latter is the suntara (aur. sinense) of Rumphius. The
keonla of the plains has a redder, and more chagrined
exterior, usually mammillate, and it sweetens very late.
Its typical leaf moreover is different, and has also a
different scent. Both the suntara and the kawnla,
belong to the same group. Whether the keonla of the
plains corresponds to any of the other citrus of the
Khasia hills enumerated in Mr. Jerman Jones's letter,
I do not know.

To recapitulate then, we find that the suntara
orange of India, is totally distinct from the orange of
Cintrain Portugal, and cannot have been introduced
under that name by the Portuguese ; that it has been
known on the slopes of the N.E. border from time
immemorial, and must have been either indigenous
there, or have been introduced across the Eastern
border, in very ancient times, or from the Malay
archipelago, by way of the Malay peninsula. Its
birthplace, however, is more likely to have been
either China or Cochin China. Loureiro in his Flor.
Cochin-chin., does not describe any orange which
coincides with the suntara orange of India. But Mr.
Gubboy, who resided in Hong-kong, informed me that
there they have an orange, called loose-jacket. This

* Possibly, also, it may have got its name from the river Kamala,
near which it is said to grow.

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 231

is probably no other than the suntara orange, the
Aur. sinense of Rumphius, who considered it intro-
duced into the Malay archipelago from China.

We have also the hazara, which I consider to be
no other than the kumquat, allowed to grow into a
bush. With cultivation, it produces larger fruit than
the latter. Its name hazard is probably derived from
the thousands of oranges a large bush produces. The
kokni is another small and sweet orange of the
suntara type. In Saharunpore they also call it the
China orange. Rumphius, in chap. 42, vol. ii. (Aur.
sinense), says that the Chinese in their own country
have very elegant round oranges, of the " second
variety," which are smaller than the common kind.
They preserve them whole in sugar. Not improbably,
this small variety of the suntara type mentioned by
Rumphius may be \htkdkni of India.

The reshmi orange is another variety of a similar
type. Its name would appear to mean "silky," but I
do not see how this would apply to the fruit. I have
not been able to trace the origin of this variety. It is
never met with in the markets, and does not appear a
favourite kind for growing in large quantity.

The Mandarin orange. — This is of recent introduc-
tion in India. I have met with it nowhere, except
where it was obtained from Lucknow. In the latter
place it was imported in 1863. I found it also in the
Peradeniya garden, in Ceylon. Here also, it appears
to be of recent introduction, and probably came from
Egypt, with a collection of orange trees in 1847. ^n
the Ceylon markets, they have the kbnda ndrun, and
the jaw a ndrun, both of which they call mandarin
oranges, but they are no other than varieties of the
suntara orange of India. The kbnda narun is almos
identical with the Nagpore orange.

232 Oranges and Lemons of India.

In Sylhet, Mr. Stevenson thinks they have the
mandarin orange. But if they had the real thing, it
would have long ago attracted notice in Calcutta,
whereas I have never heard of, or seen it there.

Sir C. F. Bonham, in his letter from Cintra, says
that Sir Francis Cook further tells him, " That the
Tangerine orange, so called, is evidently the mandarin
orange, also from China,* and bears that name
because it was a much more rare fruit, and only within
the reach of mandarins and grandees." Not impro-
bably however, it was given that name for the same
reason that the Khasias give some fruits the distinctive
name of Raja (sim), as being the best of their kind.

The yhambiri. — For this name, a Sanskrit origin is
claimed. The Pundits of Benares say it is mentioned
in the madun pal nig hunt, a book on medicine, about
531 years old. Therein is stated that ti\zjkambirikci
(meaning the small jhamblri) "puts the teeth on edge
(dantdn sk&tk&tt), but it quenches thirst, and stops
vomiting." By the mention of a small jhambwi, it
is presumable there was another variety which was
larger, and went by the same name. Whether by
jkamblri* the kaghzi nimboo or lime proper of
moderns is meant, it is impossible to say.

Prof. Cowell of Cambridge states that jambhlra
also occurs in the Amarakosha, the oldest Sanskrit
dictionary, of about the eighth or ninth century A.D.

Baber, 300 years ago, also mentions the jhambiri,
but by that he evidently means the one I have
described in the chapter on the jhambiri group, and
figured in pis. 131 and 132, and not the true-lime, or
kaghzt-nimboo, for he distinctly says "it is like an
orange, but is not an orange." In Rumphius' Flor.

* In Seville they grow two oranges. The Seville or bitter orange,
and the small China, which is probably no other than the mandarin.

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 233

Amboin., there is no citrus that can be identified with
this orange-like jhainhlri, and Loureiro, in his list of
citrus of Cochin China gives nothing that approaches
it. In the Hagkala Garden, Ceylon, I saw a citrus
which appeared to belong to this group, but I never
saw it in the markets. I never met with it in South
India. The fact is, the true-lime or kaghzi-nimboo, has
been found so useful, and is so easily raised from seed,
all over India, that it has replaced most sour citrus,
and if it were not still kept in the gardens of native
gentlemen, as a curiosity, this jhambiri, would
probably, by this time, have become extinct. Who can
tell how many forms of citrus, raised from seed, may
have become extinct, on account of there being no
demand for them, owing to their being devoid of any
very useful qualities. In the time of Risso some of the
varieties he described were rare, because nobody but
enthusiastic collectors cared for them, while those with
good commercial qualities were becoming vulgarized.
Anyhow, this jhambiri appears to be unknown
out of India, and not improbably it may be an Indian
variety. It may have originated from seeds of the
siintara, or keonla group, which it resembles in form.
I have not been able to trace the meaning of the word.
Turunj, Bajoura, and Madhkaree. — The first is
evidently not an Indian name. Rumphius, in chap.
35, vol. ii., on the citron, refers to a philological
discourse on the origin of the word citrus, by Bauhin.,
libr. I., Cap. 25, where the latter comes to the con-
clusion that the ctzador of the sacred Scriptures means
this fruit. Hence the Chaldean name of these fruits
- Extrogin, — in the singular Etog or Etrog, and
hence also the Arabic Atrog. Then in chap. 36 of the
same volume, under Limo tuberosus, Rumphius goes on
to say, " Similarly Torong and Toronga, which the

234 Oranges and Lemons of India.

Arabs call altrung and ottrog, although properly
speaking Torong is Persian. From this, the Spanish .
Toronja* has come." All research regarding this
citron, goes to show that in Media and Persia it was
known from a very ancient date. Alph. de Candolle
says : "The Greeks had seen the citron in Media and
Persia in the time of Theophrastus, three centuries
before Christ. In fact Citrus medica, and Malum
Persicum, both meaning the citron, were given to it
from the names of those countries. With these names
this tree was first imported into Europe, being the
first citrus that found its way there. De Candolle
says that, according to Targioni, the citron was, after
many attempts, cultivated in Italy in the third or
fourth century.

The questions that now remain are — How and
whence did it come to Media and Persia ? No
author says that it is indigenous there. Did it
come there from India or elsewhere ?

Prof. Co well says that " taranj, an orange, t occurs
in the Sikander nameh of the Persian poet, Nizami,
who died about A.D. 1200." Baber, 300 years ago,
said the sweet citron was common in Lemghanat,
and the sour one in Bajour. Sir J. Hooker, in his
" Flora I ndica," says it is found wild in the valleys
along the foot of the Himalaya from Gurhwal to Sik-
kim ; in the Khasia mountains, Garrow mountains,
Chittagong, the Western Ghats, and in the Satpura
range, in Central India.

Rumphius says that the citron is not frequent in
the islands of the Malay archipelago. They are

* In Spanish I am told it is written toronja, but pronounced
toronkha.

t Prof. Vambery also says that now-a-days turunj means also an
orange of a particular kind.

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 235

more plentiful in Java. A certain variety, however,
is called "lemon Java, because there it is sup-
posed to be indigenous." Loureiro says it is only
found "cultivated" in Cochin China and China. This
need not, however, militate against the citron having
been of Chinese origin. Alphonse de Candolle gives
several cultivated plants, whose wild forms appear to
have become extinct. And, in spite of want of evi-
dence in Chinese books, I would say that if the orange
had its birthplace in China, the citron must have
originated in the same place. For it would be un-
reasonable to suppose that two fruits structurally
identical could have been evolved in two places,
from two distinct centres. Of course it may be
quite possible that the ancestral form of the citron
became improved into our modern form, after it had
left China, either in the Malay archipelago, or some
where between China and India.

Taking everything into consideration, however, it
still appears doubtful where the citron proper, citrus
medico,) originated. That it found a resting-place in
India is highly probable, whence it may have found
its way to Persia and Media, and eventually to Europe,
about the third or fourth century of our era. It does
not, however, follow, that it was not re-introduced in
India, from two or more different directions. From
Persia it probably found its way to Bajour and Lemg-
hanat, and eventually into Northern India again, under
the name of bajoura. It is not likely that this latter
name is of Sanskrit origin (bija-pure' — full of seeds).
It is truly full of seeds, but as the sour citron was
plentiful in Bajour, it is more likely that some were
brought to India from there, and retained the name of
bajoura, or bajouri. Then Lemghanat was noted
for sweet citrons ; and it is not unlikely that the large

236 Oranges and Lemons of India.

melon-like sweet variety of Almora and other places,
now known as mudhkakrce may have been introduced
from there. Finally, we have near Cochin in South
India a Jewish colony, settled there so early as
490 A.D. As the citron was known in Media before
the Christian era, and as the Jews made use of its
fruit in their religious festivals, it is not at all impro-
bable that this Jewish colony brought the citron fruit,
or seed, with them to Western India, where it may
have become naturalized. The varieties on that coast
are more numerous than in other parts of India. In
Ceylon it is called siderun. This clearly indicates its
origin either from the Portuguese cidra, or the Eng-
lish citron.

As to the derivation of the sweet variety called
either mudkanker or mudhkakree, Prof. Cowell says,
" the first part seems to be the Sanskrit madhu—
sweet ; but Sir Monier Williams gives in his Sanskrit
Diet, madhukukkuti — a kind of citron, with ill-
smelling blossoms. As t always can become r, this is
the same as your Madhukakree. This, however, is
not an old Sanskrit word. It only occurs in com-
paratively modern dictionaries."

Kakree or hanker is the name of a sort of melon,
and this sweet citron of Almora, being as large as a
melon, the name of sweet melon, or madhkakree, may
have been given it.

On the Western Coast of India, the citron is also
called mauling and ma'pala. I have not been able
to trace the derivation of these words. The former
may not impossibly be connected with the baleng of
Baber.

The Lemons. — The lemon proper is considered by
botanists as a variety of the citron. C. medico, var.
limonum. The foliage of the lemon proper is different

Disciission on the Origin of Varieties. 237

from that of the citron ; but in the many varieties of
the Indian bajoiira, intermediate forms both of foliage
and fruit are found. It should be noted, however,
that the European lemon of the English shops, is
essentially a product of careful selection and cultiva-
tion. According" to Alphonse de Candolle, the Arabs
carried the lemon from Oman to Palestine and Egypt
in the tenth century. Not improbably in Oman itself
the citron had been already considerably " lemonized,"
the latter fruit being more useful. He also says
Palermo and Tuscany had them about the middle of
the thirteenth century. Many of the lemons of the
English shops, imported from Sicily, even now bear
traces of their citron origin, in their thick skin and
rough furrowed and subwarty exterior. In plate 200,
a and b, is given a lemon, which Mr. Webster, B.C.S.,
found in the " tarai " among forest trees. It had a
thin though solid skin, like the hard skin of the
citrons. It is impossible to say whether it was in-
digenous there or naturalized.

Risso, in his monograph, gives many intermediate
forms, under the name of lemons, between the citron
and the best and most common lemon of all — his
C. limonum vulgaris. The latter was recently intro-
duced from Malta into Lucknow. Thence it was
sent to many parts of India, and very recently I
sent plants of it from Etawah to many other parts,
including the Punjab, Assam, Bangalore, and Tine-
velly in South India. In Ceylon, on some of the
plantations, they have the lemon, probably also of
recent introduction.

No one, as far as I am aware, has endeavoured to
trace the origin of the word lemon, as far as it could
be traced.

Colonel Yule, in his " Glossary," p. 391, says : " But

238 Oranges and Lemons of India.

it has come into European languages through the
Arabic leimiin"

Rumphius, under Limo tuberosus martinicus, says :
" As these kinds of fruit were not accurately described
by the old authors ; they were given the general name
of Mali Citrii, Medici, or Hesperici ; in subsequent
times, however, their species were more carefully
studied, and one was called in Latin Limonium ;
and in Pharmacopoeias Limonem, ... In vain may
any one search for the derivation of this name in
European languages. The Arabic word is leytun ;
the Persian limum"

Mr. Gubboy informed me that the common Arabic
name for lemon is lumi. This very name is still
retained in Malta for the lemon. Risso gives a whole
section under the name of Lumia, and according to
De Candolle, " an author named Falcando mentions
in 1260 some very acid lumias, which were cultivated
near Palermo." Now the word limum could very
easily be corrupted, by transposition of the vowels,
into lumi. But Colonel Yule gives leimun also as
the Arabic word. The lemon is not indigenous in

o

Arabia. Where, then, did they get both the fruit and
its name ?

I think Rumphius gives us the solution of this
puzzle in his Flor. Amboin. Under Limo tuberosus
maritinicus he says, "It should certainly be noted
that all the species of lemon (it should be remembered
that by "lemons" Rumphius means all kinds of citrus]
are called by the Malays, by the general term of
lemoen, while in Europe this name is given only to
one species. This tree (Limo tuberosus] moreover is
called Lemo martin by the Malays. How it got this
name, however, is quite unknown to me, but it seems
likely that it may have first come into notice through

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 239

a Portuguese of the name of Martin, and hence its
name." This is the only variety that Rumphius con-
nects in any way with a Portuguese, and Martin might
as well have been, I believe, a Dutch name.

Further, under Limo tuber osus, Rumphius says,
4t Generally they call all lemons (citrus) aussi or ussz,
among the Amboinese ; lemon, among the Malays ;
djodji, in Ternate ; lemo, in Macassar ; jeroc, in Java ;
djoboc, in Baleya, usse, in Banda ; and cam, among the
Chinese."

In order to satisfy the reader further, I herewith
give a detailed list of Rumphius' names in Latin and
Malay :—

Latin. Malay.

Limo decumanus (pummelo) . Lemon cassomba.

Malum citrium (citron) . . Lemon sussu.

Limo tuberosus . . . Lemon martin.

Limo ventricosus . . . Lemon purrut.

Limo agrestis . . . Lemon papeda.

Limo taurinus . . . Lemon carbou.
Limo ferus . . . . ' Lemon swangy.

Limonellus (kaghzi nimbod) . Lemon nipis.

Limonellus aurarius . . Lemon maas.

Limonellus madurensis (per- Lemon madura.

haps kumquaf]

Aurantium acidum (Seville Lemon itam.

orange)

Aurantium sinense (suntara Lemon manis tsjina.

orange)

Aurantium verrucosum (Por- Lemon manis bezaar.

tugal orange)

Aurantium pumilum madu- Lemon suassi.

rense

240 Oranges and Lemons of India.

From the foregoing list it will be seen that among the
Malays it is not only some particular variety that may
have been introduced, which is called lemon, but the
whole genus citrus — oranges, lemons, limes, citrons, and
pummelos — are called by this generic name. I think
this distinctly points to this word being of Malay origin,
or other indigenous origin, and that Arab traders got
their leimun or limum, and htmi from the Malay lemon,
and possibly the Portuguese may have reintroduced the
word into Europe, under the modified name of limon ;
Anyhow this word must have existed among the
Malays long before the Portuguese had doubled the
Cape in 1497. And it must have existed there, prob-
ably, also before the Arabs began their intercourse
with the Malay archipelago ; otherwise its being used
as the generic term for all the citrus is not explainable.
Many kinds of citrus must have had their birth in the
Malay archipelago, as one of the first resting-places of
this genus, in its migration from South China.

The lime and the lima. — The true lime (Kaghzi
nimboo] is found all over India. Natives call it in-
differently nimboo or limboo, and in Bengal lemboo is
a generic name for all citrus.

In Baber's time a limoo was plentiful in India,
whether the same as Kaghzi nimboo of moderns or not,
it is impossible to say — not improbably it was.

Professor Cowell says that nimbuka is not a true
Sanskrit word, and that it is not an old word. He
does not think that the Persian limit is derived from
that word. In India, however, nimboo and limboo are
indifferently used for the lime, and as I said, in Bengal
lemboo means any citrus.

While the kaghzi nimboo among the Malays is called
the lemon nipis, in Macassar Jt is called lemo capas
(from its being of the size of a cotton-pod) and in

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 241

Ternate, lemo Java. In both these places lemo is a
generic term for citrus, and the word may be no other
than a modification of the Malay lemon, by dropping
the n.

As I have stated in the chapter on the lima, there is
a suspicion that the true lime had its birth as a new
seedling variety in the Malay archipelago, and that not
improbably its remote wild ancestor was the C. hystrix.
Rumphius' Limo aurarius, a very small kaghzi nimboo,
with the large winged petiole of its not improbable
ancestor — the same C. hystrix — is, in my opinion, very
suggestive. In Rumphius' time this variety (kaghzi
nimboo, pr true lime) found only in cultivation every-
where, was " vulgatissimus et usitatissimus," and used
for all sorts of purposes — in food, medicine, and in the
arts. Moreover it was one of the kinds, owing to its
keeping quality, which was taken on long sea voyages,
and its seeds germinated very readily, even if dropped
on the ground. What wonder, therefore, is it that it
may have found its way to India by means of traders
sailing up the coast of the Malay peninsula, and
Burmah, and eventually to Bengal ; bringing with it its
name of lemo — afterwards changing into lemboo, limboo,
and nimboo. There is evidence of a very ancient
trade between the Malay archipelago and India (vide
Appendix, No. 40). In addition to this lemo, which
is common to both places, I have discovered two other
words which are common to the Malay archipelago and
India, viz., Capas — cotton ; in Macassar this kaghzi
nimboo is called lemo capas, from its being of the size
of a cotton pod ; and cassomba — Rumphius says this is
a dye made from the "Carthamus tinctorius," which is
the kussumb of India, and the pummelo from its red
colour, in Malay is called lemon cassomba.

Either Rumphius or others may have also latinized

R

242 Oranges and Lemons of India.

the Malay word into limo, and the Portuguese may
have made lima out of it, whence came the English
lime of the West Indies. It would appear that the
words lime and lemon have a common origin, and come
to us from the Malay archipelago.

In Ceylon the lime is called cUhi. I have not been
able to trace the derivation of this word.

There are other names of Citrus in use in India to
denote particular varieties. The sweet lemon is called
either mitha nimboo or amratphal. Prof. Cowell
says this is evidently the common Sanskrit word
amrita-phala (immortal, or ambrosial fruit). Amrita
and mrita meaning undying, andflfrata, fruit.

Similarly, he says, sadaphal comes from the San-
skrit sada, always, and phala, fruit — meaning, fruiting
all the year round. This name I found given to more
than one variety.

Karnphal, applied to the khatta in Almora, appears
to be no other than the fruit of the karna, which is
sometimes applied to the khatta orange, but really
belongs to the Seville, as it means bitter.

Kuthairee-nimboo appears no other than the jack-
fruited nimboo, from its size, kuthal, or kuthar,
meaning the jack fruit.

Shunkhadrav, and probably sungdaraz, applied
to some kinds of sour Citrus, are said to mean
shell melter, from the extreme acidity of their juice.
Perhaps in the same way that some call the amil-
b£d " suigul," from its melting a needle stuck into
it.

Then Behari and Gungoli nimboo are names
probably taken from Behar and Gungoli-hat in
Almora.

Ras kanker probably means a juicy kakree. It is
applied to the kathairee nimboo.

Discussion on the Origin of Varieties. 243

Gulgul I have not been able to trace. Some sug-
gest its derivation from a round sweetmeat of that
name. Nor have I been able to get at the meaning
of beora.

Karmaranga is said to be some sort of orange
mentioned in Sanskrit books, but Prof. Cowell says it
is not an old Sanskrit word, and found only in
modern lexicons. I have never met with any Citrus
of that name.

Then there are the Bengali names of Citrus. Pdti
nimboo is said to mean desee nimboo, belonging to the
country, in contradistinction to foreign. Gbra nimboo
is said to mean extremely acid nimboo.

Kalama and kalamba are uncertain. I am told
there is a kind of pumpkin, used for keeping persons
afloat while swimming, that is called colamba. Not
improbably the kalamba, which is a large pumpkin-
like Citrus, may be named after that, or it may be
derived from calappa, a cocoa nut, mentioned by
Rumphius.

Further, maha nimboo, as applied to the pummelo
by some, means large Citrus. ' Bhimra, probably from
Bhim, the Indian Hercules, may have pretty much
the same meaning, viz., a huge Citrus. There may be
other fanciful names given by learned people with
reference to some prominent character of some parti-
cular Citrus.

Attarra nimboo is a large variety, which I met with
in the Central Provinces. I have not been able to
trace its derivation. Not impossibly it may be con-
nected with attar, with reference to the scent of its
rind or flowers.

Sarbti nimboo also occurs. Prof. A. Vambery sug-
gests that this word may possibly be of Turkish origin,
and derived from sari, yellow, and ati, flesh, or pulp,

R 2

244 Oranges and Lemons of India.

meaning a fruit with a yellow pulp — " if such an
assumption corresponds with the natural character of
the said fruit."

The derivation of the " laroo " of Poona, I have
not been able to trace ; nor of the " bandir " of
Tanjore.

245

CONCLUSIOiNS.

SOME of the results of my researches may, perhaps, be
summed up as follows : —

(a.) The pubescence on the young shoots and under-
side of the leaves of the pummelo (C. decumana,
Willd.) cannot be considered a specific character, as
other huge Citrus have it also, and some pummelo
trees have it not. About this I may say that there is
no doubt in my mind. The pummelo appears to be a
huge form of some other Citrus, probably an orange,
and may have owed its hugeness to conditions of luxu-
riance in a tropical climate.

(6.) The separation of the sweet oranges into two
distinct races, viz., the Portugal close-skinned orange
(C. aurantium sinense of Gallesio), and the Indian
loose-skinned suntara, or sungtara (Aurantium sin-
ense of Rumphius). Of this also I have no doubt.

(c.} That the name suntara has nothing to do with
the name of the town of Cintra in Portugal, as has been
supposed by many, and that sungtara, one of its other
names, may partially have come from seng, which,
according to Rumphius, is the name of a variety of
orange in China. Not improbably also, its other
name, kamala, or kamla, may have come from kam,
the Chinese generic name for orange.

(d.) The European words, lime and lemon, are
very probably derived from the generic names of the
Citrus in certain islands of the Malay archipelago.

246 Oranges and Lemons of India.

There, according to Rumphius, the Citrus goes by the
name of lemo and lemon.

(e.) It is probable that some huge forms of Citrus
may have originated in a fusion of two ovaries, and
that eventually, by reproduction from seed, the fusion
was perpetuated, while its external signs became obli-
terated, in the same way that the signs of separate
carpels in some Citrus are now completely obliterated.

(f.) It is, I think, more probable that the true-
lime (C. acida of Roxburgh) has descended from C.
hystrix of Kurz (now found wild in Burmah), than
from* the C. medica of Linnaeus, as has been
surmised.

(g.) I believe that the idea of the juice vesicles of
the Citrus pulp being homologous with the essential
oil cells of the rind anfl leaves, is put forth for the
first time. It is, therefore, for others to judge whether
this theory can stand. If so, the oil cells of the rind,
of the leaves, &c., the juice vesicles of the pulp, the
pollen grains, the buds, and probably also the ovules or
seeds of the Citrus would be homologous organs.

247

APPENDIX.

No. i.

THE following is an account of the oranges, citrons, &c. of
Hindostaa in the time of the Emperor Baber. The words
within brackets are those of the translators.

The memoirs of Zeher-ed-din Muhammed Baber, Emperor
of Hindostan, written by himself (A.D. 1519) in the Jaghatai
Turki, were translated by Dr. John Leyden and Mr. William
Erskine, published in 1826. In these memoirs I find the
following, regarding the orange tribe : —

(a.) Ndranj (or orange). — In India "they have besides, the
Ndrajij (or SeVille orange), and the various fruits of the
orange species. The orange grows in Lemghanat, Bajour,
and Sewad, where it is both plenty and good. The orange
of Lemghanat is small but juicy, and pleasant for quenching
thirst.* It is sweet-smelling, delicate, and fresh. It is not,
however, to be compared with the oranges about Khorassan.
Its delicacy is such that, in carrying the oranges from Lem-
ghanat to Kabul, which is only 13 or 14 "farsangs" (between
50 and 60 miles), many of them are spoilt by the way.
They carry the oranges of Asterabad to Samarkand, which
is 270 or 280 "farsangs" off (about 1,100 miles); but as
these have a thick peel and little juice they are not apt to be
much injured. The size of the oranges of Bajour may be
about that of a quince. They are very juicy, and their juice
is more acid than that of other oranges. Khwajeh Kilan
tells me that he made the oranges of a single tree of this

* It is evident from this that Baber, by Ndranj, could not have meant
the Seville or bitter orange.

248 Appendix.

species in Bajour be plucked off and counted, and they
amounted to 7,000. It always struck me that the word
ndranj (orange) was accented in the Arab fashion, and I
found that it really was so. The men of Bajour and Siwad
call ndranj, ndrank (or perhaps rather ndrang)"

(b.~) Limoo (Lime). — "Another is the lime (limoo), which is
very plentiful. Its size is about that of a hen's egg, which it
resembles in shape. If one who is poisoned boils and eats
its fibres, the injury done by the poison is averted."

(c.) Taranj (or Citron). — "Another fruit resembling the
ndranj (or orange) is the taranj (or citron). The inhabitants
of Bajour and Siwad call it baleng. On this account marma-
lades of Citron-peel are called baleng-marmalade* The
Hindostanis call the taranj the bajburi. It is of two species.
One is insipid and sweet, but of a sickly sweet, and is of no
value for eating ; but its peel is used for marmalade. The
citrons of Lemghanat are all of this sickly sweet. The other
is the citron of Hindostan and Bajour, which is acid, and its
sherbet is very pleasant and tasteful. The size of the citron
may be about that of the Khosravi musk-melon. Its skin
is rough, rising and falling in knobs. Its extremity is thin
and knobbed. The citron is of a deeper yellow than the
orange. Its tree has not a large trunk. It is small and
shrubby, and has larger leaves than the orange."

(d.) Sengtereh (or common orange). — " The sengtereh (or
orange) is another fruit resembling ndranj (or Seville orange).
In colour and appearance it is like the citron, but the skin of
this fruit is smooth, and without any unevenness. It is rather
smaller than the small citron. Its tree is large, perhaps about
the size of the small apricot-tree. Its leaf resembles the
ndranj leaf. It has a pleasant acid, and its sherbet is ex-
tremely agreeable and wholesome. Like the lime, it is a
powerful stomachic, and it is not a weakening fruit like the
citron."t

(e.) Kilkil (or large lime). — " Another fruit of the orange

* Murebba-bdling, in A. Pavet de Courteille's translation.

t It is difficult to identify this sengtereh — " in appearance and
colour" like a citron, but with a smooth surface and having a pleasant
acid. This description would rather point to the khatta of moderns.
In the time of Rumphius there was a seng-orange in China.

Appendix. 249

kind, is the larger lime, which, in Hindostan, they call the
kilkil lime (kilmek is the name by which it now goes).* In
shape it is like a goose's egg, but does not, like the egg, taper
away at the two extremities. The skin of this species is
smooth, like that of the sengtereh. It has a remarkable
quantity of juice."

(/•) Jambiri (or Jabiri). — "Another fruit resembling the
orange is the jambiri. In shape it is like the orange, but it
is of a deeper yellow. It is not, however, an orange, though
its smell is like that of the orange. This fruit, too, yields a
pleasant acid."t

(g.) SadapJiaL — "Another of the orange kind is the sada-
pJial (everlasting fruit, Hunter), which is shaped like a pear,
and in colour resembles the quince. It has a sweet taste,
but not so mawkish as the sweet orange."J

(//.) AmratpJiaL — ''The amratph&l (lit. nectar-fruit) is an-
other of the fruits resembling the orange." (On this notice of
the amratphal there is, in the Turki copy, the following note
of Emperor Humayun. It is not found in either of the Persian
translations.) " His Majesty ,§ whose abode is in Paradise,
may Heaven exalt his splendour, has not attended sufficiently
to the amratphaL As he observed that it was sweet and
mild tasted, he compared it to the sweet orange, and was not
fond of it ; for he had a dislike to the sweet orange, and
everybody, on account of the amratph&Fs mild sweet, called
it like the orange. At that time, particularly on his first
coming to Hindostan, he had been long and much addicted
to strong drinks, whence he naturally did not like sweet
things. The amratphal is, however, an excellent fruit. Its
juice, though not extremely sweet, yet is very pleasant. At
a later period in my time we discovered its nature and ex-
cellence. Its acidity, when unripe, resembles that of the
orange. While yet very acid, its sourness affects the stomach,

* I never heard of the name " kilmek"

t This description points to the jhambiri proper (which see), and
not to the khagzi-nimboo, or lime proper.

J This description rather tallies with that of the sadaphal of
moderns ; but any Citrus, bearing fruit all the year round, might be
called sadaphal.

§ Meaning Baber.

250 Appendix.

but in course of time it ripens and becomes sweet."* " In
Bengal there are two other fruits which have an acid flavour,
though they are not of equal excellence with the amratph&l\
The one is called kamilah, and grows to the size of an
orange (ntiranf) ; many hold it to be the larger lemon
(naraug), but it is much pleasanter than the lemon. It has
not an elegant appearance or shape. The other is the
sdmtere'/i, and is larger than the orange, but it is not sour,
and is not so tasteless as the amratphal, nor is it very sweet
either. Indeed, there is no pleasanter fruit than the sam-
tereJi. It is a very fine shape, pleasant, and wholesome fruit.
No person thinks of any other fruit, or has a longing for any
other, where he can find it. The peel may be taken off by
the hand, and however many you eat you are not surfeited,
but desire more. It does not dirty the hands by its juice.
Its peel is easily separated from its pulp,| It may be eaten
after food. This samtereh is seldom met with. It is found
in Bengal at one village called Senargam, and even in
Senargam it is found in the greatest perfection only in one
place. In general, among this class of fruits, there is no
species so pleasant as the samtereh; nor, indeed, is there
among any other."§

With reference to these two oranges the following occurs
in a footnote : — " The kamilah and samtereh are the real
oranges (koungla and sangtereJi), which are now (about 1826)
common all over India. Dr. Hunter conjectures that the
'sangtereh' may take its name 'from Cintra, in Portugal.
This early mention of it by Baber and Humayun, may be
considered as subversive of the supposition. "||

* Humayun must have mistaken an unripe kalan-kagkzi for an
amritphal. The latter is acidless from beginning to end. (See sweet
lemon, and kalan-kaghxi!)

t Even to this day the sweet lemon is a universal favourite among
natives.

J There can hardly be any doubt that Humayun was describing the
siintara of modern times. It does not appear that the sengtereh
of Baber, and the samtereh of Humayun are one and the same
thing, although the latter word may be only a corruption of the former.

§ Even in modern times, natives think the siintara the best
orange of India.

|| This notion about the siintara orange being the Cintra orange
of Portugal has got into many books, but, as I have shown, it is the least
likely solution to the derivation of siintara, or sungtara.

Appendix. 251

(*.) Kirneh (probably the kirna, a kind of citron). " An-
other of the orange kind is the kirneh, which may be about
the size of the kilkil lime. This, too, is tart."*

(/.) Amilbed (lit. the acid willow). "Another resembling
the orange is the amil-bid. I have seen it first during this
present year.f They say that if a needle be thrust into the
heart of it, it melts away.J Perhaps this may proceed from
its extreme acidity, or from some other of its properties. Its
acidity may be about equal to that of the orange or lime."

No. 2.

In Blackwoods Magazine for September, 1886, in an article
by Major-General A. R. McMahon, on " Burmese border
tribes, and trade routes," I find the following : —

" A century before the Christian era it appears that the
emperor of the Han dynasty fitted out an expedition to find
its way through South- West China to India, which was frus-
trated by the obstructiveness of the ' barbarians,' or Shans,
who then occupied Yunnan. The result was the chastisement
of the Shans, and their expulsion from the country of the
Upper Mehkhong and Salween rivers to the Irawadi valley.
This movement developed to such a degree that the immi-
grants, after a while, found themselves strong enough to
overthrow the monarchy, established by the Aryan settlers
(from India), and founded a kingdom of their own, of which
more anon.

" Yunnan, which was formerly peopled by Shans,

was by this pressure absorbed by the Chinese The

same fate overtook them from a different cause, in their con-
tact with the Hindus of the Brahmaputra valley, which the

* The translators probably allude to the khatta, which is often called
Citron by the English ; it is, however, impossible to say whether Baber
also meant this.

f In A. Pavet de Courteille's translation — " que je n'ai eu occasion de
voir que depuis trois ans."

J In a foot-note — " This story of a needle is believed, by the natives,
of all the Citron kind, which are hence called in the Dekhan sui-%ul
(needle-melter)."

252 Appendix.

Shans invaded in the eighth, and completely occupied in the
beginning of the thirteenth century. They then arrogated
to their own dynasty, says Mr. Mackenzie, the title of Ahom
— the unequalled — softened afterwards into Assam

•" From ancient Shan records, discovered by Pemberton at
Manipur, it would appear that in the beginning of the Chris-
tian era the whole of the region extending from the moun-
tains on the south-east boundary of the Assam valley down
to lat. 22°, and from the mountains, which separate Manipur
and Kubo valleys on the west, to Yunnan on the east, was
formerly known as the Shan kingdom of Pong, having its

capital at Muang-Marong Having existed for many

centuries in great splendour, this kingdom, in the beginning-
of the eleventh century, was broken up by the conquests of
King Anawrahta, the darling hero of the Burmese people.

" Eventually the Pong kingdom was overthrown by the
Burmese, disintegrated, and incorporated with the Burmese
kingdom.

" Though little trace is to be found of the glories of Pong
in the Upper Irawadi, or the country to its west, we can turn
with pleasure and interest to the little states of Manwyne,
Sanda, Muangla, Muangtha, or Hotha and Latha, Muangwan
and Muangmow, the relics of the Koh-Shanpyi, or nine Shan
states, which, cradled in the parallel ranges between the Sal-
ween and the Irawadi, have preserved their subordinate
independence, and represent the chief component parts of

the ancient kingdom Anderson records that the great

body of the population is engaged in agriculture ; and as
cultivators they rank even with the Belgians."

NOTE. — The points in this extract which I should wish to
impress on the reader are (ist) that the Shans, having all the
savoir faire of the Chinese agriculturists, came from Yunnan
to the Brahmaputra valley. (2nd) That as the Chinese claim
the orange as indigenous to their country, it is not likely that
such industrious agriculturists would not have brought the
orange with them, and established it wherever they settled,
more especially as the orange is easily carried, and its seeds
easily germinate, and produce fruit similar to the parent tree.
If the simtara orange had been introduced by them, its

Appendix. 253

spread along the hills facing India from Khasia to Bhotan,
Nepal, and Gurhwal, was only a matter of time.

No. 3.

