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ADVERTISEMENT.
Reversible Coulters.
Beware of Imitations.
ALL GENUINE “ACME” HARROWS HAVE
‘ FLEXIBLE GANG BARS.
DISTRIBUTING DEPOTS.
Goods are delivered free on board at—New York.—Co.umpvs,
O.—Cuicaco, Inn.—Kansas Crry, Mo.—Mryneaporis, Minn.—
Lovisvitie, Ky.—but all communications should be addressed to
DUANE H. NASH,
SOLE MANUFACTURER,
MILLINGTON, MORRIS COUNTY, N. J.
eae CULTURE
FARM CROPS.
OF THE
SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURE,
AND A
HAND-BOOK: OF PRACTICE
FOR
AMERICAN FARMERS.
By HENRY STEWART,
Author of
“The Shepherd’s Manual,” ‘ Irrigation for the Farm, Orchard and Garden.”
Civil Mining and Agricultural Engineer.
Member of the Western Society of Engineers.
ore
Kes YF! TDN
OCT 28 ey,
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PUBLISHED BY
DUANE HH: NASH,
MILLINGTON, Morris County, NEw JERSEY.
1887.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the pou
DUANE H. NASH, —
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washi
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CHAPTER VII.
RR eae ser TA GSTS MME RE ete ae gc Corin con ss bere ee 166 f
s *S Carlycub hay.-..tc:..2:4 Ero awakes A5She ss
oe Lh RSM eee oe de Soe 140 ee
6 PeMMRE GUUS roe, salaces 1.50 ce
Chloride Of MANGANESE............ceeseeeeeeeeeeeseerene tenses 3.39
TEPOAPIOLE SOG... <000hcscecsnsescsscsncevecces setnecersaccsasens 156.53
TOGIGE OF SOA. 0... .ccecccsocccosasccecsescastasssrenescoronesensces trace
Sulphate of potassium. ...........ceeceeeeeeeeeereeeeerrneeeees trace
Sulphate of Magnesia.............:scsescceeeseeeestssseeeseeess trace
Sulphate Of Lime.............:eessceeeeeeesnneesrseeeeeeenennreres 38.07
Phosphate Of SOM. .......--::sseeeseeeceeeeeesenseneereeeeceeees trace
WATHOMAtTC OF LIMC.....-0-.-0.cccssecnvcsoccecccessccnsassavsrsees
48 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Total in one gallon 13489.17 grains.
Per cent. 19.78
_ The water of springs, wells and rivers is thus never pure,
but holds in solution more or less of solid substances. Hence
we find that land watered by irrigation from rivers produces.
much larger crops than that watered by rain; also that land
that has been or is periodically overflowed by floods, becomes
exceedingly fertile. Even rain water is not pure except in
the wettest seasons, when the atmosphere has been washed
clean from its impure matter which is brought down by the
showers. In this way a large quantity of solid fertilizing
matter, as well as of fertilizing gases, is brought within reach
of the roots of the plants by the rain which is absorbed by
the soil. The water also dissolves matter from the soil and
presents it to the roots in such a condition that it can be
absorbed and utilized as nutriment.
These facts prove how indispensable it is that the soil should
be brought by thorough culture, and the use of the most perfect
implements, into such a condition of porosity and mellowness
that the water may be absorbed and held in itand not flow off
from the surface and carry away into the streams, not only all
its own burden of rich fertilizing matter but also rob the soil -
of a large portion of its own possession.
The solvent power of water is increased by heat, in regard
to nearly all substences excepting lime and ammonia which
are dissolvcd and absorbed by cold water more readily than
by warm. This property will be further explained in a
future chapter on HEAT.
Water has a strong affinity for various substances, indeed
it exists in a greater or less proportion in almost all solid
bodies and in every crystallized substance; forming in these
cases what is known as “the water of crystallization.”
When limestone is burned, water and carbonic acid are
DECOMPOSITION OF WATER. 49
driven off by the heat and lime remains. (This lime is the
oxide of the metal calcium.) When lime is brought into
contact with moisture, about one-third of its weight of water
is absorbed and the lime, swells, breaks apart and falls into
a very fine powder which is perfectly dry. This water is
combined with the lime and cannot be expelled at less than
a red heat. Gypsum contains in the same manner 21 per
cent. of water; alum contains 24 parts of water to two of
solid matter ; Epsom salts contain 50.2 per cent. of water;
and so on through a long list of crystallized minerals. It
has also a strong affinity for clay and all the more so, as the
clay is finely pulverized and disintegrated; carbonized veg-
etable matter also takes up a large quantity of water; hence
the great advantage of securing as large a quantity of de-
cayed organic matter, as may be possible in the soil.
This is quite distinct from the mechanical grasp upon
water exerted by porous substances, which merely hold it
in its interstices by capillary attraction, as is the case with
a sponge, and give it out again with great facility and with-
out any chemical action.
The elements of water are held together loosely and are
combined with great ease. When hydrogen is burned in
the air it combines with oxygen (as has been previously
described) and forms water. Ifa piece of zinc is placed in
a vessel of water—a glass bowl or a wide mouthed bottle,
for instance—and a little sulphuric acid (a few drops) is
added, the water is in part decomposed and the hydrogen
is set free. As this experiment is a pleasing one and very
simple, the chemical operation is here explained. The sul-
phurie acid acts upon the zinc and combines with it; but
as this acid has only three equivalents of oxygen (S. O3)
and zine requires one more equivalent to make the combin-
ation as sulphate of zinc (Z. S.O4) this excess of oxygen is
taken from the water, leaving the hydrogen free, when it,
escapes in bubbles apparently from the surface of the zinc.
If the bottle is corked and a glass or rubber tube is put
through the cork, the hydrogen gas may be collected. But
as it is explosive when mixed with air, great care must be
50 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
exercised in igniting the gas, and the first which is set free
should be permitted to escape until the air has been all car-
ried off.
Water undergoes continual decomposition and recombi-
nation in the interior of plants and animals. As a fluid it
finds its way into every cell and pore and passes out by
transpiration after it has given up to the tissues the matter
which is extracted from it. And so slight is the hold which
its elements have upon each other, and so strong is their
affinity for other elements, that they are ready to separate
upon very slight impulses; the oxygen forming compounds
with one and the hydrogen with others, as the production
of the various substances of which the plants form them-
selves, require and demand. And when the nature of chem-
ical combinations begins to be understood, there is no more
wonderful fact in the study of vegetable physiology than
the great variety of changes which are continually going
on through the agency of the elements of water and others
which it conveys into the tissues of plants and animals.
In the state of vapor too, water exerts a very potent in-
fluence upon the life and growth of farm crops. Vapor
escapes from water into the air, or is absorbed by the air,
not only at boiling heat, but at all temperatures. Even at
a zero temperature the air takes up water, as is known by
the housewife whose linen freezes dry in the cold, crisp,
wintry, air. A piece of ice exposed to the air in the coldest
weather gradually evaporates and disappears. It is how-
ever in the summer that the evaporation of water is most active;
and it is then that the effects of the condensation of the at-
mospheric moisture is most perceptible and useful. Dew is the
product of this condensation. The air charged with the vapor
which has been gathered during the heat of the day, is
cooled at night by contact with the soil, from which the
heat is rapidly lost by radiation. The cooling of the air
causes the moisture to condense, forming sometimes visible
vapor, seen in the evening and night fogs which prevail in
some localities; but always a burden of moisture which is
too heavy to be suspended in the air. This moisture then
FORMATION OF DEW. 8
falls and settles in fine globules upon the vegetation, the
soil, and upon all other objects which have been sufficiently
cooled. This process goes on mostly at night, but constantly
at other times when the temperature falls, and especially in
the soil, in which with the constant circulation of air (prev-
jously described) there is always the accompanying mois-
ture; which is condensed and deposited in the interstices
and so supplies the demands of the plants. The more com-
pletely the soil is made fine and pulverized the larger is the
deposit of atmospheric moisture.
This behavior of water under the beautiful and compre-
hensive laws to which it is subject, affords an instance of the
provident as well as bountiful operations of nature. Every
one of these operations tend towards the good of mankind.
It is the cultivator of the soil who reaps the benefits of these
universal and beneficent laws. Yet the rewards are not
given to all alike. We are told that the rains descend, the
_dews are distilled and the sun shines upon the just and the
unjust ; upon the industrious as well as the idle and neglect-
ful. An impartial and kind Providence offers these bene-
fits with an open and generous hand; overflowing with good
to mankind. But Providence does nothing more. The
farmer who avails himself of these invaluable gifts and does
his part by studying the nature of them and their adaptation
for his purposes; and thus adapts them with skill and in-
dustry to the preparation of the soil and the culture of his
crops, gains the highest rewards. The prizes are his; but
the blanks in the distribution are for those who neglect
these grand provisions and refuse to avail themselves of them.
It is “the hand of the diligent which maketh rich:”’ the
neglectful careless tiller of the soil has no promise of wealth
from the free gifts of nature; these are for the farmer who
uses every possible means to secure these gifts by the prac-
tice of an intelligent and effective culture of crops.
THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
gts AE aa sO oe Re Ge
HEAT AND COLD.—THEIR INFLUENCE UPON MATTER
AND VEGETATION.