The following is taken from the " Penny Cyclopaedia "
(1840), under the heading of Orange : —

" Since then, Dr. Royle has stated (' Illus. of Himalayan
Botany,' p. 130) that he has found two plants, having the
characters of the lemon and the citron, growing wild in the
jungly valleys at the foot of the Himalayas, in the tract
between the Ganges and Jumna rivers, which, when trans-
ferred to gardens, retained their characters. He further
states that from the Rungpore forests a round kind of lime
is obtained,* while in those of Sylhet, as well as on the
sides of the Nilgiris, the orangef is described as being found

wild In England the orange and citron have been

cultivated since 1492 ; and Mr. Loudon states that at the
Wilderness, Kent, there are three trees in boxes (about
1840), not surpassed by any trees so grown in Europe ; and
that at Saltcombe, in Devonshire, there are in a few gardens
orange trees which have withstood the winter in the open air
for upwards of 100 years J (see the work of Risso of Nice, and
Poiteau of Versailles, ' Histoire Naturelle des Grangers ' ;
also Gallesio's * Traite du genus Citrus,' and Mr. Loudon's
' Encyclopaedia of Gardening ')."

* Can this be the jambiri proper, which is a round sour citrus ?
More likely it is the Rungfiore lime of Saharunpore.

f The Sylhet orange meant is probably the suntara of these days ;
but the Nilgiri orange may possibly mean the Seville — both having been
probably introduced.

% Not improbably the Seville orange is here meant, as it stands a
greater degree of cold than other kinds, and hence probably its Italian
name, " arancio forte."

254 Appendix.

No. 4.

The "Treasury of Botany" (by John Lindley and Thomas
Moore) 1866, part i. p. 291, has the following: —

" The citron, orange, lemon, shaddock, and lime have
been referred to various species of citrus, with regard to which
botanists, however, are not agreed. It is even doubtful
whether all of them, with their numerous varieties, have not
originated from C. medica. On this point the following
observations by Dr. Lindley in the ' Journal of the Hort.
Soc. ' (ix. 171), are important. He states that the above-
mentioned fruits ' are all of eastern origin, and mostly intro-
duced in Europe in comparatively modern days, but of very
ancient and general cultivation in Asia. The varieties known
are very numerous, and difficult to reduce according to their
species, on the limits of which botanists are much divided
in opinion. Those who have bestowed the most pains on
the investigation of Indian botany, and in whose judgment
we should place the most confidence, have come to the con-
clusion that the citron, the orange, the lemon, the lime, and
their numerous varieties now in circulation, are all derived
from one botanical species — Citrus medica — indigenous to,
and still found wild in, the mountains of East India."

(NOTE. — Why the C. medica in particular should be con-
sidered to have been the grand-parent of all other kinds is
not clear. If we go back far enough into the history of plants
other genera also might perhaps be all included as descen-
dants of some more remote progenitor.)

From the same source as the foregoing, the following is
taken : " The Jews cultivated the Citron at the time they
were under subjection to the Romans, and used the fruit
then, as at the present day, in the feast of Tabernacles;
but there is no proof of their having known this tree in the
time of Moses. It is likely they found it at Babylon during
their captivity and brought it to Palestine on their return*
Whatever may have been the diffusion of the species in
Western Asia at that remote date, there is no evidence of its
having been indigenous to Media, nor have modern travellers

Appendix. 255

found it wild in Persia ; but Dr. Royle found the species in
the forests of Northern India. The Citron is cultivated in
Cochin China and in China, but Thunberg does not mention
it as existing in Japan. Taking all the above facts into con-
sideration, it is evident that the species is originally from the
north of India, and as the habitat of every one of the orange
tribe is naturally rather limited, Prof, de Candolle does not
think that this extended, in the case of the Citron, as far as
the north of Persia. Probably the Citron was carried in that
direction and also into China at a very early period. In
many countries they are easily naturalized. The seeds sow
themselves in several of the colonies — for instance, in

Jamaica The so-called Madras Citron has the form of

an oblate sphere.* In China there is a variety with its lobes
separating into finger-like divisions, and hence called the
fingered-citron.

Regarding the C. aurantium the following occurs : " It
was not, at the time of Alexander the Great, in that part of
India which he penetrated (about 327 B.C.) ; for it is not
mentioned by Nearchus among the productions of the country
which is watered by the Indus. But the Arabs, carrying
their conquests further into India than Alexander (at a much
later period and probably after 664 A.D.), found the orange
more in the interior ; and according to Prof. Targioni it was
brought by them into Arabia in the, ninth century. Oranges
were unknown in Europe, or at all events in Italy, in the
eleventh century, but were shortly afterwards carried west-
ward by the Moors. They were in cultivation at Seville
towards the end of the twelfth century, and at Palermo in the
thirteenth, for it is said that St. Dominic planted an orange-
tree for the convent of St. Sabina in Rome in the year i2Oo.f
In the course of the same thirteenth century the crusaders
found citrons, oranges, and lemons very abundant in Pales-
tine ; and in the following or fourteenth century both oranges

and lemons became plentiful in several parts of Italy

The first orange-trees, it is stated, were imported into Eng-
land by Sir W. Raleigh and reared by his relative, Sir Francis

* Probably this is not a citron at all.

t I have been informed that the tree said to be planted by St. Dominic
is still in existence (1888).

256 Appendix.

Carew, at Beddington in Surrey. These trees are mentioned
by Bishop Gibson, in his additions to Camden's * Britannia/
as having existed for a hundred years previous to 1695 ; but
finally they were entirely killed by the great frost of 1739-40,
after they had attained the height of 18 feet, with stems
9 inches in diameter. Trees of the orange tribe naturally
live to a very great age in a soil and climate which suit them.
Even under artificial treatment there are some remarkable
instances of their longevity. There may be seen in the
orangery at Versailles a tree which was sown in 1421. It is
growing with its roots in a large box, and appeared very
healthy when we saw it lately (about 1866). The orange-
tree at the convent of St. Sabina at Rome is thirty-one feet
high, and said to be upwards of 600 years old. At Nice,
where the tree may be considered naturalized, growing quite
in the open air, there was in 1789, according to Risso, a tree
which generally bore 5,000 or 6,000 oranges, and which was
more than 50 feet high, with a trunk which required two men
to embrace it. In Cordova, the noted seat of Moorish
grandeur and luxury in Spain, there are orange trees still
remaining, which are considered to be 600 or 700 years old."
"Under favourable circumstances the productiveness of
the orange is astonishing. In an account of the gardens and
orange grounds of St. Michael's, in the Azores, by Mr.
Wallace (Journal of the Hort. Soc., vii. 236), we are informed
by the author, who resided at St. Michael's for several years,
that the orange grounds vary from I to 60 acres in extent,
and are surrounded by high walls and tall-growing trees as
shelter, not from the cold but from the sea-breeze. The
grounds are rarely occupied wholly by orange-trees, for limes,
citrons, lemons, guavas, &c., are scattered about in them.
Orange-trees were first introduced into the Azores by the
Portuguese. There are only two kinds of oranges cultivated
at St. Michael's, viz., the Portugal and the Mandarin. Many
varieties of the former exist, and they are greatly improved
by the genial climate of St. Michael's. The Mandarin orange
has not been many years in the island, nevertheless, there
are some trees of it 14 feet high. This capital little orange
has lately been exported to England, where it realizes a
higher price than the common St. Michael's. The largesf

Appendix. 257

orange-tree which Mr. Wallace measured was 30 feet high,
the stem being 7 feet in circumference at the base ;* but
many larger trees, destroyed by the coccus, had been cut
down. The produce of the trees is almost incredible ; props
are always used to prevent the weight of the fruit from break-
ing down the branches. An orange-tree in the quinta, or
orange-garden, of the Barao das Laranjeiras produced twenty
large boxes of oranges, each box containing upwards of 1,000
fruit — in all 20,000 oranges from one tree.-)- Two hundred
shiploads of oranges are annually exported from St. Michael's
being nearly 200,000 boxes."

R. THOMPSON.

All the foregoing extracts are taken from the before-
mentioned " Treasury of Botany."

No. 5.

Dr. John Shortt, writing from Yercaud, Shevaray Hills,
dated 26 October, 1885, says : "We have only one kind of
citron here which attains to a good size, about a foot or more
long, and weighs from 3 to 5 Ibs. The common warted
citron and the fingered citron, as it is termed, are met with at
Bangalore, and I have seen the fruits exhibited at the Madras
Horticultural Show. We have the lemon, which attains to
the size of about a goose's egg, and the lime about that of a
hen's egg, but quite round and not oval or oblong. There
are two other sorts in which the fruit is as large as the cocoa-
nut without its husk. The one is quite round, and the other
of the size of a large orange, and pointed at the summit
(with a mammilla). We have not the sweet lime. I intro-
duced a plant of the latter, but not having fruited yet I
cannot say what it is.

" Of oranges we have the Seville, a bitter orange ; the

* Presumably a tree of the Portugal variety.

t To over-crop a willing tree is almost as bad as to over-drive a
willing horse, vide Appendix, No. 32, on the disease of the Orange trees
in the Azores in 1836 ; also Appendix, No. 41, Rumphius's chap. 42, on
the Aur. sinense (" simtara " Orange).

S

258 Appendix.

chinee, sometimed termed Batavia, a large, smooth-skinned
fruit ; then the kamala, or loose jacket, of which there are
two varieties, a large and a small kind. The common coun-
try orange, termed kitchlee about Madras, and kolinge up
here, is an indifferent, rough-skinned fruit.

" We have the pummelo, which fruits largely — some weigh-
ing four to five pounds — but is worthless, as the pulp is acrid,
bitter, and sour. The pummelo is a most delicious fruit about
our coasts, both the white and pink varieties ; but plants or
seeds introduced up here, from excellent fruit-bearing trees
on the plains, become worthless. It is probably the fault of
the climate or soil. Most of the pummelos I have eaten in
the various districts of Madras, excepting this place, were
delicious. Formerly the pummelo fruit was purchased at one
rupee per 100, and the rind used, it was said, for flavouring
country * arack,' but now even this demand has ceased."

No. 6.

The following is part of a letter from Dr. John Shortt,
dated "The Retreat," I2th July, 1886, Yercaud, Shevaray
Hills, S. India.

" Had you come, you could have seen all the varieties of
the orange, lime, lemon, citron, pummelo, &c., in fruit. The
large orange known in Tanjore (bandir) is called about
Madras the Sathghur orange, from the name of the village,
about forty miles from Madras, at the commencement of the
Mysore plateau. It is also known as the chinee or budda-
chinee ; whilst in the northern districts of this Presidency it
is called Batavia orange. It is a very fine fruit, and attains
a large size when well grown. On these hills the fruit does
not attain anything beyond the medium-sized orange.
Between this and Bangalore you can see all the varieties of
citron. Our best pummelo comes from the vicinity of Pondi-
cherry and Cuddalore — both the pink and white fleshed
varieties. Some good ones are to be had at Arcot also.

"Yours, &c.,

" JOHN SHORTT."

Appendix. 259

NOTE. — From Dr. Shortt's letter it would appear that the
bandir orange of Tanjore is of foreign origin. Rumphius,
in chap. 43, vol. ii., Aur. verrucosum, describes a variety of
the Portugal orange, and says that the fruit is about the size
of two fists ; that it is more juicy and sweeter than the Aur.
sinense (suntard), and that the Amboinese call it Lemon
Tsjina, "as this TS mostly cultivated by the Chinese in-
habitants."

No. 7.

In the Gardeners' Chronicle for 24th April, 1886, p. 534,
F. F. states that the citrus plants in Kew are "poly-
gamo-moncecious, bearing male, and occasionally a few her-
maphrodite flowers."

NOTE. — From my own observations I found that there is
scarcely one variety of orange, lemon, or lime which is not
polygamo-moncecious. In 1886 one tree — a sweet lemon —
was covered with bloom, but about seventy-five per cent., or
more, were only males, with the ovary and pistil rudimentary.
Only a very small percentage had a well-developed ovary
and stigma. I think it the general character here (Etawah)
of cultivated citrus to have male and hermaphrodite flowers
on the same tree. The sweet lemon in question did not
set more than two or three fruit that year, although it
usually bears many more. I am not prepared to say that
the pummelo should not be included in the same category.
I did not make special observations on the flowers of the
pummelo, but noticed a very large number of well-developed
ovaries and pistils among the open flowers of the pummelo
trees.

No. 8.

Sir C. F. Bonham, writing from Cintra on 2nd Sept., 1886,
in connection with the Portugal orange, kindly added the
following extract, taken from an old book : —

S 2

260 Appendix.

" Extract from the ' Herball, or generall historic of
Plantes/ gathered by ' John Gerarde,' of London, Master in
Chirurgerie, and imprinted in London by John Norton,
A.D. 1597.

" * The citron, limon, and orange trees do grow especially
in the sea coates of Italic, and on the Islands of Adriatic and
Tyrrheni, and also CEgicei maris, and likewise on the mainland
neere unto meeres and greate Lakes. There is also greate
store hereof in Spaine, but in places especially adjoining
unto the sea, or not farre off. They are also found in certaine
provinces of France, which lie upon the Midland Sea. They
were first brought of Media, as not only Plinie writeth, but also
the Poet Virgil affirmeth in the second booke of his Geor-
gickes, writing of the Citron Tree after this manner : —

" ' " The country Media beareth juices sad,
And dulling tastes of happie citron frute,
Than which no helpe more present can be had,
If anytime stepmothers, woorse than brute
Have poisoned pots, and mingled herbs of sate
With hurtfull charmes : This citron fruite doth chase
Black venome from the bodie in every place,
The tree itself in growth is hughe and big,
And very like in show the Laurell tree,
And would be thought a laurell leaf and twig,
But that the smell it castes doth disagree ;
The flower in holde, as fast as flower may be,
Therewith the Medes a remedie do finde
For stinking breathes and mouths a cure most kinde,
And help old men, which hardly fetche their winde." ' "

No. 9.

In the " Pharmacopoeia of India," by Edm. John Waring,
M.D., p. 45, the following occurs : —

" Citrus Bergamia (Risso). — The lime-tree — commonly cul-
tivated in India and other tropical countries .... closely
resembles the lemon, but is smaller in size, with a smoother,
thinner rind, and of somewhat less fragrant odor. Its juice
(lime juice) has the same pungent, acid taste, &c., &c."

NOTE. — The author is evidently describing the common

Appendix. 261

kagJizi nimboo of India, but the wonder is how has the mis-
take of calling it C. Bergamia of Risso come about (vide
Appendix, No. 55)? The latter is the Bergamotte, used in
Europe, principally in perfumery, for its essential oil, and
very different from the common true lime of India. Sir J.
Hooker, in his "Flora of Br. Ind.," p. 515, vol. L, says of the
Bergamotte, it is " rarely cultivated in India." In all my
researches I have never met with it in India, and Mr. Duthie
tells me he has not either. Rumphius does not describe any
variety that can be taken for it. Loureiro does not mention
it in Cochin China. It is probably a variety raised from seed
in Southern Europe.

No. 10.

In the Gardeners' Chronicle of April 24th, 1886, p. 534,
under the heading, " Oranges not fruiting," the following is
stated : — " In a small-fruited form of Citrus medica, only a
small percentage of the blooms are hermaphrodite, and have
a well-developed pistil, with a long style and capitate stigma,
protruded beyond the stamens. These latter only may be
expected to bear fruit, if the flowers happen to set. A small
plant of Citrus limonum flowers profusely every year at Kew,
but bears no fruit. The ovary remains small, and the style
is very short and rudimentary, with little trace of a stigma,
The pollen appears perfect, but does not effect fertilization,
even if applied to the rudimentary pistil. The defect in all
probability pertains to the latter, and appears to be more
universal than in the case of C. medica, mentioned above.
All of the above cases may be seen in the economic house at
Kew, where the plants are practically polygamo-moncecious,
bearing male, and occasionally a few hermaphrodite flowers.
Of course this may apply to young or small plants only,*
or to conditions of culture and surroundings. The ' Genera
Plantarum ' does not mention this fact, and in Le Maout and
Decaine's work the flowers of the Aurantiaceae are said to
be generally hermaphrodite. In an allied group of the same

* Vide Appendix, No. 7.

262 Appendix.

order the flowers are polygamo-dicecious, of which Skimmia
japonica is a well-known instance. The species and varieties
of Citrus above mentioned show a nearly similar tendency."

F. F.

No. ii.

Gardeners' Chronicle, July 3, 1886, p. 15: — "Oranges in
Valencia and Cordoba. — The orange crops in Valencia,
Spain, appear to be suffering much from the competition
from the large and increasing crops of Florida and California,
thereby closing the U.S. markets to the Valencia crop.
The loss of this outlet causes excessive exportation to Great
Britain, and consequently unremunerative results. The
quantity of oranges exported from Valencia during the
season, from November to June, amounted to about 2,000,000
cases. From Cordoba, however, the bitter orange is ex-
ported in increasing quantities. It is much grown in this
district, and during the last five years the produce grown
has increased from 2,000 boxes to 6,000 ; one box contains
500 oranges. They are all shipped to London and Liver-
pool, and are used for making marmalade."

No. 12.

Gardeners* Chronicle, Aug. 14, 1886. — A trip to Chiriqui
(one of the West India Islands ?). By J. Hart, Jamaica : —

Page 201. — " Limes are plentiful, but oranges are scarce,
rendered so by the constant attacks of the We-we (ant) upon
the leaves of the tree."

No. 13.

Gardeners' Chronicle, Sept. 9, 1886, p. 467:—
" The Orange Crop in Valencia. — As an illustration of the
importance of the orange crop in Spain, it is stated that from

Appendix. 263

the port of Valencia alone over 3,000,000,000 oranges have
been shipped in the course of one season. The fruits, which
are considered the best of their kind in Europe, can now be
delivered in England at gs. the box, leaving a fair margin of
profit to the producer."

No. 14.

In the Gardeners' Chronicle of July 17, 1886, p. 77, there is
the following : —

" Orange culture in S. Francisco. — In a recent Government
report on the products of S. Francisco, it is stated that there
are about 12,000 acres planted in orange trees in Los
Angelos county, now bearing fruit, and several thousand
acres in young trees, which will begin to bear fruit in from
two to five years' time. In S. Bernardino county, the orange
crop has, at intervals of from three to four years, been greatly
damaged by frost. At less frequent intervals, the same

trouble has been experienced in this county Oranges

are being shipped from Mexico to the Eastern States.
Should the reciprocity treaty come into effect, the conse-
quence will be very serious to orange growers here. The
present duty is sufficient to protect Californian orange
growers from competition with the cheaply-produced Mexi-
can article. As the Mexican oranges are of better quality,
their admission free of duty would cripple the industry here.

"The 'white scale' is still doing immense damage to the
orange trees. Some of the oldest orange orchards in the
country are being topped and pruned to such an extent that
they will not bear any fruit for several years. In some cases
the trees are being cut down. No cheap effectual remedy
has as yet been discovered to destroy the insect ; it is stated,
however, that another insect has appeared which preys on
the 'white scale,' and is not injurious to the orange tree."

NOTE. — There can be little doubt that when large tracts
of any country are covered with one kind of plant, sooner or
later some insect or vegetable parasite that feeds upon it,
will appear — whether the plant be that of the orange, the

264 Appendix.

vine, the coffee, &c. Sometimes another insect will also be
called into being, which may keep the former in check. If
not, either an antidote must be found, or the trees must
eventually succumb. Insects multiply by millions in a very
short time, and the evil must be checked, if at all, at the
commencement.

No. 15.

In Baron Hubner's "Through the British Empire," the
following occurs : —

(a.) Vol. i., p. 50 — " A disease, hitherto unknown, having
lately destroyed nearly all the orange plantations, which
constituted erewhile the glory of Paarl " (South Africa).

(b.) Vol. ii., p. 127. Writing of the Shalimar Gardens of
Lahore : — " The squares formed by the rectangular paths are
filled with mango, fig, and gigantic orange trees, more than
two centuries old, whose thick branches interlace each other
aloft."

(c.) Vol. ii., p. 269 (Australia) : — " By the uncertain
glimmer of the twilight we see, shining against the dark
background of Norfolk pines, the golden apples of the
Hesperides, the fruit of the gigantic lemon-trees, planted
here by the convicts nearly a century ago, but which now,
owing to the carelessness of the present inhabitants, are in
danger of being smothered by the ever-encroaching forest."

(d.) Vol. ii., p. 325. At Loma Loma, Fiji : — " Gigantic
orange trees gild with their fruit the dark vault of Man-
groves."

No. 1 6.

(a.) " Imperial Gazeteer of India," vol. v., p. 296, under the
head of Kashmir and Jamu states : "Neither orange, lemon,
nor any species of citrus arrive at maturity in Kashmir, as
the intense cold of winter proves fatal to them."

(b} " Imperial Gaz. of India," vol. viii., p. 367, under the
head of Sindh Province : —

Appendix. 265

" The fruits common to the country include dates,
plantains, mangos, limes, oranges, citrons, pomegranates,
grapes, figs, tamarinds, mulberries, and melons. The British
authorities have lately introduced apricots, peaches, and
nectarines with excellent results."

No. 17.

Gardeners Chronicle, I2th June, 1886, p. 762.

It appears that in the TuiJeries garden, Paris, there are
150 orange trees. It is said that " of this number forty-three
trees date from the reign of Francis I. (1515-1547)," that is
they are from 339 to 371 years old. Whether these are
Seville or Portugal orange trees is not stated.

No. 1 8.

Dr. Brandis, in his " Forest Flora of India," mentions that,
" In the South of Europe the orange attains a much larger
size than in India. A yield of 3,000 to 5,000 oranges per
tree annually is not rare. Near Milis, on the Island of
Sardinia, there are trees more than six feet in girth (nearly
2 feet across), and are said to be 700 years old.* The wood of
the orange is hard, close and even-grained, and yellowish ; it
weighs forty-nine pounds when seasoned, and sixty-five to
seventy pounds when green (Skinner). In South Europe it
is used for turning, engraving, inlaid and cabinet work,
and excellent walking sticks are made of shoots and
branches."

* These must be Seville or bitter oranges, as " Haydn's Dictionary "
says the sweet orange was first brought to Europe by the Portuguese in
1 547 — that is about 339 years ago.

266 Appendix.

No. 19.

St. James's Budget, 3rd July, 1886, p. 8, Persia as a Play-
ground : —

" The orange groves of Enzelli, on the Caspian, run down
to the water's edge."

No. 20.

Mr. C. Nickels, of the Passewa Factory, Jaunpore, writing
on 2/th January, 1886, says : —

" I had a great collection of oranges, limes, and lemons in
my garden ; but a blight attacked my trees, and the greater
part of them were killed, including the kaghzi nimboo, and
those that are left are sickly."

No. 21.

" Faramosh," or Indian « Philippine."

On the 1st August, 1886, I found a double lemon (shown
in pi. 223, figs, a and b), formed by the fusion of two
ovaries. I was told that when any double fruit, such as
mango or other, is found, a sort of game is played with it, as
with the English Philippine. The finder of this double fruit
presents it to some one. If the latter takes it into his hand,
the former says farambsh (forgotten), and exacts 200 of
the same kind of fruit. If on the contrary, before taking it
he says yad (remember), then he forfeits nothing. They
also play it by agreement — English fashion. It is a great
game among native children. Whether it was the Europeans
or the Orientals who originated this game I do not know. I
had never heard of this Indian Philippine before.

Appendix. 267

No. 22.

In the Gardeners' Chronicle of 20th June, 1885, p. 793,
regarding the oranges of the Argentine republic, I find the
following : —

" The orange was originally imported into the basin of the
river Plate, but it soon multiplied to a great extent, and now,
in certain localities, grows wild, sometimes forming veritable
forests. The Lower Parana, and the islands which form its
delta, are covered with these trees. They are also found
more or less numerous on the islands of the Upper Parana,
on those of Uruguay, and sometimes even on the borders of
those rivers. Further up those rivers, the orange becomes
more frequent in the forest of Missiores, as well as those of
Paraguay.

" On the lower islands of the Parana and. Uruguay, the
fruit is somewhat bitter and sour ; but further north, and
especially in the province of Corrientes, in the Missiores, and
in Paraguay, they are deliciously sweet and of very large
size. The orange is produced perfectly from the seeds, and
these being scattered everywhere by the parrots, which are
exceedingly fond of the fruit, explains the fact of its general

dissemination The tree - (from seed) commences to

bear fruit at the age of six years, and is in full bearing at
eight years. It is of very robust habit, and is perfectly proof
against drought and locusts, the two worst plagues of

agriculture in the Argentine Republic The lemon is

grown all over the republic, and is very prolific, not merely
producing two crops per annum, but maturing a continual
succession of crops."

No. 23.

In the same number of the periodical above named, p. 791,
there is a note on the oranges of Jamaica. In 1875,
4,673,820 oranges were exported from Jamaica to the United
States. In 1884, 41,639,500 were exported.

268 Appendix.

" The export of oranges," the article goes on to say, " is
increasing by rapid strides, as will be seen from the above.
The demand for orange plants is in excess of all other plants
from the Public Garden, and this would indicate that the
regular cultivation of the orange tree is being taken up with
spirit and energy."

No. 24.

In an article in Chambers s Journal for December, 1883,
p. 717, on " Orange Farming," the following occurs : —

" Making every allowance for the circumstance that nine
or ten years must elapse between the periods of sowing
orange seeds and gathering the crop, should grafting or
budding not be resorted to, it will probably be found that,
among the long catalogue of cultivated fruits, the orange
tribe afford the most satisfactory financial results.

" Hitherto, it appears, only capitalists embarked in orange
and lemon growing, on account of the time the tree requires
to come into full bearing. But a person with a trade or pro-
fession, if he possesses a bit of land, with good soil, in the
right climate, can do worse than invest his savings in sowing
orange and lemon, &c. seeds of the proper kind, and raising
plants in nurseries, and plant out by degrees, until his land
is covered with the most valuable kinds of citrus. It is
capital well invested, which will last for generations with
ordinary care. Every part of the tree is valuable."

This article goes on to say that uthe members of the
orange family number fully 200 varieties, and although
originally hailing from the tropical banks of an Indian river,*
these have now spread into most lands, becoming rapidly
acclimatized, or modified, wherever they have been cultivated,
under even the most moderately favourable circumstances.
Where, on the other hand, individuals of the family, such as
the lime in the West Indian island of Monserrat, have been
introduced into a specially congenial climate and soil, they

* Which kind of oranges, I would ask, hailed from the banks of an
Indian river ?

Appendix. 269

evince a degree of superiority that astonishes persons ac-
quainted only with the limes of the East.

" The lime-farming industry of Monserrat dates from 1852.
Mr. Burke commenced the first orchards, and now the Mon-
serrat Company owns more than 600 acres, on which are
120,000 lime-trees. The amount of lime juice exported to
England alone is said to be more than 80,000 gallons a
year.

" In the island of Trinidad oranges are largely cultivated,
including the Portugal Silver and St. Michael oranges. In
1877 a trial consignment shipped to London from that dis-
tance is said to have been pronounced the best then offered
in the market, except similar varieties received about the
same period from Brazil, the former selling for eight shillings
a box of loo oranges, and the latter fetching eleven shil-
lings."

" In Trinidad the trees are reared about 25 feet apart,
thus admitting sixty-five or seventy trees per acre. The
smallest average yielded in unfortunate seasons is 500 oranges
per fruiting tree, and the highest average 1,000. Taking the
lesser crop as an example, the whole harvest will seldom fall
below 32,500 oranges, which at the modest price on the spot
of five shillings a hundred, shows a gross return of ;£8i 53. od.
per acre. It is a curious circumstance connected with the
rearing of this favourite fruit, which fits in admirably with
the necessity which exists for plucking it in a green state
when sent to a distant market, that the trees from which
unripe fruit is gathered bear plentifully every year ; whereas
those allowed to fully ripen their oranges only yield abundant
harvests during alternate years."*

" It may prove interesting to know that foreign cattle are
particularly fond of lemons, and that in Brazil the herds eat
greedily of the fallen fruit."

* I have noticed in the English markets that some oranges of the
Portugal type had little flavour. I attribute this to their having been
plucked too unripe. The best I have tried were those from Florida, and
they appeared to have been fully ripened on the tree. Later in the
season (May) I found those from Spain very fine flavoured also.

2 70 Appendix.

No. 25.

In the " Sydney Visitors' Guide," p. 5 1, 1 find that at Parra-
matta, on Mr. Pye's estate, is an extensive orange grove.
The guide book says : " Here may be seen growing every
variety of the orange and lemon and other members of the
citron family, from the tiny kumquat to the gigantic shad-
dock. Indeed, the orange plantations of Parramatta may be
said to be quite phenomenal, not alone in their extent, but
in their marvellous productiveness and the uniformly good
quality of their fruit. To those who have not seen the orange
growing in a congenial home, or who may but have seen it
under the rude culture of some of the growers of the Euro-
pean continent, a visit to the celebrated estate of Mr. Pye
of Rock Hall is not likely to be soon forgotten."

Mr. J. H. Thornhill, C. E. Canal Department, India, who
has recently taken a trip to Australia, tells me, " I drove for
about three hours in a sort of circuit from Parramatta, and
outside the town was never out of sight of orange-trees.
They said you might double the distance with the same
result, and that the cultivation of the orange is largely
increasing."

No. 26.

Regarding large oranges, the Tropical Agriculturist of
ist June, 1883, p. 962, has the following taken from the
Trinidad Chronicle of 2ist February, 1883. An orange-tree
produced fruit of an extraordinary size, more like a shaddock.
For several years it gave several crops of big fruit. In
1882-3 one was of great size and weighed 20 ounces, with
a girth of 13 inches.* They have a thick skin " little inclined
to turn yellow." The pulp is " sweet as of other oranges "
in Trinidad. Other oranges of the same tree are said to
have been even bigger than the above. The owner had a
hope of obtaining a race of monster oranges.

* The "bandir" orange of Tanjore is 12 inches in girth.

Appendix. 271

No. 27.

In the Gardeners* Chronicle of 1st August, 1885, p. 154,
under the head of " Florida, the Italy of America," I find
that " Florida may be termed a Horticultural State, oranges
being at present the staple industry. The demand for the
fruit far exceeds the supply, notwithstanding the thousands
of acres planted with orange-trees. A twelve-year old tree
will bear as many as 1,500 oranges, and it will be difficult to
conceive what the demand will be when the foreign trade
is developed. The first shipment to London was by W. H.
Sands, Esq., who sent several boxes this spring, the returns
for which barely covered the cost. Another gentleman
shipped some later on, which paid him a better return. A
direct line of steamers from Florida to the old country is
what is wanted. The cost of an orange grove depends on
the quality of the land and its locality, 10 acres being an
ordinary sized grove, and 50 trees to an acre. There are two
ways of raising the trees — from seed, and by budding stocks
with whatever variety you want. The latter will bear in four
years.

" The lemon and lime also do well. In Florida vegetables
are grown in winter, the summer being too hot for successful
cultivation of vegetables in the open unshaded fields. They
can however be raised in the orange groves, between the
trees, while the latter are coming into bearing. The average
pay of labourers is ij dollars (5 shillings and 3 pence) per
day, skilled workman being better paid. Carpenters and
gardeners especially are wanted. Wages for the latter run
about 27 dollars per month, with board ; without board, 37
dollars is about the highest price paid. The hours of labour
are longer than in the old country. The cost of living is
much higher, many articles being double in price."

272 Appendix.

No. 28.

In Blackwood's Magazine for September, 1885, p. 316,
there is an article, entitled, "Florida, the state of orange
groves."

The writer says : — " The Florida orange is a delicacy by
itself, hitherto unknown to the world, and which Spain need
never attempt to rival. Between an Indian river orange,
and the coarse-grained, spongy, bitter-sweet product of the
Mediterranean, there is nothing whatever in common. The
one is a thing to be eaten in the usual routine of life, the
other is a delicacy which we can only hope to stumble on at
rare moments. A ripe Floridian, well grown, and in good
condition, melts in the mouth like a juicy peach. It is nectar
in poetic form ; and the fashionable mode of eating it in
Jacksonville is to cut it in two, and empty it with a teaspoon.
So delicate is the pulp, and so tender the skin, that the one
difficulty in enjoying it is the handling of it."* ....

" In tropical countries the winter is generally the wet
season, and what it lacks in cold, it makes up in damp, and
a general atmosphere of rheumatism. But Florida has its
rain in the summer ; at Jacksonville, they register from fifty
to sixty inches of rain per annum, the average being about
fifty-four inches. More than two-thirds of the fall occurs

in the months of June to October inclusive The

oldest of the orange groves in Florida is under fifteen years.
.... Strangers are told that natural trees (seedlings) will
bear in seven or eight years, and budded ones in five or six ;
but that is a different thing to getting from them fine-flavoured
fruit. After the seventh or eighth year, they improve every
season, and with careful cultivation, they should have attained
a full measure of juiciness, and delicacy by their twelfth
year. There seems to be no historical limit to their fruitful-
ness. Trees of mythical age exist in various parts of the
state, which have had 5,000 oranges in one crop. It is a fine

* Those I saw in the London shops did not come up to this descrip-
tion. They were very fine flavoured oranges.

Appendix. 273

bearer, however, that keeps up a good average of 500 a
year.

NOTE. — If the writer lumps the Mediterranean oranges
into one set of "coarse-grained, spongy, bitter-sweet" things,
it is evident that either he has never been there in the orange
season, or he must have tasted only inferior varieties.
Another mistake he makes is that " in tropical countries, the
winter is generally the wet season."

No. 29.

In Chamber Js Journal fa January, 1885, p. 797, on " Orange
culture in, Florida." It says : —

" The orange tree will bear in five years from the bud, or
ten years from the seed ; but a man left in charge — say the
son of the owner — would have no difficulty in supporting
himself by the sale of small fruit, which coming to perfection
in the middle of winter, commands the best prices in New
York, and other northern markets. In ten years, oranges
are handsomely remunerative, and the crop steadily increases
in value with every succeeding year. For those who cannot
wait so long, the lemon and lime may prove more attractive,
as they bear much sooner. They are almost as profitable,
though not quite so hardy.

" The old cry ' go West J is now changed to ' go South,'
and thousands of families from the Northern States are
there, having orange and lemon groves."

Another correspondent in the same article says : " The
most absorbing question of interest to the greatest number
now, however, is the great money-making business of orange-
growing, which is peculiarly adapted to the Florida soil and
climate. Since I first visited Florida in 1873, this industry
has gone far beyond the commercially experimental stage,
and I have been an eye-witness to its undoubted success.*
It is particularly interesting and instructive to travel over
districts now, and observe bearing orange groves, the owners
of which are securing handsome incomes, where ten years

* Vide Appendix, Nos. 30 and 31.

2 74 Appendix.

ago not a tree was planted. In Orange county many
emigrants, who first went to Florida for their health, have
improved sufficiently to earn their living, and raise an orange
grove in addition. Many of them took up 160 acres of land,
under the Homestead Law, and selling off portions of it to
later comers, have realised enough money to cultivate the
balance retained. Others, who knew a trade, worked part
of their time for their neighbours, and spent their unem-
ployed hours in planting an orange tree here or there for
themselves, until they finally had a five or ten-acre grove, of
sixty trees to the acre, which, when bearing, would give them
an annual income of from £300 to ;£i,ooo."

No. 30.

In Chambers 's Journal of iQth September, 1885, p. 604,
are given the experiences of a sojourner " In the Orange
Groves of Florida," which show the other side of the picture.

He says that one must be prepared for a hard lonely life,
and plenty of hard work. Soil there was none ; only sand,
white as flour, and as fine, and tenacious weeds without
number. But from what he saw, during a residence of some
time, he thought that " given the right sittiation> abundant,
and appropriate food, and that devoted attention, which it
claims,* and the orange tree seems to offer as certain a return
for money, time, and skill as any investment in the old, or
new world."

He goes on to say, " From what I saw, I consider the orange
to be the most responsive of all arboreal things to human
touch." And he adds, " The oranges of Florida are already
the largest in the world, and their quality is unequalled by
the choicest fruit of Europe, of Syria, and Brazils."