Heat and cold are merely relative terms. Cold is a low
degree or absence of heat, just as darkness is the absence of
light, and has not in any sense, or in fact, any specific ex-
istence, as separate from heat. It is only quite recently
that the nature of heat has been understood. It was for-
merly supposed to be an element, a subtle fluid to which the
name Calorie was given; and whose entrance into a body
produced warmth and whose loss produced cold. As some
bodies, such as marble, felt cold and others, as wool, felt
warm, it was believed that various substances contained less
or more of this fluid stored up in its interstices according to
their varying capacities. It was given, in fact, all the
properties of a gas with some others which were believed to
belong to it specifically. This ancient notion was exploded
when it was discovered that heat was simply the effect of
motion of the particles of a body, and that the intensity of
the motion determines the temperature.
It is not the purpose here to discuss the various theories
which are held in regard to the nature of heat; these may
be studied in special works on the subject such as that of
Prof. Tyndall. It is most important for us to consider how
it affects those elementary and compound bodies which have
a close relation to the growth of plants, and its effects upon
germination and plant growth. It will be sufficient here
perhaps to repeat the words of Dr. Locke uttered a hun-
dred years ago in which the true idea of heat was enuncia-
ted. He said, “heat is a very brisk agitation of the insen-
sible parts of any object which produces in us that sensation
from which we call the object, hot; so that what in our
sensations is heat, in the object is nothing but motion.” A
LATENT HEAT. 5S
familiar instance may be given. If a person slide down
from an elevated place by means of a rope held in the
hands and he descends rapidly he feels a burning sensation
in his hands and the skin is blistered precisely the same as
if he held a hot iron rod in his hands. This heat is the re-
sult of an intense vibration of the fibers of the muscles and
skin of the hands; and is equal in degree exactly to the vi-
bration of the particles in an iron rod whose heat would
cause precisely the same sensation and result in the hands.
To study the relations of heat with intelligence it must not
be regarded as a thing, but as a condition of matter and an
effect of the change of a condition.
The chief source of heat is the sun. All combustion isa
source of heat, and as we have seen, combustion is a chemi-
cal effect. Mechanical force is also a source of heat; and
friction, pressure, or any other result of force is accompanied
by heat. Heat once produced is never lost or destroyed: it
may disappear but it always exists. The heat of the sun
communicated to the earth is absorbed in various ways, that
is we use this expression; but in truth we should say the
force is communicated to every object brought under its
influence. It is absorbed by the waters of the ocean and
their particles move and separate more widely apart form-
ing vapor.
The amount of force (which we call heat) thus commun-
icated has been accurately calculated. If we take an ounce
of ice at 32 degrees and one of water at 174 degrees and
put them together, the ice will be melted and there will be
two ounces of water; but the temperature will be only 32
degrees. Where has the excess of 142 degrees of heat which
has been apparently lost by the hot water, disappeared? It
has not been lost but has become stored up in the water
and has become the latent or hidden heat of the liquid.
This latent heat can be found again when the water is froz-
en, for in the formation of ice precisely 142 degrees of heat
are given out by the water in the gradual change of the
liquid to a solid.
In the same way when water is changed to steam a very
54 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
large quantity of heat is rendered latent in the vapor.
Water at 32 degrees absorbs 180 degrees of heat and reaches
a temperature of 212 degrees which is the boiling point.
But it does boil only slowly and steara is produced very
gradually. It is found that if the consumption of one pound
of coal will raise a quantity of water from 32 degrees to 212
degrees; 53 Ibs. more will be required to change it all to
steam of the same temperature. 53 times 180 or 990
units of heat will then have been expended, but have
not been lost; they are stored in the steam and are the
latent heat of the vapor of water. And when the vapor
of water is condensed into liquid this heat is given out
again.
And here is another most wonderful instance of the infinite
wisdom and beneficent adaptation of the laws of nature to
the stability of the universe and the comfort and happiness
of mankind. The expansion of water as it changes into ice
has been already mentioned. This is one more effect of
heat, that is a reduction of it, upon this liquid, and has an
intimate connection with this part of our subject. When
water reaches its maximum density which is 39 degrees, un-
der the influence of the abstraction of heat, it then begins
- to increase in bulk until ice crystals form when the total
expansion amounts to one-eleventh of the bulk. Conse-
quently the ice floats on the surface and after a time it be-
comes thick enough to protect the underlying water from
the effects of cold. Were it otherwise, ice would sink to the
bottom and as the surface water cooled it would also sink
and the whole water would soon be changed into ice. The
ocean would then become a vast bed of solid ice, which by
the very force of this law would remain permanently and re-
sist all the heat of the sun to change it. Then the earth
would be uninhabitable. No green blade would appear on
the surface; no animal would find subsistence; there would
be no clouds, no rain; everything would be cold and drear
and lifeless; a dead world.
Again, were it not for the gradual absorption of heat by
the melting ice and the evaporating water, the earth would
‘THE FORCE OF HEAT. 5D
be destroyed by the sudden catastrophe of an overwhelming
flood at the approach of every spring. The accumulated
ice and snow of the winter would be changed to vast bod-
ies of water as soon as they reached the temperature of 32
degrees; and when the boiling heat should be reached, the
water would change into steam with the force of an ex-
plosion and rend everything near it to atoms. _Instead_ of
being useful to man it would be a most destructive agent,
which men would avoid as they would avoid nitro-glycerine.
The contemplation of these thoughts gives a new force
and interest to the fact that “the earth was given to man”
and truly the gift was perfectly well adapted to his uses,
and for his enjoyment. ;
It has been shown that the force equivalent to the heat
required to produce 9 lbs. of steam at 212 degrees by the
union of 8 lbs. of oxygen and 1 lb. of hydrogen is equal to
that represented by the fall of a ton weight down a preci-
pice 22,320 feet high: to change this vapor into liquid a
force is exerted equal to that of the fall of a ton down 2,900
feet; and to change the water into ice the force is equal to the
descent of a ton down 433 feet. And yet these enormous forces
are going on in the soil and in the tissues of delicate plants,
continually, silently, but omnipotently; without any out-
ward indication. Prof. Tyndall has remarked of this lat-
ent force hidden in a drop of water, “I have seen the wild
stone avalanches of the Alps; which thunder and smoke
down the declivities with a force almost sufficient to stun
the observer. I have also seen snowflakes, descending so
softly as not to injure the fragile spangles of which they
were composed; yet to produce from aqueous vapor, a quan-
tity of that tender material that a child might carry, de-
mands an exertion of energy competent to gather up the
shattered blocks of the largest avalanche I have ever seen
and to pitch them to twice the height from which they
i.”
Combustion is a source of heat; and the decay of organic
substance is a slow combustion. This fact is exemplified in
the decomposition of vegetable matter. When the farmer
56 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
makes a heap of manure, or a hot bed, the mass soon begins
to heat and in time is changed from its previous condition
into a black powdery substance having no resemblance to
vegetable tissue. ‘The heat produced by the chemical ac- |
tion which has resulted in this change has been precisely
equal to that which would have been required to drive off
the moisture; set free the gases; and reduce the matter to
its mineral, carbonaceous, and nitrogenous elements which
remain in the mass. In like manner heat is produced
by every chemical change. The union of water with sul-
phuric acid is accompanied by violent heat; so is the solu-
tion of a piece of copper in nitric acid. And as the decom-
position of a vegetable cell in a manure heap is accompanied
by heat so is its decomposition in the soil; and its formation
in the plant.
The effects of heat—and cold—upon the soil are great
and varied. It is the sun’s heat, penetrating the soil which
causes the germination of the seed. At low temperatures
seeds will remain in the soil for many years unchanged.
The heat of the sun does not penetrate very deeply and at
a very moderate depth the heat of the soil is constant, dur-
ing summer and winter. This is caused by the effect of
evaporation, as well as by the nonconducting property of
the air spaces between the particles of the soil. Seeds of
weeds and plants which remain at some depth in the soil
are thus kept dormant for many years, starting into growth ©
whenever they are brought under the influence of the
warmth of the sun’s rays.
The heat of the sun also causes the evaporation of water
from the soil and dries it and makes it fit for the labors of
the farmer. But this result has also another effect which
is unfavorable. It cools the soil and reduces the temperature,
and when the soil contains an excess of water and the evap-
oration is copious, this cooling is exceedingly hurtful to the
crops. There are soils which are called cold clays; and
swampy lands are always cold and unproductive of the bet-
ter class of crops, favoring the growth of mosses and ferns
and other useless plants. This is due to the constant evap-
THE EFFECTS OF VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 57
oration from the surface. To change the water into vapor,
has been shown to require a large expenditure of heat; and
precisely the same heat is drawn from the soil when vapor
rises from it as is imparted by the fuel of a fire which pro-
duces the same amount of evaporation. This heat drawn
from the soil necessarily reduces its temperature. An ex-
periment which exemplifies this result may be made as
follows: A few drops of ether are placed upon the skin;
and the breath is blown upon it. The current of air evap-
orates the volatile ether quickly, and causes a large absorp-
tion of heat. The abstraction of the heat from the skin to
supply this requirement of the evaporation causes a sensa-
tion of cold upon the skin. This is precisely the effect up-
on the soil, when the warm air blowing over wet clay or
swampy land causes copious evaporation and is all the
greater as the evaporation is excessive.
This effect operates to relieve persons from the results of
excessive heat. When the temperature rises to 90 degrees
and over, the animal system becomes oppressed. The blood
whose normal heat is 98 degrees, rises in temperature and
produces serious disturbance of the nervous system, which if
not relieved quickly ends in what is known as sunstroke,
and speedy death. But the evaporation of the water of the
system in the form of perspiration relieves the oppression;
carries off the heat; cools the blood and theskin; and prevents
the fatal results of the unrelieved heat. When an incau-
tious person suddenly plunges into cold water, or drinks
cold water to excess, the pores of the skin are closed in the
one case and a chill is produced in the other; either of
which checks the perspiration; and prevents the escape of
the internal heat; when fatal results are often produced.
So the wearing of wet clothes abstracts heat from the body
and thus produces pernicious effects; while the use of wet
sheets in which fever patients are wrapped; rapidly cools
the parched skin; induces natural perspiration; and saves the
sufferer.
The abstraction of heat by evaporation is so great under
some circumstances that water can be frozen by it. This
58 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
may be shown by a simple experiment. A shallow vessel
containing sulphuric acid is placed in another containing
water and both are placed under the receiver of an air
pump. When the air is exhausted the vapor of the water.
is so rapidly absorbed by the acid that the water is frozen.
By using liquid sulphurous acid which evaporates with in-
tense force, and pouring it into a red hot vessel, and then
adding water, the water is suddenly frozen into ice under
the intense cold produced by the rapid evaporation of the
acid.
The lowest degree of cold ever produced; 220 degrees.
below zero; was by means of the vaporization of liquid pro-
toxide of nitrogen mixed with bisulphide of carbon in a va-
cuum. These examples however are not of practical interest.
to the farmer further than to exemplify the vast and varied
changes produced in matter by heat and cold.
The same kind of result may be produced by the sudden
liquefaction of solids. Thus a mixture of salt and ice
causes the rapid melting of the ice and a sufficient reduction
of temperature to freeze water. In this case both the solids.
are liquefied and the effect is intensified. The cold thus.
produced is 40 below zero. Four ounces of sal ammoniae:
and the same quantity of saltpetre, finely powdered and dis-
solved in 8 ounces of water, will cause a reduction of 40:
degrees of temperature; and powdered Glauber’s salts,
drenched with hydrochloric acid, will sink the temperature:
from 50 degrees to zero. These mixtures are in common
use as the so called freezing mixtures. The newly intro-
duced ice machines by which ice is produced at a cost of
one dollar per ton, are operated by the vaporization’ of am-
monia in the gaseous form from its solution in water.
A very useful practical application of the liberation of
heat by freezing is that often used to evade the freezing of
the contents of cellars in very cold weather, by placing a.
pail full of water in the cellar. The water freezes more eas-
ily than any other liquid or solid containing liquid; as fresh
vegetables and fruits; and in the act of freezing gives out.
the latent heat of the water which actually warms the cel-
EFFECTS OF EVAPORATION ON CLIMATE. 5D
lar. For the same reason the coolness of the early winter
is subdued and greatly modified by the heat given out by
large bodies of water in the act of freezing; and in this way
lakes and rivers, as well as the ocean, have a very import-
ant influence upon the climate of adjacent localities. Late
frosts are avoided and the intense cold is delayed until later:
in the winter. This fact has given rise to the common
adage, “As the days begin to lengthen, the cold begins to
strengthen,” by which is meant that the cold does not be-
come severe until the beginning of the new year, when the
waters and the ground have become frozen and all their
latent heat has been given out.
The heats of the summer are also much reduced in in-
tensity by the excessive evaporation from bodies of watér and
from cultivatedsoil. Ithasbeen found that the climate of the
great western plains has been favorably modified by the in-
troduction of irrigation and the breaking up of the vast
areas of dry prairie which have been brought under tillage.
Evaporation of the water thus used, or gathered in the por-
ous soil by the rains, which are absorbed instead of flowing
as heretofore, from the dry hard surface in vast sheets and
floods to the nearest stream, both cools and moistens the
air; supplies tke vapor for clouds which shade the soil and
temper the sun’s rays, and which in turn descend again to.
the soil whence they came in genial cooling showers. This
is a remarkable instance of how man’s industry modifies
climate by changing the natural conditions prevailing and
so fits the earth for his occupation and use.
THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
CHAPTER XX.
CARBONIC ACID.—ITS PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
IN PLANT GROWTH.
Carbonic acid is one of the three materials which together
form the starting point of vegetable growth; the others be-
ing water and nitric acid. This acid is formed of carbon
and oxygen in the proportion of one part of the former to
two of the latter chemically combined. It is a colorless gas,
having an acid taste and smell; is soluble in water; weighs
one-half more than air and can be poured from one vessel
to another, as a liquid may be; 100 parts of water dissolve
106 parts of this gas, and it is from this source that the roots
of plants derive the needed supplies of it.
It is produced by the combustion of carbon in the atmos-
phere; when it unites with oxygen in the proportions men-
tioned. An easy way to produce it is to burn charcoal on
an open hearth. In a close room this combustion takes the
oxygen from the atmosphere and fills the whole space with
carbonic acid. ‘This necessarily is a dangerous proceeding
and at times causes fatal results, by the keeping of char-
coal fires, or even coal fires, in poorly ventilated apart-
ments.
This gas is wholly unable to support life and when exist-
ing in an excessive proportion in the air not only destroys
animal life, but is also fatal to vegetable existence. Neither
will it support combustion. Fire is extinguished by it; but
when mixed with certain proportions of hydrogen it be-
comes inflammable, and even explosive when mixed with
air. It forms a large proportion of the rocks in combina-
tion with various mineral elements. One of the most com-
mon of the rocks,—limestone, and of which marble is one
form, contains 44 per cent. of it and can be separated from
it by the action of an acid or by burning. If asmall quan-
y
CARBONIC ACID A FOOD FOR PLANTS. 61
tity of powdered marble be placed in any vessel and strong
vinegar, or any acid, is poured upon it, active effervescence
ensues and the carbonic acid is given off copiously. Chalk
is a common form of this combination of lime and carbonic
acid, the union of which forms carbonate of lime. One
cubic inch of marble or chalk will yield 4 gallons or near-
ly half a cubic foot of this gas; and the burning of one bushel
_ of charcoal will produce 2,500 gallons. It is also produced.
by fermentation. When cider is suffered to ferment; or
any other liquid which contains sugar; bubbles of carbonic
acid gas are evolved from it and rise through it and es- "
cape at the surface. ‘This is caused by the change of the
sugar into aleohol by which carbonic acid is formed. The
same result happens when a solution of malt or glucose
is fermented for the manufacture of beer: the foam which
appears upon the fresh beer being caused by the escape of
carbonic acid from the liquid during its confinement in the
barrel or bottle. The foaming of sparkling wines is due to
the same cause.
It is also produced by the decomposition of solid sub-
stances which contain starch, or other vegetable matter.
The carbon of the starch, or cellular substance, is slowly
consumed by the low heat of the decomposition, and unites
with oxygen, giving off carbonic acid in the process; the
residue left after final decay being mostly all mineral
matter.
Carbonic acid is the principal food of plants and con-
tributes largely to that portion of their substance, which
is derived from the atmosphere. The supply of this nec-
essary compound is derived both fromthe atmosphere, and
from the water, which are always present’in the soil.
These entering into the substance of the plants, the for-
mer by the leaves and the latter by the roots, are taken in-
to the circulation in the sap and elaborated into the solid
cellular tissue, starch, sugar, and gum, which are com-
pounds of carbon oxygen and hydrogen; or carbon and
water; asthe oxygen and hydrogen exist in these sub-
stances in precisely the proportions which go to form water.
62 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
‘Thus starch consists of 12 parts of carbon; 20 parts of hy-
‘drogen and 10 parts of oxygen; while it has been seen that
water, consisting of 2 parts of hydrogen and 1 part of oxy-
gen, the 20 parts of hydrogen and 10 of oxygen in the
starch are equivalent to precisely 10 parts of water. But
it is not certain that starch is made up of carbon and wat-
er; it is more probable that the three elemeuc: exist in
‘starch in other forms of combination. It is certain however
that carbonic acid is the source from which the carbon of
the vegetable substance is procured: because carbon is in-
soluble in water and is a solid substance, and plants cannot
take any solid matter into their circulation and their food
_ must always be in solution in water. This part of our
‘subject however will be more fully treated in a future chap-
ter and under its appropriate head.