He informs us, however, that cockroaches, mosquitos, and
all insect life in Florida are "a huge and permanent affiic-

* There's the rub ! Most fruit trees would do the same, under similar
conditions, not only in Florida, but in many other places. ( Vide Ap-
pendix 31.)

Appendix. 275

tion," and " as horticulture is the only business that can be
carried on in Florida, and as insects are vastly destructive to
fruits and vegetables, it is the height of folly to annihilate
the small birds. The orange tree is the prey of many insect
parasites, and sometimes a whole grove is blighted by them.
I have seen scores of trees ghastly with ' scale/ and owners
almost driven to desperation. Indeed, the difficulty is to
keep the trees clean. Nothing struck me more than the con-
trast between the fruit of the groves, often black and wrinkled,
and the brilliant plumpness of the wild oranges in the hum-
macks. I believe the health and beauty of the latter were
owing to the birds, which preyed upon insects, their natural
food, whereas from the groves birds were banished, as every
boy found his pastime in blazing away at them." Finally he
says, " The outcome of my personal experience is, for the
settler to begin upon a small scale, taking care of his capital,
and his health. The cleverest man must go upon facts ; and
though hints and book instructions can help, they cannot
make an orange-grower,"

NOTE. — Then to sum up, all the advertising of this new
Eldorado in Florida, appears to come to this — that by
capital, hard labour, skill and patience, you can grow in
Florida a good kind of orange, that will fetch a good price,
in winter, in New York. That is, provided you keep your
health, and do not mind the "huge and permanent affliction"
of cockroaches, mosquitos, &c. ; but whoever wishes to learn
more about it may do so, by turning to p. 185, of the Satur-
day Review of 6th February, 1886.

No. 31.

In the St. James's Budget of 6th March, 1886, the following
occurs on p. 1 1, under the head of " Florida frosts " : —

" The winter of 1885-6 will for long be remembered by the

people of Florida Every day during the ' blizzard '

the faces of the orange and ' truck ' growers were getting
longer and more gloomy, till, it is no exaggeration to say, a
panic prevailed. The crop of fruit upon the trees was of
course irremediably destroyed ; every orange had become a

T 2

276 Appendix.

block of ice. Nursery stock, which had already been stripped
of its leaves by the earlier frosts, was now killed outright,
predicting the utter annihilation of the orange groves
throughout the whole of our section." \

The frost appears to have been very severe for Florida. On
the Qth January, 1886, the thermometer marked 40 degrees,
Fahr., at noon. On the loth, 34 degrees at noon, and 24
degrees at 9 P.M. On the nth it did not rise above 30 de-
grees at any time, and on the 1 2th 34 degrees was again the
highest point reached. These figures were taken from a
thermometer partially protected by a veranda, so that the
orange trees in the open must have been exposed to still
lower temperatures.

In 1883-4 there was also a bad frost, and also in 1876.

A month after the disaster, however, says the writer, " the
groves are again putting on leaves, and not much damage
has been done to the trees. But the loss of the crop and
nursery stock was a heavy blow."

NOTE. — The remedy for all this would appear to be to
raise a hardier variety of citrus. Any kind which survives a
bad frost would be the best for that locality. Risso states
that in the south of Europe, where the orange was at one
time largely grown from seed, hardier varieties often turned
up, so that, by their means, the orange tree could be pushed
further north, without injury from frost.

No. 32.

In the Tropical Agriculturist of ist December, 1882,
appeared the following : —

" In the Azores, up to 1836, the orange trees were in per-
fect condition — no care, no attention, no labour, was given
them, save that of picking and packing." .... They were
left " without manure, without draining, and may be without
pruning." .... Suddenly, however, a disease appeared,
" trees 2OO and 300 years old, and producing each 6,000 to
20,000 oranges, \yere disappearing." It was observed that all
the trees affected produced a very heavy crop the very year

Appendix. 277

that the disease manifested itself, that the leaves became
yellow and fell off in great quantities, and on the trunks or
stems near and sometimes beneath the ground the bark
opened, and drops or tears of yellow gum exuded, and hence
the disease was called lagrima, from the Portuguese word for
tears."

NOTE. — This orange disease of the Azores appears to have
been studied and its history become known. An effectual
remedy has been applied, a great part of which appears to
have been common sense, and rational treatment of a tree so
responsive to human care and attention. There would
appear to be a curious notion that plants can be maltreated to
any extent, and still go on living and producing money for
their owners for ever.

The people of the Azores gave " no care, no attention, no
labour, save that of picking and packing the fruit." Natur-
ally " without manure, without draining, and may be without
pruning " the original fertility of the soil was exhausted, and
the trees sickened and died. The inference is that the people
richly deserved what they got — the destruction of a fine
industry, the far famed St. Michael's oranges. The people
danced and amused themselves while the orange-trees bore
fruit. The same probably happened in Ceylon with respect
to coffee. The planters amused themselves while a million
hundredweight of coffee-beans were extracted from the soil
and exported. The planters awoke one day to find their
coffee industry destroyed. Probably similar causes have
destroyed the vine and potato industries in other places,
viz., too much reliance on the original fertility of the soil,
with the hope that it may prove inexhaustible. All these
histories of ruined industries are very instructive lessons to
those who can profit by them.

No. 33.

Mr. Vaz, Chief Engineer of the s.s. Chanda, B. I. S. N. Co.,
told me that "in 1873 he went with Mr. H. O. Hume to the
Nicobar Islands. On one island he saw growing in a wild
state sweet oranges, of which he gathered two basketsful and

278 Appendix.

took them on board. At the time there were no natives on
that island. Besides these sweet oranges, which, he said,
"had a tight skin, and exactly like the Colombo oranges,"
they found on that island papayas, cocoanuts, little sour limes,
and little sour oranges, like kumquats, the largest of the latter
being about J inch in diameter.

As in Colombo, I found several varieties of oranges, I
could not make out to which Mr. Vaz alluded.

No. 34.

In the Tropical Agriculturist of 1st June, 1883, taken from
the Gardeners' Chronicle, regarding the Sorrento oranges, it
is said that oranges and lemons are extensively cultivated at
Sorrento, in the South of Italy. " Land on which oranges
grow lets at £27 per acre. All the oranges exported are mea-
sured by passing them through a ring, and they only pack
those for export which are of tmiform size. Lemon juice was
sent in casks to England (I believe mixed with lime), but
it was intended to start a citric acid factory at Ischia."

No. 35.

The Gardeners' Chronicle of 26th December, 1885, p. 818,
further says that, " Regarding the development of the green
fruit trade of Sicily, it is stated that efforts have recently been
made to form an association to further its growth. Within
the last few years this traffic, which is so important to the
island, has suffered considerably. The fruit markets of the
United States, of England, and of the Adriatic have been
overstocked by a superabundance of oranges and lemons,
supplied to them from Spain and Portugal, as well as from
Sicily ; and in the United States this trade will eventually
suffer still more from the rivalry which California (and per-
haps Florida (E.B.) ) is creating. Success very much depends
on selection of the fruit, its speedy transition to its destina-
tion, and regularity in reaching the same, so as to avoid

Appendix. 2 79

overstocking the market. Amongst the commercial trans-
actions the Association proposes to make, are to establish
agencies in different parts of the world, and to establish
factories for the manufacture of lemon-juice and essences.
In November, 1884, eight steamships left the port of Palermo
for the United States laden with green fruit, numbering
24,811 boxes of oranges, and 47,269 boxes of lemons, being
4,603 boxes of oranges less, and 11,903 boxes of lemons more
than in the same month of 1883. In December, 1884, thirteen
steamships left Palermo for the United States with green
fruit on board. They loaded at this port and other ports of
the island 80,298 boxes of oranges and 57,191 boxes of
lemons, showing as compared with the same month in 1883
a diminution of 40,185 boxes of oranges and 63,234 boxes of
lemons. -The green fruit crop of Spain having totally failed,
it is hoped that Sicily will reap the benefit of the disaster
and towards the beginning of the present year prices had
gone up in England. In January last sixteen British steamers
and two Italian vessels were employed in the fruit trade with
the United States, carrying a total of 54,778 boxes of
oranges and 62,359 boxes of lemons from Palermo, a diminu-
tion of 55,416 boxes of oranges and 62,359 boxes of lemons.
The exporters have thus kept back their produce and not
overstocked the market."

While the preceding facts come from the British Consul
in Palermo, Vice-Consul Franck of Catania says, under the
head of " Oranges and Lemons," " These important products,
which a few years ago promised to become a branch of com-
mercial resource to the island, have proved instead a failure
to all those who turned their fields and grounds into orange
and lemon groves. Prices in America (the chief country
where exported) are so very low, that it is more convenient
for the producers to let the fruit rot on the trees than to go
to the expense of packing it up for exportation."

2 So Appendix.

No. 36.

In the Tropical Agriculturist of ist January, 1883, p. 591,
I read the following interesting note on the orange trade of
Great Britain, taken from the Morning Post. It says : —

" Importations of oranges in London commence in October
from Palermo, Valencia, West Indies, and Brazil. Real St.
Michael's come in later, about Christmas. It is said that the
St. Michael's orangeries were becoming diseased, like those
of the other islands of the Azores group, such as Terceira,
Fayal, and St. George's, which once produced a large quan-
tity of fruit. The great bulk of the oranges come from
Valencia, and other neighbouring Spanish ports — perhaps
more than one half — and the trade of these ports has been
constantly increasing ; also from Lisbon, Villa Real, Aviero,
and Oporto. Consignments also arrive from the Azores,
Brazil, Palermo, Malta, and other Mediterranean ports.
From St. Michael and Brazil oranges are separately wrapped
in the leaves (envelopes of the cobs) of Indian corn, while
those from all other places come wrapped in thin paper.
Blood oranges come mostly from Valencia, and a few from
Malta ; and the aromatic and delicious Tangerines (Man-
darins) from St. Michael's, and also from Lisbon. Seville
oranges come from the place of that name in Spain, and are
used extensively for making marmalade and orange wine.
For both these purposes, however, the Palermo ' bitters ' are
really better adapted. It may not be generally known that
the best marmalade of all is produced from the shaddock.

"The head-quarters of the orange trade in London is
Pudding Street, Lower Thames Street. A package of oranges
contains, on an average, 400. In 1881-2 nearly a million
packages were landed in London. Glasgow receives a large
and increasing number. Bristol and Hull account for many
thousands of packages. In 1881-2 over two and a-half mil-
lions of packages were imported into Great Britain."

Appendix. 281

No. 37

In the Gardeners Chronicle of 2nd January, 1886, p. 23.
under the head of " Colonial Notes," the following occurs : —

"The orange trees of Natal give out from the snowy
masses of bloom the strongest and most delicious scent," so
that it is probable, in many places of South Africa, oranges
are largely grown.

No. 38.

In the Century for January, 1886, p. 325, S. G. W. Benja-
min, in an article on the city of Teheran, says, " The oranges
of Ghitan are large and handsome, but inferior in flavour to
those of Sicily."

No. 39.
Dr. Masters's " Teratology."

(a.) Cases in which the citrus was observed to be mon-
strous or abnormal.

p. 137 — Prolification of the flower.

p. 149 — Axillary prolification (flower bud).

p. 364 — Polyphylly of the gynsecium (augmentation in the
number of carpels).

p. 453 — Enation from the carpels (horned projections from
the ovary, like the cornute oranges of Ferrari, Gallesio,
Risso, &c.).

p. 56 — Adhesion of the embryos.

p. 134 — Alteration of position, and repetition of carpellary
whorl.

282 Appendix.

p. 303 and 310 — Pistillody of the stamens (stamens becom-
ing pistils).

p. 502 — Double flowers.

It would appear that next to Antirrhinum majus, Ane-
mone, Aquilegia Canadensis, Brassica oleracea, Daucus carota,
Dianthus, Digitalis purpurea, Fuchsia, Primula sinensis, Rosa,
Trifolium repens, and perhaps Vitis, the genus most subject
to changes in its various parts is the Citrus, according to Dr.
Masters.

The following are also taken from Dr. Masters's "Tera-
tology" (Science of monsters and malformations) : —

(£.) p. 5 — " Buds, as it seems, may be found in any situa-
tion, though their ordinary position is in the axil of a leaf, or
at the end of a stem or branch."

(c.) p. 29. — Cohesion of Stamens. " In many cases the so-
called cohesion is due to the formation of numerous secon-
dary stamens, from one original staminal tubercle, so that
the process is rather one of over-development than of fusion,
or of disjunction."

(NOTE. — This view might probably be applicable to the
formation of compound leaves, from the original tubercle of a
simple leaf. — E. B.)

The citrus appears especially prone to adhesions of its
various parts.

W P- 33- Adhesions of two leaves — " the two upper or
inner surfaces may become adherent, as in an orange, where
two leaves were thus united, the terminal bud between them
being suppressed or abortive.

(d.} p. 35. Adhesion of stamens to pistils in the
orange.

(*.) p. 44. Synanthy, or adhesion of flowers, was observed
among others in the Citrus aurantium.

(/.) p. 48. " In some cases of Syncarpy the fusion and
interpenetration of the carpels is carried to such an extent
that it is very difficult to trace on the outer surface the lines
of union. The fruit in these cases resembles a single one of
much larger size than usual."

Vide double lemons, Pis. 223 and 224.

(NOTE. — It is my belief that the pummelo, and probably

Appendix. 283

other huge citrus also may have originated in this way
(vide pi. 83). If the fruit resulting from such fusions bore
seed, it is probable that this double character of fruit might
be perpetuated, and become fixed. Not improbably also
additional carpels might occur, by a sort of proliferation. —
E. B.)

(<£"•) P- 54- Grafting. — " And a still more curious illus-
tration may be cited in the fact that it has also been found
possible to graft a scion on the leaf in the orange."

(//.) p. 74. Pig. 32 gives a drawing of an " anomalous
form of orange."

(NOTE. — I have hazarded an explanation of this anomaly
on pi. 241, fig. d.— E. B.)

(*'•) P- 75- "Disjunction is not rare in oranges. Some-
times this takes place regularly, at other times irregularly ;
occasionally in such a manner as to give the appearance of a
hand and fingers to the fruit."

"M. Duchartre mentions a semi-double flower of orange
with eight to ten distinct carpels in a whorl, and occasionally
several whorls, one above another. De Candolle considers
the rind of the orange as a production from the receptacle,
and this view is confirmed by the specimens of Duchartre,
in which the carpels were quite naked, or had a common
envelope truncated, and open above to allow of the passage
of the styles and stigmas."

(NOTE. — I should say that not only the rind but all parts
of the fruit are productions from the receptacle. The fact
of Duchartre having found the pulp carpels quite naked or
rindless admits, as I have shown, of a different interpreta-
tion, and may only prove that the pulp carpels are quite
distinct from the rind carpels. — E. B.)

(/.) p. 134. Prolification of the fruit. — " In many instances,
not only the fruit is repeated, but also the outer portions of the
flower, which wither and fall away, as the adventitious fruit
ripens ; so that, at length the phenomenon of one fruit pro-
jecting from another is produced. It is obvious that this
form of prolification in no wise differs from ordinary central
prolification. Sometimes some of the whorls of the adven-
titious flower are suppressed ; thus M. Duchartre describes
some orange-blossoms as representing alternating series of

284 Appendix.

stamens and pistils one above another, while the calyces and
corollas belonging to each series of stamens and pistils were
entirely suppressed. In other cases, doubtless, the carpellary
whorl is alone repeated, the other whorls of the adventitious
flower being completely absent."

"Another condition, apparently sometimes mistaken for
prolification of the fruit, is that in which the carpellary whorl
becomes multiplied, so that there is a second or even a third
series within the outer whorl of carpels. If the axis be at
all prolonged, then these whorls are separated one from the
other, and produce in this way an appearance of prolification.
This happens frequently in oranges, as in the variety called
Mellarose."

(/£.) p. 335. Dimorphism. — Two or three cases cited by
Mr. Darwin from Gallesio and Risso. " Gallesio impregnated
an orange with pollen from a lemon, and the fruit borne on
the mother tree had a raised stripe of peel like that of a
lemon, both in colour and taste, but the pulp was like that
of an orange, and included only imperfect seeds. Risso
describes a variety of the common orange which produces
rounded-oval leaves, spotted with yellow, borne on petioles,
with heart-shaped wings ; when these leaves fall off they are
succeeded by longer and narrower leaves, with undulated
margins, of a pale green colour, embroidered with yellow,
borne on foot-stalks without wings. The fruit, whilst young
is pear-shaped, yellow, longitudinally striated and sweet ;
but as it ripens, it becomes spherical, of a reddish-yellow,
and bitter."

(/.) p. 369. " Increased number of embryos " (such as the
germination of two or more from the same seed).

(NOTE. — This I believe is only the repetition of the mul-
tiple normal buds of the axillae of all Citrus. — E. B.)

(;«.) p. 389. n Pleiotaxy of the gynacium" (augmentation
of the number of the carpellary whorls).

"The orange is one of the plants most frequently subject
to an augmentation in the number of carpellary whorls ;
sometimes this is due to the stamens assuming the guise of
carpels, but at other times the increase occurs without any
alteration in the stamens, or other organs. If the adven-
titious carpels be exposed, they are covered with yellow rind,

Appendix. 285

while those portions that are covered by the primary carpels
are destitute of rind."

(NOTE. — Risso gives pictures in which the inner carpels are
distinctly covered with rind — oil-cells ; and Rumphius gives
also instances of orange within orange (vide pi. 241, b, in
which the innermost whorl is shown to be composed of rind
only).— E. B.)

No. 40.

(a.) The following dates, collected from various sources,
may possibly be of some use to future investigators of the
origin of the different kinds of citrus in India.

" Several ancient nations, particularly the Tyrians and
Egyptians; carried on commerce with India.

"It was partially conquered by Darius Hystaspes, who
formed an Indian Satrapy 512 B.C."

"And by Alexander the Great, 327 B.C."

"And subsequently the intercourse between India and
the Roman Empire was much increased."

"Authentic history of Hindostan commenced with the
conquest of Mahmoud of Ghuzni in 1004. Irruptions of
Mahomedans under this leader occurred between 1001-24

A.D."

The above are taken from "'Haydn's Dictionary of
Dates."

" A Jewish colony assert that they possessed Cranganore,
sixteen miles N.W. of Cochin, so early as 490 A.D., and they
say they hold a copper grant to this effect from the
Hindus." — Pioneer Mail, 26 January, 1887.

"Whitaker's Almanac" says that: "So early as 664 A.D.
Arabs began to make predatory expeditions against Bombay
and Sindh." There must, however, have been friendly
intercourse between the Arabs and Persians and India long
before that, otherwise how could the colony of Jews have
got to Cochin so early as 490 A.D. ? The descendants of
this Jewish colony still exist at Cochin.

(b.) Through the courtesy of Professor Cowell, of
Cambridge, and his friend Dr. W. Wright, Arabic professor,
the following book was brought to my notice, where I might

286 Appendix.

find something about the intercourse of Arabs with the East
in early times. My object was to discover how early trade
was carried on between the Arabs and India and China, with
a view of obtaining some idea of the chances that the
various kinds of citrus might have had of becoming dis-
seminated through their means. The book in question is
called, " Relations des voyages faits par les Arabes et les
Persans dans 1'Inde et la Chine, dans le IXe siecle de 1'ere
Chretienne," translated from the Arabic by M. Reinaud, and
published in Paris in 1845.

It consists of accounts related by a merchant named
Soleyman, who made several voyages between Persia, India
and China. At page 12 he relates that the merchandise
(coming from China) is small in quantity and dear at Busra
and Baghdad. One of the reasons for this is that fires are
frequent at Khanfou, where houses are made of wood.
Khanfou is a Chinese port, and an entrepot for merchandise
belonging to Arab and Chinese merchants. Another reason
is the shipwrecks which occur on the outward and homeward
voyages. Then the ships are liable to be plundered, or are
forced to make a long stay in certain places, which obliges the
merchants to dispose of their goods out of Arabia, &c. &c.

At page 13 he says that the vessels for China start from
Syraf, on the coast of Persia. This place serves as a con-
venient entrepot for merchandise from Busra, Oman, and
other places.

At page 1 5 he continues : After taking fresh water from
Muscat, the vessels make sail for India, and after a month
arrive at Koulam-Malay (Quilon) ; Malay being the common
name for Malabar, or country of Mala. After provisioning, and
taking in water, they again start for the sea of Herkend, and,
passing that, they come to the islands of Lenjcbalons. The
people there are naked, and come in boats to take iron in
exchange for amber, cocoanuts, &c. Thence, the ships go to
Kalah-bar (bar means either kingdom or coast, and is
probably on the Coromandel coast). Between this and
Quilon is a month's voyage. The people of Kaldhbar
wear a kind of cloth round their loins. In ten days more
they get to Betownah (or TenoumaJi) for water if necessary,
and thence to Senef is another ten days. From this place

Appendix. 287

aloes is exported, called Al-Senfy. In another ten days the
island of Sender-Foulat is reached, where fresh water is also
found. Finally, when, by God's help, ships get safe out of
Scnder-Foulat, they make sail for China, and arrive at
Khanfou at the end of a month."

With a large variety of fruits in China, Soleyman mentions
le citron. (Qth century.)

Massoudi, a celebrated Arabic writer, according to
Reinaud, lived in the first half of the loth century A.D.

The publication of these tales (ist book) in Arabic was in
the year of the Hegira 237 (851 A.D.), the epoch in which the
commercial relations of the Khalifs of Baghdad with India
and China were at their Highest.

In the preliminary discourse, at page 28, Reinaud says :
" The commercial relations between the Red Sea, Persian
Gulf, and Eastern coast of Africa on the one side, and the
Western coast of India on the other, are of great antiquity.
There cannot be any doubt that this was the object of certain
Phoenician expeditions, in which King Solomon wished to
take a part. It was by this route that the products of Arabia
Felix, of the coast of Sofala, and of India reached the
Western nations. It was a commerce of great value. These
commercial relations continued under the Greek kings after
the death of Alexander. They were the basis of the great-
ness of Alexandria, in Egypt, for some time, and of Seleucia,
on the Tigris. Nevertheless, the voyage was slow and
troublesome, on account of the periodical winds called
maussam (hence monsoon), and the ships were obliged to
keep sight of the coast during their voyages.

All of a sudden, a Roman navigator, named Hippalus
conceived the idea that a shorter and more direct line to
India than that of the coast might be followed. At a
favourable season he started from the straits of Babelmandeb
(with the S.W. monsoon) for the Gulf of Cambay. Six
months later, he availed himself of the change of wind
(X.E. monsoon), to return to his starting point. The
example of Hippalus was followed by others, and so the
commerce of spices and silk got an unprecedented impetus.

From that epoch the Chinese vessels, starting from the
ports of the Celestial Empire, came to Java, Malacca, Ceylon,

288 Appendix.

and to the vicinity of Cape Comorin. There the exchange
of the products of the East was made with those of the
West. ( Vide Appendix, No. 40, A.)

In the 4th century A.D., the commercial relations between
the East and West had become frequent and regular. In
the nth century, the Romans had formed settlements at
Aden, Arabia Felix, and on the Isle of Socotra, then in-
habited by colonies of Arabs and Greeks, besides the
indigenous people. The commercial activity of the Romans
spread to the Persians, and from the very commencement of
the Christian era, ships from India converged towards the
Tigris and Euphrates.

Of course, with all these riches on the seas, the profession
of pirates also came into existence, in which it is said the
Indians of the West coast were not slow in taking part.

The Arabs naturally took an active part in this lucrative
commerce. At first it was the Arabs who formed the greater
part of the crews. Everything goes to show that, in com-
bination with the Persians, they exercised from that time the
same ascendancy, along those coasts, as the Portuguese in the
sixteenth century did, after doubling the Cape. The influ-
ence of the Arabs and Persians increased as the prestige of
the Romans diminished.

When, however, Mahomet came on the scene, the atten-
tion of all was turned towards him, and two years after his
death, Syria, Mesopotamia, and shortly after, Egypt and
Persia, fell into the power of Sectarians. Then followed
religious troubles, and intestine wars, and all commercial re-
lations became entirely upset thereby. But in the midst of
the most rapid and astonishing conquests, in the sixteenth
year of the Hegira (637 A.D.), under the Khalifate of Omar,
a fleet starting from the coasts of Oman, went to ravage the
countries at the mouths of the Indus, and the coasts of the
peninsula of India. Before the end of the seventh century,
a colony of Mahomedan merchants had already established
themselves in Ceylon.

In the year 758 A.D., the Arabs and Persians were suffi-
ciently numerous in Canton to get up a tumult in the town,
and plunder it.

Towards the end of the seventh century, a Mahomedan

exoedi

Appendix. 289

expedition took possession of Bahmanabad, Alor, and Mool-
tan, and so on, until the Cape route was discovered by the
Portuguese, and things took a different course.

(NOTE. — From Reinaud's account, it will be seen that from
a very remote period, Western Asia and Eastern Africa had
commercial intercourse with India, the Malay archipelago,
and China. This intercourse offered innumerable chances
for many varieties of citrons being carried from China and
Cochin China to the Malay archipelago, to India and Ceylon,
and to Persia, Arabia, and Egypt. Then they could have
been carried only by means of the fruit and the seed. Sown
again at each place they became more or less naturalized, and
improved or otherwise, by change of climate and soil, and in
turn, new varieties arose through propagation by seed, till
the citrons reached Southern Europe, and fell into the hands
of professional gardeners, when probably other means of
propagation were discovered, and the numerous varieties,
enumerated by Risso and Poiteau came into existence there.
The discovery of the Cape route brought new varieties into
Europe. Later on Europeans disseminated this useful genus
in the West Indies, and also in America and other places.

There cannot be much doubt that the islands of the
Malay archipelago offered suitable homes for the different
varieties of citrus, and there can hardly be a doubt that
many kinds now in India, or their a'ncestors, originally came
from those islands. Many of the originals may possibly
have become extinct, owing to better kinds having been
raised from seed. The four words (probably there may be
many more) viz. — limboo or limoo, capas, kussumb and
creese or krissen (vide App. No. 66) — being common both
to India and the Malay archipelago, indicate that inter-
course between the two parts must have been more or less
great. The word usoh of the Khasia hills, and anssi or usse
of the Malays, and possibly the tido, of udo de/ii, in Ceylon,
point to the same conclusion. With the exception, perhaps,
of the citron, and some of its descendants, which may have
been indigenous in India, or may have come across the
Eastern border, and the siintara orange, which may also
have come directly from Yunnan, or Cochin China, across
the Eastern border, there is no reason to suppose that all

U

290 Appendix.

the other varieties of citrus, including the kaghzi nimboo
or lime, did not come to India, originally from the Malay
archipelago.)

(<:.) The following dates may also be of service.

" The Portuguese (Vasco de Gama) discovered the Cape
route in 1497." — " Haydn's Dictionary."

" Vasco de Gama arrived at Calicut in 1498 A.D." — Pioneer
Mail, 26 January, 1887.

"First Portuguese settlement in Cochin, in 1502." —
" Haydn's Dictionary."

" A celebrated commander, Almeida, landed in Ceylon, in
1505 A.D., and assisted the Cinghalese against the Arabs,
who harassed the island. The Dutch ultimately expelled
the Portuguese, and took the town and fortress of Colombo
in 1656 A.D. The Dutch took Cochin in 1663." — Pioneer
Mail, 26 January, 1887.

"Conquest of India by Sultan Baber in 1519-26." —
" Haydn's Dictionary."

"The Dutch visit India in 1601 ; and establish a United
E. I. Co. in 1602."—

"French E. I. Co. established in 1664."— "Haydn's Dic-
tionary."

It appears that in the sixteenth century, the Portuguese
possessed a number of settlements on the coasts of India,
such as Diu (1510 A.D.), S. of Gujerat (this was surprised
and plundered by the Muscat Arabs in 1670); Goa (1510
A.D.) ; Mangalore (1528); (this was the resort of Arabian
vessels from early times) ; Negapatam (1528) ; (this was taken
by the Dutch in 1660, and made the capital of their settle-
ments on the Coromandel coast); Bombay (1530 A.D.) ;
Bassein (1532); Daman, further north (1534). The Portu-
guese had also factories and influence at Honore, Canara,
Calicut, Ouilon, Masulipatam, and St. Thome Bandel, close to
Hughli, they obtained in 1599. Akbar allowed them to build
a church in Lahore, and patronized them at Agra, and in his
time they also settled in Dacca. So that in the sixteenth
century the Portuguese not only almost monopolized th<
trade all along the coasts of India, but appear to have hac
great influence in the interior of India also, and the trade oi
their ships between India, and their possessions in the Malay

Appendix. 291

archipelago must have been great. — Pioneer Mail, 26
January, 1887.

" The Portuguese were the tyrants of the seas, and the
terror of the Mecca pilgrims. They seized upon a number
of maritime stations ; among others Ormuz, Diu, Malacca,
and several of the Moluccas, whence they could command
the trade of the East. They twice attempted to take Aden,
but without success. Goa was their capital ; from it they
ruled over most of the towns on the Malabar coast. Francis
Xavier sailed for the Indies in the same ship as the Viceroy,
Martin Alphonse de Sousa. He landed at Goa on the 6th
May, 1542. After three years' preaching in India, Xavier
sailed for Malacca, from which station he made a number of
perilous voyages amongst the Moluccas, and the islands
around. The Portuguese had already made some conquests
in the Indian archipelago to render more secure the rich
trade in spices. At this time Mahomedanism was being
spread among some of the islands, half by voluntary con-
version, and half by the sword ; and some of the chiefs pre-
ferred the alternative of being baptised, to submitting to the
law of Islam. The islands of Japan, already known to
Europe through the travels of Marco Polo, had been reached
by the Portuguese only eight years before, and Xavier, while
at Malacca, conversed with navigators and traders who had
visited that remote coast."— The " Blot on the Brain," by W.
W. Ireland.

(d.) The Coptic Church of Egypt.— "On this divided, and
therefore paralyzed religious community, broke, in the seventh
century, the great wave of Mahomedan conquest, and in an
evil hour for themselves the Coptic Church cast in their
lot with the conquerors. The fate of Egypt was decided
when the old Roman fortress of Babylon, to the south
of modern Cairo, was treacherously betrayed to the Arabs
in 638." — Saturday Review, iQth Feb. 1887, p. 262.

"The Arabs conquered Spain in 711 A.D."

" Europeans first arrive at Canton in 1517."

" Macao granted to the Portuguese in 1536."

" Moluccas (Amboyna the capital), discovered by the
Portuguese about 1511."

" The Dutch conquered them in 1607."

U 2

29 2 Appendix.

"Java reached by the Portuguese in 1511, and by the
Dutch in 1595."

"Philippine Islands discovered by Magellan in 1521."

" Manilla became the capital of the Spanish possession*
in the Philippines in 1570."

" First commercial adventure from England in India was
in 1591."

" English factories established at Surat in 1612, and Cal-
cutta purchased in 1698." — " Haydn's Dictionary."

No. 40 (A).

An interesting Discovery (Homeward Mail, loth October,
1887, p. 967):-

" Mr. James, the Port Officer of Paumban, was lately on a
tour of inspection of the Kilakarai channel. He found the
beach strewn with broken pottery, earthenware, china, etc.
On inquiry, he found that it was from an old town, which
existed there in the time of the Pandyan kings. Coins were
often found washed out by the sea, and several were given to
Mr. James, some of which are Grecian, Roman, Arab, etc.
He sent them to the Collector of Tanjore. According to
Bishop Caldwell, Kilakarai is the place where Marco Polo
first landed in India."

Supposing that the above is accurate, it confirms what
Reinaud said — that Greeks, Romans, and Arabs all traded
with India and China. There was, therefore, ample oppor-
tunities for disseminating the different kinds of citrus grown
in China, and taking them to the different places on the way
between China and Egypt and Syria. Those that could be
carried furthest would naturally be those that had the thickest
skins, such as the citron, the Pomum Adami (shaddock) of
Palestine, and the Seville orange. There can hardly be any
doubt that in those days the seed was carried in the fruit. It
is said the seed will not germinate if removed from the fruit
and kept long, but about this we do not know much.

Appendix. 293

No. 41.

The following are translations from Vol. II. of the " Herb.
Amboyn." of Rumphius. They are chapters on the various
kinds of citrus he found in the Malayan archipelago, about
200 years ago. I have also translated the Title-page, to
show that the work was edited by John Burmann, which may
account for some mistakes in the numbers of the plates, and
for a few apparent contradictions, and probably typographi-
cal errors. Rumphius appears to have been very careful in
his descriptions.

Title-page.

The Amboinese Herbarium of George Everhard Rum-
phius, M.D. Hanavensis, senior merchant, and Consul in
Amboyna, celebrated by the name of the Indian Pliny (Plinii
Indici;, and member of the illustrious Society of the
Academy of Natural Curiosities of Germany. It includes
many trees, shrubs, herbs, terrestrial and aquatic plants, which
are to be found in Amboyna and the adjacent islands, accu-
rately described, according to their forms, with their different
names, culture, uses, and virtues. Lt moreover gives various
kinds of insects and animals, many of them depicted with
their natural conformation, all collected for many years with
great pains and study, and made into twelve books, now for
the first time, published in the Latin language, under the
care and zealous editorship of John Burmann, M.D., and
Professor of Botany in the Garden of Medicine of Amster-
dam, and associate of the Caesarean Academy of Natural
Curiosities. The editor has added synonyms and observa-
tions of his own.

Part Second.

Amsterdam — Meinard Uytwerf.

M.D.C.C.L.

(a.) Chap. 34, p. 96, Vol. ii.
Limo decumanus — Pompelmoes.*

* Vide plate 59, figs. A and B.

294 Appendix.

Dutch — De Pompelmoes Boom.

Malay — Lemon Cassomba (printed Lomen).

" Now we shall narrate of the Lemon cohort, which occur
in these aqueous portions of the East Indies ; and, at the
same time, we shall demonstrate whether and how they differ
from those in Europe. First comes before us the largest
species of all, the Pomum Assyrium, by the French called
Pom-sires, which, on account of its size, we have named
Decumanum (huge). Of this we observed four species.
The first has not a tall trunk, but is thicker than in other
lemon trees,* although its branches are more slender ; and,
therefore, as it produces larger fruit, they are often propped
up. Its leaves have the common character of all lemon
trees. Their inferior part, however, is cordate,t as if there
another leaf had grown. All leaves, at their insertion, have
a spine. Those, however, of adult and young trees differ.
In the latter the leaves are more than 7 inches long ; their in-
ferior cordate part is 2 inches, and the superior partif about as
broad as the hand ; at the edges, almost entire, smooth, and not
serrate. If these young trees, however, are situated in shady
places, their leaves become a span long, and their width
that of six fingers' breadth ; and their cordate part has a
width and length of three fingers' breadth. The leaflet is
rounded at the tip, and emarginate. To every leaf there is
a spine, as long as the thumb-joint. The older these trees
are, the less spines they have. In adult trees, the leaves
are 5, 6, and sometimes 7 inches long, but their cordate
parts are smaller and narrower, about the length of one inch,
and half a finger's breadth ; and in all, certainly as wide as
a whole finger's breadth. They are divided by parallel
nerves, which in young leaves are prominent below, and in
adult leaves above. The old leaves become yellowish be-
neath, and are downy. As the tree grows older, it has almost
no spines, or sometimes slender and short ones, and then
only on the young branches.

" The flowers are racemose, and in large white heads, with

* It should be noted that Rumphius uses the word lemon generically,
nstead of Citrus.

t This refers to the broad-winged petiole of the pummelo leaf.
J The leaflet.