The air contains one part of carbonic acid in 2,500 and
this proportion seems to be the most suitable for the health-
ful growth of plants. The sun light has a great influence
upon this nutritive function of this acid. When plants are
exposed to the sunshine, it has been found that they grew
more vigorously in an artificial atmosphere containing one-
twelfth of its bulk of carbonic acid; but when this propor-
tion was increased the plants were injured. When the
carbonic acid amounted to one-half the atmosphere, the
plants perished in 7 days; and when the proportion was
two-thirds, the plants stopped growth immediately. Inthe
shade, any increase of the carbonic acid above the normal
amount in the atmosphere viz one twenty-five hundredth
(.0004) proved to be injurious. This fact is of im-
portance; for the reason that although an _ increase
in the quantity of carbonic acid in the air, might stimu-
late vegetable growth, yet it would seriously and even fatally
disturb the balance of nature, because the air would then
be unfit for the respiration of animals; and moreover al-
though plants would grow more luxuriantly in such an at-
mosphere, in perpetual sunshine, yet they would suffer in
the shade; and would also certainly require a proportion-
-ate increase in the supply of other food, to complete their
ACTION OF CARBONIC ACID. 63
growth; for it is a well established law of vegetable growth
that plants will not and cannot take into their circulation, *
to any considerable extent, any larger proportion of any
one element of their structure than the normal quantity as
found existing in them upon chemical analysis. Thus
wheat plants contain certain elements in their composition,
and these are found to be constant under all circumstances;
and notwithstanding that the soil might contain an excess-
ive quantity of any one of these elements, yet no more than
the normal proportion would be taken up by the wheat.
If one is increased, every one must be, and thus an increase
of one would necessitate an increase of all. If then the at- _
mosphere should contain an excessive quantity of carbonic
acid and the growth of vegetation should be greatly stimu-
lated thereby, it would lead to a very rapid exhaustion of
the soil by the removal of the necessary mineral elements.
This principle is a fundamental one, and applies generally
to the growth of farm crops and should therefore be kept in
constant remembrance by every farmer.
Carbonic acid unites with all the alkaline minerals in the
soil: as lime; magnesia; potash; soda; also with ammonia;
as the carbonates of these substances. Its solution in water
gives this liquid an increased solvent power over mineral
substances; thus common carbonate of lime is practically
insoluble in pure water; but when the water contains car-
bonic acid, it is able to dissolve a considerable quantity of
it, and this property applies to other mineral substances as
well. This gives a practical importance to the functions of
this acid which is of the greatest interest to cultivators of
the soil. A simple experiment will illustrate this behavior
of carbonic acid. A current of this gas passed through lime
water will produce a milky appearance in it by the forma-
tion and precipitation of carbonate of lime. After a short
time the cloudiness will disappear by the solution of the
carbonate thus formed, in the acid water. By heating the
water the carbonic acid is driven off and the carbonate of
lime is again precipitated and appears.
The carbonic acid of the air is produced from a variety
64 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
of sources. It is given off copiously by the lungs of ani-
mals during respiration: it is formed during the process of
fermentation, andthe decomposition of all organic sub-
stances. But its absorption and reproduction in. nature
seem to be perfectly balanced. It exists primarily in the
air to the extent named and is equally diffused throughout
the mass of it. Plants spring up and grow and form their
substance by its absorption from the atmosphere both di-
rectly and through the water which dissolves it. Plants de-
cay and return their carbonic acid to the atmosphere.
Animals feed upon the vegetation, convert the carbon into
carbonic acid in their system by the production of vital
heat, which is a true process of combustion; and exhale the
gas from their lungs. Men dig coal from the bowels of the
earth or cut timber from the forests and use these for fuel;
in the combustion enormous quantities of carbon stored up
in these substances are changed into carbonic acid, and are
discharged into the air, in which it isimmediately diffused.
The succeeding generations of plants take this new supply
and convert it to their uses and thus a grand routine is
completed and the precise balance is maintained. This is
but one of the niany beautiful instances of the operation
of a set of natural laws, the effects of which produce what.
is called the balance of nature; or the conservation of force.
Both of these terms are well applied, and strictly correct,
for as every operation of nature consumes force, it is the
balance of these forces which maintains the equilibrium of
the universe, preserving order and regularity of motion,
which goes on undisturbed as generations come and go and
centuries roll around; typifying the eternity of matter and
the indestructible nature of elements.
THE SOURCES OF NITRIC ACID.
fe APT ER XI.
NITRIC ACID.—ITS COMPOSITION, AND USES IN THE
GROWTH OF CROPS.
Nitrogen itself is wholly inert and has no positive action
in nature. Its office is wholly negative. But when com-
bined with oxygen as nitric acid, or with hydrogen as am-
monia, it becomes endowed with the most active properties.
and enters into the most interesting and useful combina~
tions in the structure of organic matter. Nitrogen forms’
one-sixth part of the animal tissues and the same propor~-
tion of the so called nitrogenous, or albuminoid portions of
plants. But there is no evidence to prove that the nitro-
gen so combined in organic substance Is derived directly
from this element as it exists in the atmosphere; but on the
contrary abundant reason to believe that it enters into the
composition of plants in the form of nitric acid, which is a
combination of nitrogen and oxygen. Moreover we are at
a loss to know how this nitric acid enters into the compo-
sition of plant tissue; the general drift of the evidence gained
by the most careful experiments going to show that it is
carried into the plants in solution in the water of the soil,
and is derived from the ammonia which is abundantly
evolved from decaying organic matter in the soil and only
to a very small extent from the contributions drawn from
the atmosphere.
The sources of nitric acid are threefold; first; from the
atmosphere in which it exists as a product of the decompo-
sition of organic matter and from which it is washed by the
rains which dissolve it; second; from a peculiar fermenta-
tion of organic matter, in the soil or in manure; which is
produced by the agency of a low form of plant life; agerm
or fungus which grows and spreads through the mass and
causes the oxidation of the nitrogenous matter in it; or it
66 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
may be that it acts upon the nitrogen left free by the with-
drawal of the oxygen from it and so induces its combina-
tion with oxygen; and, third; nitric acid is formed in the
atmosphere by the action of electrical discharges by which
the oxygen and nitrogen are brought into combination; in
the manner previously mentioned.
The atmospheric sources of nitric acid are not sufficient
to account for the large quantity of it which is found in
any ordinary crop. Various experiments have been made
for the purpose of ascertaining the amount of combined
nitrogen, in either of its forms, which is gathered by plants
from the atmosphere. The average of all the determina-
tions which have been reached, give the quantity at about
10 pounds per acre. But the average consumption by the
crops equals 44 lbs. per acre. So that this atmospheric
supply is wholly inadequate for the growth of farm crops.
This is one of seeming anomalies of nature, that while no
less than nearly 20,000 tons of nitrogen, as it exists in the
atmosphere, rest over one acre of surface, a crop cannot
procure the small quantity of 44 lbs. per acre from all this
vast atmospheric store. But this is quite consistent with
the regular course of natural operations. The elements
form combinations, as has been shown of an infinite num-
ber and variety, and it is only in these combined forms
that they serve their ends. The elementary carbon can
provide plants with their supply of carbon, only through
its combination with oxygen; and in like manner the ele-
mentary nitrogen requires a certain preparation to fit it for
assimilation by plants.
The small quantity of nitric acid which is procured from
the atmosphere by the crops, is however sufficient for all the
practical needs of the intelligent farmer. He does not de-
pend upon the air to supply his crops with this scarce and
most valuable nutriment. By a wise course of economical
management he accumulates a large amount of organic
matter rich in nitrogen, the decay of which he aids by his
skillful methods, and so provides an abundant stock of food
for his crops. Ifthe atmosphere then contributes a fourth
HOW NITER IS FORMED IN THE SOIL. 67
of what his crops need, he is the gainer by so much, and
by his abundant provision in the form of manure and fer-
tilizers, his fields are yearly increasing in fertility. The
formation of nitric acid and nitrates in the soil by the ac-
tion of the special ferment alluded to is of paramount im-
portance to the farmer. The manner by which this result
may be produced artificially, and has been effected for the
production of saltpeter, is as follows. A mass of soil rich
in organic nitrogenous compounds, as urine, animal excre-
ments, vegetable and animal matter of any kind, is put in-
to a heap and mixed with a quantity of quicklime. The
heap is put up loosely so that the air can penetrate easily
through the mass. In course of time the mass is leached,
and the liquid, highly charged with nitric acid, is neutral-
ized with carbonate of potash; the solution is then evapor-
ated and nitrate of potash or saltpeter is produced. These
heaps are known as “niter beds” and the process was for-
merly used extensively for procuring saltpeter for the man-
ufacture of gunpowder for warlike purposes, before the
great natural deposits of niter in South America were dis-
covered. These natural deposits are now the chief source
whence saltpetor of commerce is procured, and yield thou-
sands of tons yearly of nitrate of soda for use as a fertilizer.
It is a probable supposition that the origin of these deposits
was similar to that of the artificial niter beds. A vast mass
of organic matter rich in nitrogen, such as fish, or plants of
some kind, had accumulated in shallow lagoons of the
ocean, and had been covered with mud by gradual deposition.
The action of the atmosphere in the hot arid climate of
Western South America favored the nitrification of the mass
and the nitric acid formed, combined with the soda of the
salt from the sea water to form nitrate of soda. One of the
frequent convulsions of nature common to that coast eleva-
ted the surface of the land, gradually, during the formation
of the deposit, and the gradual rise has left the niter beds
in their present position at a distance from the ocean. The
compost heaps made by the farmer, in such a manner as to
favor this process of nitrification, form a source whence a
68 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
large supply of this indispensable plant food may be pro-
cured.
It is quite possible, not to say probable, that the oxida-
tion of nitrogen may occur directly in these beds. A large
quantity of free nitrogen is necessarily left in the mass by
the consumption of oxygen in the decomposition of the or-
ganic matter. This nitrogen is dissolved to some extent by
the water in the heap, the water is decomposed by the
chemical action, and in the aggregate result of the vigorous
chemical actions and reactions going on there is no violent
assumption in the conclusion that the free nitrogen is seized
upon to some extent by the omnipotent oxygen and reduced
to nitric acid. The possibility or probability of this is all
on the side of the farmer who may avail himself of it as far
as possible, by providing the means for it and securing the
results of it if there are any.
The earth is a great magnet and electrical disturbances
are constantly going on, through its mass and upon its sur-
face. Every spark of electricity, from the lightning flash,
to the tiny discharge from weak currents in the soil, cause
a union of the elements of the air and produce nitric acid.
It is quite possible, and even probable, that many vexed
questions in regard to the source of the nitrogen gathered
by such plants, as clover, from the soil, may in time find
their solution in this direction. So far we know that a crop
of clover gathers an enormous quantity of nitrogen from
some source. All we know of the subject tends to point out
the soil as the source of it. A fertile soil may contain from
two to three tons of nitrogen to the acre, and of this a crop
of clover will gather in its roots and stubble and leave upon
the soil from 150 to 180 Ibs.; while no other crop could ex-
tract from it enough to supply the needs for any profitable
yield. The clover has procured this nitrogen in some hid-
den way; how we know not; but we know the fact. This
is sufficient for the purposes of the farmer, who may specu-
late upon the causes of it, while he avails himself of the re-
sults. It may be however that a large portion of this
gathered nitrogen has been brought up from great depths
EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY. 69
in the soil by the long tap roots of the clover plants and to
which the roots of other plants cannot reach; and that some
of this organic nitrogen, at least, may have been procured
from nitric acid produced in the deeper soil by the action
of electrical currents. Perhaps this source is over estimated;
but it is certain that the action of electrical discharges
through the soil, which are quite as frequent as those through
the air, and from cloud to cloud, have as yet not been con-
sidered to any extent, if at all, in the discussions and inves-
tigations of this exceedingly important question: “where do
plants procure their nitrogen?”
THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Crear TER XT
AMMONIA.—ITS COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES, AND RE-
LATION TO VEGETABLE GROWTH.
Ammonia has been previously mentioned as a compound
of nitrogen and hydrogen gases. It has some very inter:
esting and important properties in regard to organic mat-
ter, and has been made the subject of much study and ex-
periment by agricultural physiologists. It is a colorless
gas, but offers in its other remarkable properties, an instance
of the wonderful changes in matter made by chemical com-
bination. Its primary elements have neither taste nor
odor, but when combined, this product has a most powerful
penetrating odor; a burning acrid taste: extinguishes flame;
is not combustible as hydrogen is; instantly suffocates ani-
mals; kills living vegetables, and corrodes their substance.
It is absorbed in large quantities by porous substances;
charcoal absorbs 95 times its own bulk of it; peat takes up
a large amount of it, varying with its own condition; decay-
ing vegetable matter also takes up and holds it in its mass;
porous soils, clay, and iron oxide mixed in the soils of a
red color, are capable of absorbing and retaining it within
their pores, when it is brought into contact with them.
But water absorbs ammonia to a far greater extent than
any other substance. Ifa bottle filled with the gas is in-
verted in water, the water will instantly rush up and fill
the bottle, absorbing and dissolving the ammonia and occu-
pying its place. The solution of ammonia in water is
lighter than water to the extent of one-eighth; and has the
same properties as the gas itself.
Ammonia is an alkali and combines with acids; changes
vegetable red colors to blue, and in combining with some
acid gases forms solid substances; as for instance when
carbonic acid gas is mixed with it, the two gases combine
INFLUENCE OF AMMONIA UPON VEGETATION. Ti
and form solid carbonate of ammonia, in the form of mi-
nute particles appearing as a white cloud. A feather dip-
_ ped into diluted hydrochloric acid, or in vinegar, and held
over a bottle of ammonia water, or any substance from
which ammonia is escaping, is soon covered with a white
downy substance, which in the one case is chloride of am-
monia, and in the other is acetate of ammonia. ‘This test.
of the presence of ammonia is an easy method of distin-
euishing it where its escape from decomposing substances is
suspected.
This gas is only little more than half the weight of air
(59 hundredths); hence it ‘rises and is diffused in the air
with ease. It consists of 14 parts by weight of nitrogen
(82.545 per cent.) and 3 parts by weight of hydrogen
(17.455 per cent.).
In nature it exists in large quantity. It is almost uni-
versally diffused throughout the atmosphere and in the
surface soil and the waters of the atmosphere and the earth;
but itis not known to enter into any of the mineral com-
pounds of which the earth is composed. One exception
may be noted and this is guano; a substance supposed by
some to consist of the decomposed excrements of sea birds,
and by others of infusorial matter, having some relation to
mineral substance. But in either case guano would be of
organic origin and a product of the decomposition of or-
ganic matter. This substance when free from earthy mat-
ter contains a large proportion of ammonia, both free and
combined, and is the most valuable and costly fertilizer
known.
Ammonia chiefly exists in a state of combination as carbon-
ate, but also asa chloride, and anitrate. Asit combines very
freely with acids, and most easily with carbonic acid, it is
rarely found free in the atmosphere, and then only tempor-
arily; but it is as easily separated from its combinations,
on account of its volatile character which makes it readily
subject to the influence of heat.
The influence of ammonia upon the growth of plants is
exceedingly active. It not only promotes the growth with
re THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
rapidity and luxuriance, but it appears to exercise a con-
siderable control over the functions of vegetable life. In
this regard there are several special properties of this com-
pound which should be clearly understood, by the farmer
and student of agriculture.
First.—It has a powerful affinity for acid substances, and
unites with them with great facility as it escapes into the
atmosphere, or meets with them in the soil. Hence when
formed or liberated in the stables; in the cattle yard; man-
ure and compost heaps and in other places where organic
matter is in a process of decay; it unites with such acid sub-
stances and forms salts or saline compounds. And these
salts appear to exert a considerable influence upon the growth
of crops.
Second.—This affinity for acid substances however, is
much less active and strong than that possessed by other al-
kaline compounds, as potash, lime, soda and magnesia.
Hence if any one of these alkaline substances is brought in-
to contact with a salt of ammonia, this is at once decom-
posed and its acid is taken up by the stronger alkali, while
the ammonia is separated and set free in its gaseous state.
If a small quantity of sal-ammoniac (chloride of ammon-
ium) is powdered and is. mixed with twice its weight of
powdered quicklime, the ammoniacal gas is liberated, and
the chlorine unites with the lime. This is one of the several
methods of procuring pure ammonia, and is an instance of
one of the very many useful functions performed by lime in
the soil for the benefit of farm crops; especially upon lands
which have been made rich in organic matter by liberal
manuring, or which are naturally well supplied with decay-
ing vegetable matter, as reclaimed swamps or peat bogs.
It also shows the injurious effect of mixing lime with man-
ure of any kind in which ammonia exists, or can be devel-
oped by the decomposing agency of the lime, unless at the
same time, the lime is used in moderate quantity and a con-
siderable amount of soil or other matters which absorb am-
monia are used to counteract this result of the lime.
Third.—The salts and saline compounds which are formed
AMMONIA ABSORBED BY THE SOIL. te
by the union of the ammonia with acids, are like the gas
itself, exceedingly soluble in water. Two results of this
property follow. The carbonate of ammonia which is
formed in the atmosphere by the union of the ammonia and
the carbonic acid, is readily dissolved, and is washed down
and brought to the earth by the rains and dews; the soil is
thus supplied with most useful food for the crops, while
the air is freed from a noxious substance and is purified for
the use of mankind and animals. Also whatever combina-
tions of ammonia are formed in the soil, are dissolved and
diffused through it by the rains, or other moisture derived
by condensation, and are carried everywhere in all direc-
tions by the movements of this moisture among the fine
particles of the soil.
Fourth.—As this gas is readily absorbed by porous earthy
matter, it is readily taken up by the soil and held in reserve
to be yielded up to the roots of plants with the water of the
soil which draws upon this source for asupply. Hence the
ammonia yielded by the decomposing organic matter of the
soil, is held safely but loosely among the finest particles of
the soil as an intermediate deposit, to be drawn upon for
future use as it may be required by the crops. This prop-
erty of fine dry soil is of great importance to the farmer for
it is exerted to a large extent. All porous substances— as.
has been previously explained—have, among other proper-
ties, that of oxidizing organic matter. Hence it has been
found that the dry earth used as an absorbent in the do-
mestic earth-closets and urinals, so rapidly and effectively
oxidize these matters which are rich in nitrogen, and in
which the nitrogen is easily converted into ammonia, that
they wholly disappear, and the dry earth after having been
used repeatedly nine times in the closet, with alternate pe-
riods of rest, still gives no indication of having been used
for this purpose in the slightest offensiveness, or appearance
of containing any disagreeable substance. The organic mat-
ter has disappeared; having evidently been resolved by ox-
idation into its elements and the gases having been absorbed
and held by occlusion in the interstices of the porous earth.