Appendix. 295

broad concave calices, with 4,* and rarely 5, oblong thick
petals, outwardly reflexed. They are somewhat fragile, and
easily drop off if touched. Their scent is penetrating, and
more exquisite than that of white lilies. . . . The fruit
has the shape of an apple, as large as a man's head, round
or compressed, but not so flat, as a common cheese. Exter-
nally, it has an even surface, excepting here and there a
slight eminence ; for the rest, the whole surface is covered
with oil ceils. Its colour is citrine, but not so shiny and
bright as in the citron (malo citrino). It is paler and more
elastic (flaccidus). Its skin is more than an inch thick,
spongy (fungosus), white, dry, and bitter. It emits a sul-
phurousf scent.

" The pulp forms a globe, divided into various segments by
intermediate pellicles, mostly fifteen or sixteen in number,
more or less, arranged as in an orange. This pulp is either
red or purplish-red, resembling that of a pomegranate, and
juicy, with a vinous^ or acid flavour ; but in very ripe ones it
becomes sweet like currants. In each of the largest segments,
there are two or three seeds as long as the joint of the little
finger, either smooth or rugose and white. In some of the
best fruits, however, there is not even one seed, or perhaps
few and small. Such fruits are considered the best. Often
three or four of these large fruits hang from one branch at
the same time, which bend it down and frequently break it.
It has, therefore, to be propped, in order to bear their weight.
If, however, only one or two be left on each branch, they then
become larger and more juicy.

" Another variety of this first large kind is very similar
to it, or a little smaller, but with a whitish pulp and an acid or
insipid and watery flavour. The latter is also considered more
ordinary, as in truth it is more allied to the subsequent
third species, the one having been given to us for the other.

* Note that this variety is generally ^.-petalled. Hasskarl says that
one of the differences between Papeda, and Citrus is that the former has
4 petals.

t The rind aroma of all the Citrus Rumphius describes by the word
sulphureus.

£ He always uses the word vinous in describing the flavour of Citrus
juice. I think he means sub-acid, and not, as Gallesio thought, the
colour of wine.

296 Appendix.

" The wood is pale, solid, and knotty. It does not crack
easily, and when seasoned, is suited to handles of carpenters'
tools, more especially the thick roots, which are distinctly
striated and veined.

" It flowers in October and in subsequent months, and the
fruit ripens in April and May.*

" In Latin it is called Limo decumanusy or malum Assyrium
decmnanum ; in Malay, Lemon Cassomba,\ that is, red lemon,,
from its meaty colour. Some in Malay call \\.Jamboat from
the Portuguese Samboa, which properly denotes the Pomp-
sires, or Poma Adami of the Spaniards, from which, however,
these Indian fruits differ much. By the Javanese it is called
Djurru, or Djerru, or Djerru-Matsjangt that is Limo tigrinus.
In Macassar, Lemon Cahicku, that is Limo Calapparius, from
the size and form of a Calappns.% In Belgian, Pompelmoes*
In Chinese, /#, or Noay.

"These trees, in the East Indian regions are not common,
and they are considered as having been, at one time, brought
from higher regions.§ They are cultivated by amateurs in
gardens as much for their fruit as for their shade. They
build a wide stone plinth round the trees and tie their larger
branches to poles. Those trees, however, which have a
limited head and erect branches, and a tall straight trunk,
are not considered by them so suited to this mode of train-
ing as the lower trees, with a larger and more expanded head.
The Amboinese do not enlarge their trees (in this way), and,
moreover, the fruit of those growing in their colder mountains
is smaller and acid. These trees like a warm soil and a
locality in the plains, hence the people of Banda always
grow them better than the Amboinese, as the soil there is
warmer.

" The fruit is often eaten raw and served with dessert. Its
pulp, either alone or with Spanish wine, and prepared with

* In India it flowers in February and March, and ripens in November
and December.

f Cassomba is the same as the Indian dye kussumb, made from the
Carthamns tinctorius.

% This word may have given origin to the Bengali variety called
calamba, or kalamay meaning, in Javanese, cocoa-nut. (Calappa*
Rumph. vol. i. pi. I.)

§ Probably more northerly regions is meant.

Appendix. 297

sugar, becomes a pleasant refrigerant on hot days. The
addition of wine is made so that the fruit may not produce
griping so easily. If this fruit be cut, it is important that
neither the knife which penetrated the bitter skin, nor the
hands which peeled it should touch the pulp, because this
then acquires a bitter taste. And hence, in order to open
this fruit properly, ;.t should be cut by removing a slice from
the top and bottom like a pie-crust, and about an inch thick ;
when the red pulp appears it can be got at better ; by this
way the remaining portion of the skin can be removed care-
fully by a knife without spoiling the pulp. This fruit is
capital for sea voyages, as it can be kept for a long time
without spoiling, if gently handled, and taken from the tree
carefully, and not allowed to fall on the ground. It should
be hung np in the ship by means of strings, so that it may
be eaten during the voyage. It invigorates the stomach and
quenches thirst.

"The second species occurs in Banda, and agrees in foliage
with the common one, but it has a taller trunk and erect
branches. Its leaves are rounder and more serrate at the
edges. The inferior part is cordate, like that of Lemon Itam,
or perhaps a little larger. At their insertion the leaves have
a slender and short spine, not in all, however, and the spines
are not of any particular form. Its leaves are in their totality
about 7 inches long; the inferior part i£ or 2 inches long,
and the superior part (leaflet) about 4 fingers wide, and thicker
than in the common kind, nor are the lateral nerves so pro-
minent. They are more acuminate and equally emarginate.
Others, at the tip, are irregular, sinuous, and with excavated
edges, as if they were going to form another cordate part,
which in many is 3 digits wide ; in others, however, scarcely
one.

" The fruit (of this second species) is smaller, not globose
but pyriform, resembling large winter apples, and if ripe, be-
comes thicker round the stalk, hence it looks gibbous. It is
about J a foot long, and certainly 5 inches across. Unripe it
is of a grass green, and becomes citrine as it ripens. The
pulp is redder than in the common one, and has a hollow
centre. It rarely has seeds, indeed, some are wholly seedless.
The flavour is subacid (vinosus). This species rarely occurs

298 Appendix.

in Amboyna, more frequently, however, in Banda, hence by
some it is called Bandanese.

" The third species of this tree bears fruit of the size of the
globe or ball, which is used in the game . . . . ? (lusui
conorum). Round the stalk it is equally gibbous. Its skin
is neither very thick nor bitter, but it is hardly edible. Its
pulp is white, very juicy, acidulous, and in the ripe fruit
sweeter, as in the Limo Martinjo. It bears smaller leaves
than the preceding, and almost resembling the leaves of this
Limo Martinjo, but they are stiffer and smoother (more
glabrous). Their cordate part is of the size of that of Limo
Itam (Seville orange), and at their insertion here and there
are short and not frequent spines. The trunk is taller than
that of the common kind, and has many erect branches, like
Limo Martinjo, but its head is larger. This variety is rare
in Amboyna, and is there called Japanese, as it was first
brought from there. It is not, however, held in great estima-
tion, because its fruit is neither acid nor sweet, and is mostly
used for a rustic drink called ' Pens' (Punch ?), which is made
of water, arack, citrus-juice, sugar, and several aromatic in-
gredients mixed with it one after the other.

"The fourth species is rarest of all. Its leaves are like
those of the first variety, but smoother (more glabrous), and
at the edges not serrate, and rounded at the tip, where they
have a short apex, or are bifid (emarginate). Beneath they
are not downy,* as in the common kind. Its fruit is largest
of all, equally elevated (round the stalk), irregular and
tubercled. Five or six hang from one stalk, and are covered
with foveoli. The colour resembles that of other kinds.
The skin is more than an inch thick, bitter and sulphurous.
As to the rest, its scent and flavour are like those of others.
The pulp is white, more juicy and sweet than in the common
ones. It has hardly any seeds. In this kind there seldom
are any. When peeled, it is of the size of an orange, which,
in its pulp is larger than others. It is subdivided by a thin and
pithy pellicle. Some smaller ones, in their upper part (apex),
bear a new layer of rind ; others, within this, have a small
pummelo of the same substance, colour, and flavour, as the

* Note that Rumphius knew of a variety of pummelo which had not
downy leaves.

Appendix. 299

rest of the pulp. This, however, does not occur in all, but
only in a small number of the fruit of this kind of tree, and
this phenomenon is mostly met with in those from Banda,
whence this fruit was brought to Amboyna. The seeds of
such fruit, sown in the latter place, readily germinate, and
produce strong and perfect fruit, but they very rarely contain
a second pummelo.

" In Batavia, there are pummelos also with a white pulp,
but the red ones are preferred. None, however, there pro-
duce a double fruit, unless they were propagated by seeds
from those of Banda, where the finest grow in Plo-ay. In
truth they are most difficult to propagate, as in these,
seeds rarely occur.*

" This species (last or fourth), is called Limo Pragnans
(gravid or swollen). In Malay, Lemon Bonting, and also Lemon
Banda. See ' Chinese Atlas' p. 131, in which the following
occurs : ' The proper native country of these trees and fruits
is said to be the twelfth, and principally the Southern
Chinese province Qnantong (Canton), there called " Yeucu ; "
but by the Portuguese it is called Jamboa,-\ which is the
same as ZamboaJ

" The fruit of these exceeds in size a man's head. Their
pulp is red, juicy, and acidulous, resembling half ripe grapes,
and if hung in the house, they will keep good for a year.
The leaves of young trees, crushed between the hands, give
a very grateful odour, which almost resembles that of scented
nails or Jiands.

Observations by the Editor.

" These trees and their fruit, described by Rumphius, are
rather varieties than peculiar species ; by variation in the
mode of growth, and in their soil, and by different modes of
culture, from one species, so many have resulted. This tree
is called Mains Aurantia Indira, with the largest fruit of all,

* From this it is clear that in those days the art of grafting and
budding was not known in the Malay archipelago ; indeed, in another
place Rumphius says so. The art of bruising the bark, and surrounding
it with clay, to induce the formation of roots, as in layering, was known.

t In Ceylon the pummelo is called jambole, and they have also an
orange called jamboo-narun. Probably these names are derived from
Jamboa.

3OO Appendix.

called Pumpelmus, with a pale or reddish pulp. (See Herm.
in H. L. Bat, page 405.) Moreover, a branch of this tree,
with fruit elegantly drawn, and by a figure expressed, is to
be found in ' Merian. Insect. Surinam/ at page 29, where also
see notes ; also 'Thesaur. nostrum Zeyl.,' page 39, where
also find many of its synonyms and authors.

" This is also that tree which is supposed by botanists to be
the tree of knowledge, the fruit of which, in the terrestrial
paradise, was forbidden to our first parents, hence, also it is
called Pomum Adaini ' a Casp. and Joh. Bauhino.' By
one of these names it is also known by ' Pluknetii Mantissa,
and Arnaltheo, 1. c., in Thesauro Zeyl., &c.' This tree is
mentioned also by ' Valent in Amboinae descript, p. 188.'"

(Nota bene. — It is evident that in the days of Rumphius
pummelos were used in sea voyages, and as they kept long
they could have been easily taken all along the eastern coast
of the Bay of Bengal, and also to India and Ceylon, where
their seeds might have been easily sown. It appears, how-
ever, that in those days there was a tradition that the
pummelo came to the Malay archipelago from the south of
China. In the days of Rumphius, more than 200 years ago,
there were many Chinese residents in that group of islands,
and, as he says in another place that the art of budding and
grafting was not known in those islands, it may be inferred
that in China in those days this art was not known either.
Possibly this art may have had its origin in Europe, and was
thence transported to the East. — E. B.)

(£.) Chap. 35, p. 99, vol. ii.

Malum Citrium.

Lemon Sussu.

Dutch, Citroen, Boom.*

" In India (Dutch India) the citron trees do not grow into
trees, but only bushes, with long and drooping branches like
whips, so as to touch the grass. The leaves differ from those
of all kinds of lemon trees.

" They are not cordate (that is they have no wings to their

petioles), and larger than laurel leaves. They are oblong and

subrotund at both ends. The edges are mostly serrate.

They are also of a more pleasant green than those of other

* Vide plate 141, figs. A and B.

Appendix. 301

lemons ;* four or five inches long ; two inches broad ; and
their edges inwardly inclined. They have short spines in
young trees at the insertion of the leaves, and long ones in
the old trees ; whitef flowers, larger than in other species,

with five long and thick petals, with feeble scent The

fruit is of two forms, which, for the sake of distinction, I
divide into wild and cultivated. The wild form is very
common, with a shape like that of the Spanish lemon,J but a
little larger ; oblong, broad towards the stalk, and ending in
a mammilla. Here and there its skin has warts ; the rest,
however, is smooth and yellow. Its fruit is about five inches
long and four broad. Near the stalk it is tubercular and un-
even. The skin is nearly of a finger's thickness ; fungous
without any sulphurous scent like other lemons ; but in-
sipid, an-d scarcely edible. The pulp is very small, and
hardly occupies half the fruit ; it is white, juicy, and acid,
as in others ; but not so pleasant. Hence, it is used as a
condiment only when others are not procurable.

" The fruit of the cultivated variety is double the size of
the foregoing, resembling a melon about a foot long, and
six inches across. Some, indeed, are a little smaller and
more warty than the wild one, and also terminate in a
mammilla. The colour is not citrine but pale, and approach-
ing more to green. Its skin is an inch thick. The pulp,
however, is like that of the wild one, but its flavour is
more vinous, and its skin more juicy and harder than that
of the wild one, and very good for preserving.

" In Latin it is called Malum Citrium. In Malay Lemon
Sussu, that is Limo mammosus (like a mamma). In Belgian
Citroenen. In Portuguese Cidra. In Amboynese, in
4 Hitoea/ Ussu wale, that is Limo repens, resembling a
rope, on account of the long and flaccid branches. In
Banda Usse Ala, that is Lemon Bras, or Li-no orizarius"

"It is well (Rumphius goes on to say) here to mention a
philological discourse on the origin of the word Citrus — by

* It is well to remember that Rumphius uses the generic name of
lemons for all kinds of Citrus.

t Here are citron trees with white flowers, instead of purplish.

J It is evident that in the days of Rumphius a lemon — probably the
same as the modern Sicilian and Malta lemon, and that of the London
shops — was already known over Europe as the " Spanish lemon."

3O2 Appendix.

Bauhin — libr. I, cap. 25, where he comes to the conclusion
that the Etzadar in the Sacred Scripture means this fruit,
that is, a branch of a particular tree, which the Israelites
used to carry about in the feast of the Tabernacles. Hence
the Chaldean name of these fruits — Extrogin — in the singu-
lar .£?<?£• and Etrog ; and hence also the Arabic Atrog, from
which perhaps the Greeks made K(T%O£. The German
Jews moreover about the 8th September, in the festival of
the Tabernacles, still assemble to beg them from . . . . ?
(Marsilia), because they think no fruit more handsome than
this Citrus. This is therefore the Malum medicum of Dios-
corides ; medicum and persicum of Theophrastus ; K/T£OC, or
Malum aureum of the Greeks ; Assyricinn of the
Athenians ; Hespericum of Pliny, and the ancients. It is
different however from the Citrus (Cedrus) of the ancients,
about which see libr. 3, cap. de Lingoo, and at its end.

" This tree is not frequent in these islands, and therefore its
use is rare. Here and there, the one or the other variety
grows in some plot near habitations. In Banda, it is more
frequent, partly in forests, and partly in abandoned gardens,
where they had been planted instead of hedges. In Banda,
a large species is cultivated in gardens, whence also it came
to Amboyna, but in the latter island, it is not so fruitful as
in Banda. These Citrons are more plentiful in Java, and
mostly on woodlands, as they are also in the Brazils. Every-
where however it is a shrub, and not a tree.

" The thick skins of both kinds are preserved in sugar, but
mostly those of the cultivated kind are used. For such a
purpose, the outer rind should be scraped off, and then the
thick skin should be steeped in water for some days, and
then boiled in sugar. Some however are candied, and served
as dessert. This is done mostly by Chinese and Europeans,
as the Indians are ignorant of this art, and they only make
use of its juice as a sauce.

" A certain variety in Javanese is called Lemon Java, that is
Limo Javamis, because there it is supposed to be indigenous.

" There is yet another kind, which grows slightly taller
than the preceding ones. Its leaves are similar, but perhaps
a little larger, more acute, with finely serrated edges, and
everywhere with many long and sharp spines, so that it can

Appendix. 303

hardly be handled. The flowers of this are smaller, the fruit
oblong, rotund, and of the form and size of the Spanish
lemon. At its extremity it has also a mammilla,and externally
it is smooth. The skin of this is very thin ; the pulp more-
over is more plentiful, more juicy, and more acid than in the
former ones.* This kind however is rare in Amboina, and has
been brought there from Banda. It is not used for other pur-
poses than as an acid sauce or condiment, like other lemons.

" Certainly a sweet and very pleasant citron f of a superior
variety has been propagated by cultivation, the pulp and the
skin of which are both edible. Moreover it has an elegant
yellow colour when ripe.

" All these trees, as is also stated by other authors, differ
from the Citrus (Cedrus) of the ancients, which grows in
Mauritania, on Mount Atlas, and which is a species of Oxy-
cedrus, with leaves, fruit, and scent very similar to those of
the Cypress. As is stated by Pliny, libr. 3, cap. 15, out of
the wood of the latter, in ancient times, were made fine
tables, called Mensae Citreae and Citrinae, on which, along
with various figures and marks, could be traced imaginary
tigers, panthers, and leopards."

(c.) Chap. 36, p. 101, vol. ii.

Limo Tuberosus (fig. 2, Tab. 26) — (in Rumph. it is fig. i,

E.BO

Lemon Martin.

" Among the species of acid lemons, which in all India are
as plentiful as the sweet ones, the most noted for size, are
those having many tubercles. Of these, the largest is called
by the people lemon martin. When full grown, this tree is
about the size of a common apple tree, but its branches are
very crooked, as well as its trunk. The leaves are very like
those of the citron. \ (Vide pi. 141, fig. a of the Atlas.)
They are however shorter and not very cordate, so that their
petioles appear only slightly winged. In the younger leaves
this cordate shape is more apparent. At their edges they
are equally serrate, and if roughly rubbed, they have by no

* In this variety, it would appear, we have an approach to the lemon
proper.

t This is like the madhkakree of India.

J Evidently Rumphius is here describing fg. 2 of Table 26, and not
Jig. 1 of his illustrations.

304 Appendix.

means an unpleasant scent ; moreover they are not bitter.
They are three or four inches long ; in the younger branches
near the leaves, there are small and weak spines, but in the
old branches, when the leaves have dropped off, they are
larger and more acute, and so cover the branches that they
can be scarcely handled. In still older branches however,
they become less frequent, so that they are as rare as in the
small branches.

" All flowers of lemons * first form white heads, and from
these small flowers grow, consisting mostly of five, and more
rarely of four white thick petals. On the contrary, in this
species they are larger than in the common kinds, and
formed of five petals, with their exterior purplish. The
fruits are not uniform. Some are certainly as large as two
fists, somewhat pyriform, or resembling a quince, and round
the stalk almost covered with large tubercles, the remaining
portion having smaller tubercles, resembling warts. Other
fruits, on the contrary are oblong, oviform, or acuminate at
both ends, and covered all over with depressed tubercles, or
larger warts. When ripe, these lemons from green turn
yellowish, and sometimes they are yellow or citrine, almost
like the colour of Spanish lemons. The skin is tolerably
thick, and if peeled, it emits a sulphurous spray, which is
oily. The scent is grateful, and quite citrine, so is its flavour ;
at the same time it is bitter, and pungent to the tongue.
The pulp resembles that of the European lemon, and is acid,
but feebler than in any other species, and therefore it is also
eaten raw, but as a condiment others are preferred. This
tree gives fruit almost all the year round. At the same time
it bears flowers, half-ripe, and fully ripe lemons. It requires
however to be carefully pruned, as more than others it gives
many erect and spiny branches, which enfeeble it. This we
have also observed in others.

" In Latin it is called Limo tuberosus Martinicus. It should
certainly be noted that all the Indian species of lemon are
called by the Malays by the general term of Lemoen, while
in Europe this name is given to only one species. This tree
moreover is called Lemon Martin by the Malays. How it

* By lemons the author probably means Citrus, including oranges
pummelos, £c.

Appendix. 505

got this name, however, is quite unknown tojme, but it seems
likely that it may have first come into notice through a
Portuguese of the name of Martin, and hence its name. As
these kinds of fruit were not accurately described by the
old authors, they were given the general name of Mali
Citrii, Medici, or Hesperici ; in subsequent times however
their species were more carefully studied, and one was called
in Latin Limonium ; and in Pharmacopoeias, Limonem. This
last we have retained, as, properly speaking, Limonium is a
herb. In vain may any one search for the derivation of this
name in European languages. The Arabic word is Leytun ;
the Persian Limum, which least of all approach Malum
medicum. Similarly Torong, and Toronga ; although this is
a larger kind, and which the Arabs call Altrung, and Ottrog ;
although properly speaking Torong is Persian. From this,
the Spanish Toronja has come, by which is understood a
citrus larger than the one under discussion, and which has a
sweeter skin, and is of the size of a melon, such as is
described in the preceding chapter. In some respects, how-
ever, our Martin resembles it very much. Among the
Amboynese and adjacent people the Lemon Martin has no
special name, as to them it is mostly unknown. Generally
however, they call all lemons Aussi and Ussi, while among
the Malays, they go by the name of Lemon ; in Ternate,
Djodji ; in Macassar, Lemo ; in 'Java, Jeroc ; in Baleya,
Djoboc ; in Banda, Usse ; and the Chinese give them the
general name of Cam.

" In these Eastern islands the Limo Martin is indeed to be
found everywhere, but nowhere does it grow spontaneously,
or among the natives of Amboyna, but only among Europeans ;
from which circumstance I infer that it has been brought
from elsewhere, especially by the Portuguese, who, perhaps,
may have brought it to the East Indies from the West
Indies. Of all acid lemons, its pulp is the most vinous, hence
divided into quarters and sprinkled with sugar it is eaten raw.
It is very refrigerant and acts as a laxative in sea voyages.
If, however, it be eaten in this way, the white exterior skin
should not be wholly removed, as this tasteless substance
tempers the acidity of the other. Its skin is edible, if the
outer rind be shaved off. The juice of this lemon is also

X

306 Appendix.

used in a drink called Bcerepons, for preparing which it is
better than that of other lemons, because less acid and does
not cause griping. The peel of this lemon, moreover, con-
tains an aromatic spirit (the essential oil) ; however, on land it
is seldom used, except when cooked with fish or meat, the
flavour of which it improves. This lemon is also used for
washing the head, but mostly for want of other kinds. Its
raw pulp, eaten with sugar, loosens and expels the phlegm,
which gathers in the lungs, and which often causes an op-
pressive asthma and a convulsive cough.

" Again, this tree does not grow to a great age, unless it be
carefully pruned and cultivated. It easily engenders certain
larvae and then exudes a lot of sap and copious gum, after
which it wastes away and perishes. It sometimes happens
that half the trunk and a portion of the head dies. The
other half then, to some extent, gives meagre fruit." ( Vide
pi. 129, fig. a.)

(Nota bene. — In the original, either Rumphius or his editor,
Burmann, must have made some mistake, as in the "expli-
catio " of tab. 26, fig. I is called Limo tuberosus, but the above
description evidently refers to fig. 2 (called in the explanation
Limo ventricosus), so in the plates of my Atlas — No. 129
fig. a — is the one with which the description of Limo tuberosus
Martenicus tallies.— E. B.)

(d) Chap. 36, bottom of page 102, vol. ii.

" Lemon Purrut.— Besides the Lemon Martin above de-
scribed there are other warty species, as we shall presently
describe, of which first is Limo ventricosus (fig. I, tab. 26),*
called Lemon Purrut by the Malays. The tree of this grows
to the size of the foregoing, but has a thicker and narrower
head ; it has also many erect branches. In foliage, however,
it differs much from the foregoing (Lemon Martin, fig. 2). Its
leaves are about 4 inches long, and the inferior part is so cor-
date and large as to constitute almost half of the whole leaf,
and so erect as to seem two leaves — one placed over the otherf

* In Rumph. it is fig. 2.

f The reader is requested to note this, and compare it with figs, d
and e, pi. 225 of my Atlas ; and also with the leaf of C. hystrix, de-
scribed in Kurz's Flor. of Br. Burma. By inferior or cordate part,
Rumphius means the winged petiole.

Appendix. 307

(inferior ejus pars cordata tanta et tarn ampla est, ut fere
dimidiam totius folii constituat partem, itaque erecta, acsi
bina sibi essent imposita folia). At the edges, however,
it is slightly serrate, thicker, and of a darker green than in
the foregoing. Its flower is, of all, the smallest, consisting of
four petals, and when open hardly as big as the nail of the
little finger. Its fruit is half the size of the lemon martin,
hardly equalling that of one's fist, and pyriform, but so
covered with tubercles (sed ita tuberculis obsitus) that it
hardly has the same shape (as the Lemon Martin). Its
tubercles, however, separately observed, are smoother than
those of Lemon Martin. Mostly it is green, and when
wholly ripe slightly yellow. Its skin is more solid and juicy
than the foregoing. Its scent is pleasanter than in any other
Indian lemon, and better than that of the Spanish lemons, or
equal to them. The pulp is greenish, granulose, and very
acid, with a certain sharpness, as if it were corrosive. It is
not very juicy, but contains many seeds. The branches are
covered with sparse small spines ; they are, however, more
frequent than in Limo Martin. In truth, long spines in this
tree rarely occur, hence it can more easily be climbed than
the foregoing.

"In Latin it is called Limo ventricosus, in Malay Lemon
Pnrrut, on account of its numerous tubercles, which, like
warts, cover its whole surface ; some also call it Lemon Papua,
that is Limo crispus, from the form of curly hair which the
Papuans have ; others then call it Lemon tay Ayam, that is,
comparing it to fowl's dung, from its shape, which it resem-
bles, as if a lump of earth had been hardened by means of
fowl's dung ; in Ternate it is called Djuru pnrrut.

" It occurs in Celebes, and almost in all the islands of Am-
boyna, as also in Banda. Everywhere, however, it is not
common, but rare. It is the skins of these lemons that are
most used. The rind is scraped off and mixed with a little
water, and thus they serve for scrubbing the head after it has
been previously washed and cleaned by other means, and the
dirt removed. It then produces a nice smell in the hair.

"The acid juice is rarely used in food, but mostly for the
preparation of paints, for which purpose the most acid lemons
are selected. Some also wash their head and body with this

X 2

3oS Appendix.

juice, but for this it is not suited, as its sharpness wears away
the skin, especially if the sun shine upon it, and then the roots
of the hairs become loosened and are destroyed. The fresh
skin is also cooked with the gravy of meats, and it can also
be preserved in sugar as well as that of Lemon Martin, but
this is rarely done." ( Vide pi. 226, fig. a.}

(Nota bene. — In tab. 26 of Rumphius's book there are three
figures. Burmann, in the explanation of this plate, states
that fig. 3 (pi. 227, fig. a of my Atlas) is Lima ferus. Now
its foliage does not agree with that of Lima ferns (pi. 226,
fig. c of Atlas), but is identical with that of No. i — Limo
ventricosus, Lemon Purrut. I look upon it as a smooth
fruit form of the latter. ( Vide pi. 27, figs, a and b.) These
are a smooth and a warty form of the khatta orange of
India — both taken by myself from the same branch of the
same tree in Benares. The smooth form is the regular crop,
and the warty is the Dtimrez crop. As fig. I and fig. 3 of
tab. 26 of Rumphius' vol. ii., have identical foliage, it is
more reasonable to look upon them as the smooth and warty
form of the same Limo ventricosus, lemon Purrut, especially
as the foliage of both differs much from that of Limo ferus.
Variations in the exterior of many Citrus are very common.)

(e) Chap. 36 (last part), p. 103, vol. ii.

" The third species of warty lemons is Limo curamas, which
has smaller leaves than the preceding (Lemon Purrut) ;
otherwise they are similar, and especially with regard to
their being made up of two pieces. They almost resemble
those of Limo Maas, but their cordate part is larger. The
fruit, however, is like that of Limo Martin, both as regards
size and shape. This also is so irregularly round and shape-
less, covered over with tubercles and fissures, as to prevent
any decided form being assigned to it. Many, however, are
longer than broad, and contracted round the stalk. Many
have a dark green colour, inelegant, or from dark become
green ; at length, however, in some, yellowish spots appear.
They afterwards become rugose, and on all sides covered with
tubercles, but these are not so pronounced as in Lemon Purrut.

" The pulp is white and dry, consisting of many granules,
like pedicles ; nor is it so juicy as Lemon Martin, and, if

Appendix. 309

allowed to become fully mature, is indeed dry, and gives
little juice, quite acid. The scent of the skin is strong, and
not so pleasant as in Lemon Purrut — nay, it has a goatish
smell, and the leaves give off a similar scent.

" The seeds are oblong, slender, thin, and rugose ; at one
end, indeed, they have almost a tail, composed of several
veins, which adhere to the intermediate pellicle. The
branches are everywhere covered with spines, which, in the
larger branches, become very small.

"In Latin it is called Limo unguentariusy and by the
Malays Lemo curamas, from a scented ointment, with which
the body is rubbed, and in which the pounded rind of this
lemon enters as one of the ingredients.

" In Amboina it grows in gardens in wild places,* and
several are planted in villages, but these trees are little known.

" Of this kind nothing but the skin is used, which is mixed
with this ointment. Some then rub the head with it, after
using the lotion, mentioned under Lemon Purrut. This
scent, however, is little liked by persons of our nation, as it
is not pleasant, for which reason also it is not highly prized
by the inhabitants. Some, however, prefer it, and with
greater effect use its cut up pulp, steeped in water, with
which they wash the head. It removes the dirt and scruff
very well."

(Nota bene. — In Ceylon the lima, which the foregoing
Limo ventricosus closely resembles, has an acrid rind, and
an unpleasant flavour in its pulp. The Cingalese do not use
it in food, but only for washing the head. The -plantation
coolies also smear it over their feet and legs, to keep off land
leeches ; and therefore in Ceylon it has got also the name of
Kudalu dchi, or Leech Lime. Europeans call it Caffre Lime.)

(/) Chap. 37, p. 104, vol. ii.
"Limo agrestis.
" Lemon papeda.

* Alf. de Candolle in his " Origin of Cultivated Plants," p. 180,
translates " in hortis sylvestribus," into " shrubberies." I think what
Rumphius means is " gardens in wild places," such as are to be met with
also in Ceylon, in the midst of forests, and surrounding a few huts of
wood-cutters, £c. The above description also agrees with that of the
lima of Ceylon, which is often found in similar places.

3 TO Appendix.

" Dutch— Wilde Pap-Lemoen.

" This especially is an indigenous tree of these islands, and
more common than all the foregoing. It grows taller than
they, and has a crooked trunk and irregular and wild-like
branches. The small branches, at the leaf stalks, have every-
where sharp and hard spines, so that this tree looks more
horrid and spinous than all the other species of lemons ; and
hence it does not admit of anyone climbing it. The leaves
appear as if formed of two leaves, but the inferior cordate
part is much smaller than the other superior portion (the
leaflet), and is tolerably broad. Both together are about 4
or 5 inches long, and there are no leaves without spines. At
the edges the leaves are only slightly serrate. Their oil cells
are so large that they appear perforated, and the air can be
seen through them.

" The fruit comes up to the size of Lemon Martin, but is not
so pyriform, more round, smoother, and of a more solid feel.
Here and there it has smooth tubercles, so that it cannot be
called altogether spherical, but irregular and oblique. The
colour is very yellow and even, and it is not foveolate. The
pulp is totally white and juicy, and very sharply acid, so
much so, that alone its juice is not used in food, but is mixed
with some other juice. The scent of the rind is citrine, but
not so grateful as in the foregoing kinds. The wood is solid,
hard, and yellowish, resembling box-wood. The roots of
old trunks are yellower, and, at the same time, striated.

" These lemon trees like wild gardens, and their nature is
more wild'than that of other lemon trees. The Amboynese
exhibit no care in cultivating and pruning them ; nevertheless,
they hold them in greater estimation than our nation do, and
they are to be found near all their villages.

" In Latin it is called Limo agrestis, because it loves the
fields, and likes wild places more than all other kinds. It is
also called Limo pultariiis ; by the Malays, Lemon Papeda ;
in Macassar, Paralli ; in Amboyna, Ussi Lapia ; in Ternate,
Lemo Jabba, that is, the Amboynese lemon. It is found in
almost all the East Indian islands, from Celebes to Amboyna,
In Saleyera its fruit is largest and best. Certainly in Java
and Baleya it is unknown.

" The skins of these lemons are in no way used, but the

Appendix. 3 r i

pulp is in daily use as a condiment and pickle, in a porridge
or pap, by them called Papeda* Every mouthful of this is
dipped in the juice, and then eaten. From this custom its
name may have arisen. Always, however, some fish or meat
broth is added, as otherwise it causes some griping, for which
reason our nation do not use its juice much, but prefer other
milder lemons. It is also used for preparing the fine pigment
called Cassomba, from the dry flowers of the Carthamus,* or
Cnicus flowers, for the preparation of which always the most
sharply acid lemons are required, as is clear from the des-
cription of its preparation. For this reason, the inhabitants
of Saleyera take for sale to Macassar this kind of fruit in
greater quantity, since there the largest part of the Cassomba
pigment is prepared and consumed.

" The roots of the old trees are largely used by the people
of Macassar for making handles of large knives, and of the
weapons called Krisseny\ made by them, since this wood is
solid and streaked.

" Some of the Amboynese take a certain quantity of the
juice of these lemons, and heat it on the fire in a pan, until
half the quantity has evaporated, and the remainder has
turned blackish. With this the Amboynese smear small-
pox, so that it may suppurate and dry quickly. This cure,
however, few can tolerate, as it smarts excessively.

"Another variety of this species js called Lemon Carbu, the
fruit of which, of all acid lemons, is the largest. Its tree is
higher than others, with many branches, and an extensive
head. Its leaves are like those of the foregoing (Lima
agrestis], but mostly they are larger — 5 inches long and
more. In the upper part (leaflet) more serrate, in the lower
or cordate part, it is smaller than the other by half, but as
broad. Hence these leaves also appear double. It has
smaller spines than the other kind (Lima agrestis). The
flowers are the same. The fruit is about the size of a child's
head, some even larger than a man's head, not really round
or spherical, but pyriform, rather irregular, and covered with
large tubercles resembling those of Lemon Papeda. The
rest is smooth, nor has it any foveoli : and when ripe it be-

* Safflower, or "kussumb," of the natives of continental India,
t Vide Appendix, No. 66.

3 1 2 Appendix.

comes yellow all over. Its skin is not thick, but solid, and
with a strong, but unpleasant scent, resembling ' aquam
fortem.' * The pulp is white, very acid and sharp, so that,
owing to its excessive acidity, it is not used in food. Its
strong scent produces giddiness, and does harm to the head.

"In Latin, it is called Limo Taurinus ; among Malays
Lemon Carbon. The Malays, indeed, to all large things
apply the name of Bull or Elephant, in the same way that
the Greeks express large size by the preposition of the
particle Bu. Hence, it would not be out of place to call
this fruit "Bulimonem." In Macassar it is called Lemon
Cambar, that is a tumid or swollen lemon ; in Amboyna
Usse Ela Baly or Djoboc Carboo. In Ternate Lemo-Cabi,
that is goatish-lemon, from its offensive smell.

" In Amboyna it rarely occurs, but more frequently in
Macassar, and many there plant it on plots near habitations,
on account of its shade.

"The juice of these lemons is mostly used for cleaning
weapons, both of brass and iron, when they become rusty ;
hence, some called them Lemon Padangh. that is weapon
lemons. If the Malays and Macassarese clean their swords
and weapons either with the juice of this, or with any other
thing whatever, they are afterwards in the habit of giving
them a blue tint. This can be done as well by the juice of
these lemons as by that of Lemon nipis, if corrosive sub-
limate (sublimatus mercurius) be added to it, and which is
called by them Warangau. By this composition the
weapons are preserved from rust, but at the same time it
poisons them. Certainly lemons are very useful for cleaning
and brightening all sorts of copper things, either with their
juice alone or mixed with charcoal, and afterwards freely
washed in water and dried in the sun.