74 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
This fact is full of significance to the farmer who may per-
ceive in it a proof of the necessity of a thorough pulverization
of the soil for the maximum growth and yield of his crops.
Fifth.—In the state of carbonate,—in which it mostly ex-
ists, because of its affinity for this acid and the abundance
of it in the atmosphere—ammonia decomposes gypsum
(sulphate of lime) and changes acids with it; forming sul-
phate of ammonia and carbonate of lime. This action only
goes on however when moisture is present. The beneficial
action of gypsum (the common agricultural ‘‘plaster”) upon
clover, corn and other crops has been ascribed to this single
property. But popular impressions are easily formed and
take a firm hold upon the popular mind, whica does not
stop to think and reason, or take pains and time to observe
closely; hence the opinions thus formed are too often only
superficial and partial and are not substantial enough to
base a rule or principle upon. No doubt some of the favora-
ble results of an application of “plaster” to the soil, in some
cases, may be due to this mutual action of gypsum and car-
bonate of ammonia, or of gypsum and free ammonia upon
each other; but there are other principles involved in the
subject which must be referred to in a more appropriate
place hereafter and to which much of the effect of gypsum
is undoubtedly due. Nevertheless as it is a fact that gyp-
sum and carbonate of ammonia do exert this mutual reac-
tion upon each other, and under favorable circumstances
the result may be conspicuously marked upon the growth
of the crops. For 100 lbs. of common finely ground gyp-
sum—a comparatively small quantity to be spread over an
acre of land—will fix or unite with nearly 20 lbs. of am-
monia, containing 16% lbs. of nitrogen;—a comparatively
large quantity of this scarce and invaluable plant food, for
it is equivalent to about 60 Ibs. of nitric acid and nearly
100 lbs. of nitrate of soda, which is considered a very lib-
eral use of this most active fertilizer. And this fact is one
to be studiously considered and judiciously applied by every
intelligent ‘farmer.
Sixth.—The presence of ammonia in a soil which contains
DECOMPOSITION OF AMMONIA. 75
decaying animal and vegetable matter, induces this matter
to attract oxygen from the air with greater rapidity and
abundance. That is, in simple words, ammonia assists in
and hastens the decomposition of organic substances, and
the result of this is that compounds are formed which react
upon the ammonia, combine with it and form ammoniacal
salts. When these are in their turn decomposed by lime
or other substances in the soil, they become more available
plant food, being more advanced towards a fit condition for
this purpose and for assimilation into the circulation and
cellular tissue of vegetables.
Seventh.—The most important property of ammonia, and
that consequently of the greatest interest to farmers, is the
ease with which it undergoes decomposition, in. the air, the
soil, and the interior of plants.
In the atmosphere it is intimately mixed with a large
quantity of oxygen and it also comes into close contact with
this gas in the soil. By certain influences already referred
to it undergoes a slow and constant decomposition, or oxi-
dation, its hydrogen being converted into water, and its ni-
trogen, wholly or in part, is changed into nitric acid. This
change certainly goes on within the soil and most probably
within the substance, or in the sap, of plants. That some-
thing of this kind goes on within the plants, as well as in
the soil, seems to be clearly indicated by the extraordinary
effect of a small quantity of ammonia or of its compounds;
in a remarkably short period of time; upon the condition
of vegetation. This is very conspicuously seen, in the sim-
ple experiment of growing plants in pots where the condi-
tion of the soil can be controlled and the effects of plant
food noted. A few drops of ammonia added to the water
used for the plants, will be seen to change the color of the
leaves in a very short time; producing a deep vivid verdure,
where before a pale yellowish color prevailed. Investiga-
tions are in progress to decide this question but a speedy
solution is not likely to be reached. The conditions under
which plants exist and the reactions of the compounds of
which they are made up upon each other are so varied, that
76 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
a judicious student hesitates to form conclusions, and pas
tiently repeats and verifies his experiments; and at the last
when he is himself convinced of the truth of any result, he
is slow to declare it to the world, but watches it and tries it
in other ways until doubt has no longer any existence.
Hence the slow progress of knowledge in the true science of
agriculture and the caution with which farmers who are
following up the experiments of professional students, should
watch the results, and form practical conclusions therefrom.
But the peculiar action of ammonia upon plant growth,
and the analogy which exists between its action and that of
other compounds, lead us to believe that ammonia enters in-
to the circulation of plants, and that the hydrogen of which
it contains so large a proportion, there separates from the
nitrogen, and combines with other organic elements which
enter by the roots or leaves and thus aids in producing the
various solid substances of which plants are constructed and
made up. The nitrogen is then fixed in the flowers, helping
to produce the bright coloring matter and the agreeable
odors; and to form the gluten and albumen of the seeds,
and other parts. These and other important considerations
will be more fully considered in another chapter.
It may be exceedingly interesting to note here, the results
of some careful tests made by a German agricultural chem-
ist and experimenter, in regard to the effects of ammoniacal
manures upon the yield of grain and the proportion of the
nitrogenous substances contained in it under varying cir-
cumstances. A number of experimental plots were treated
as follows, and were sown with wheat. Then from 100
parts of the produce of these plots the various amounts
shown of gluten and starch, and the increased product, were
estimated.
Gluten. Starch. Produce.
WVHEMOUE THATIUUCY. 5... ase. aveaciabntesteusey DOLE 66.7 3
With rotted vegetable matter only.. 9.6 65.94 5
SOW AOU NG. Consens cccenousdccecconerenetees MLO 62.3 7
PLOESOVOUIIUE ccc vo tan date oshese eather a 61.64 10
IVES PUNE ss fccewceaserdaactaceaeaeneseeeeeat eet 42.8 12
INS UDISOLL sid css cens cease swowdecenaseeeennion! Mm ODMLE 41.44 14
DrigdWOLOO 4b: sccdaneoosansics ccocudk fees ICE 41.3 14
rieR PING Saris, siedeveecateieucas: ce oe 39.3 at:
EFFECT OF AMMONIA UPON WHEAT. rie
These facts seem to show that as the ammonia in the man-
ures increase, the yield of the crop grown is larger, and the
more nitrogen is contained in the produce. Similar results
have occurred in the ordinary operations of the farm and
the facts have led farmers to use artificial manures rich in
ammonia for the express purpose of procuring more valua-
ble grain and a larger yield of it. Millers knowing these
facts have taken special pains to acquaint farmers with
them, with the purpose to procure a better quality of grain
for making more valuable flour.
THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
COA PO eek
THE SOURCES OF THE CARBON OF PLANTS.—HOW IT
ENTERS INTO THEIR CIRCULATION
AND SUBSTANCE
It is obvious to the cultivator of the soil that the various
plants of which his crops consist, are supported by the earth
and the air, both. It is necessary to the intelligent culture
of farm crops then to learn how much plants owe «0 each of
these; and for which of their elements they are indebted to
the soil and for which to the air. As carbon contributes
the larger part of their substance to plants this element de-
mands the first consideration.
Carbon is a solid substance and is therefore incapable of
entering directly into the structure of plants. It must then
present itself to the roots of plants in the soil, in solution in
water; and to the leaves in a gaseous form; for it is a law
of plant growth that no solid substance can enter into the
roots; and no liquid or solid substance can enter the leaves
or any other portion of the plant which is above the ground.
Therefore the sources of all vegetable carbon must be the
soil in which the roots of plants exist, and through which
they penetrate; and the air in which the stems and leaves
of plants are constantly bathed. There is always a large
quantity of vegetable matter in a decaying state in the soil,
and which is made up of the remains of previous vegetation ;
and the farmer is continually adding to this by the manure
which he applies to the land for the purpose of feeding his
crops. And it has been shown that about one-half of this
matter consists of carbon. The question then arises; is this
carbon of the soil, the source from which plants derive their
supply; and do they feed upon it by and through their
roots; or do they derive it from the air, in which we have
learned that a vast amount of carbonic acid exists in the
form of an evenly diffused mixture. It is not usual for far-
WHENCE DO PLANTS DERIVE THEIR CARBON. 79
mers to consider this question with much interest, if at all;
giving more attention to the other elements of plant growth
and leaving the carbon to take care of itself. But it is a
question which should be carefully considered, because of its
importance and because other questions which draw atten-
tion from it, may become more prominent than they deserve.
We know that there was a time when no vegetable mat-
ter existed in the soil and when vegetation first covered the
earth’s surface. Then the first plants must have grown and
matured without the aid of any vegetable or animal matter
in the soil and could have derived their carbon from no
other source than the atmosphere, directly; or indirectly,
by its presence in the water in the soil. It is also known
that soils which have been perfectly arid and have produced
no vegetation, or very little previously, yield abundant
‘crops when brought under culture by irrigation, and that
plants are often grown in water and in some cases grow lux-
uriantly without having any connection with the soil.