" It can also be used in preparing Cassomba. They may,
however, prefer other lemons for this, as they obliterate more
effectually the smell of dyed clothes than this taurine variety.
Both these fruits here described, however, become covered
with a soft gummy secretion. These and other acid lemons
are used by the people of Macassar for washing their clothes,
for which purpose they take a larger proportion of juice than
* By "aquam fortem" Rumphius probably meant alcohol.

Appendix. 313

water. This, however, is chiefly done with the clothes of
royal people, because, when these are so washed, they both
better absorb and retain the odour of Musk and Zibeth, and
similar odours."

Observation.

It may be also noted that Lemon Papeda and Lemon Carbou,
or Lima Bubalinus — " a Valent. in Amboinae descript, pag.
189" — are also mentioned. (Vide pi. 226, fig. b of Atlas.)

(g) Chap. 38, p. 1 06, vol. ii.

" Limo ferus.

" Lemon swangy.

" Dutch — Wilde Lemoen Boom.

" This species of lemon is also indigenous, or Indian, and of
a wild nature. The tree is not very thick, and smaller com-
pared with the others. Its head is small and its branches
are straight. The leaves are like those of Limo Papeda^ but
rather longer and more acute ; about six inches long and
more ; the anterior part slightly serrated. In its middle,
however, between the cordate and superior part of the leaf
there is a bend, and the leaves are slightly inflexed. The
fruit is smaller than that of all preceding ones, similar to
the Spanish lemon, but smaller and tapering at both ends.
Some are pyriform ; others are like the larger plums, oviform,
everywhere covered with warts ; , dark green and slowly
becoming yellowish, which colour is mostly observed in those
which grow near buildings and are there cultivated. The
pulp is small and granular, but juicy and very acid, producing
griping. The scent is not unpleasant, citrine, but feeble, and
mostly wild-like. The branches also bear long spines, but
small ones on the twigs, near the leaves.

" In Latin it is called Limo ferus ; in Malay Limoen Swangi,
from its irregular and deformed shape. The Malays, how-
ever, give the name of Sivangi to such things as belong to
the forest, are wild, and of irregular form, such as are mostly
magicians and chiefs, whom they properly call Swangi. In
Amboyna it is called Usse Malumeit, and Aussi Wolu. In
Ternate, however, Limo Titigda.

" In Amboyna it is mostly found in out of the way village
gardens, and near their buildings.

314 Appendix

" Its juice is rarely used, excepting such as the Amboynese
use with their Papeda porridge, but mostly for the prepara-
tion of the Cassomba pigment. Then its skin and juice is
cooked up with other medicines to enhance their power,
especially with bitter potions, which are given to clear the
body and correct bad humours. With its rind the head is
rubbed after washing it, as has been stated si Lemon Purrnt,
but care should be taken that the juice neither touch the
skin, nor drop on the body."

Observation.

Under the name of Lemon Swangi it occurs in Valent.
Amboinae descript, p. 190. — (Vide pi. 226, fig. c of Atlas.)

(A) Chap. 39, p. 107, vol. ii.

" Limonellus.

" Limon nipis.

" Dutch — Liemis Boom.

" Of all the acid lemons this is the most common and
most used (vulgatissimus et usitatissimus). Its trunk is more
slender than that of the foregoing (Lemon Swangy) ; scarcely
thicker than one's leg ; mostly crooked and bent, having only
few branches, which are crooked and spread out, and which
bear numerous very short and spiny branchlets, the whole
forming an extended and irregular head. The leaves are
smaller than in any foregoing ones ; about three inches long,
with a small but very distinct cordate part, or winged petiole
('parva, sed notabili cordata parte'; according to picture
about -^th of the whole leaf). At the edges they are slightly
serrated and of a much pleasanter green than other lemon
leaves. The spines which are long and slender are firmly
joined to the leaf insertions. The flowers are similar to
those of the foregoing with five whitish oblong petals (his
picture, however, shows only four petals), turned outwards,
gathered together, and exhaling in the morning a grateful
odour like those of Lemon Martin. The fruit is much
smaller than the preceding : of the size of an apricot,
globular, without tubercles, but some instead have a marked
furrow, and mostly near the stalk, or in the inferior extremity
(apex), with a few tubercles resembling warts. At first the
fruit is green and then citrine colour. Its skin is very

Appendix. 315

thin (kaghzi) and has not a greater thickness than the
stalk. The interior is full of pulp, white or greenish, and
very juicy ; pleasantly acid, and has a nice odour and
flavour. Its pulp and skin are almost like those of the
Spanish lemon. The seeds are whitish, round, and oblong,
and germinate readily if they fall on the ground, or are
sown in it. Some of these fruits increase in size to those
which in Europe are called Malum Orthomasticum (a
variety of apple) which has a pleasant smell, when rubbed
or held in the hand. If, however, these trees are not
properly cultivated they produce small and warty fruit,
which take a long time to turn yellow, and become covered
with a gum-like secretion.

" This tree does not like a rich and fertile soil, but a hard
one, mixed with stones and old rubbish of decayed buildings
(demolition mortar ?). In such a soil it grows finer and
luxuriates more. Sites, which are well exposed to the sun,
suit it better.

" In Latin it is called Limonellus, or Limo tcmds. In Malay
Lemon nipis, on account of its thin skin ; in Ternate, Lento
Java; in Amboyna, Aussi Pipis ; in Macassar, Lemo Capas,
as it is not much larger than a cotton-pod ;* in Banda, Usse-
crawo ; in Baleyera, Djoboi ; in Chinese, it is called Suyn
Cam, which is the general name of the whole of the acid
lemons.

" It is found from Java to all the East Indian Islands, not
in the forests, but everywhere near habitations, planted and
carefully cultivated. Moreover it fruits all the year round,
but at one season it bears more plentifully than at others.

" The juice of these lemons is in daily use ; by it every kind
of food is acidified, as all the people of India (Dutch India)
vastly prefer lemon-juice in their food to vinegar, the lettuce
excepted. This juice, used with food, tastes very nicely and
is delicious. In the green state its skin is preserved in sugar,
and the whole fruit is pickled in brine, to have it at hand all
the year round. This pickle is made as follows : fresh limes
are slightly scraped, to remove the green exterior ; then they
are pricked all over with a sharp pointed bit of wood, so
that they may be covered with holes. Then for three or four
* Capas is another word common to India, meaning cotton.

3 1 6 Appendix.

days they are steeped in pure water, to rid them of their
bitterness ; afterwards they are slightly dried in the sun, and
finally they are pickled in brine, which is made of sea-water,
saturated with salt to such an extent that an egg will float in
it. In this way they are put in well-closed jars, and can be kept
good for years. They should remain in pickle for a month
before they can be used. These lemons so pickled and mixed
with powdered sulphur clean and dry up all kinds of skin
eruptions, in such a way that the granulating surfaces
become a dry scab. Instead of sulphur, powder of ' pyrius '
can be taken, and if too irritating it should be mixed with a
little lime. Indeed the two together mitigate irritation, as
much as we found lime and Sirium (a kind of plant) do in
mastication.

" In order to give a blue colour to steel blades, such as
swords, and those called Krissen, there are no lemons better
than these. They are better than L imo Papeda, and lemon
carboit, which are not used except for want of the former.

" Moreover in them there is some mucilage, which, when
the juice is mixed with corrosive sublimate, or Varinga* pre-
serves and adheres to the blades better. If these arms be
cleaned and polished by any other substance, then they are
smeared over with this prepared juice, as was explained in
chap. 37, by which they at once, from blue become darker.
They are then lightly cleaned with a dry cloth, dipped
in oil, and put by.

" Although in Europe we are taught that citrons can coun-
teract every poison, the contrary is taught by the Indians.
Certainly many poisons, not all however, are excited by
lemon juice. This is established by these arms becoming
covered with a blue colour. Moreover, those mostly forbid
the use of this juice (in cases of poisoning) who may have
(on some occasion) taken poison, and by experience had
found that lemon juice gave it more power, f

" If eight or ten of these limes are cut and their juice
squeezed into a clean pan and allowed to lie for a night or

* I have given the proper names as they are in Rumphius, but I fear
many of them are wrongly spelt.

f It is not easy to get at the real meaning of these last sentences in
the original.

Appendix. 317

eight hours, with half the quantity of water, a very good
eye-wash is obtained, in which dim eyes are washed, if ex-
ternally there be drawn over them a cloudy spot (leucoma ?),
which hinders and bothers the sight.

" If these ripe limes be plucked by the hand, and suspended
tied to a string, or some such other way, so that they do not
touch each other, they can be maintained sound for a long
time during sea-voyages.

"In the month of December, 1677,* a young branch of
Lima nipis was put before me, the two inferior spines of
which bore, on their tips, flower heads such as these trees
bear, with one flower already open. When, however, this
cut branch was placed in water for the night, both heads of
flowers dropped off, as if they had been in some way fixed on.
" The leaves are used to rub the hands with, if anything un-
pleasant may have been touched. When crushed, they give
a better citrine odour, while in others it is more sulphurous.
" The juice of these limes is also used in painting, and in
preparing a pigment called Cassomba. For this purpose it
is as good as that of lemon Papeda. For this purpose are
also useful other kinds growing in Celebes, and on the east
coast of Ceram. These varieties in Macassar are called
Tsjamburaga. They are larger than Limo nipis ; externally
granulose, and of a dark green. In the upper part (apex)
they are smooth, where there is a small circle, in the midst of
which a prominence is raised. The pulp of these resembles
that of the common Limo nipis, and is acid, but its scent is
not like that of the latter, nor is it so pleasant. The moun-
tain people of Ceram, on the East coast, bring them down
for sale to the villages of those coasts, where they are used
cooked with fish, on account of their acid flavour. Certainly
these can be kept longer and are more suited than others
for carrying beyond the sea, as these and the Limo nipis
don't easily decay." (Vide pi. 227, fig. e of Atlas.)

Observation.

Just as there are many varieties of lemons (Limonum), so
there are many of Limes (Limonelli), which, properly speak-
ing, are a smaller species than the former. Many varieties
* That is 210 years ago.

318 Appendix.

occur ; not, however, so many as are made out by the below
mentioned authors. Indeed, from the subsequent chapter,
40, (Limonellus aurarius^} this is clear.

" Many species of Limonelli, or varieties, are enumerated in
Sloan, Catal. pi. Jam. p. 21 1, which are grouped with these, and
which are recorded in Thes. nostro Zeyl., p. 143, where chiefly
Indian species occur. Again, see Ray Dendr., p. 80 ; Plukn.
Almag., p. 239 ; Ferrar. Hesper. Belgic., p. 209 ; J. Commelin
Hesper. Belgic., p. 9 ; Valent. Amboin. descript., p. 190, &c."

(Nota bene. — There can be no doubt whatever that, both
from its picture and its description, this Limonellus, or Limo
tennis, of Rumphiur,, Limon nipis of the Malays, is identical
with the kagJizi nimboo of India, and the Lime of Monserrat
— the C. medica van acida, of Brandis and Hooker. I
have entered into all the details of the uses of this lemon
nipis which Rumphius gives, not because they are of much
value at present, but because I thought them of some im-
portance, to show to what extent this kaghzi nimboo was
used in the Malay archipelago. It was not used only as a
condiment in food, and preserved in sugar as a sweetmeat,
but also used in medicine, and in the arts. Now, in order
that 210 years ago it should be there (vulgatissimus et
usitatissimus), it must at least have been known there pro-
bably some hundreds of years before, to spread all over
those islands, and to have been found of use in the arts and
in medicine. Nevertheless, although found " from Java to all
the East Indian islands," it was not found in forests, but every-
where near habitations, and carefully cultivated.

Under those circumstances, there are only two ways of
looking at it : (d) Either it was an indigenous variety, pro-
duced in course of cultivating other kinds, and raising them
from seeds, as varieties are often thus produced in Europe and
elsewhere ; or (b) it was introduced " tale quale " from else-
where. This lime is common to both Continental India
and Ceylon, and to the Malay archipelago. There are other
things which are common to both localities, such as "Capas"
(cotton), and Cassomba ("Kussumb," Carthamus tinctorius),
and Krissen (Kreese). There must therefore have been
trade between these two places in olden times, especially
along the coast of the Malayan peninsula, Burma, and

Appendix. 319

Bengal. Rumphius, moreover, states that this kaghzi nimboo
was the one above others, which was particularly used " on
sea voyages, as it did not spoil," and " that its seeds ger-
minated very readily if dropped on the ground or sown."
The question now is — did India get it from the Malay archi-
pelago, or the latter from continental India ?)

(z) Chap. 40, p. 109, vol. ii.

" Limonellus aurarius.

"Lemon Maas.

"Dutch — De Gonde Liemis Boom.

" This is the smallest species of all the Lemons, the tree
of which, nevertheless, grows as high as that of Lemon nipis
(kaghzi nimboo). Its leaves are smaller than those of the
latter, at all events narrower ; 2\ or three inches long, of
which the cordate part is almost the third. They are not of
so brilliant a green as those of Lima nipis, but are dark
green and spotted,* and their aroma is not pleasant. Its
branchlets (raches) are more scattered, and mostly hidden by
the leaves, and the spines are of all, the smallest, and not
many of them. The fruit is smallest of all, about the size
of a large ...(?)... ball (globi sclopeti), spherical, and almost
covered with small eminences, and mostly divided into
shallow furrows.f Above (apex), it is umbellicate. It remains
green for a long time, but ultimately becomes yellowish.
The skin is thin, like a pellicle (kaghst), and not very
scented. The odour can only be elicited by scratching it,
and the odour is not citrine, but rather aromatic, almost
resembling Lagondi. The pulp is juicy, yellowish, trans-
parent, and very acid, with many seeds of the size of wheat
grains.

" In Latin it is called Limonellus aurarius. In Malay,
Limon Maas, not on account of its likeness to gold, but on
account of its use as shown further on. In other languages
it is called by similar names (that is for the same reason).

* The leaves of the lima of Ceylon (C. hystrix) has its leaves spotted,
and their aroma is not pleasant.

t All thin skinned Citrus have longitudinal depressions, or furrows,
between the pulp quarters, especially when kept for a little time, as the
thin skin moulds itself to the pulp as closely as a tight-fitting glove.

320 Appendix.

In Ternate, Lemo Tinagara ; in Macassar, Lemo Bulcyu ;
in Amboyna, Ussi Helawan.

" It is found in Celebes, Ternat<£, and Amboyna ; but in none
does it grow abundantly. These lemons are not used in
food, but mostly by goldsmiths, for cleaning every kind of
golden article, which they afterwards intend to cover with
pigment. For this purpose they use this lemon in preference
to others, hence its name. They are also mixed with medi-
cines and juices, and used for clearing eyes, for which they
are better than others, as they are not so sharply acid and
irritating. Where plentiful, there they are also used for
washing the head and body, not so much for cleaning it, as
to give it a nice scent.

" Compared to other lemon kind, the branches of this have
many spines, short, thick, and hard.* The leaves drop off
rather readily, and one part of the leaf easily separates from
the other, and falls off (the leaflet separates from the winged
petiole) ; so that the remaining part looks like the leaf of
some other tree. The leaves, if crushed, have not much of
the scent or taste of lemon leaves. ( Vide pi. 227. figs, c, c
of Atlas.)

Explanation.

Also described in Valent. Amboinae, p. 190, under the
name of Lemon A mas.

(Nota Bene. — This lime is thin-skinned and very small, with
very acid juice, like a small kaghzi nimboo. But the rind and
the spotted leaves have not a pleasant scent, although the
character of the fruit has much of the kaghzi nimboo ; the
leaves are more like those of the C. hystrix, that is, supposing
the whole leaf to be 3 inches, its winged petiole or cordate
part would be I inch, or about one third of the whole. Thus
Limonellus aurarius appears to be half way between the C.
hystrix and the Limonellus proper, or kaghzi nimboo?)

(/) Chap. 40, p. no, vol. ii.

" Limonellus Madurensis.

" Lemon Madura.

" Dutch — Madurase Liemis Boom.

* If I have read Rumphius rightly, before he said with regard to
spines, that there were not many of them (nee ita frequentes), all citrus,
however, have more or less spines.

Appendix. 321

" In Madura a certain species of small fruit, or sweet lemon,
occurs. It looks very pretty on its little trees, which are
about 2 feet high. The branches, nevertheless, are strong,
angular, and slightly striated. The leaves are solitary and
simple, about the length of the thumb's joint, and are of a
finger's breadth, not cordate, and with equal but sinuous
edges. No spines ?.re to be seen on the branches ; the taste
of the leaves is bitter, and if held against the light they pre-
sent the usual oil cells of other kinds of lemons. The fruit
is spherical, compressed in the upper part, pitted all over,
and of the size of a (?)... ball (globi sclopeti). They always
remain green, and without much difference in their sizes.
The skin is thin and juicy ; the pulp divided into cells, as is
usual in other lemons ; taste subacid, and at the same time
aromatic ;' the colour of the pulp is orange, with only one
seed ; rarely two seeds are found, of the size of a wheat
grain, acuminate at both ends.

"In Latin it is called Limonellus Madurensis and Limonellus
Pumilus (dwarf) ; in Malay, Lemon Madura ; this name,
therefore, is probably from the island of Madura, situated in
the gulf of the large island of Java, where it has its origin,
and whence it has been brought, and carefully cultivated in
the gardens of Batavia.

" The fruits are not eaten raw, but preserved with one or
two of the leaves to give them a nice flavour ; they are
then served at table with dessert.

" To this I add, at the same time, another wild species of
Limonellus, which was brought to my notice since 1694 called
Limonellus Angidosus. The fruit differs from all other
lemons. It grows near the edge of the sea. It is called in
Malay Lemon Utam Basagi, &c., &c." (Vide pi. 93, fig. a.)

(JNota bene. — This Limonellus Madurensis, both from the
picture and the description appears to be no other than the
kumquat, or kimquit, of Calcutta, Lucknow, and other
places. In Calcutta I am told it is grown in pots, for the
decoration of porticos. Although Rumphius describes it as
a dwarf plant, either it, or one very like it, called hazara, can
be grown to the height of 6 or 8 feet. Probably it is late in
colouring, and as it is used in its green state for preserves,

Y

322 Appendix.

they may not have given Rumphius any chance of seeing its
orange colour. The same happens to the Kandy orange,
which is eaten while green, and therefore never seen when of
an orange colour.)

(/£) Chap. 41, vol. ii.

"Aurantium acidum.

" Lemon Itam.

" Dutch — De Zunre Oranje-Appel Boom.

" Having described all the species of Indian acid lemons,
there remains for us to treat also of the fruit of oranges,
which constitute a peculiar genus, and which can by no means
be produced from the foregoing kinds, either by artificial
budding or grafting, as some Europeans have falsely thought
and wrote. Moreover, these fruits throughout India grow in
natural soil and among people who are not acquainted with
the art of grafting and understand it not. Therefore I am
certain that in the western part of the world this art (of pro-
ducing oranges from lemons) had at no time been practised.
Equally in Mauritania and Guinea, as in West India, and its
islands, all the forests of these oranges occur growing spon-
taneously, and germinated there by their own natural power.
These Eastern fruits, however, although they may differ
somewhat from those in the West, as we shall show in the
following pages, are divided into acid and sweet kinds.

" Therefore to begin with, acid oranges, commonly called
Lemoen Itam, grow into tall trees, the trunks of which are
rather thick, not round, but angular, and divided by furrows.
The tree has many branches, and the leaves, after the
pummelo, are the largest. The cordate part is small com-
pared with that of others. The whole leaf, however, is 4 or
5 inches long, of which the cordate part is of the size of the
width of one's finger, and very narrow. At the edge, the
leaves are almost non-serrate and acuminate. They are
smoother and of a darker green than in the foregoing kinds.
They are distinguished by strong and sinuous transverse
nerves, and if crushed they emit a strong sulphurous* scent.
The spines are longer than in any other kind, and of the

* The scent of the Seville orange leaf, which this appears to be, is
" sui generis/' strong and aromatic.

Appendix. 323

length of a common needle, very strong and sharp, especially
in young long branches. In these they are often of the length
of one's finger. From the old branches and branchlets, how-
ever, they mostly disappear, so that they can be handled
without injury, and if the tree be carefully deprived of its
young long branches it can be easily climbed. The younger
trees for a long time are certainly not thicker than one's arm,
and everywhere, both on the trunk and on the branches, bear
sharp and horrid spines. The flowers are white, like the pre-
ceding, with five'petals, only they are a little larger. The fruits
are spherical, oblate at both ends, without tubercles, and every-
where covered with marked foveoli. The colour is dark
green till they become wholly ripe. If they remain on the
tree for a long time, often they turn yellow, or orange, on one
side, and some also colour all over ; but these then are already
over-ripe and spoilt. Their skin has a sulphurous odour,
but less so than the sweet oranges, and it is of the thickness
of about a thick quill. The pulp is divided into ten quarters,
and they are as firmly adherent to each other as to the skin,
so that they are not easily separated. This orange is, never-
theless, very juicy and mucilaginous, and as acid as the
Spanish sour orange (Seville), but not so pleasant, and rather
bitter. It has many seeds, oblong, rugose, and sinuous, with
a white and thick shell ; beneath that is a purplish pellicle,
and inside all is a whitish kernel.

" The wood is whitish and sufficiently hard, but cannot be
much used for implements because it is very crooked. This
kind is more productive than any other species of lemon found
in these regions. It fruits all the year round, and can be
used daily. It grows in all soils, but above all, it prefers the
proximity of human habitations.*

" In Latin it is called Aurantium acidum ; in Malay Lemon
Itam, that is black lemon (from its dark green colour) ; in
Banda Usse Mcttin ; in Amboyna Usse Metten.

"It does not occur in all the islands of Maritime India.
Moreover, in Java, Baleya, and Celebes, this orange is
unknown. In Amboyna it is more plentiful, but in Ter-
nate and Banda it is rarely met with. Although these
oranges are full of juice, nevertheless they are rarely, or not

* Presumably on account of the manure.

Y 2

324 Appendix.

at all used with food, especially raw, as their juice, although
vinous, is nevertheless unpleasant and slightly bitter. They
are, however, used in a sort of rustic drink, called " Pons "
(Punch) ; but for this, Lemon Martin is the best. This drink
is not healthful, as it is made up of a lot of incompatible in-
gredients, which are mixed in raw. The bases of it, how-
ever, are the heating arack, and the refrigerating lemon juice.

" Then these dark green oranges are excellent for cleaning
and polishing copper, whether alone or mixed with powdered
charcoal, so that copper becomes bright and splendid, if at
once it be washed in water and dried in the sun.

" These oranges are also very useful for washing the head,
which they clean very well. They also clean off perspiration,
and don't sting the skin as much as others. For this purpose
they are first toasted over hot ashes, till they slightly burn
and blacken ; then they are cut and used. They can be also
used for preparing Cassomba pigment, although not alone,
but mixed with other lemons. They must be peeled before
squeezing their juice. This is also done when used for clean-
ing copper.

" I add another kind, which mostly occurs in Macassar and
Baleya, and is there called Lemon Maritsja, that is lemon
crispus and, Nitor piper is > which is of the size of Limo nipis, or
somewhat smaller, but at both ends either plane or depressed,
resembling the sweet oranges of the Amboynese ; externally
rugose, and all over covered with small tubercles resembling
grains of pepper, hence, probably, its name. Its skin, however,
is thin, and can be easily peeled off, so that the pulp can be
removed whole, as in the sweet oranges of Amboyna. Its
pulp is acid and used with food by the people of Macassar.*

" Of this class a huge variety occurs in Amboyna, the fruit
of which grows to the size of an infant's head. Externally
it is granulated, and has few seeds ; the pulp, however, has a
feebler flavour than the common ones."

Observation.

As of lemons, so of oranges, many are the varieties which
have been enumerated by various authors. This also occurs,

* In India there is a small sour orange of the " keonla" or " stintara"
type, called " khatti naringi? or " bannati benarsce nimboo?

Appendix. 325

viz., that " the pulp of the common orange (Aur. vulgare) is
sour " — Ferrar.-Hesper., 377, and Boerh. Ind. H. L. B., p. 239,
where see other varieties, also in many other authors quoted
in Sloan. Catal., pi. Jamaic., p. 210, and the elegant figure in
Blackwel. Herbal, Tab. 349, &c.

This kind is also described by Valent. in Amboin., p. 190,
under the name of Lemon Hitam. — (Vide pi. I, figs a and b
of Atlas.)

(Nota bene. — The variety first described and the picture
agree completely with the characters of the Seville orange.
Although often the Seville is rough and subwarty, especially
round the apex, I have met with specimens in South India
which are spherical, and almost smooth. In Lucknow, the
Seville orange called ndranj, is often as smooth and shiny as
an apple. 'Moreover, from Pertabghur, Oudh, I received a
specimen which was rather ovoid, like an egg orange. Rum-
phius only mentions the use of this bitter orange for punch, for
cleaning copper, and for washing the head and the body ; also
for preparing the Cassomba dye. He makes no mention of its
being used in any way for preserves, so that it is likely the
Chinese did not use it as a preserve either ; otherwise, the
Chinese residents would probably have imported this art into
the islands of the archipelago. The tincture of bitter
orange peel is probably of Arab origin, as they were not
only acquainted with alcohol, but they used the bitter orange
in their Pharmacopoeia. I have never read or heard who it
was that first made candied orange peel, and marmalade out
of this orange. The Chinese preserved other kinds of citrus
in various ways, and probably the idea was taken from them.
The extraction of essences from its flowers, leaves, and peel,
was probably of a much later period.)

(/) Chap. 42, p. 113, vol. ii.

"Aurantium Sinense.

" Lemon Manis Tsjina.

"Dutch — Sineese Orange-appell Boom.

" These fruits, by all the common people of Amboyna,
are considered indigenous ; but it would be better to group
them with the other Chinese oranges, chiefly for the following
reasons : This tree is slightly taller than the preceding

326 Appendir.

(Seville), with erect branches ; its rounded head, however, is
larger and fuller. The leaves are narrower and more acute than
the foregoing ; three or four inches long, smooth, with sparse
nerves, and scent similar to the first (Seville). The cordate
part is as long as the breadth of one's finger ; but so narrow
that its cordate form can scarcely be made out.* It is, how-
ever, slightly broader than that of Limon Martin (therefore
fig. I. Tab. 24 of Rumphius cannot be lemon Martin, but
lemon Purrut, as it has an immense "pars cordata ; " therefore
also lemon Martin must refer to fig. 2 of same Tab. — E.B.).
The young branches have long and narrow spines ;f in the
adult ones, however, none are perceptible. The fruit has
two forms. In one the oranges are larger than in the other.
The larger ones are like the foregoing (Seville) or a little
smaller ; spherical, except near the stalk, where there is a
protuberance ; at the top (apex) it is depressed and pitted
with foveoli. The rest of the rind is smooth, but it has many
small foveoli. The skin is rather thick, fungous, and easily
detached from the pulp. Externally, from green it turns
darker, although it be wholly mature.}; Moreover, the skin
is bitter, sulphurous, and with a very strong scent ; if broken,
it emits a sort of vapour (spray of ess. oil). If these oranges
are plucked and kept for some time, one part turns
yellowish, as if they were true oranges. If, however, they
ripen on the tree and become wholly yellow, they are con-
sidered dry and useless. These mostly do not acquire their
full cize, but drop off in that state.

"The pulp of these is similar to that of the Spanish
orange, divided into many segments adhering closely to-
gether, and forming a globe ; the centre is hollow. If eaten,
the pulp should be carefully cleaned of its dry, pithy fibres,
which are bitter. If this be done, it is easy to separate the
segments and eat them. The colour of the pulp is reddish-
yellow, semi-transparent, and sweet, with little vinosity
(sub-acidity). The seeds are rather long, rotund, and solid.

* Like the petiole of all the suntara type of oranges, it is only just
margined.

t The young branches that probably Rumphius refers to are the long
canes given off from the main trunk, or from the thicker branches.

% In Kandy they have a similar suntara orange, which, they say,
does not turn of an orange colour.

Appendix. 327

" The other variety of this orange is a little smaller and
smoother, depressed at both ends, more like the Spanish
orange, externally covered with minute foveoli, and with a
thin skin, thicker round the stalk. The skin is also easily
separated from the pulp, which is like that of the larger
variety. This orange becomes yellower when on the tree,
and, if kept for some time, becomes completely yellow, like
true oranges. These trees, in Amboyna, are not productive ;
at least, they do not fruit every year. The trees, moreover,
must be of full age before they bear fruit. They like the
plains, and full exposure to the sun. Those that grow on
the cold hills of Amboyna mature their fruit very slowly,
and are mostly acid. These same trees do not grow to a
very old age; they often give out an acid fluid, and exude
gum copiously. Then, for one or two years, they give a large
crop, which turns yellow on the tree, and afterwards the tree
dies. This evil can be somewhat prevented, but only for a
short time ; if, for instance, the tree be so perforated, as to
part with its superfluous sap. Others, on the contrary, drive
a strong iron nail into the trunk.

" In Latin it is called Aurantium sinense. In Belgian,
Sinese appels. In Malay, Lemon Manis Tsjina, which name
is applied best to the last or smaller variety, since it grows
more frequently in China, and is preserved in sugar by the
Chinese, and sent everywhere.

" Some, however, as has been stated, call these fruits sweet
oranges of Amboyna, especially the first kind, which is
mostly cultivated by the Amboinese on their hills. By the
Portuguese it is called Laranza ; and in Spanish, Naranza ;
but by the Indian Portuguese Limondoce. The true Latin
name of this kind is Malum aureum, and Hespericum, from
which some think that Pomttm aurantium, and the Italian,
Pomeransi, are derived. I, however, think that all these
names have had their origin from the new Greek word
vfpaiTiov, and this from the Arabic ncrang, or Persian naring
or naran, which word denotes this fruit ; and which, without
doubt, the western Arabs (CEthiopes) once introduced into
Spain, afterwards degenerating into Naranza. The new
Latins, however, being ignorant of the origin of its name,
call it Aurantium, which squares better with the golden

328 Appendix.

colour, and the name of Pomi aurei. By the Javanese it is
called Djerroc Leeki ; in Macassar, Lemo Songalea, that is,
Chinese lemons ; but in Amboyna they are called Massussu,
and by the Chinese, Tyng-Cam.

"Some Romans attributed to Palladio the honour and glory
of first introducing into Italy the Asiatic citrons and lemons.

" This is very true of those fruits, but by no means true of
the oranges, as the name of Hesperium Pomum amply shows
that it came from the western parts of the world. The
oriental, and especially these Indian oranges, do not differ
in the least from the Spanish or occidental oranges, either in
foliage or green colour of the fruit.* It is easy to see that
neither the western oranges were propagated from the
eastern, nor the eastern from the western ; and much less
so were both of these produced artificially by grafting from
citrons.

" They are found in almost all these oriental islands, from
Java, Celebes, and the Moluccas, to Amboina.

" Many eat them raw on hot days to revive the stomach,
but they act best on an empty stomach. The Chinese, in their
own country, have very elegant round oranges of the second
variety, which are smaller than the common kind. These
they preserve whole in sugar, by making fissures in them,
and flattening them into the form of large discs. In these
little or no bitterness can be detected. They fill jars with
them, and export them to other places. The Chinese in-
habitants of Java preserve them in a similar manner, but,
they do not know how to cover them so elegantly with sugar
as they do in China. The Chinese also send these same
oranges, wholly dry, wrapped in paper, to other countries ;
they are very grateful to the sick." ( Vide pi. 1 16, (A) figs, a, bt
c, and d, of Atlas ; also, pi. 93, fig. ft which are the same.)

Observation.

This tree is called Mains aurantia sinensis by Jon stone,
in Dendrol., p. 26, and in Sloan, Catal. pi. Jam., p. 211 ; and
Aurantium sinense by Ferr. in Hesper., p. 430. It is that
which is called Malus aurantia humilis by Casp. Bauh. in

* It is probable that Rumphius had not noticed the difference between
the Portugal orange and the suntara type of orange.

Appendix. 329

Pinac., p. 436, after Plukn. in Almag., p. 238, and Mala
aurantia sinensia by Valent. in Histor. simpl. reform., p. 212 ;
and in Amboin. descript, p. 189, which closely resembles
that called Mains aurantia regia, dulcis, Zeylanica in Thes.
Zeyl., p. 39, &c.

(Nota bene. — Both the picture and description of this orange
agree with the characters of the suntara orange of India.
On the back of the Tab. 34, from which I took these tracings
of pis. 116 and 93, Buchanan Hamilton wrote : " The larger
variety is the Sylhet orange," (kamla lemboo of Calcutta,)
and the " smaller variety the Midnapore orange." Rumphius
states that the larger variety does not colour, and remains
green even when ripe, like the so-called " green orange " of
Kandy. It is not, therefore, improbable, that this very
variety of suntara orange was introduced by the Dutch or
the Portuguese into Ceylon. The Indian varieties of suntara
are all orange by November and December, and are not con-
sidered fit to eat till they are quite orange all over. In the
description of the Kandy green orange, it will be seen that
by keeping it turns completely yellow, as Rumphius states.)

(m) Chap. 43, p. 115, vol. ii.

" Aiirantium verrucosum.

" Lemon Manis Besaar.

" Dutch — Zoete Oranje-appel Boom.

" Of all the kinds of lemon trees, this has the tallest trunk
and head, but its branches are not so erect as in the fore-
going. Younger trees have some spines, but old ones
certainly none ; sometimes, however, their remains are found
on the branches, without points and harmless. The leaves
are similar to those of the preceding, or somewhat larger,
more than five inches long, and of three fingers' breadth ;
acuminate, and slightly dentate at the tips. The cordate
part is small, and can scarcely be made out, especially in
adult trees (meaning that the petiole is only just margined) ;
in younger ones, however, it is long and narrow, and can be
better distinguished. The scent is more feeble than that of
the preceding, and the flowers have also five oblong and
white reflexed petals, larger than in others, the pummelo
flowers excepted, to the grateful scent of which they

33° Appendix.

approach. The fruit is larger than that of the foregoing ;
about as large as two fists, perfectly spherical, but covered
with several large and hard warts, as if they were boils. Its
skin, however, does not become of so dark a green as in the
foregoing, but paler, and is not so thick and sulphurous,
and very firmly adhering to the pulp ; so much so, that it
cannot be separated, but must be cut with a knife. The
pulp is divided by many, but simple pellicles, which how-
ever cannot be separated into segments as in other oranges,
nor is its colour so reddish as in the foregoing, but yellowish,
semi-transparent, sweeter and more juicy than the foregoing ;
hence many prefer it to that. This sweetness, moreover, is
not so mixed with that sub-acid (vinoso) flavour, but is more
feeble and resembles that of cherries. The seeds are plenti-
ful, and larger than in the foregoing, and the centre is not
hollow. The Amboinese do not care for, and do not culti-
vate this kind, as it does not suit cold hills, but likes a
gravelly black soil, mixed with sand, and well exposed to
the sun, such as can be made in villages near habitations.
By Europeans it is more frequently planted than the pre-
ceding, as it grows more quickly, fruits earlier, and is more
productive, compared with the foregoing.

"In Latin it is called Aur. verrucosum ; in Belgian, Zoete
Appelen ; in Malay, Lemon Manis Bezaar ; it is also called
Lemon Tsjina by the Amboinese, as this is mostly cultivated
by the Chinese inhabitants. In Ternate", it is called Siricaya.
In China there are two kinds ; one common, which is there
called Bit- cam ; that is Limo regius, and the other Seng-
cam* The latter is double the size of the common kind,
but not so sweet.