Further it is a common practice for farmers, when their
lands are unable to produce maximum crops, to seed them
to grass or clover and to leave them for years to recuperate
and become enriched by the gradual accumulation of veg-
etable matter in the soil; and when these lands are again
plowed a rich black soil filled with carbon is found, where
but little organic matter existed previously. This also ap-
plies to lands under forest growth, and to the rich prairies
of the west, where the dark vegetable mold lies many feet
in thickness and contains an inexhaustible supply of carbon;
as well as to the peat swamps in which enormous quantities
of carbon have been accumulated. We may also take into
consideration the vast beds of coal which have been made
up of accumulations of vegetable matter, the luxuriance of
which, proved by its remains, still to be recognized in the
coal, almost surpass imagination; and may then ask,
whence did all this vegetable growth procure its carbon,
which has gradually accumulated in the soil to this vast
extent; and which we can perceive still accumulates under
our own personal observation ?
80 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Any reasonable person will be impelled to reply, the atmos-
phere must have been the first source of it; that all these
plants must have existed upon such carbon as they could
gather from the air, and that as they perished, they left a
supply in the soil which was not fit to nourish succeeding
generations, and hence accumulated during the vast periods
of time which have elapsed since vegetable growth first
began. |
This reasoning is plausible and seems free from objection,
and would seem to justify us in concluding that plants de-
rive their carbon directly from the atmosphere. In some
cases this must be certainly true, for there is no other ex-
planation to be given of the circumstances. But as regards
the culture of farm crops it would not be safe to conclude
that the vegetable matter of the soil has no relation to the
growth of plants, and that the carbon existing in the soil
does not contribute to the carbonaceous substance of vege-
tables. For facts prove otherwise. Just now the public
interest is in a lively condition of agitation in regard,to the
question, whence do plants gather their nitrogen, and the
equally important question in regard to carbon is neglected.
Farmers are actively engaged in procuring nitrogen in va-
rious forms at very considerable expense, believing this to be
the chiefly indispensable agent in fertilizing their crops.
But a few farmers of intelligence, and used to closely ob-
serve what is going’ on in their fields, have not lost sight of
the importance of a large supply of combined carbon, and
are adding to their fields as large a quantity of carbona-
ceous matter as they can procure, with such nitrogen as
may seem to be adequate, and are thus avoiding the ex-
treme to which the popular belief seems to have turned.
In considering this question in the light of present expe-
rience, it may be considered that at first only a very poor
and weak growth of inferior plants covered the soil; or that.
by reason of the exceedingly active chemical changes which
were then occurring, the soil was highly charged with
carbon in such forms as were available for plant food. In
the one case vegetable growth would proceed slowly to fill
CARBON DRAWN FROM THE AIR. 81
the soil with decomposing matter and prepare it for a bet-
ter product; and plants procuring a portion of their carbon
from the air and gradually finding an increased supply in the
soil from the decomposed organic matter, there would, in
time, be a surplus, and this surplus would constantly in-
crease, and gradually accumulate and fill the soil. In the
other case the vegetation would be developed on an enor-
mous scale, just as we have reason to suppose it was at the
period when the carbonaceous matter which supplied the
materials for the vast coal beds was deposited. Climate
necessarily would have much to do with this, as it has now;
for in tropical regions the vegetation is exceedingly luxu-
riant, forming dense jungles through which it is impossible
to pass without laboriously cutting a way with axes, over an
enormous deposit under foot of the tangled and decompos-
ing remains of previous luxuriant growth.
We are forced to believe from the evidence that plants
may derive a large portion of their carbon from atmospheric
sources, and that they derive a considerable portion of it
from the soil. That they are fitted by nature to draw sus-
tenance from either source or from both; and that the pro-
portion of their food which is derived from either source
depends upon a variety of circumstances; such as the nature
of the plant; the period of its growth; on the soil; on the
abundance of provision furnished by the soil; upon cli-
mate; season; and other circumstances; so that the most
reasonable conclusion would be, that plants, like animals,
have a power of adapting themselves, to a certain extent,
to the conditions in which they are placed, and of finding
aliment, and supporting life, and of making growth, by the
help of such nutriment as they may most easily reach.
Just as sheep, which are herbivorous animals, under cer-
tain conditions are known to live upon fish, and to thrive
as well to all appearances upon this unusual diet, as upon
the pastures.
But supposing that plants derive the whole of their car-
bon from the air, or are able to do so; then knowing that no
other compound of this element is found in the atmosphere
82 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
to any appreciable extent, than carbonic acid, and that this
compound is everywhere diffused throughout the atmos-
phere and is always found in solution in water, the con-
clusion cannot be avoided, that it is from carbonic acid
that the carbon of plants is derived, primarily. This con-
clusion is supported and confirmed by the knowledge that
plants absorb carbonic acid through their leaves inthe sun-
shine, and that they will die in an atmosphere from which
carbonic acid is wholly excluded.
Again supposing that plants derive their carbon wholly
from the soil or are able to do so, then, knowing that the
most abundant product of the decay of vegetable matter is
carbonic acid; and that in a well manured soil filled with
decaying vegetable matter, this gas must be quite abun-
dant; and that water dissolves it freely, we must be satisfied
that it is from this carbonic acid, absorbed with the water
of the soil by the roots that the carbon of plants is derived.
In either case it is the carbonic acid which supplies the car-
bon, and it is most probable that this enters the plant both
by the roots, and leaves. Thus whether from the earth or
the air, this gas furnishes an unfailing supply of food for
plants from which their carbon is derived.
But when water passes through the soil it takes up what-
ever soluble substance it may meet—potash; soda; lime;
magnesia; silica; &c.; and conveys them into the plants by
the medium of their roots. Do the roots exercise a super-
vision over the absorbed waters and reject every soluble
form of carbon but that of carbonic acid? This is a ques-
tion of interest too to the farmer and applies directly to the
practice of manuring the land. This subject is out of place
as yet, but the question is pertinent to the present enquiry.
It is known that plants do not exercise such a watch and
have no discretionary power over the water which they ab-
sorb; for various coloring matters as madder and the juice
of poke root berries have been absorbed into the circulation
of plants and have imparted their color to the flowers, and
other parts. These coloring matters then undergo a chem-
ical change in the plants and even afford nutriment. Sugar
CARBONIC ACID A FOOD FOR PLANTS. 83
sum and gelatine have been thus fed to plants, with the ef
fect of making them grow vigorously. A great variety of
organic substances containing carbon may therefore be ab-~
sorbed into the plants and afford nourishment. Practical
farmers act on this principle and it forms the basis of many
of his operations and daily labors as he accumulates a stock
of organic substances in the form of manures as food for his
crops.
THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Siar L yh + TV..
SOURCES OF THE NITROGEN OF PLANTS.—ITS COM-
POUNDS AND THEIR EFFECTS UPON THE
GROWTH OF PLANTS.
While the quantity of nitrogen contained in plants is
small as compared with that of other elements, yet its office
in the structure of plants, and especially of their seeds, is
so important that careful and patient study of the character
and changes of this element is well worthy of the time em-
ployed. It is not always the most abundant elements in
nature that are the most worthy of regard. The chief pur-
pose of many farm crops is the seed, and although this part
of their substance may be quite insignificant in quantity,
yet it is often the most precious and highly valued; and it
is in the seed that the nitrogen of plants is most abundantly
stored. Again while the nitrogen in the more bulky crops
may be but 1 to 2 per cent., this element isthe most impor-
tant for the profitable feeding of farm stock: as it contrib-
utes largely to the formation of the muscular tissue and
supplies the waste of it by muscular exertion.
Moreover, any substance is to be valued according to the
difficulty of obtaining it. A diamond is so highly valued
as it is, because a whole year’s labor of several men may be
spent in the vain search for one, and its enormous price in
commerce merely represents the labor spent in its success-
ful discovery. Nitrogen is the most costly substance the
farmer is obliged to procure for the purpose of feeding his
crops, and although it is the most abundant constituent of
the atmosphere, yet it is so inert and passive and submits
to combination with other elements so unwillingly, that na-
ture supplies only a small portion of what the soil requires
of it, to produce a profitable crop. It is a most serious fact
in regard to this point, that the greater part of the farmers
THE IMPORTANCE OF NITROGEN. 85
labor and his largest expenditures for fertilizing matter, are
made necessary for the purpose of supplying his field with
an adequate amount of nitrogen for the growth of good
crops. Does he spend labor and care in the preparation of
the soil? it is that nitrogen compounds may be developed in
it. Does he feed his cattle with rich food purchased at
great cost? it is that the manure may be enriched with as
large a quantity as possible of this valued element. Does
he laboriously gather organic matter and lime, and compost
these with his manure, and sedulously watch over the de-
cay of these materials? it is that the nitrogen developed
may not be lost, but preserved for use to supply the never
satisfied needs of his crops. And thus his thoughts by day,
and his reflections by night; his labors; studies; and ex-
penditures; all center upon this one most important, but
otherwise inconsiderable element of vegetable matter.
With regard to an element so difficult to be procured, it
is a serious fact that its consumption in the soil is compara-
tively large. A crop of hay takes 60 Ibs. of it from one
acre of the soil; a crop of clover removes 180 lbs. ; wheat
carries off 45 lbs. Hereafter this subject will be pursued
to its completion, here it is the purpose to consider the
sources from which plants can procure their supply rather
than the amount of it which they need.