" The variety under consideration is not so common as
the foregoing (the loose skinned suntara], it having been
brought by the Chinese, and other strangers, to these islands,
from elsewhere.

"It is much eaten raw, and served at table with dessert.
On such occasions the skin is removed by a knife, and the
pulp cut obliquely, not transversely, into pieces, and the pulp
part saved as much as possible, as mostly this orange consists

* Seng and Cam may have entered into the names of the Indian
oranges " sungtara" and "khmala?

Appendix. 331

of a number of simple large seeds, very closely set. The
Chinese give this kind mostly to the sick, to invigorate their
stomach, and excite their appetite, as it has no subacid irri-
tant (vinosam acrimoniam) like the foregoing, and it does
not make one perspire so much.* This however should be
noted. These oranges should not be eaten in quantity after
dinner, when the stomach is filled with various kinds of food,
and especially when filled with milk, as then a choleraic flux
may be often caused. I have seen this produced in a whole
family of very well-to-do people, who, after drinking milk,
used to eat these oranges.

" In Banda there is another variety which has sweeter fruit,
and its exterior is similarly covered with warts. Its pulp is
white, and wholly sweet when ripe ; indeed sweeter than
those of Batavia. It is called Limon Pouleron ; it occurs
also in Plo-ay.

" In Madura, there is also a sweet kind of lemon, which is
smallest of all, indeed smaller than Lima Nipis, with a thin
skin, and not bitter ; its pulp consists of many soft granules,
and is very good preserved, for which purpose the Chinese
inhabitants of Grissecka use it ; this latter place is situated
in the region of Madura.

" In Latin it is called Aur. Pumilum Madurense; in Malay,
Lemon Suassi, and Lemon Colte.

" The branches of all kinds, of lemons (Citrus) are so
manipulated and transplanted, that within a few months they
begin to bear fruit. Such branches of old trees are selected
as seldom bear fruit or buds. These are placed against the
trunk, and pounded with a stone, so as to slightly bruise the
bark. Then this part is covered with a rich and tenacious
earth, so that it may not fall off. It is then enclosed in a
split bamboo, or other integument. Such branches are after-
wards let alone for five or six weeks, during which time you
may reckon that the bruised part has emitted roots into the
surrounding earth. Then the branch is cut off below the
split bamboo, or other substance used as a wrapper, and
planted as it is in a box full of good and rich soil. Then
within a month it begins to fruit, but not more than once or

* It is curious that Rumphius had discovered that Citrus juice checks
perspiration, and therefore quenches thirst.

332 Appendix.

twice, and afterwards perishes. If, however, it is placed in a
fertile soil, it grows into a perfect tree. This mode of pro-
pagation is a common and profitable custom among the
Chinese inhabitants of Batavia. They hire for themselves
certain gardens, or lease a piece of land for a series of years.
They practise this art with the object of obtaining fruit
immediately. Others, in order that old trees may become
productive, cut off many of their branches, and transfix the
trunk with a strong nail. This can also be done, and is
equally effective with the trees called Nanca, and Bonga
Tanjong"

Observation.

This appears to be the same species, or at all events,
variety, which is called Aur. Stellatum, and roseum by Ferrar
in Hesper., 395. (Vide pi. 59, figs, c, d, e, of Atlas.)

(Nota bene. — This Aur. verrucosum appears to have all the
characters of the Portugal or Malta orange, but it is a warty
variety. It was not, however, common in the Malay archi-
pelago in the time of Rumphius, some 200 years ago. It
appears to have been then of recent introduction in those
islands. Rumphius thought it was brought by the Chinese,
and speaks of it in connection with the Chinese inhabitants,
the natives not having at that time taken to it. Europeans
however, frequently planted it in their gardens. On the
back of Tab. 35 of Rumphius, Buchanan Hamilton wrote
" Chdndpur orange" What the latter is I don't know.)

No. 42.

The following layering-clay is successfully used by Girdharl
Chawdree, of the Horticultural Garden, Lucknow. He uses
it with advantage for those plants that are difficult to layer.
His receipt for making it is the following :

5 seers, linseed oil-cake (alsi-ki-khali).

5 seers, Paddy husks (dhan-ki-bhusi).

5 seers, iirud flour (urud-ka-ata).

5 seers, fresh cow-dung.

125 seers, clay (chickni-mitti).

Appendix. 333

All these ingredients should be mixed well together, and
allowed to decay thoroughly in water, in a large nand,
or tub. As may be surmised, the perfume this compound
gives off while decaying, is not agreeable. Girdharl says
that to ascertain whether this layering compost is fit for use
or not, a green twig of any tree should be introduced into
this clay. If by the following morning, its green colour is
unchanged, it is fit for use ; otherwise, it should be allowed
to ferment and decay for some time longer.

The way he uses this composition is as follows : He selects
a branch suited to layering. Under a joint he tightens a
bit of twine, so as to cut into the bark, and then knots the
twine. He then wraps the tied part in this layering clay, to
the length of about four inches, and two inches across, giving
it a spindle shape. He binds the whole with cloth and string,
and bends it U-fashion in a pot of rich soil, putting a heavy
brick on the top of the earth, in order to prevent the layer
from springing out. The tightened string appears to check
the flow of sap, and cause a sort of callus to be formed. The
clay appears then to stimulate the formation of roots, which,
finding a rich pabulum, develop quickly and fill the pot.
The pot, of course, should be watered when necessary. By
this means layers have been taken from plants which will
not otherwise root ; and those which took a year to form
roots could, by this method, be' made to do so in a few
months. Instead of twine, a bit of wire tightened round the
bark by means of a pair of pliers, would answer as well, if
not better. The Malta lemon roots so readily when layered
in the hot weather and rains, that no clay is needed, but
only the tightened string. Other kinds of citrus, however,
take much longer to root, and therefore this layering clay
might be very useful where rapidity of layering was an
object. The clay should be prepared some time before it is
required. I found that in the hot weather, if the pots are
watered regularly, and in the rains, when the foliage was
active, the layers rooted more quickly than in the winter.
When roots are formed, they can be easily seen on the sur-
face of the pot, under the brick ; often they may be seen peep-
ing out of the drainage-holes, which should be at the sides,
on a level with the bottom, and not at the centre of the

334 Appendix.

bottom of the pot. Weeds should be kept out of the layering
pot.

No. 43.

(a) Mr. Stevenson, of Sylhet, has kindly given me the fol-
lowing names of the varieties of citrus grown in the Khasia
hills. I give them here because they differ slightly from
those given by Mr. Jerman Jones (See chap, on Origin of
Citrus, &c.).

Bengali Names. Khasi Names.

1. Kamala Uso Santra.

2. Naringhi „ Sim.

3. Moglai „ Mongar.

4. Satkara „ Kuhit

5. Kaki „ Yanpriang.

6. Khatajamir .... „ Komphor.

Of these (2) Naringhi, (5) Kaki, and (6) Khatajamir are
sour, and smaller than the sweet oranges, though of the same
family. (4) Satkara is like a citron, and is not eaten ripe,
but is cooked green, and used as a kind of sour chutni.
(i) Kamala and (3) Moglai differ little. The rind of the
latter is somewhat thicker, and its colour lighter than that of
the common orange, the Kamala. (Vide pis. 256 to 258.)

(b) Mr. Anderson of Sibsagur, Upper Assam, gives the
following names of the varieties of citrus there found. (See
pis. 234 to 239.)

1. Rabab Tenga.

2. Jora Tenga.

3. Sakla Tenga (bitter lime). .

4. Bar Tenga (big lime, not a ptimmelo}.

Also Naga Tenga, grown in Naga villages, at an elevation
of 1,500 feet.

Appendix. 335

No. 44.

In 1857 Capt. Lowther, writing "on the Flora and vege-
table products of Assam" in one of the journals of the A. H. S.
of India, says, " The various species of oranges and lemons
in Assam would astonish you. In the garden at Saikwah
— the post I have just deserted — is an orange-tree 40 feet
high, which bears thousands of fruit. There are several other
trees of smaller dimensions. Lemons of the finest kinds are
found wild throughout the forests, and are a great treat to a
thirsty, feverish explorer. I often come on a loaded tree in
the midst of a grass plain, with no water nearer than some
miles. They are doubtless the remains of an ancient culti-
vation The very best citrons I ever saw were growing

wild last month on a barren island of nearly pure sand, on
the Upper Berhampooter. The growth of the tree was very
remarkable for any plant of the Aurantiacese. The lower
branches were trailing creeper-like along the ground,* and
were heavily laden with bunches of ripe perfumed fruits,
some weighing more than 2 Ibs. apiece. I have converted
several into candied citron, and can vouch for their delicious
flavour."

(NOTE. — It is not improbable that the soil in all those hills
is very suitable to the growth of the Citrus tribe. As to
their dissemination, nothing is easier, both by the aid of
monkeys, parrots, and other animals carrying the seed about,
and by means of inundations. Almost all the citrus float
well, and could easily be carried long distances during floods.
If stranded anywhere on land, the fruit would eventually
decay and the seeds would germinate. The orange-tree
40 feet high, which Capt. Lowther mentions is not likely to
have been of the sitntara variety, as this does not, as far as
I know, grow to any great height. It was probably of the
Seville group, or possibly of the Portugul variety, and pro-
bably a seedling. In fact, all he saw were probably seed-
lings.)

* Rumphius also mentions this rope-like character of the branches of
the Citron.

[36 Appendix.

No. 45.

Gardeners' Chronicle, 3ist July, 1886, p. 154 — Article,
Citron.

" In recent consular reports, appear interesting accounts of
this well-known ingredient of plum-puddings and wedding-
cakes. Leghorn Citron is what it is usually termed, but little
or none of the article is grown there, Sicily and Corsica
furnishing the supply of the new fruit. The Citron-tree is of
the Citrus family, and is as nearly like the lemon as it can
well be. It is propagated principally from cuttings, and
flourishes near the sea in sheltered positions, and in warm
and sandy soil. The tree resembles somewhat an overgrown
bush, and as citrons often weigh from 6 to 8 Ibs. each, the
branches of the tree must be supported by props. The trees
are subject to peculiar constitutional diseases, which kill
without mercy. As the profit of the grower depends largely
upon his favourable situation, &c., it is hard to make even a
rough estimate of the business. Supposing the trees to be
planted 3 yards apart, and allowing fourteen citrons to each
shrub, the average weight of the fruit per acre would be
9,346 Ibs. The price of this fruit in Leghorn is about six
cents per pound, but from this must be deducted costs of
casks in which the fruit is shipped, about three dollars, and
cost of cutting and packing the fruit, two dollars per cask ;
then general expenses of the citron farm are estimated at
sixty-eight dollars per acre. The Corsican and Sicilian
grower packs the fruit cut in halves in casks with brine and
ships it to Leghorn, where there are nine factories for candy-
ing citron, employing 300 men. On arrival there in these
casks, the fruit looks like huge lemons with tremendously
thick rinds, and little substance inside. They remain in
pickle some thirty days, and are tough and bitter. They are
then boiled in fresh water till soft, cut into quarters, and all
the seeds carefully removed. They are then placed in jars
with hot syrup, and for about three weeks the proportion of

Appendix. 337

syrup* is constantly increased until no more sugar can be ab-
sorbed. The proportion is So per cent, of sugar to 100 per cent,
of fruit. The quarters are finally placed on wire netting to dry,
and when ready are packed in the small wooden boxes so fami-
liar to us. Citron, in short, may be described roughly as the
thick peel of a species of lemon, pickled to extract its bitter
flavour and absorb the oil ; then boiled to make it tender, and
saturated with sugar to make it palatable. As with other
articles of commerce, so it is complained that the prices of
citron are largely regulated by speculation, varying from
19 cents to 12 cents per pound at Leghorn. A curious fact
is that more citron is imported into Italy than exported from
it, the proportion for the last three years being as ten to one.f
The soil of Cuba is eminently adapted to the Citron shrub,
but few trees are, however, grown there, everything being
abandoned for the staple crop — sugar-cane. It seems so hard
for communities to learn the lesson of diversified crops ; all
sugar-cane, all cotton, or all wheat apparently must be ex
pected. Cuba, Mexico, and California offer advantages in
the culture of the Citrus fruits, and are only awaiting enter-
prise to develop these profitable pursuits." — American
Grocer.

No. 46. -

Malta lemon pickle (according to Baboo Sukhi Lai's
receipt).

(a) Remove the skin of the lemons as completely as you
can, then cut the lemons into four quarters lengthwise, but
not completely, so that the quarters may still hold together.
Then between the quarters fill in the following mixture of
spices and other ingredients, and pack the lemons so pre-
pared in a jar, which is to be rolled daily for four or five
minutes for a whole week. After that, pour in a quart bottle
full of fresh lemon juice, and continue the rolling daily until
the pickle becomes fit to eat.

* Probably the writer means that the syrup is re-heated daily, and
further concentrated.

t The reason is that a large quantity of candied citron is used in Italy
by confectioners.

Z

338 Appendix.

1. Namak (salt) . . . .10 chatanks*

2. Zeenk (caraway seed (?) ) -4 „

3. Gol-mirch (black pepper) 2 „

4. Dhunia (coriander) 8 „

5. Adrak, or sonth (ginger) 2 „

6. Ilaici (cardamums) ... 2 tolas

7. Laung (cloves) i tola

8. King (phula) (assafcetida) . . 3 mashas

Pound all these ingredients finely and mixed then
thoroughly, and add half a bottle of lemon-juice ; then mix
them further and stuff the lemons between the quarters with
this mixture. This quantity is enough for fifty lemons. By
Phula-Hing this is what the Baboo means. Wrap the king
in a bit of teazed cotton, and burn it on a bit of cowdung
fire. When the cotton is half burnt, the king is to be pounded
and thoroughly, mixed with the other ingredients.

He particularly impressed upon me that in order to keep
this pickle in good condition, from the time of being put into
the jar, it should neither see daylight nor the light of a lamp,
that is, it should be kept covered up and in a dark place.
When wanted for use, a lemon can be taken out by the hand,
without exposing the jar to the light.

All I know about this pickle is that it is very nice, and
good to eat with meat, curry, &c. The baboo added that he
formerly made this pickle from limes, but now that he had
tried the Malta lemon, he would never use the lime again, if
he could get the lemon.

(b) Others pickle limes, skin and all, in brine and other
ways, much in the manner mentioned by Rumphius in the
chapter on Limonellus or kaghzi nimboo, which see.

(c) The Gulgul of the Punjab (pi. 186, figs, e and/), I am
told, is pickled by cutting it into thin slices and packing it
in alternate layers with salt, pounded ginger, and jeera
(caraway). When the rind is well softened by the brine, this
pickle is used in cases of enlarged spleen.

* A chatank is 2 ounces ; a tola is a Rupee's weight ; and a masha
about the weight of a grain of wheat."

Appendix. 339

No. 47.

Mr. R. Blechynden, Junior Secretary to the A. H. S. of
India, kindly sent me the following information. He thinks
that Comilla, or Kumilla, the capital of Tipperah, the district
near Dacca, on the east and south of Mymensingh and
Sylhet, is close enough to the Khasia hills to make the
suggestion, that oranges may be found wild there, plausible.
He, however, adds that Dr. Hunter, in his statistical account
of Bengal, says that the Pati nebu and limes are products of
Tipperah, but oranges are not common.

(NOTE.— I have a suspicion that neither kamla nor suntara,
are names of Indian origin, but probably take their origin
from the Chinese Kam and Seng?)

Mr. Blechynden further says that " from the few words
with which Roxburgh, in his ' Flora Indica/ dismisses the
subject of oranges, it would appear that they were very
little known in Calcutta in his time." He says : " As they
do not thrive in any part where I have been stationed, I
cannot well enter into any satisfactory account of them.''
Yet, in the " Hortus Bengalensis," it is stated that plants were
in the Botanic Garden (Seebpore) before 1794, and that they
were introduced from Sylhet.

In Robinson's Assam (1841) the native names for different
kinds of citrus are given ; they are many, divided into acid
and sweet limes, sub-acid and bitter lemons. He also gives
two shaddocks, three citrons, and three oranges. — (Vide
Appendix, No. 54.)

No. 48.
Dr. Maglieris decoction of lemon.

Cut a lemon into thin slices, peel and all ; add three
breakfast-cups of water, and boil on a slow fire, and in a

z 2

34° Appendix.

glazed or enamelled vessel,* until the liquid is reduced to
one-third. Then allow the whole to stand exposed to the
air for a whole night ; and early next morning strain and
squeeze the whole, and give it, all in one dose, to the patient
on an empty stomach. In bad cases, it is better to give a
similar dose again in the middle of the day. In that case,
double the above quantity should be prepared every day.
This remedy should be continued until the patient is quite
well. Instead of one lemon, you can use three limes similarly
treated, or half a large khatta orange, or Kumaon lemon, or
a Seville orange, or any similar quantity of any sour citrus.

For intermittent fever, weakness, and cachexia after
intermittent fever, or for enlarged spleen of recent standing,
this decoction of lemon is very useful. For enlarged spleen
it is only equalled in my opinion by Fluoride of Ammonium.

No. 49.

Orange marmalade (" Francatelli's Cook's Guide ").

Split the Seville oranges in quarters ; use a sharp knife to
cut out the fruity pulp from each quarter, without any of the
white pith left on it ; and, as this is effected, pick out all
the pips, and put the fruity portion in a basin, and the
quarters of the peel into a large pan containing water.
When this is completed, boil the quarters of peel in water
until they are soft to the touch ; they must be then drained
and put to soak in cold water for twelve hours ; they are
then to be again drained on sieves (or any basket work) for
two hours at least, to rid them of all unnecessary moisture ;
-after which, they must be cut up in thin shreds by means of
a sharp knife. Next, weigh the shreds and also the pulp,
placed in reserve in a basin. For every pound of the total
weight, allow three-quarters of a pound of white crystalline
sugar — (Cossipore crystalline sugar is the best, being totally

* Metallic vessels are objectionable for boiling acids in. Common
earthen vessels, without glaze, would absorb much of the liquid. In
Agra they make cheap glazed saucepans, much used by Mahomedans.

Appendix. 341

free from treacle) ; then boil the sugar to the pearling degree,*
then add the fruity part, sliced very thin, and the shred peel ;
boil for twenty minutes more, stirring the whole time.

No. 50.

Candied lemon and orange peel (from an Italian cookery-
book).

Split some Malta lemons or Seville oranges into four
quarters, and remove the pulp as before (which, in this case,
will not be wanted, and can be utilized in other ways). As
you effect this, throw the peel into cold water. In the mean-
time boil some other water and cook the quarters of peel in
it till they are tender. Then lift them out of the boiling
water, and put them again into clean cold water for two days,
renewing the cold water two or three times a day. Then
take them out of the water and drain them. In the mean-
time boil some sugar to the pearling degree,f and when tepid,
immerse the drained peels in it, and leave them there for
eight days, taking care, however, to remove them everyday,
and reboil the sugar to the pearling degree, and, when tepid
repeat the former operation. On the eighth day, reboil the
sugar as before, and simmer the peels in the hot sugar until,
taking a little of the sugar and cooling it, you find it
crumbles in your fingers into a flour-like powder. Then
quickly remove the peels, and drain and cool them on
sieves or other similar surfaces. Finally dry them in a
slow oven (or in India in the sun, on dishes protected from
the flies, with wire covers, or other similar appliances).

I think citron peel, after pickling in brine, to remove the
bitter taste, can be candied in this way also.

Anybody with leisure, and not in a hurry to make a for-
tune, might do a good service by experimenting on all the
peels of the different varieties of Indian citrus. Natives,

* By this is meant the pearl-like bubbles which form on the surface of
the boiling sugar, at a certain stage,
t Vide preceding note.

342 Appendix.

owing to their patience, are suited to work of this sort ; and
any philanthropic person or society might do them a service
by teaching them how to candy citron, lemon, and orange
peel, so that they might be had fresh, and much nicer than
the hard, stale imported candied peels. These are small in-
dustries, quite suited to natives with small capital.

No. 51.

Lemon jelly (originally taken, I believe, from the Queen}.

Slice the lemons very thinly, removing all the seeds. To
every pound of lemon, allow three pints of water. Soak
the sliced lemons in this water for twenty-four hours ; then
boil them in this same water till quite tender, and let them
stand another twenty-four hours. Weigh one and a-half
pounds of Cossipore white sugar (any trace of treacle in the
sugar will spoil this jelly) for each pound of the boiled fruit
and water. Boil the sugar, water, and lemons till a little,
cooled on a plate, will set like a jelly.

This receipt is applicable to limes, oranges, and other
citrus. It is a thin gelatinous marmalade, and, in my
opinion, much nicer than the thick, jam-like marmalade of
the shops. It is a nice way of using the antiscorbutic quali-
ties of lemons, and ought to be a good tonic.

Fresh fruits make the best flavoured preserves. Eaten
with toast and butter, or cream, this jelly is very good.

No. 52.

In St. Domingo, Risso had met with an oranger a fruit
rugueux, a large, thick-skinned orange, furrowed and sub-
warty. ( Vide pi. 40, fig. d.) Curiously enough, its fruit was
there given by preference to sick people enfeebled by fever.

There are many instances on record in which various kind'
of citrus were given with advantage in cases of fever, although
the kind of fever is not often mentioned. (See chap, on the
Uses of the Citrus.)

Abbenaix. 343

No. 53.

As I had not always an opportunity of seeing the citrus
trees in flower, I asked Mr. Ridley and Mr. Gollam to note
the colour of the flowers, and that of the young shoots in
spring. They sent me the following, which may, perhaps,
be of service. The names of the trees are given in the
vernacular.

From Mr. Ridley, Lucknow : —

1. Sherbetee, or Mitha Nimboo — flowers large, Malta lemon
size ; pure white ; shoots green.

2. Kaghzi Kalan — flowers very slightly tinged with
magenta red ; shoots green.

3. Behari nimboo (large) — flowers, large, coloured red ;
shoots green.

4. Behari nimboo (small} — flowers, dull crimson ; shoots
green.

5. Gangolia nimboo — flowers, small, very faintly coloured
red ; shoots green.

6. Orange-fruited Jhamblri — flowers, small (size of keonla
orange), faintly coloured red ; shoots, green.

7. Yellow-fruited JJiambiri — flowers, size of the last, with
the slightest possible tinge of reddish crimson; shoots,
green.

It should be noted that the tinge of bronze in the young
shoots turns green as they develop, and possibly the fore-
going had gone beyond the bronze stage, if any of them
had it.

From Mr. Gollam, Saharunpore : —

1. Rungpore lime — flowers, small, white, tinged purple ;
young shoots, green.

2. Sweet Gulgul — flowers, large, white, tinged purple ;
shoots, bright green.

3. Sour Gulgul — flowers, large, white, tinged purple; shoots,
green.

4. Malta lemon — petals and calyx, tinged purple ; shoots,
bright green.

344 Appendix.

5. Kama or Khatta — flowers, white, tinged purple ; shoots,
green.

6. Turunj — flowers, large, tinged purple ; shoots, green,
occasionally tinted purple.

7. Bijouri — flowers, large, white ; shoots, green.

8. Sadaphal — flowers, white, slightly tinged purple, occa-
sionally pure white ; shoots, green ; the whole tree extremely
thorny.

9. Keem — flowers, large, pure white ; calyx tubercled ;
shoots, slightly hairy.

TO. Amilbed — flowers, small, j inch diameter, white, tinged
purple ; shoots green.

1 1. Jhamblri — flowers, small, \ inch diameter, white, faintly
tinged purple ; shoots, green.

No. 54.

The following notices of citrus varieties are taken from Will.
Robinson's " Account of Assam " : —

Acid limes. — Nimu Tenga ; Chord niimi tenga.

Sweet lime. — Mita nimu tenga.

Acid limes. — Jamir tenga ; Hamir tenga ; Pdti salung
tenga ; Bar salung tenga ; Chdkld tenga ; Narengi tenga.

Sub-acid lemons. — Chdkld tenga; Ndgd chdkld tenga;-
Halangd mori tenga ; Jora mori tenga ; Bor mori tenga.

A bitter lemon. — Tita-Karuna ; Dewa tenga; and a sweet
lemon, called Pdni mori tenga.

Shaddocks. — White, Bogd robab tenga. Red, Ranga robab
tenga.

Citrons. — Bor jord tenga ; Bird jord tenga ; Bon jord
tenga.

Oranges. — Hintorid tenga; Kamald tenga ; and Jendru
tenga.

(In writing of the Assam vegetables, he mentions four
classes. The fourth class he calls Tenga, or acids used as
seasoning.)

Appendix. 345

No. 55.

In Voigt's Hortus suburbamts Calcuttensis, p. 141, the fol-
lowing varieties of citrus are enumerated : —

1. C. decumana — Batavi-neboo.

2. C. aurantium — Kumla-neboo ; and also, narangee —
sweet orange. (Moluccas, Circars, Aurungabad, Khasia Mts.
Here it has never fruited.)

3. C. Bergamia (C. acida, Roxburgh), under this, No. 3, he
gives the following varieties : —

Bergamotte, or acid lime.
Pdti-weboo, common round lime.
Kagujee-neboo, long small lime.
Gbra-neboo, thick-skinned, small, oval lime.
Chhiee-gbra-neboo, China yellow-juiced lime.
Kamuralee-neboOy large, oval, smooth-skinned lime.
Ruiigpoor-nebooy round, smooth-skinned lime.
Taba-neboo, a large, globose, spongy-skinned lime.
Arabian lime, a large, thick-skinned sort, from Muscat.

4. C. Limetta, Mita-neboo (sweet lime).

5. C. Limonum, Korna-neboo.

6. C. Medica, Bej-poora.

7. C. Madurensis (Limonellus madurensis of Rumph.).

(NOTE. — This list introduces a new sort of confusion, by
calling the C. acida of Roxburgh C. Bergamia. I have never
seen or heard of the Bergamot citrus in India. Dr. Waring,
in his " Pharmacopoeia of India," may have taken this name
from Voigt's list.) ( Vide Appendix, No. 9.)

No. 56.

Gardeners Chronicle, 3<Dth January, 1886, p. 169.
A curious lemon. — " Exterior lemon-like, but all the interior
compartments, except one, are in colour, flavour, and per-

346 Appendix.

fume those of the orange, the solitary exception having the
attributes of a lemon. Those who are curious in such
matters should consult our vol. for 1841 and 1842. The
subject is also discussed briefly in Darwin's * Domesticated
Animals and Plants.' Various explanations have been
offered, but, so far as we know, the only one based on actual
experiment is that of Gallesio, who tells us that he impreg-
nated an orange with the pollen of a lemon, and that the
fruit borne on the mother tree (orange) had a raised stripe of
peel upon it, like tHat of a lemon, both in colour and in
taste. Supposing this statement to be accurate, we have
thus an instance of the influence of the pollen, not on the
germ only, but on the germ-case, or ovary, which is of course
part of the mother plant."* (Vide pi. 259, for what Risso
calls " Bigaradier Bicolor," and " Bigaradier Bizarrerie.")

No. 57.

Baron Hubner's "Through the British Empire," vol. ii.,
p. 271 (Australia).

" Enormous but almost tasteless oranges were served with
the dessert I am told that the trees which yield them, and
which were planted by the convicts, have deteriorated from
want of proper care."

No. 58.

From the " Penny Cyclopaedia " — Citrus.

" In China there is an enormous variety of Citrus, with its
lobes all separating into fingers of different shapes and sizes,
whence its name of fingered citron. The Chinese esteem it
very much, both for its rarity and for the grateful odour of
its rind. They place the monstrous fruits on porcelain
dishes, and have them in their apartments to fill the air with
fragrance." (Called Fo-show-kan, or Buddha's hand.)

* It is doubtful whether the different varieties of Citrus are so easily
mixed up as Gallesio's experiment would imply.

Appendix. 347

No. 59.

The following information was kindly given to me by Dr.
Murray Thomson, Chemical Examiner to Government,
Roorkee.

" The formula of cane sugar is C12 H22 On, and of Grape
sugar C6 H12 O6 H2 O. The sugar of an unripe orange is
chiefly grape sugar, but as the orange ripens, cane sugar
appears, and when quite ripe the grape and cane sugar are
in nearly equal quantity, viz. about 4*5 per cent of each.

" The formula for citric acid is C6 H8 O7. Of course you
will understand that this formula is based on the new atomic
weights for carbon and oxygen — C12 and O16. Oil of lemon,
and oil of orange peel are chemically identical. They are
hydro-carbons of the group C10 H36."

No. 60.

Prof. Asa Gray, in his " Structural Botany," p. 288, para.
545, calls the edges of the carpels "leaf-margins/' as in
fig. 618 (caltha palustris) or marsh marigold, and the oppo-
site suture he calls midrib.

In p. 260, para. 478, he says " carpel, or carpophyll denotes
pistil-leaves, i.e. seed- bearing or fructiferous phylla (leaves).
A carpel may be a pistil of itself, either the only one of a
blossom, or one of several, or it may be a constituent of a
more complex pistil. In either case, a carpel is the homo-
logue of a leaf."

Para. 479. — " The ovules are peculiar structures normally
arising as outgrowths from the margins of the leaf, or some
part of them ; sometimes from the whole, or a special por-
tion of the upper or inner surface of the leaf."

At p. 299, para. 577, he says, "the Hesperidium (orange,
lemon, lime) is the fleshy fruit of a free, many-celled ovary,
with a leathery rind, and is a mere variety of the berry."*

* It would appear to me open to question, whether the Hesperidium
ought to be classed with the berries.

348 Appendix.

No. 61.

Names which appear to be common to India and Japan
— Saturday Review, April 30, 1887, p. 625.

"But the Japanese consume the yard-long roots of the
hasu (Nelumbo nucifera) raw, boiled, baked, fried, or reduced
to a flour, in soups. With the seeds they make cakes and
pastry. Hasu is the vulgar, the pure Japanese name ; the
Sinico-Japanese, which is Buddhistic, and sacred, is ren, a

corruption of the Chinese lien, the water-lily The

Distylium racemosum (isu, or yusu], has long been used in
Japan for wheel-cogs, and its ashes are extensively used by
all the great native potteries, in their finest glaze, and in
the famous celadon green, known as seiji?

In India they eat not only the seeds of the Kewul (Nelum-
bium speciosum), or pink lotus, under the name of Kewul
ghatta, but also its long roots, under the name of poo-rhi.
Half the latter word, and the Sinico-Japanese name ren,
appear to mean the same thing. Can Buddhist missionaries
have carried this name from one country to the other ?

Then a sort of efflorescence scraped off certain soils in India
is called Sajji. It is used for washing clothes, soap-making,
and glazing pottery. Can this Indian word Sajji have any
connection with the Japanese Seiji? If so, these two words,
and perhaps many others, would appear to indicate inter-
course, of a very ancient date, between the two countries.
In the same way we find Capas (cotton) and Kussumb
(safflower) and Limoo (citrus) common to both India and the
Malay archipelago.

No. 62.

The following are speculative considerations, to account
for there being frequently no juice vesicles on the sides of
the pulp quarters or carpels, but only on the circumference
side of the carpel. I have seen many instances, in which

Appendix. 349

the juice vesicles arose also from the sides of the carpel (see
pi. 49, figs b and //), as ought to be the case, supposing they
were homologous to the oil-cells of the leaves. In the latter,
the oil-cells are disseminated all over the leaf, and not only
near the midrib. It is nevertheless a fact that generally the
juice-vesicles arise from that part of the carpel which goes
to form the circumference of the pulp-ball. This circum-
stance I shall endeavour to explain in the following way :

The centre of the Hesperidium, or Citrus fruit is fixed,
while its circumference moves outwards as the fruit grows
and expands. We shall suppose that in the ovary, or when
the hesperidium is quite young, the oil-cells of the carpel
are on a level with its edges, or nearly so. It will be evident
that, the edges of the carpel, forming the centre of the fruit,
being fixed, some part must give way as the blade of the
carpel is pushed outwards by the growth of the juice vesicles.
Therefore those portions of the carpels, which have stretched
gradually to adapt themselves to the filling of the vesicles
with juice, will be those which now form the sides of the
carpel, and which are usually free of vesicles. (See pi. 106,

fig. *)

This giving-way sometimes goes beyond mere stretching^
and the parts are torn asunder by the bursting power of the
expanding vesicles. This occurs generally in the suntara
and pummelo groups, which see.* In these cases, not only
the whole carpel is separated from the central column, but
often the edges of the carpel itself are torn asunder.

In pi. 61, fig. b, the central column remains isolated at A,
while all the carpels have been torn away from it, and only
keep up a communication by means of the radiating fibres.
The carpels themselves are all closed.

PI. 63, fig. b, shows the central column dragged to the one
side by a closed carpel, while almost all the other carpels
have not only receded from the centre, leaving there a hollow
space, but are burst open with the points of their juice-
vesicles projecting into the hollow centre.

PI. 8 1 shows this bursting force in a more exaggerated
manner, tearing the central column into several parts, A, A, A,

* One of the distinctive characters of the Portugal orange, and allied
forms, is that, at maturity, the centre is solid.

350 Appendix.

and bulging out the circumference of the carpel also, on
both sides of the mid-ribs, c, c, as well as tearing open some
of the carpels.

PL 72, fig. c, shows an instance in which the attachment
of the juice-vesicles was not only on the circumference
portion of the carpel, but half way up its sides to B, B.

PL 1 06, fig. c, shows the usual attachment of the vesicles
on the outer wall cf, while the two sides, which have gradually
stretched like India-rubber membranes, are free of vesicles.

As will be seen in the suntara group, one of the characters
of this variety is a hollow centre, when the fruit reaches
maturity.

In pis. 125, e and 126, b, is shown another effect of ex-
pansion. At a certain period of maturity, and after the pulp
carpels have been dragged from the central column, their
expansion is arrested, while that of the skin or rind goes on,
so that the latter is also dragged away from the pulp carpels,
leaving a hollow space between the pulp-ball and the skin.
These oranges have a curious puffy feel, and the pulp-ball
rattles within them.

No. 63.

In the British Museum, Assyrian Court, Nimroud, among
the basso-relievos with cuneiform inscriptions, are Nos. 2, 21,
23, 24, 25, 29, 33, 34, 38 and 39. In these occur figures,
making what have been called "mystic offerings." In all
cases the figure has a basket in one hand, and in the other
something like a large pine cone. This appears to be rather
a citron than a fir-cone, as has been supposed. In one case
the mammilla of the citron at the apex is clearly traced. The
sculptor has shown the warts of the citron as uniform, much
as he has shown the curls of the hair as a series of uniform
nodules. These basso-relievos are put down as contemporary
with the reign of Assur-na-sir-pal, about 880 B.C. Probably
the Jews may have obtained the idea of using the citron in
some of their religious ceremonies from the Assyrians during
their captivity in Babylon. The citron appears to have been

Appendix. 351

of such a size as to have been easily grasped by the five
fingers, such as those shown in pi. 151, b, and 167, c.

Then, in another place, a string of people are carrying
presents to the king. Two are carrying a fruit like a pine-
apple, as if something rare. The pine-apple, being an
American plant, could not have been known in Assyria in
those days. My supposition is that these two men are each
carrying a fingered citron to the king as something rare and
wonderful. The Phoenicians traded largely with India and
China, and there would have been little difficulty in intro-
ducing the citron into Assyria at a very early date.*

No. 64.

The following is taken from the Gardeners' Chronicle si
8th October, 1887, p. 432.

Fruit Cultivation in San Francisco.

The British Vice-Consul says : " About 2,300 car-loads
(23,000 tons) of oranges will be marketed from this district
this season. The Orange Growers' Union so regulates ship-
ments to the cities of the Eastern States, that an over-supply
is not sent to any point. Los Angeles is the chief district of
the orange industry.

" The cottony cushion scale, commonly called the white
scale, is doing great damage to the orange groves. Many of
the orchards have been cut down, and many others, now
badly infected, will have to be treated in the same way.
Nothing has as yet been discovered that will kill the pest
without injuring the tree, and sufficiently inexpensive to
admit of common use. Spraying the trees has been found
ineffectual, owing to the fact that the liquid used did not
reach every part of the tree. It is now stated that the
owner of the oldest orchard in the district is about to patent

* For a further development of this idea, see an article of mine on the
" Cone fruit of the Assyrian Monuments," in the Babylonian and
Oriental Record for May, 1888, and subsequent numbers.

35 2 Appendix.

an apparatus for applying a gas to orange and other trees,
which it is claimed will kill all scale-bugs without injuring
the tree. A tent is constructed over the tree, and the gas is
generated in the tent. Many are of opinion that the
destruction worked by the white-scale bug and other pests
is due to the fact that fertilizers not having been used, the
soil is becoming impoverished. The fact that a 250 acre
orange-grove at San Gabriel, which for some years has been
fertilized, is free of scale-bugs and other pests, seems to
indicate that the true remedy is good husbandry."

No. 65.
Trifacial Orange.

In Lindley's " Theory and Practice of Gardening," 2nd
edition, p. 359, the following occurs : —

Rev. G. C. Renouard, writing to the Gardeners' Chronicle
in 1841, when residing in Smyrna received a fruit which
was said to be from an orange tree grafted on a lemon tree.
4t It was of the size of a large orange, with two or three
patches of lemon neatly stuck on it, the colour, almost to
the very edges of the different pieces, being distinctly that
of the respective fruits ; and, on removing the rind, which,
as in a common orange, was all of one piece, the portions
beneath the lemon-coloured parts had not only a consider-
able degree of acidity, while the orange had its proper
degree of sweetness, but they were separated from their
sweet neighbours by a distinct membrane, which in some
degree accounted for their difference in taste. The pulp
was also, I believe, of a lighter hue. The patches of
lemon were merely superficial, and of no great thickness.
They made bumps, or irregular elevations, on the rind of
the fruit."

The Gardeners' Chronicle of the 22nd September, 1855, p.
628, also mentions this so called Trifacial orange, and gives
the mode of producing it artificially on the authority of Mr.
St. John, who gives it on the authority of Boghas Joussuff,

Appendix. 353

of Alexandria. The latter appeared to have obtained this
variety from his home in Smyrna. He says " It may be
obtained by grafting the embryos of a lemon, a citron, and
an orange in the following manner : —

" One of the three seeds is wholly skinned, so as to lay
the embryo quite bare. Each of the other two is half-
skinned, the skin being removed from one side only. This
being done, the naked embryo (or naked seed, according to
Lindley) is placed between the two others so as to be in con-
tact with their skinned sides, and the whole are bound to-
gether with fine grass. They are then planted, and ulti-
mately the trifacial fruit in question is borne." (! ?)

The mode of producing this variation appears to me an
oriental myth, which may possibly have originated in the fact
that one* orange or lemon seed often contains three or more
buds, and in germinating, produces three or more young
plants in close contact. This is a well-known and common
thing in citrus seeds.

Risso and Poiteau in their monograph of the citrus give a
picture of the Bigaradier Bizarrerie, which I have repro-
duced in pi. 259, c and d. It is, in my opinion, no other than
this so-called trifacial orange, but the theory of its origin is
different.

" According to Pierre Nato, a physician of Florence, this
'Bizarria' occured thus: A seedling of the Seville was
grafted (with what variety is not stated). Its strange charac-
ters were noticed in 1644. It was supposed that the graft
failed (manque a la greffe\ and the gardener omitted to
re-graft it. It threw up a shoot below the graft, which eventu-
ally produced this ' Bizarria.' " Other cases of " Bizarria " are
quoted as having occurred elsewhere.

This " Bizarria " orange is said to have been subject to
many variations. It flowered twice a year, some flowers
were white, resulting in either SeVilles, or sweet oranges ;
more frequently, it had dull white flowers, resulting in mixed
fruits, or flowers tinged purple, resulting in citrons.

Sometimes the citron influence was limited to the rind
only ; sometimes it affected the pulp also. Sometimes a tree
which gave mixed fruits for some time, ended by giving only
simple ones. A variety of " Bizarria " in Nice gave all the

A A

354 Appendix.

shoots green, and all the flowers white, but some oranges
were very sweet, and some very sour. He adds that this
" Bizarria " can be mu Itiplied by grafting, but it varies much.
It is as inconstant as it is strange. Mr. Huard, "orangiste,"
of Paris, had one in 1818, which was forty years old, and on
which were mixed fruits, and pure citrons. It was grafted on
the citron, and would probably end by producing only the
latter.

In pi. 52 of Risso and Poiteau, p. 79 (new edition by Du
Breuil, 1872), this "melangola Bizarria" has two kinds of fruit
— one is half orange-like and half citron-like, and the other
with parts citron-like, alternating with parts which are lemon-
like ; some flowers are white, and some purple, but the leaves
in the plate appear all of one kind, although in the text it is
stated that they are often curled or deformed, with the
petiole either naked or frequently winged, while the fruit is
sometimes ordinary, and sometimes partly Sevilles ; partly
lemons or citrons ; and the pulp in some very sweet, and in
others acid and bitter.

I don't think I ever examined a citrus tree in India from
which I could not gather leaves that resembled those of
some other variety. Each tree would appear to reproduce
among its own typical foliage, leaves, so to speak, of former
ancestors. So that a diversity of foliage in the citrus is, I
should say, a very common occurrence. I have given in the
Atlas many forms taken from the same tree.

Darwin, in " Animals and Plants under Domestication,"
(2nd Edition, vol. i. p. 417), under the heading of Graft
hybrids, says, " The famous bizarria orange offers a strictly
parallel case to that of Cytisus Adami. The gardener, who
in 1644, in Florence, raised this tree, declared that it was a
seedling, which had been grafted, and after the graft had
perished the stock sprouted, and produced the bizarria*
Gallesio, who carefully examined several living specimens,
and compared them with the description given by the
original describer, P. Nato, states that the tree produces, at the
same time, leaves, flowers and fruit, identical with the bitter
orange, and with the citron of Florence, and likewise compound

* I would respectfully ask — If the graft perished, how could it affect
the stock, and give rise to a graft-hybrid ' ?

Appendix. 355

fruit, with the two kinds either blended together, both extern-
ally and internally, or segregated in various ways. This tree
can be propagated by cuttings, and retains its diversified char-
acters.* The so-called trifacial orange of Alexandria and
Smyrna resembles in its general nature the bizarria, and
differs only in the orange being of the sweet kind ; this and
the citron are blended together in the same fruit, or are
separately produced on the same tree ; nothing is known of
its origin. In regard to the * Bizarria,' many authors believe
that it is a graft-hybrid ; Gallesio, on the other hand, thinks
that it is an ordinary hybrid, with the habit of partially re-
verting by buds to the two parent forms ; and we have seen
that the species in this genus often cross spontaneously."

After stating the views of so many high authorities on the
bizarrin and trifacial oranges, it would appear little less than
an impertinence on my part to offer any remarks. But, I
think in the interest of Science I ought to state my views on
this matter.

(a) I do not believe that the various species of citrus
readily cross through their pollen. All my experiments to
cross lemon flowers with orange pollen, proved failures, and
Mr. Rivers has also recorded his opinion that they do not
cross. From the permanency of character of the Seville,
khatta, and true lime in India, all three always propagated
from seed, I would conclude that they do not intermix.

(b) With regard to citrons, oranges, and lemons being
mixed in the " Bizarria " and trifacial oranges, I think per-
haps that it is possible that wartiness may have been taken
for real citron, because it was not unlike it. We do not really
know what produces wartiness or smoothness, orange-colour
or lemon-colour in certain varieties, but we do know that in
the kJiatta orange of India, a change from a dry season to a
wet one will often induce wartiness. In the lemons, citron-
like fruits are often produced in the rain-crop, and in other
varieties the rain-crop is often more warty than the dry-
weather crop. Therefore it is reasonable to infer that warti-
ness and thick skin, at all events, may be somehow connected
with luxuriance. We know also that the different parts of
the rind and pulp are nourished by different vessels, therefore

* It is, however, said to be subject to much variation in propagation.

A A 2

356 Appendix.

we have only to suppose that in the cases of apparently mixed
fruits, some of the vessels nourishing the warty parts may
have been of larger calibre (a variation that might sometimes
happen), . and thus would give rise to more luxuriance and
consequent wartiness in those strips. Then one cannot have
much difficulty in concluding that a change in the rind might
give rise to some change in the corresponding or adjacent
carpels of the pulp, and so also induce a change in their
colour and flavour, for we no more know what produces
sweetness or sourness in the citrus, than we know what pro-
duces colour. No doubt these characters may be inherited,
but the variations are infinite.

For my part, taking the view that both rind and pulp
carpels are modifications of branches, I think that these mix-
tures in one fruit of the citrus may possibly be explained by
simple bud-variation, without any direct influence of either
pollen or graft, whatever the cause of this bud variation may be.

No. 66.

It appears that in India the word creese means a weapon,
and therefore may be the same as krissen of the Malays,
which Rumphius mentions in his chapters on the Citrus.
The Saturday Review of 2Oth August, 1887, in a review of
the Royal Jubilee Exhibition at Liverpool, says, with regard
to the collection of arms, that " it ranges from the tiny Indian
'creese' to the loo-ton gun." This word creese appears to
be another, which is common to both India and the Malay
archipelago.

No. 67.

The following catalogue was courteously brought to my
notice by Dr. Trimen, Director of the Royal Botanic Garden
of Peradeniya, Ceylon.

" Catalogus Plantarum in Horto Botanico Bogoriensi cul-
tarum alter" (Batavia 1844), by Justus Karel Hasskarl.

I have extracted from it the following list of citrus plants,
p. 216: —

Appendix. 357

No. 952. — Papeda, Hsskl., differs from citrus in having a
plane four-toothed calyx, with four petals, twenty-four
stamens, with their filaments all free. Papeda Rumphii,
Hsskl. (Lemon Papeda, Rmph. Amb. II. 104, t. 27),
Djerock poerroet (Frutex, arbor).

Petioles large winged, leaves ovate obtuse crenate,
with transparent dots ; flowers in terminal racemes ;
fruit sub-globose, thick skinned, warty ; pulp greenish,
bitter, and very acid. The petals externally are of a
dull rose colour. The flowers are among the smallest.

No. 95 3. — Citrus, L. Endl. Gen. 5514. Citrus ovata (Hsskl.),
Djeroek tanfoeng boerrah (Arbor).

Petioles almost naked, leaves ovate, rather acute,
crenate-serrate ; flowers sub-corymbose, with thirty sta-
mens, the terminal corymbs few-flowered ; fruit sub-
oviform, skin rather thick, yellowish-green ; pulp pale,
juice acid ; petals totally white.

Citrus amara, Hsskl. Djeroek post, or Dj. Liemoh gedeh
(Arbor).

Petioles almost naked, the larger leaves elliptic, or
ovate-oblong, obtuse, sometimes retuse, with large cre-
nations ; flowers . . . . ; fruit globose, golden yellow,
thin-skinned ; pulp yellowish-green, juice bitter-acid.

Citrus crassa, Hsskl. (or'C. Javanica, Bl. Bijdr. 140?)
Djeroek honjeh gedek (Arbor).

Petioles almost naked, the larger leaves ovate or
obovate, oblong, obtuse or retuse, crenulate-serrate ;
flowers with forty stamens, petals whitish, oblong ; fruit
citrine, oblong, with a very thick skin ; pulp small, juice
acid.

Citrus limonellus, Hsskl. (an Amlt ?), almost spineless,
petioles almost wingless, leaves ovate, or ovate-oblong,
obtuse crenate ; flowers almost solitary, fourteen to
twenty stamens ; fruit globose, thin-skinned, shining
yellow, and adherent ; pulp pleasant and very acid ;
leaves, flowers, and fruit among the smallest. Var. a.
Oxycarpa, Hsskl. Djerock niepies, or Dj. tiepies (that is
small). Limonellus, Rumph. Amb. II. 107, t. 29.

Fruit mammillate acute ; leaves rather acute, petioles

35 8 Appendix.

slightly winged. Var. b. Amblycarpa, Hsskl. Djeroek
liemoh (Arbor).

Fruit with a depressed extremity ; leaves rather
obtuse, petioles almost naked.

Citrus nobilis, Lour.

Petioles almost naked, or slightly winged ; leaves
ovate oblong, or elliptic, and rather obtuse, serrato-
crenate ; flowers with twenty stamens ; fruit depressed-
globose, skin very thick and easily separated, pulp
golden-yellow, juice very abundant and very pleasant —
fruitful.

Var. a. clirysocarpa, Hsskl. Djeroek djoplok.

Leaves narrowed at the base and apex, rather obtuse
or emarginate, petioles generally almost naked ; skin of
fruit greenish golden-yellow.

Var. b. melaaocarpa, Hsskl. Djeroek hiedung (meaning
black).

Leaves with an obtuse base, often with a bifid or
emarginate apex ; mature fruit dark green. (Probably
the green orange of Ceylon — E. B.)

Var. c. microcarpa, Hsskl. Djeroek djepoen leutiek.

Leaves with an acute base, and apex either acute,
obtuse, or rounded ; petioles almost naked ; mature fruit
smaller by half, skin greenish-yellow. (Citrus japonicus,
Thub. Sbld. Zee. Fl. Jap. I. 35, t. 15.)

Var. a., with globose fruit 1. c. f. II. Kinkan Japan
(small tree).

Var. b., with elliptic fruit,!, c. f. III., Tookinkan Japon
(small tree).

Citrus pyriformis, Hsskl. Djeroek pandjang (meaning long).
Petioles slightly winged, leaves elliptic or ovate-elliptic,
acute at both ends, or rather obtuse, edges curved back-
wards, crenate ; flowers with twenty-four to thirty sta-
mens ; fruit pyriform (or obversely oviform, with atten-
uated base) ; skin rather thick, pulp citrine and very
pleasant ; petals white on both sides ; branches with
large or minute spines.

Citrus aurantium, Risso, DC. Prdr. I., 539. Bl. Bijdr. 140,

Appendix. 359

Djeroek djepoen leutiek (japonica minor), that is Japanese
small orange. Petioles obcordate ; leaves oval or ovate,
apex rounded or rather acute, crenulate, more than six
times larger than the petioles ; all the axils armed with
a very long and round spine (2 poll) ; flowers . . . . ;
fruit globose, large, citrine, skin rather thick, pulp pale ;
juice very agreeable, sweet and copious.

Citrus decumana, L. DC. Prdr. I. 539, Bl. Bijdr. 140, Djeroek
balie. There are many varieties not yet sufficiently
known to me. (a) Djeroek miskien, with a large de-
pressed fruit ; (b) Djeroek sigadogan, with a smaller and
less depressed fruit and thin skin ; (c] Djeroek pandan,
with a thick skin ; (d) Djeroek matjang, two varieties of
this occur, (a) R/wdocarpa, Hsskl. (red pulp) ; (b) Leu-
cocarpa, Hsskl. (pale pulp).

Citrus grandis, Hsskl. (a) Sphcerocarpa, Hsskl. Djeroek
Assam boelet (meaning acid globose).

Petioles linear short, leaves large oval, rather acute at
both ends, or retuse crenate ; flowers . . . . ; fruit large,
globose golden-yellow, skin thick, pulp greenish-yellow,
juice acid ; seeds rose-coloured.

(ft) Oblonga, Hsskl. Djeroek A ssam pandjang (meaning
long). Fruit oblong, with the rudiment of the style
acute and persistent, mammillate.

(c] Obversa, Hsskl. Djeroek balik.

Petioles (in the same branch) sometimes obcordate,
sometimes linear and scarcely winged, leaves oval, ob-
ovate, or elliptic, base rounded, more or less retuse, with
margins slightly recurved and crenate; flowers racemose,
large, with thirty-six stamens ; fruit oblong, obtuse, with
the base slightly attenuated ; skin of an orangy colour,
warty, juice acid and pulp red.

Citrus Papaya, Hsskl. Djeroek Papaya.

Petioles almost naked, leaves oblong, or elliptic
oblong, rather membranaceous, with an acute or rounded
base, apex acute or sometimes subretuse, margin cartil-
aginous, recurved, crenate ; spines axillary, straight, and

360 Appendix.

short ; fruit oblong mammillate, of the shape of Carica
Papaya (Papita of India, E. B.) ; skin thin, yellowish-
green, pulp white, juice acid.

(NOTE. — I don't quite see what has been gained by giving
all these kinds of citrus Latin names. They do not appear
to diminish, but rather to increase the confusion. — E. B.)

No. 68.

Regarding Chinese terms of oranges, &c., I asked Prof.
Dr. T. de Lacouperie, the Director of the Babylonian and
Oriental Record, for some help. He very courteously replied
as follows : —

" In Chinese, kinkii (in the south kamkwat), or gold orange,
is the ' Citrus Japonica/

" Tcheng is the Coolie orange ; Kan (in the south kom), is
the Coolie mandarin orange (Citrus nobilis).

" The Citrus decumana, in Chinese is called yu sku, which
name, being extremely old, is most probably the antecedent
of the usse, 2tssi, and usok you mention."

NOTE. — In the word cheng we probably have the first half
of the name Simtara, or Sengtara. The antiquity of yu shuy
the name for pummelo, confirms my suspicion that this huge
citrus originated in China, and that this name was probably
the parent of the generic nsoh in the Khasia hills, and usse>
or ussiy in the Malay archipelago.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS WHICH OCCUR IN THIS
WORK, AND WHICH ARE NOT GENERALLY
KNOWN.

Acuminate, tapering to a point.

Agast (akhatti of Ceylon), Sesbania grandiflora.

" Agrumi," Italian generic name for oranges and lemons, &c.

Amhabahar, term in Nagpore to denote the regular crop of oranges.

Amilbed, name of a large sour citrus.

Amool-dbdan, name of a sour orange in Ceylon.

Amratphal—amrat, ambrosial; phal, fruit.

Aranj, South Indian term for orange.

At-annl, name of a large, loose-skinned orange.

Attarra, name of a kind of lemon.

Axillary, in the axilla or angle formed by leaf and stem.

Bagh, Hind, for garden.

Bajoura, a variety of citron.

Baleng, Afghan name for a variety of citron.

Bandha, name of a vegetable parasite (Loranthus sp.).

Bandir, name of a large orange in S. India.

Bara-masi, fruiting during twelve months.

Batabi, Bengali corruption of Batavi, from Batavia.

Behari, kind of lemon from Behar.

Beta, a kind of jessamine.

Beora, variety of khatta orange in Gonda.

Bepari, wholesale purchaser of fruit.

Bhimra, large citron of Nepal (Bhim, Hindoo Hercules).

Bhoojwa, a gram-parcher.

Bija-pure, Sanskrit for full of seeds.

" Bizzarria," Italian for strange thing, applied to tr if acial orange.

" Break," horticultural term meaning a decided variation.

Bukhar, fever.

Burduqan, or berdqan, Syrian for Portugal orange.

Calyx, outer covering of a flower.

Carawnda, native name of " carissa carandas."

362 Glossary.

Carpel, transformed leaf forming the whole or a part of the fruit.

Cassis, sulphate of iron.

Chakbtra, name of a variety of pummelo.

C&axgurd, meaning six fingers — applied to fingered citrons.

Chasma, a bud.

Chatank, two ounces.

Chinee, name of a kind of orange in S. India.

Chowdree, a head man in native establishments.

Cordate, shaped like a conventional heart.

Corolla, the crown, or coloured whorl of a flower.

Cotyledons, first leaves in germination, or seed-lobes.

Crenate, festooned — applied to edges of leaves.

" Decumana," Latin for huge.

Dhaw, hatchet-knife of Assam.

" Dialysis," disjunction.

Digitate, fingered.

Dumres, second, or out of season crop of any fruit.

Emarginate, notched at the margin.1

Etrog and Atrog, said to be Hebrew for citron.

Fanoos, a glass shade used for candles.

Faramosh, Hind, for " forgotten."

" Forte," Italian for strong.

" Foveoli," the pinhole depressions on the rind of oranges and lemons.

Gdf, g-hard of Hindostanee alphabet.

Ghdt, landing-place.

" Glabrous," not downy.

Cooler, name of a kind of large wild fig-tree.

Gulgiil, name of a kind of lemon.

Gungol&i or gungoli, a kind of lemon from Gungoli.

Gyncecium, female portion of a flower.

Hains or Hisaree, Capparis sepiaria.

Hakim, native physician.

Hazara, a variety of small sour orange.

Heen-narun, variety of orange in Ceylon.

Hesperidium, the fruit of any citrus.

Homologous, applied to organs which are morphologically the same,

although apparently quite different, and may serve different

purposes.

Jambble, means pummelo in Ceylon.

Jamiri

Jambira \ same as Jhamblri.

fambiri

Glossary. 363

Jaiua-narun, a variety of Suntara orange of Ceylon.
Jhamblri, name of a loose-skinned sour citrus.
Jheel, small lake.

Kdf, k of Hindostanee alphabet.

Kalan, Hind, for large.

Kdmala or Kamla, name of a kind of loose-skinned orange.

Kcinda, dried cow-dung, used for fuel.

Kanker, Kankree and Kakree, a kind of melon.

Kama, used for both Seville and KJiatta oranges.

Keonla or Kaonla, name of a loose-skinned late orange.

Khatta, sour.

Kilkil, occurs in Emp. Baber's memoirs — meant for GulguL

Kirneh, name of a citrus in Emp. Baber's memoirs.

Kitle-hamioo, means orange in Canara.

Kodar, an implement for digging.

Kokni, a small variety of orange.

Kolinje )

Kitchlee \ vanetv °* orange in S. India.

Kbnda-narun, variety of Suntara orange in Ceylon.

Koonjra, wholesale purchaser of fruit.

Kudalu-dehi, Cingalese name for leech-lime.

Knmquat, a very small sour orange.

Kumruk, name of an Indian fruit tree.

Kunjur, vitrified bricks or clinkers.

Kunkur, lime nodules, used for macadamizing roads in India.

Kuthairee, like a Kathar, or jack fruit.

Lanceolate, lance-shaped.

Laroo, a variety of flat, loose-skinned orange of Poona.

Leaflet, part of a compound leaf, joined on to the petiole.

Lemboo, generic name in Bengal for all citrus.

Lima, name of Citrus hystrix in Ceylon.

Limboo, the same as nimboo.

Limoo, lemon of Emp. Baber's memoirs.

Lomree, Hind, for fox.

Machdn, a stage made of bamboos.

Madampul nighunt, Sanskrit book, in which lemons are mentioned.

Madhkakrec, sweet melon, applied to large sweet citrons.

Mahtab, Hind, for moon.

Mahtabi )

Mastabi | variety of pummelo.

Mali, Hind, for gardener.

Mammilla, projection at the end of a lemon or orange.

Mammillate, like a nipple.

Mapala, a. kind of citron in Tulu language.

Margined, applied to petiole with very slight side expansions.

3^4 Glossary.

Mdsha, the weight of a grain of wheat.

Maundj 80 Ibs.

Maw ling t variety of citron in Bombay.

" Medica," of Media.

Merous, denotes divisions, such as 5-merous.

Midrib, the principal nerve of a leaf.

Miragbhhary term in Nagpore to denote the after, or second crop.

Miscible, that can be intermixed or crossed.

Mitha, Hind, for sweet.

Morphology, the transformations which the parts of an animal or plant

have undergone in the course of evolution.
Murdbba, preserve.
Mussbnbi, corruption of Mozambique

N&grang, supposed Sanskrit name for orange.

Nand, a large earthen pot, as big as a tub.

Ndrank "j

N&rang > names of orange in Emp. Baber's memoirs.

Naranj )

Naringhi and naranghi, a variety of Keonla orange.

Ntirtun, name of an orange in S. India.

Ncltterun, variety of citron in Ceylon.

Nepalee, kind of lemon from Nepal.

Nimboo, Hind, for lemon.

Node, the part of a stem which bears a leaf.

Oblate, depressed at both ends.

Obovate, inversely ovate.

Obtuse, blunt.

Obversely, inversely.

Ovary, the seed-vessel while yet in flower.

Ovule, the seed before fertilization.

Padshahbagh, King's garden.

Paenbagh, lower garden.

Pedicelled, stalked.

Peni-dbdan means sweet orange in Ceylon.

Petiole, leaf-stalk.

Prolification, a budding.

Pubescence, down on surface of plants.

Punchi means small in Ceylon.

Raceme, a bunch of flowers with equal stalks arranged on an axis.

Raj-nimboo, king of lemons.

Receptacle, the common support of the parts of a flower.

Rhhmi, silky ; applied to a tomato-like variety of orange.

Rungtra, same as Suntara orange.

Rus, juice.

Glossary. 365

Sadaphal, ever-fruiting ; applied to a kind of citrus.

Seer, weight denoting 2 Ibs.

Serrations, teeth on the edges of leaves.

Skouk-poti, Burmese term for Lima (c. hystrix).

Shutrunj, variety of citron in Bengal.

Slderun, variety of citron in Ceylon.

" Sinense," of China.

Sou, in Sylhet means 3,000.

Spores, seeds of ferns and fungi.

Stamen and Stamina, male or pollen-bearing organs of flowers.

Sung tar a

Sungtereh

Samtereh

Sintra

variations of the name Sttntara.

Suntoiurea

Simtra

Santola

Suntara, name of a loose-skinned Indian orange.

Superfcetation, obsolete term meant to denote impregnation many times

over.

Surkh, Hind, for red.

Suture, the line of contact or union of two carpels.
Synanthy, adhesion of flowers.
Syncarpy, growing together of carpels.

Tarai. damp district at the foot of the Himalayas.

Tehsil, sub-collectorate of revenue.

Thala, saucer-like ridge round a tree, for purposes of irrigation.

Tbla, a rupee's weight (about a two-shilling piece).

Tomentose, downy.

Toronja, pronounced Toronkha, Spanish for citron.

Trifacial, many-sided orange (mixed orange and citron).

Tursh, sour.

Turunj, name of a citron.

Utruj, said to be Arabic for citron.
Ydd, Hind, for " remember."

INDEX.

(p. means page of text ; and pi. means plate of Atlas.)

Abortive axillse, angles between
crenations of leaf, p.

. J95

„ leaflets, crenations and
serrations of citrus leaf,
p. 195,211

Advantage of restricting certain

varieties to certain soils, p. 171

" vEgle marmelos " (bael), pi. 242,

243
„ „ gum vesicles of,

pi. 242, 243
„ ,, pubescence of,

P- 36
„ „ pulp carpels of,

pi. 242, 243

Agasi trees, useful in shading
orange and lemon nurseries, p.

132, 137

Alexander's expedition to India,
p. 50

All fruit of India and Ceylon,
plucked unripe, p. 164

All parts of the flower, productions
of the receptacle, p. 1 89

Alteration of rind whorl by selec-
tion, p. 1 88

Amarakosha (Sanskrit book), p.
215, 232

Amilbedm Amalbed, p. 29, 31, 41,

42, 222, 251
„ of Ajitmal, pi. 61
„ Benares, pi. 65

Amilb&ddl Bulrampur, pi. 63
„ Lucknow, pi. 62

„ Rampur, pi. 64

„ Rohilcund, pi. 60

„ Shahjahanpur, pi. 66

„ Ulwar, pi. 90, 91

„ kalan of Calcutta (desi

kalajnba), pi.

68
„ „ Lucknow, pi.

67

„ „ Saharanpur

' (keem\ pL 69

Amool-dbdan of Ceylon, p. 7, 219
Amratphal, p. 44, 74, 249, and pi.

192 to 195
, „ derivation of name, p

242
Analysis of orange -wood ashes

(Liebig), p. 94

Anomalous form of orange (Mas-
ter's), p. 212 and pi. 241
Antiquity of Pummelo in China, p.

360

Antiquity of trade between W.
Asia, India, and China, p. 286,
287, 288

Appendix, p. 247
" Arancio forte," p. 5
Aranj of Ceylon, p. 219
At-annl, p. 20, 39

„ of Delhi, pi. 116
„ Etawah, pi. 1 1 1

„ Gonda, pi. 112,

368

Index.

At-annl of Rampur, pi. 1 10

„ kalan, pubescence of, p. 33
Attclrra nimboo, p. 243
"Aurantium acidum" of Rumph.
(Seville or.), p. 5,
216,217,32210325,
and pi. i
„ Pompelmoes" of

Rumph., pi. 59
„ pumilum" of Rumph.
(kbkntQi India?), p.
331, 332

sinense" of Rumph.
(Suntara of India),
p. 325 to 329, and
pi. 93, ii6A

„ verrucosum" of
Rumph. (Portugal
or.?), p. 28, 219,
259,329 to 331, and
pi. 59

B.

Bajoura,) vide Citron Bajoura

Bctndir of Tanjore, p. 20, 24, 218,
244, 258, and pi. 43

Bdra-mclsi lime, p. 145

Btora of Gonda, p. 167

Bergamotte, double flowered, p. 179

" Bergamottier mellarose" of Risso,

pi. 241

„ mellarose a fleur

double " of Risso,
p. 180, 181, 188,
and pi. 241

Best sour citrus for domestic use,
p. 141

Bhlmra citron, origin of name, p.

243

" Bigaradier a feuille de myrte " of
Risso, p. 46, 55, and
pi. 117

„ a fruit cornicule" of
Risso, p. 1 80, and pi.
240

"Bigaradier a fruit fetifere" of
Risso, p. 1 8 1, and pi.
240
„ chinois " of Risso, p.

46, and pi. 94

„ franc " of Risso, p. 6

Birds useful to plants, p. 275
Bit-cam of Rumphius, p. 219, 230
" Bizarria " oranges (trifacial) of
Risso, p. 13, 352 to 356, and pi.
259

Blood colour in citrus pulp, p. 37
" Breaks " occurring in nature, pos-
sibly the commence-,
ment of new varieties,
p. 197

„ of horticulturists, p. 196
Buchanan Hamilton on Rumphius,

P- 332

Bursting power of pulp-cells, p.
191

C.

Caffre-lime, p. 82, and pi. 225
Canal water, disadvantage of, in

orange cultivation, p. 121, 122
Candied citron-peel, manufacture

of, in Leghorn, p. 336, 337
Cases of variation in Citrus (Mas-
ter's Teratology), p. 281, 282,

283, 284

Cattle, fond of lemons, p. 259
Causes of wartiness, p. 14, 205

„ size in pummelos, &c.,

p. 37, 246
" Cedratier a gros fruit " of Risso,

pi. 141
Chakbtra (pummelo), origin of

name, p. 30, 220
Cheap and quick carriage needed

for fruit, p. 171
Chemical comp. of sugar, citric

acid, and ess. oil of citrus, p. 347
Chenee orange of S. India, p. 166,

218

Cheng, probably the origin of Seng-
i) p. 360

Index.

369

China and Cochin-China, birth-
places of oranges, p. 228
Cintra-town, not origin of Suntara

orange, p. 224, 225, 245
Citron, bajoura, p. 63, 64, 67, 68,
69, 1 68, 233, 235
„ „ from Allahabad,pl.

167
„ „ Auraya, pi.

1 60
„ „ Benares, pi.

167

„ „ Bholi,pl. 159

„ Etawah, pi.

161, 163
„ „ Gonda, pi.

162
„ '„ Uhvar, pi.

176, 177

„ Bhlmra of Nepal, p. 69
„ blja-pilre, p. 63
„ bijouri from Saharanpur,

pi. 170

„ changurd, p. 66, 71, 180,
346, and pi. 139, 140, 35 1
„ Etrog and A trog of the H e-

brews, p. 64, 233
„ from Agassi (Bombay), pi.

154
„ Alibagh (Bombay), pi.

144, 147
Bassein (Bombay), pi.

U3, H5

„ Goa, pi. 148

„ Gonda, pi. 156

„ Khoorja, pi. 1 50

„ Lucknovv, pi. 149, 152

„ Nepal, pi. 158, 164,165

„ Rampur, pi. 153

„ Saharunpur, pi. 146

„ Shahjahanpur, pi. 153

„ madhkakree of Almora, pi.

171, 172, 173, 174, 175
„ madhk&nker of Lucknow,

p. 39, 66, 69, 233, 236, and

pi. 157
„ Mapala of S. India, p. 64,

236, and pi. 142

Citron Mauling of Mangalore, p.

39, 64, 236, and pi. 142
„ Natternn of Ceylon, p. 64

and pi. 151
„ Shutrunj of the Bengalis,

p. 64
„ Slderun of Ceylon, p. 64

and pi. 151
„ sweet, from Saharunpur, pi.

222

„ turunj or taranj, p. 63, 64,

66, 68, 69, 233, 234, 248
„ Utruj of the Arabs, p. 64
Citron group, p. 63

„ Bot. chars, of, p. 64, 66
" Citron " of the French, p. 68, 78,

169
Citron, ordinary, probably known

to the Assyrians, p. 350
„ fingered, probably known

to the Assyrians, p. 351
Citron peel, candied, p. 146, 148

336

Citrons, classification of, p. 66
„ of Bombay market, p. 70
and pi. 143, 144, 145
148, 154

„ probably known to the

ancient Assyrians, p. 72

' „ proper, birthplace of,

doubtful, p. 235
„ use of among the Jews, p.

254

" Citrus aurantium," Linn. p. 2 -
„ aurantium sinense " of Gal-

lesio, char, of, p. 3, 19
„ aurantium sinense" of

Rumph, char, of, p. 3
„ australis," p. 203
„ Bergamia" of Waring's
Pharmacop. of India, p.
260, 345
„ bigaradia" of Risso (Seville

or.), p. i, 2, and pi. 8
„ chapters on, by Rumphius,

P- 293

„ decumana," glabrous forms,
P- 33

B B

370

Index.

"Citrus decumana," pubescence of,

P. 32, 34, 38, 245
„ flowers, colours of, p. 343,

344

„ fruit, diseases of, p. 1 50, 1 5 1
„ „ composed of two
whorls, p. 179, 1 80,
, 187

„ „ fresh, advantages over
bottled lime-juice, p.
174

„ fruits, all float well, p. 196
„ fusca " of Loureiro, p. 5, 6,

217

„ genus, very subject to varia-
tions, p. 189
„ group of, with large winged

petioles, p. 84

„ hystrix " of Kurz, p. 87
„ important varieties of, in

India, p. xix
„ leaf, originally a trifoliate

leaf, p. 206, 207
„ limonum vulgaris " of Risso,

p. 67

„ medica," considered the
grandparent of all others,
p. 254
„ medica limonum, Bot.

char., p. 75

„ medica," proper, p. 66
„ medica," proper, indigenous

country of, p. 70
„ medica," var. " acida," de-
scrip, of, p. 80
„ nobilis,"p. 55
„ nobilis, major and minor,"

p. 58

„ plants, polygamo - monoe-
cious, p. 259, 261
„ pulp, an inner whorl of car-
pels, p. 1 80
„ regions, changes which may

have occurred in, p. 65
„ seed, advantage of multiple

buds in, p. 203

„ trees, in Europe, in time of
John Gerarde, p. 260

Citrus, trifacial, from Risso, pi. 259
„ trifoliate leaf of, pi. 246, 254
„ varieties from Assam, pi.

234 to pi. 239
„ „ in the Shevaray

Hills, p. 257, 258
„ „ named in Voight's

Hort. Suburb.

Calc. p. 345
„ „ young leaves of,

pi. 246 to pi. 255
„ „ from Khasia hills,

pi. 256 to 258
„ wild, at foot of Himalayas,

P- 253
Closing of fingered citron, to form

perfect fruit, p. 201
Colour of petals and shoots, not

reliable for classification, p. 81
Colours of citrus fruit, a help in

evolution, p. 201
Commercial products of Citrus,

P- J39

Community of orange names,
among Khasias and
Malays, p. 228, 229
,, Malay and Indian

names, p. 241, 356
Comparison of the Sherbetee and

Kaghzi kalan, pi. 191, 192
Composition of lemonades of com-
merce, p. 141

Compound leaf, an expansion of
the bark, in form of a branch,
p. 209

Conclusions, p. 245
Cone-fruit (citron ?) of the Assyrian

monuments, p. 72, 350
Conservation of primeval forests,

p. 101
Cultivation of orange in Bengal,

p. 99
„ orange in Delhi, p.

100, 1 08, 120
„ orange in Khasia

Hills, p. 91, 95
„ orange in Lucknow,

p. 109

Index.

Cultivation of orange in Nagpur,

p. 1 06, 107
„ orange in S.Europe,

p. 103

„ orange trees, com-

bined with other
trees in Delhi, p.
I2j, 124
Curious lemon, p. 345

D.

Dates of events in India and

Malay archip., p. 28 5,290,291, 292
De Candolle's theory of the orange

rind, p. 189
Derivation of citrus names in India,

p. 214

Descent of the citrus, p. 193
Destruction of orange crops in

Florida by frost, p. 275
Difference between orange and

shaddock, p. 20, 21
Difference between the orange and

the lemon, p. xv
Disadvantages of sojourn in

Florida, p. 274
Discovery of Greek, Roman, and

Arab coins in Ceylon, p. 292
Disjunction of carpels, p. 179
Dissemination of citrus by birds,

p. 41, 194,202,267
Distance to which fresh fruit can

be carried, p. 173, 174
Dogs and pigs, fond of oranges,

p. 92
Doubling of fruit (?) Syncarpy, pi.

83, p. 42, 199, and xvii
Dumrez crop, advantage of, p. 136
or aftercrop, p. 3, 13, 14,
15, 17

Emperor Baber's memoirs, p. 247
Epiphyllum sp., diagram, pi. 245

Evolution of citrus fruit, p. 199
„ of citrus fruit by the help
of parrots, p. 201, 202
Exceptions to law of Phyllotaxis,

p. 1 88
Experiments, need of, in citrus

germs, p. 129

„ of nature, in perfect-

ing the Hesperi-
dium, p. 201

„ with orange trees in

Lucknow, p. no,

III, 112

Exports of oranges and lemons

from Sicily, p. 279
Extension of citrus trade in India,

p. 172

F.

"Feronia elephantum" (Kaitha],

pi. 244

„ „ pulp, car-

pels of, pi.
244

Fertilized seed, an important in-
strument of variation, p. 196
Fever-orange of St. Domingo,
, P- 342

Flotation of citrus, p. 39, 40
Flower, a transformed branch,

p. 178
Flowers of sweet lemon, colour of,

P- 77
„ true-lime, colour of, p. 8 1

Food of plants derived from at-
mosphere and soil, p. 104, 105

Forest fires, a probable cause of
extinction of species, p. 198

Fusion of ovaries (syncarpy), p. 42,
199

Future trade in lemons with Russia,
p. 172

G.

Gallesio's observations on orange,
p. 8

B B 2

372

Index.

Gelatinous lemon marmalade, p.

147, 342
Geographical distribution of citrus

for trade purposes in India,

p. 170, 171

Goebel's view of pulp cells, p. 187
Gbra-nimboo, p. 243
Green orange of Ceylon, travels

well, p. 163
Gulgul, variety of citrus, p. 1 1, 1 5,

39, 73, 77, 218, 243, and pis. 186,

187, 1 88, 218
Gungolee nimboo, variety of citrus,

p. 168

H.

Hakim-nonsense, in fever, p. 153
Hasskarl's list of citrus plants,
in Hort. Bot. Bogor, p. 356 to 360
Hazara orange, origin of name,

p. 231
Hesperidium, a variety of the

berry (?), p. 347
„ considered as double

fruit, p. 1 80

Homology of bud, spine, oil cell,
juice vesicle and
seed, p. 211, 246
„ leaves and carpels,

P- 347
„ rind cells and pulp

cells, p. 193

„ seed-buds and ordi-

nary buds, p. 177,
195, 203

„ (possible) of branch, of
Epiphyllum and com-
pound leaf, p. 209
Hooker, Sir J., on botanical cha-
racter of citrus, p. 2

I.

Identity of Kaghzi nimboo with
Limonellus of Rumph.,
p. 88

Identity of Lima of Ceylon, and

Skouk-potivi Burma,

and Limo ventricosus

of Rumph., p. 87

Importance of lime (mineral) in

orange growing, p. 94
Imports of oranges in England,

p. 280

„ otto of lemon in Eng-

land, p. 144
Indian "Philippina" (Farambsfy,

p. xvii, 266

Intercourse between India and
Malay archip., evidence of, p.
289

Introduction of orange trees, in the
Azores, p. 256

Jambble of Ceylon, p. 222

Jamlr, or jamlri, or jamblri, p. 60,

80, 249

„ of Almora, pi. 129
Jhambtri, or Jamblra, p. 16, 38, 60,

61, 232, 233
„ (fawn-coloured) of Gonda,

Pi- 134

„ group, p. 61
„ of Allahabad, pi. 133
„ B. G. Saharanpur (un-

ripe), pi. 137
„ Benares, pi. 132

„ Calcutta, pi. 133

„ Central Provinces, pL

„ Gonda, pi. 130, 135

(?) Hagkala, pi. 136
„ Lucknow, pi. 132, 134

„ Rohilcund, pi. 131

„ Saharunpur, pi. 130

„ Shahjahanpur, pi. 135

Jora tenga of Assam, p. 77
Juice-vesicles, different forms of,
pi. 154

Index.

373

Juice-vesicles homologous with oil
cells of rind, bud,
spine,pollen grains
and seed, p. 211,
246

„ of kolinje, pi. 106

„ of pulp, transformed

oil cells of rind,
p. 185, 190
„ on sides of carpels,

pi. 49, 72, 210

„ reasons for sides

of carpels being
usually devoid of,

P. 348, 349
„ (sessile) of Keonla,

pi. 124
„ * three sizes, pi. 76,

209

K.

Kaghzi-Kal&n lemon, p. 75 :

„ nimboo as a hedge plant,

p. 128, 129

„ „ distribution of, in

Malay archi-
pelago,p.88,2i7

„ „ useful in all vil-

lages, p. 1 68
Kalama or Kal&mba, of Bengal,

p. 243 and pi. 1 68
Kdmildh orange of Humayoon,

p. 44, 250
Kamla or Kamla-lemboo of Bengal,

p. 219, 230, and pi. 122 to 126
Kan or kam of the Chinese, p. 55
K 'tinker ; Kankree^r Kakree, mean-
ing of, 1 8

Karmaranga, p. 243
Karnphal of Almora, p. 242
Keonla orange, p. 16, 21, 53, 54,
60, 61, and pi.
122 to 126

„ group, p. 53

„ origin of name,

p. 230

Khatltl orange, p. 17

„ decoction of, in

fever, p. 149
„ uses of, p.«U7

A7/&7,p. 11,73,74,248
Kilmek, p. 249
Kirneh, p. I, 251
Kitchlee and Kolinje orange of

Madras, p. 162, 258
Kitlb-hannoo of Canara, p. 162
Korna-nimboo of Roxburgh, p. 77
Kudalu-dehi of Ceylon, p. 82
Kumquat orange, p. 42, 45, 48, 51,
54,231

Laroo of Poona, p. 58, 244
Layering clay, Lucknow receipt

for, p. 332

Leaf, a transformed branch, p. 211

„ considered as a modified

branch, p. 195

„ „ as an expan-

sion of the
bark, p. 176
Leaves, as substitutes for ovules,

p. 211

„ of ghao-pattd. (" Bryophyl-
lum calycinum"), p.
177, 178

„ true-lime (Kaghzi-nint-

boo\ pi. 225, 226, 233

Legend about Suntara orange in

Sylhet, p. 229
Le Maout and Decaisne's diagram

of orange flower, p. 188
Lcmboo, generic name in Bengal,

p. 44
„ -batabi, origin of name

p. 30, 220
Lemon attdrra, p. 1 1, 67, 77, and

pi. 210 to 214

„ (?) Attarra, from Central
Prov., pi.
210

„ „ Ceylon, pi.

211, 212

374-

Index.

Lemon (?) Attarra, from Saharun-

pur, pi. 213

„ „ Ulwar, pi.

214

| „ Behdri, p. 77, 168, 242,

and pi. 202, 222

„ „ from Saharunpur,

pi. 222

„ „ Shahjahan-

pur,pl.202

„ „ Kafan, from Luck-

now, pi. 204

„ carbozi, of Rumph., p. 221
„ (" citron ") of Pondicherry

pi. 184
„ decoction, in fever, p. 148,

149
„ derivation of name, p. 238,

245
„ English, from Jaunpur, pi.

185

„ Goosery, p. 77 and pi. 183
„ group, p. 73, and pi. 179 to

209
„ gulgul, p. 11,73,77, 218,

243
„ „ from Benares, pi.

186
„ „ from Jagadri, pi.

186
„ „ from Kumaon, pi.

188, 218
„ „ from Saharunpur,

187

„ „ ofjubbulpur,p. 15,

„ „ Lahore, p. 15, 39

„ Gungolee, from Gonda, pi.

199

„ „ Lucknow,pl.2oi

„ Gungolia, p. 77, 168, 242,

and pi. 199, 201
„ Kaghzi Kaldn, from Ajit-

mul, pi. 189

„ kilkil, 11,73,74,248
„ Korna-nimboo of Roxb.,

P- 77

„ Malta, dissemination of, in
India, p. 78

Lemon, Malta, double (syncarpy),

pi. 223, 224
„ „ from Saharunpur,

pi. 184
„ „ from Shahjahan-

pur, pi. 182

„ „ introduction of in

India, p. 77, 78

„ „ specimens of, pi.

179, 180, 181
„ nepal, p. 67, 77, and pi. 196,

197

„ oblong, of Benares, pi. 168
„ origin of, p. 236, 237
„ Paharee (?), pi. 198
" „ papeda" of Rumph., p. 221
„ (?) Sadaphal, p. 67, 77, 1 84,
192, 249,
and pi. 209
„ „ from Etawah,

pi. 209
„ Sherbetee, from Auraya,

Pi- J93, 195
„ Benares, pi. 194
„ Khoorja, pi. 193
„ Mooltan, pi. 190
„ Muscat, pi. 195
„ Shahjahanpur,

pi. 192
„ „ (sweet), p. 67,

74, 77, and

pi. 190, 1 92 to

195
„ Tsjina (China) of the

Malays, p. 219, 259
„ varieties from Jhansi, pi.

205, 206, 207, 208, 217
„ variety from Almora, pi.

219
„ „ (?) Bulrampur, pi.

196

„ „ Calcutta, pi. 201

„ „ Nepal, pi. 202

„ „ Pertabghur, 220,

221
„ „ Ulwar, pi. 215,

216
„ „ of Rumph., pi. 227

Index.

375

Lemon, wild (Mr. Webster's), p.

203 and pi. 200

Lemon and lime pickles, p. 151
Lemons, advantage of a trade in,

p. 169

„ classification of, 76
Liebig's analysis of orange-wood

ashes, p. 94
Lima, characters of, p. 82

„ immense wings of petiole,

p. 82

„ or Carfre-lime of Ceylon
(c. hystrix), p. 82, and
pi. 225

„ use of, in Ceylon, p. 82
Lime, derivation of name, p. 240,

242, 245

„ (Kaghzi-nimboo), very com-
mon in Malay archip.,
p. 241

„ of Ceylon, pi. 231
„ Monserrat, pi. 228
„ origin of, p. 241, 246
„ true (Kaghzi-nimboo], from

Etawah, pi. 228, 229
„ varieties, pi. 230, 232
Limes, true, paper regarding, in

Linnean Soc. Journal, p. 89
" Limo argrestis " of Rumph., pi.

226, p. 309 to 311
„ aurarius" of Rumph., p.

319, 320, and pi. 227
„ bubalinus" of Rumph.,

p. 221
„ curamas" of Rumph., p.

308 to 309

„ decumanus" of Rumph.
(pummelo), p. 293 to 300,
and pi. 59
„ ferns " of Rumph., pi. 226,

p. 221, 313, 314

„ madurensis" of Rumph.
(Kumquat?), p. 320 to
322, and pi. 93
„ regius " of Rumph. (Raja

orange?), p. 219, 229
„ Taurinus " of Rumph.,
P- 311,312

"Limo tennis" of Rumph., p. 62

and pi. 227

„ tenuis " of Rumph. (Kaghzi-
nimboo), probable origin
of, p. 85, and pi. 227
„ tuberosus martinicus " of
Rumph., pi. 129 and 178,
p. 303, 306
„ ventricosus" of Rumph.

(smooth), pi. 226
„ ventricosus " of Rumph.
(c. hystrix of Kurz.), p.
83, 306 to 308, (warty)
pi. 226

" Limonellus " of Rumph. (true
lime), p. 62, 314 to 319, and pi.
227
" Limonia acidissima," leaves of,

pi. 245
" Limonier a fruit digite " of Risso,

p. 1 80 and pi. 178
„ a fruit rond" of Risso,

pi. 178
„ ordinaire " of Risso, pi.

178
Limoo of Emperor Baber, p. 73,

80, 248
Longevity of Suntara orange trees,

p. 98
" Loose-jacket-orange " of Hong

Kong, p. 230

Loss of power of reversion, p. 86
Love of ottos, among natives of
India, p. 145

M.

Macfadyen, observations on

oranges, p. 8
Madamp&l nigh tint (Sanskrit book),

p. 75, 214, 232
Madhkakree (citron), p. 39, 66, 69,

233, 236

Mctha-nimboo, p. 243
Maht&bi (pummelo), origin of

name, p. 30, 220

376

Index.

Ma1 ay archip., importance of, in

dissemination of Citrus, p. xviii
Malta orange group, p. 19, and pi.

41 to 58

"Malum citrium" of Rumph.
(citron), p. 300 to 303 and pi.
141
Mandarin orange, climates suitable

to, p. 167

„ „ trees, size of, in

the Azores, p.
256

Manure, advantage of, in fruit cul-
tivation, p. 1 02
„ for orange trees, p. 100
„ what sorts of, available
for orange cultiv., p.
105, 106
Manurial effects of the Khasia

floods, p. 103
Manuring of orange trees, p. 114,

115, 126
Marmalade of Seville orange, p.

147

Mauling (citron), p. 39, 64, 236
Miquel on Seville orange, p. 6
Mistake (?) of Loureiro regarding

" C. limonum," p. 86
„ of Rumph. regarding Limo
ventricosus and tubero-
sus and ferus, p. 83, 84
Mode of extracting ess. oil from

rind, p. 143

Morphology of the citrus, p. 175
Multiple auxiliary buds of citrus,

p. 178, 203

Murabba baling, p. 248
Musstmbi of Poona, p. 166, 219

N.

Nag-rang, meaning sendur (red

lead), p. 215
Names of oranges in Khasia hills,

p. 227

Nar, words beginning with, related

to fragrance, p. 216
Ndrandj,^. i, 6, 10, 214, 215, 218,

247

Ndrang, p. i, 214, 215, 248
Ndrank, p. i, u, 248
Nartun of Tanjore, p. 5, 216, 217,

and pi. 1 8
Nimboo, kaghzi, p. 61, 62, 80, and

pi. 228, 229
„ kar?ia, p. 1 1
„ kathairee, p. 15, 18, 33,
167, 242, and pi. 35, 36,

37
„ mitha, p. 74, and pis. 192

to 195
„ surkh, p. 45, 48, 51, and

pi. 96

„ turunj) p. ii
„ urna, p. 1 1
Nimbuka, p. 240

Nurseries, orange and lemon, use
of Ag ast trees in shading, p. 132,
137

O.

Objection to theory of morpho-
logy, on account of phyllotaxis,
p. 1 88
Observations on the crossing of

bitter and sweet oranges, p. 9
Oil-cells in citrus leaves, p. 176
„ leaves, abortive buds,

p. 211
„ leaves of " Feronia ele-

phantum," p. 177
„ leaves, three sizes, pi.

181
„ old leaves an advantage,

p. 204

„ young citrus leaves, a

disadvantage, p. 204

„ of inner rind, how changed

into pulp cells, p. 190

200

Index.

377

Oil-cells of rind, dissected, pi. 125
„ largest in Keonla

orange, pi. 122
„ pedicelled, pi. 66

., pointed, pi. 6

„ three sizes, pi. 47,

75, 188

„ unequal develop-

ment of, in same
fruit, pi. 83, 84
„ the citrus, p. 182, 183,

184

Orange Chinee of Madras, p. 258
„ Hazara, p. 45, 48, 51
„ „ of Benares, pi. 94

„ „ Rohilcund, pi.

94
„ *Heen-narun, Colombo,

pi. loo
„ „ of Kandy,

pi. 121

„ k&mala, p. 2, 53

„ karna of India, p. 10, 216,

218, 242

„ Keonla, p. 16, 21, 53, 54,
60, 61, and pi.
122 to 125

„ „ group of, p. 53

„ „ of Aurungabad

(?),pl. 125
„ „ Benares, pi.

124
„ „ Bulrampur,pl.

123
Delhi (?), pi.

126
„ „ Etawah, pi.

124

„ „ Gonda, pi. 122

„ „ Lucknow, pi.

123

„ „ Poona,pl.i25

„ Khdtfa, characters of, p . 1 2

„ „ of India, p. 10, 12,

17, 18, 2T, 59,

218, and pis. 19

to 39

„ „ Almora, pi. 38, 39

Orange, Khatta, of Auraya, pi. 20
„ „ Benares (smooth

and warty), pi.

29,30

„ „ Bholi, pi. 25

„ „ Boluridshuhur

(warty), pi. 28
„ „ (?)Bulrampur(&z//z-

airee nimbod),

Pl. 35, 36, 37
„ Calcutta, pi. 22
„ „ Etawah, pi. 23, 24

„ „ Gonda (smooth

and warty), pi.

27
„ „ Jubbulpore ( ? )

(gulgul), pi. 31
„ „ Lahore (gulgul\

pl. 32, 33, 34

„ „ Lucknow, pl. 26
„ „ of Jubbulpur, pl.

19

„ „ Saharunpur, pl. 26

„ „ Shahjahanpur, pl.

21

„ „ smooth and warty

forms, p. 13,
and pl. 27 to
30

„ Khbtta naringhi of Gon-
da, pl. 98
„ Kitchlee and Kolinje, of

Madras, p. 162, 258
„ Kitlt-hannoo, of Canara,

p. 162

„ kdkni, p. 54, 231
„ Kumquat, p. 42, 45, 48, 51,
54, 231, and pl. 320 to
322
„ Kiimquat, of Calcutta, pl.

93
„ „ Lucknow, pl.

93
„ Laroo, of Poona, p. 58, 244,

and pl. 126
„ Madura, p. 54, and pl. 331,

332
„ Malta, p. 3

378

Inaex.

Orange, Malta or Portugal, group,
p. 19, and pis. 41
1048

„, „ introduction in India,

dates of, p. 24, 219

„ „ of Colombo, pi. 42

„ „ English markets (c.

aur. sinense of
Gall, pi. 58

„ „ Etawah ( wrongly

called Sylhet), pi.

47, 48, 53, 57

„ „ Hagkala, pi. 41

„ „ Jaunpur (Suez

orange), pi. 46
,, „ Kandy (fiunchi jam-

bble\ pi. 56

„ „ Madras (?), pi. 46

„ „ (Paenbagh} of Luck-

now, p. 1 66

„ „ Poona (musstm&i),

pi. 44 and p. 166,
219
„ „ Tanjore (bcindir\ pi.

43
„ „ Tanjore (Spanish

orange), pi. 43 and

p. 166;
„ „ Zanzibar (musslmbi),

pi. 45

„ Mandarin, p. 47, 53, 231,
232, and pi.
117 to 119,
and 128

„ „ description of,

P- 57

„ „ in Bot. Reposi-

tory, p. 55, 56,

57

„ „ in Botanical Re-

gister, p. 58

,. „ in English mar-

kets, pi. 128

^ „ in Lucknow, pi.

119

„ „ introduction of,

in Ceylon, p.
56

Orange, Mandarin, introduction of,

in India, p. 56

„ „ of Etawah, pi.

117, 118

„ „ of Peradenya,

B. G., pi. 118

„ „ (so called), of

Ceylon, p. 56,
162
„ naranght, p. 53, 214, and

pi. 98
„ naranghi, from Rohilcund,

pi. 105
„ „ of Auraya, pi.

119

„ „ Gonda,pl. 120

„ „ Shahjahanpur,

pi. 120
„ naringhi, p. 16, 53, 54, and

pis. 105, 119, 120
„ Nas-narun, Colombo,

pi. 121
„ „ of Kandy,

pi. 96

„ Portugal, p. 3, 52
„ „ (same as Malta

orange), intro-
duction of, in
Europe,p.25,26

„ „ botanical charac-

ter, p. 27
„ „ description of, p.

27

„ „ lemon - coloured,

p. 28, and pi. 56

„ rtshna, p. 54, 231, and pi.

95, 122
„ „ of Benares, pi. 95,

122
„ „ Lucknow, pi.

122

„ „ Shahjahanpur,

pi. 95
„ Rungpur lime, of Saharun-

pur, pi. 114

„ Rungtra, p. 45, 120
„ sans pepins," or seedless

orange of Risso, p. 181

Index.

379

Orange, sathgar, of Madras, p. 258
„ Seville, pis. 2 to 18
„ „ in Ceylon, p. 7, and

pi. i
„ „ characters of, p. 4

5,8

„ „ course of, in reach-

ing Europe, p.

217
„ „ Devikulam, p. 7,

and pi. 17
„ „ English markets,

pi. 15
„ „ Etawah, pi. 14, 15,

16

„ „ first orange to

ch Europe, p.

215,216

„ „ Gonda, pi. 13

„ „ in Cochin - China,

p. 6
„ „ indigenous inChina,

or Cochin-China,

p. 217
„ „ Kandy (amool-

dbdan\ pi. 6, 7, 8
„ „ Lucknow (ndranj),

pi. 5

„ „ Malta (from Luck-

now), pi. 12
„ „ Mangalore (Kan-

chikai), pi. 10
„ „ Mooltan, pi. 4

„ „ names of, in dif-

ferent parts, p. 7
„ „ Nilgiri hills, p. 7

„ „ of Calcutta (gorct-

lemboo), pi. 3
. „ „ (?) of Nepal (keef),

pi. 2

„ „ origin of, p. 7

„ „ Tanjore (n&rtun),

pi. 18
„ „ Toolshipur, Oudh,

pi. 9

„ „ why bitter, p. 4

„ S&ngtara, of Mooltan, pi.

100

Orange, Snntara, p. 2, 6, 44, 47, 50,

5i, 52, 53, 58,

60, 61
„ „ from Calicut (of

Coorg), pi. 106
„ „ from Cochin (of

Coorg), pi. 1 06
„ „ from Mangalore

(of Coorg), pi.

1 06
„ „ from Rohilcund,

pi. 105

„ „ group of, p. 45

„ „ jawa-narun, of

Colombo, pi. 1 09

„ „ jawa-nanm, of

Kandy, pi. 108,
and p. 45, 162,
231

„ „ kbnda-ndrttn, of

Kandy, pi. 101,
and p. 45, 162,
163, 231

„ „ of Bhotan, pi. 107

„ „ Buxa, pi. 107

„ „ Lahore, pi. 109

„ „ Nagpore, from

Etawah, pi.
102

j, „ Nagpore, from

Lucknow, pi.
103

„ „ Poona,pl.io8

„ „ s/wr, or gungoli,

of Almora, pi.

„ „ where grown, p.

44,217

„ Suntola and Suntowrea, p.

45, 48, 157, and pi. 98, 99

„ Suntoiurea, of Butwal, pi.

98,99
„ sweet, of Buxdwar^ p. 47,

and pi. 107
„ sweet, types of, p. 3, 45, 47,

49, 245
„ Sylhet, p. 20, and pi. 103

and 104

Index.

Orange, Delhi (Simtara\ from

Delhi, pi. 104

ii ii from Lucknow,

pi. 104
„ Sylhet (S&ntara), from

Lucknow, pi. 103
"Orange de Malte," p. 19
„ de Portugal," p. 19
„ blood, of Gujranwala, pi.

» ii Jaunpur, pi. 52,

54,55

>i „ Lucknow, pi. 50

„ sour, p. 28
„ true sweet, p. 3
„ Surkh nzmboo, of Luck-
now, pi. 96
„ cultivation, bad in Gur-

gaon, p. 101

>i „ profit on, in

^ Bengal, p. 99

ii „ in Florida, p.

271,272,273
„ „ Jamaica, p.

262, 267, 268
ii „ Khasia hills,

P- 95

ii ,i Parramatta,

Sydney, p.
270

ii „ San Fran-

cisco, p. 263,

i, „ Sorrento, p.

278

„ „ the Azores, p.

103, 256, 276

ji ,i Valencia and

Cordoba, p.
262
„ farming, in Trinidad and

Monserrat, p. 269
„ flowers in perfumery, p.

142
„ gardens of Khasia hills,

situation of, p. 96
„ groves of Shalla in Khasia
hills, p. 90

Orange, large, in Trinidad, p, 270
„ leaves in perfumery, p. 143
„ pulp, a whorl of pods, p. 191
„ of Senargam (Suntara), p.

44, 250
„ Syria, Burdug&n, or

Berdqdn, p. 19
„ tree planted by St. Dominic

in Rome, p. 255, 256
„ tree- wood, uses of, p. 265
ii „ weight of, p. 265

„ trees, diseases of, p. 263,

264, 266, 276

„ „ in Argentine Repub-

lic, p. 267
ii i, Australia, p. 264,

346

ii „ Cashmere, p. 264

ii i, England, p. 255

ii i, Fiji, p. 264

,i „ Lahore, p. 264

„ „ Nicobar Islands,

p. 277

„ „ Paris, p. 265

„ „ Persia, p. 281

„ „ Sardinia, p. 265

„ „ Sindh, p. 265

i, „ S. Africa, p. 264,

281

„ „ S. America, proof

against drought
and locusts, p.
194, 267

„ „ longevity of, in the

Azores, p. 1 03, 256,
265

„ „ of Shalla, produc-

tiveness of, p. 91,
95,98
„ „ on the Caspian, p.

266

„ „ over- cropping, a mis-

take, p. 257

„ „ productiveness of, in

the Azores, p. 103,
257

,i „ shelter for, needed,

p. 112, 128

Index.

381

Orange trees, space between, in

planting, p. 113
„ „ watering of, p. 113

„ „ young plants of,

various ways of
raising, p. 115,117,
118, 119
„ and lemon trees, training

of, p. 136

„ and lemon cultivation, a
profitable industry, p.
144, 145
„ and lemon cultivation in

India, p. 90
„ bitter, introduction by

Arabs, p. 1,3

„ Bamrati-nimboo, of Bena-
res, pi. 97
" Granger a fruit conifere " (Risso),

pi. 40
„ „ cornu,"p. 1 79, and

pi. 240
„ „ pyriform" (Risso),

pi. 40

„ „ rugueux" (Risso),
(fever orange),
pi. 40
„ „ toruleux" (Risso),

pi. 40
Oranges and lemons, do they cross,

p. xv
„ and lemons, layering of,

p. 117

„ and lemons, operation for
budding of, p. 129, 130,

131, 133

„ and lemons, stocks used
for budding on, p.
116

„ of Bajour, p. 10, 1 1, 20, 247
„ if plucked unripe, lose

flavour, p. 269
„ Kdrna, of India, p. 10,216,

218,^242

„ „ Bengali and Kha-

sia, names of,

P-334
„ of Coorg, p. 162

Oranges of Florida, fine flavoured,

p. 272, 273
„ of Khorassan and Astera-

bad, p. 27, 247
„ of Lemghanat, p. 10, 19,

247
„ plants in Khasia hills,

raising of, p. 96, 97, 99
„ of Siwad,p. 10, 12, 20, 247
„ sour, liked by birds, p.

194
„ Sweet, two distinct types,

p. xvi
., used for wine-making, p.

I5i

Origin of citrus leaf, p. 207, 208
„ citrus leaf from a trifoliate

leaf, p. 86
„ citrus varieties in India,

p. 214
„ monofoliate leaf of citrus,

p. 209
„ oil-cells in the citrus, p.

206
Original leaf of citrus, possibly a

simple leaf, p. 209
„ number of pulp carpels
(five) in citrus rare, p.
1 88

-„ wild citrus, probably ex-
tinct, p. 194, 198

Otto of lemon, uses of, p. 144, 146
„ lime, in Monserrat, p. 145
Ottos, cool climates suitable to
extraction of, p. 146

P.

Paenbagh orange, of Lucknow, p.

166

Pati-nimboo of Bengal, p. 243
Pea-pod, a modification of the leaf,

p. 177

Ptni-dbdan, of Ceylon, p. 166, 219
Perfection of the citrus apparata

for the battle of life, p. 203, 204
Petiole-joint, absence of, in some

citrus leaves, p. 210

332

Index.

Petiole, naked, of Malta lemon, p.

78
„ winged, of true lime, a con-

stant char., p. 8 1
Plants useful for hedges, p. 137
Portuguese settlements and in-

fluence in India, p. 290
Probable origin of huge citrus

fruits, p. 191
Progress of the Arabs towards the

West, p. 291
Pubescence, a character common

to the genus Citrus, p. 36
Pulp of citrus, no trace of oil-cells

in, p. 200
Pummelo, allied to orange, p. 37,

38, 223
„ chakotra-pahari, p. 1 1

„

„ group, p. 29
„ of Ajitmal, pi. 77, 78

Agra, pi. 87
„ Calcutta (sour), pi. 88,

89
„ Ceylon (jambble}^\.

75, 76, 85
„ English markets

(shaddock), pi. 92
„ Etawah, pis. 80, 81,

82,86
„ Gonda, pi. 70, 71, 73,

74

„ Rohilcund, pi. 79

„ Shahjahanpur, pi. 83

„ Sohagpur (?), pi. 72

Pummelos, best in all India, p. 167
„ birth-place of, p. 222
„ on Shevary hills, p. 43
„ opinion of Alph. de Can-
dolle regarding, p. 31,
222

„ origin of name, p. 223
„ „ of names of, in

India, p. 221
Punchi jambble of Ceylon, p. 20

R.

Raj-nzmboo, p. 75
Rata-narun of Ceylon, p. 222
Rates for canal water in Delhi, p.

122
Reasons for hollow centre in citrus,

P. 350

„ why sweet orange did not
originate from bitter
orange, p. 8,21,22,23
Receipt for candied citron-peel, p.

336, 337
„ candied orange and

lemon peel, p. 341
„ decoction of lemon for

fever (Maglieri's), p.

339

„ gelatinous lemon-mar-

malade, p. 342
„ lemon pickle, p. 337

„ orange-marmalade, p.

340
Relation of pulp-cells of citrus to

gum-cells of ^Egle, p. 186
Rent in Khasia hills, p. 98
Resinous ess. oil of rind, p. 205
Rind-cells and pulp-cells, common

origin of, p. 193
„ of citrus, a whorl of united

carpels, p. 179
Risso on supposed Suntara orange,

p. 26
Risso's theory, objections to, p.

192, 193

„ „ of relationship be-

tween rind-cells
and pulp-cells,
p. 191
Rus-k&nker of Gonda, p. 15, 1 8, 167

S.

Sadaphal, derivation of name, p.

242
Sambba of the Portuguese, p. 222

Index.

383

Same organ, fashioned for various

offices, p. 190
Samtereh of Humayoon, p. 44, 58,

250

Sarbti-nimboo, p. 243, and pi. 169
Seed-buds, commencement of, in

citrus, p. 195
Seng-cam of Rumphius, p. 51, 219,

230
Sengterah) or Sengtereh of Emp.

Baber, p. 59, 74, 219, 248
Seville orange group, p. i, and pi.

2 to 1 8

Shaddock, p. 223
Shade for Suntara orange trees an

advantage, p. 124, 125, 126
Shans, immigration of, into Brah-
maputra Valley, p. 251
„ probable importers of Sun-
tara orange in India, p
227,251

Shonk-pote of Burma, p. 87
Short life of Suntara orange trees,
in Bengal and Gurgaon, p. 99,
100, 101
Shunkadrav (JamblhriT) from

Benares, pi. 134
„ meaning of name, p.

242

Sikander-namch of Nizami, p. 234
Similarity of certain Japanese and

Indian names, p. 349
Sintra orange, p. 120
Soil containing iron, mode of dis-
covering, p. 127

„ for oranges, advantage of de-
cayed leaves in,

P- 136, 137
„ „ advantage of iron

in, p. 127
„ in Shalla, composition of, p.

93
„ of Delhi, composition of, p.

121
„ orange gardens, in Khasia

hills, p. 95
Soils, all won't suit all kinds of
citrus, p. 170

Space between rind and pulp of
Keonla orange,
pi. 125

„ „ rind and pulp of

Laroo orange,
pi. 126

Spanish orange of Tanjore, p. 166
Stamens, as substitutes for ovules,

p. 210
Suggestions regarding the name

Suntara^ p. 229, 339
Sui-gul of the natives, p. 69
Siingtara orange, p. 45, 120
Suntara „ antiquity of, in
Khasia hills, p.
226
„ „ group, p. 54, and

pi. 107 to 109
„ „ origin of name, p.

223, 225, 229

„ „ totally distinct

from Cintra
orange of Portu-
gal, p. 224, 230

Suntolah orange of Butwal, p. 1 57
Superfcetation a doubling of the

fruit, p. 181

Susrata (Sanskrit book), p. 215
Sweet oranges, suited for wine-
- making, p. 152

T.

Thickness of citron-rind, probably

selected by savage man, p. 205
Trade in Keonla oranges, p. 165
„ Malta oranges, p. 165
„ marmalade, p. 166
„ Muscat sweet lemons,

p. 1 66
„ oranges and lemons in

India, p. 154

„ oranges of Delhi, p. 161
„ oranges of Nagpore, p.
158, 160, 161

Index.

Trade in oranges of Sylhet, p. 155,

156
„ sweet lemons in India,

p. 1 68

„ Zanzibar oranges, p. 166
Trifacial and Bizzarria oranges, p.

!3> 352 to 356, and pi. 259
True-lime group, p. 80, and pi.

228 to 231
Turunj preserves, p. 147

U.

Unddi-sittras (Sanskrit book),p. 215
Unhealthiness of citrus trees in
Delhi, p. 122

„ citrus trees in

Saharunpur,
p. 123
Union of leaf to petiole-wing, pi.

78,79

Use of Bair trees in orange culti-
vation, p. 121, 123
„ citrus juice in quenching

thirst, p. 140

„ Khatta orange, p. 167
Uses of. various kinds of citrus, p.

151,152

Usoh niamtra and usoh s&ntra of
the Khasias, p. 226, 227

Usoh, probably the yu-shu of the
Chinese, p. 360

V.

Variations in oil-cells, p. 201
Varieties of citrus in Assam, p.

334, 335, 344
Various names of Suntara orange,

p. 226
Viability of citrus seed, p. 196

W.

Well-water, advantage of, in orange

cultivation, p. 121
Why certain characters do not
always revert to ancestral forms,
p. 85, 86

Wild ^form of pummelo, non-exis-
tent, p. 199

„ lemons in Nilgiri Hills (?),
P- 75

Y.

Yu-shu, very ancient name of
pummelo in China, p. 360

Z.

Zigzag mining-insect in rind, pi. 77

Woodfall & Kinder, Printers, 70 to 76, Long Acre, London, W.C.

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