When we come face to face with this question we are
met with the fact, that the only source from which any
large quantity of nitrogen can be obtained is the atmosphere.
Nitrogen does not exist in the rocks excepting in those of
an organic origin as coal; the atmosphere is the great store-
house of it. Organic matter contains a considerable quan-
tity of it, and its decay in the soil furnishes the crops with
a large part of their demands; but the first plants which
covered the soil must have procured their supply, as they
procured their carbon; viz, from the atmosphere, primarily.
But in coming to this conclusion it by no means follows that
the nitrogen of the atmosphere is directly absorbed by
plants and made subservient to their growth; or that it is
absorbed in an uncombined state through any other me-
86 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
dium. Though the leaves of plants are continually sur-
rounded by nitrogen, and the roots may be bathed in
water containing it in solution, yet there is no evidence to
show that any plant is so constituted as to avail itself of
this supply. Indeed there is’a good deal of evidence to
prove that the leaves do not absorb nitrogen and that if
any uncombined nitrogen at all is contributed by the at-
mosphere and used by plants, it is through the roots that
it must enter into their circulation. But that even this oc-
curs is a matter of opinion only, with no evidence to sup-
port it.
It is an essential part of good farming to break up the
land and reduce it by thorough tillage, by means of the
most effective implements, to a loose and mellow condition,
so that the air can have access to the decaying organic mat-
ter in the soil; as well as to the living roots which permeate
the earth in all directions to considerable depths below the
surface. When the air is thus admitted to the roots, it is not.
impossible that some of the nitrogen, as well as some of the
oxygen, may be absorbed and made use of by the plant di-
rectly; but in the changes in the organic matter which oc-
cur, it is known that nitrogen is disengaged in a form in
which it can be appropriated by plants; and it is probable
that some atmospheric nitrogen may also be seized upon
and converted into plant food at the same time. To what.
extent this may happen however we have as yet no certain re-
sults from which any definite knowledge has been reached.
If any nitrogen enters the roots of plants in solution in wa-_
ter, the quantity is very small and. uncertain.
When water is exposed to the air it gradually absorbs
both oxygen and nitrogen; as has been previously men-
tioned. The whole quantity of these mixed gases thus tak-
en up amounts to about 4 per cent. of the volume of the
water and in rain water about two-thirds of this quantity
consists of nitrogen. A hundred cubic inches of rain water
will therefore carry into the soil 2 inches of this gas. But
this water in passing through the soil dissolves also- other
substances; carbonic acid and various solid matters and in
THE NITROGEN DERIVED FROM THE AIR. 87
doing so gives off a portion of the other gases which it had
previously taken up and absorbed from the air. Butif the
water should actually carry to the roots and take with it
into the circulation of the plants 2 per cent. of its bulk of
nitrogen, the whole amount of this nitrogen would be quite
inadequate to supply the requirements of a crop. For the
whole rain fall in this country, during the season when a
crop of hay, wheat, or oats is grown, amounts to about 8
inches; and of this at least one-half is evaporated very soon
after it has fallen. Ifwe suppose the quantity left in the
soil during this period amounts to 6 inches there would be
864 cubic inches of water fall upon a square foot, contain-
ing of nitrogen about 17 cubic inches, or about 5 grains in
weight. This would give something over 30 lbs. to the
acre of nitrogen carried into the soil. But it would be un-
reasonable to suppose that more than one-third of this quan-
tity would be carried into the roots and be transpired by
the leaves of any growing crop. There would then be
about 10 pounds of nitrogen carried into the circulation of
the plants, which is only one-sixth part of that which is
contained in a crop of hay, and one-eighteenth part of that
removed from the soil in a crop of clover.
This is a rough estimation, but it affords convincing proof
that plants cannot depend upon the atmosphere for their
supply of this element; but that they draw their chief sup-
ply of it from its combinations with oxygen and hydrogen.
If it is asked how the first plants grown upon the soil,
the origin of vegetable growth upon the earth, gained the
nitrogen they required to build up their tissues, it may be
replied, that in this case, the earliest plants grown were not
of that highly organized character which demanded a large
proportion of nitrogen. In the coal beds, which were form-
ed of vast deposits of vegetable matter accumulated during
lengthened periods of time, are found plants of a far lower
character than those grown as farm crops. Mosses, ferns,
and semi-aquatic plants made up the larger bulk of them,
and as these died and decayed, the little nitrogen they pos-
sessed gradually accumulated in the soil in the mass of de-
88 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
cayed matter which remained. This process continually
repeated, laid a foundation for a higher character of vege-
table growth ; until in time the soil became well supplied
with organic matter; and fitted for the occupation of man,
who afterwards appeared upon the scene, and entered into
possession of a soil abounding in accumulated fertility.
We know of our own knowledge that the soil we cultivate,
however rich it may be at the first, is very quickly ex-
hausted of nitrogen, and that a renewed supply is indispen-
sable to the growth of crops. This exhaustion is so rapid
that there connot be any material addition to the supply,
from the atmosphere.
The most important combination of nitrogen is that with
hydrogen, known as ammonia; and that this gas enters into
the circulation of plants is rendered probable by a variety
of circumstances.
It is known that ammonia exists in the sap of many
plants; as in the beet, birch, and maple, in which it is asso-
ciated with cane sugar; in the leaves of tobacco, in elder
flowers, in various fungi and in other plants. A species of
chenopodium actually exhales ammonia from its leaves; it
also appears in ‘the odorous exhalations of many other
plants and flowers.
Ammonia can be procured from nearly all vegetable sub-
stances by distillation; and many vegetable extracts are
found to contain it. When wood is distilled in retorts for
the manufacture of acid, ammonia is produced.
These and other facts of similar bearing are in no wise
proofs that ammonia is the form in which nitrogen enters
into the substance of plants; either through the roots or the
leaves; because there are ways in which it could be pro-
duced in the plant by the same converting power which
produces sugar and starch in the interior of the plant from
carbonic acid and water; and while ammonia is easily pro-
duced from coal and wood, yet we know that it does not
actually exist in these substances in their natural condition.
In the case of tobacco, the production of ammonia by means
of a high temperature may be illustrated by a simple ex-
EFFECT OF AMMONIA UPON VEGETATION. 89
periment. The sap and dried leaves of this plant contain
nitrate of potash (saltpeter) and a small quantity of am-
monia. When the dried leaves are burned ammonia is
given off in sensible quantities with the smoke, and can be
detected by bringing a piece of reddened litmus paper into
contact with the smoke when the color will be changed to
a blue; or by using a feather dipped into vinegar or any
weak acid, the white cloud of carbonate of ammonia will
appear. (Litmus paper is used for testing the presence of
acids and alkalies. It is absorbent paper steeped in a red or
blue vegetable coloring matter, as the juice of red cabbage,
of the red beet, or of the berries of the poke root. Litmus
is a red color obtained from some species of lichens, and is
changed to blue by ammonia. An alkaline liquid or vapor
will change the red to blue, and an acid will change the
blue to red again. This test can be used by farmers in a
variety of ways; in detecting the escape of ammonia from
manure, or acidity in milk).
In this case however the ammonia may be in part pro-
duced by the combustion, which decomposes the water con-
tained in the tobacco—to the extent of 14 per cent. in its
usual air dry condition—and thus disengages hydrogen,
which can easily combine with the nitrogen disengaged in
the combustion of nitrate of potash present in the leaves,
and so form ammonia.
But there are other circumstances which tend to favor
the belief, in a much stronger manner, that ammonia does
enter into the circulation of plants in many cases.
Experience has shown that plants grow most rapidly and
luxuriantly when liberally supplied with manures con-
taining animal substances. Dried blood; fish scrap; guano;
the dung of fowls; decomposed urine and night soil; are all
rich in ammonia and are the most efficacious of manures.
The same is true of the salts of ammonia. These substances
are used when in a state of decomposition and when the
evolution of ammonia is in most active progress. [lowering
plants also grow with greater luxuriance when a small
quantity of ammonia is added to the water given to them. In
90 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
the writers garden at the present time is a bed of red cab-
bage; through the center of which flows a drain from the
yard in which the manure from the horse stable is kept. On
both sides of this drain, for about'3 feet, the red cabbages
are blue: and their growth is far more luxuriant than that.
of other plants distant from the drain. Is not this a dis-
tinct illustration of the fact that the ammonia from the li-
quid manure; in which it is shown to be abundant by the
litmus paper test; is absorbed by the cabbages and acts up-
on the coloring matter with its usual effect?
In all these cases however the proof is not decisive; but.
it is quite sufficient to make it appear that the probabilities
are all in favor of the belief that ammonia does enter into:
the tissues of plants when brought in solution in water to
the roots and to justify us in holding this belief. But ac-
tual proof is wanted before this can be asserted as a fact.
The changes which occur in nature are so involved; so in-
tricate; so sudden; and so unexpected when experience is
at fault; that we should hesitate to found a belief upon any
but the strongest evidence, or to base a principle, or a law
for our guidance, upon anything but accurate and well de-
termined knowledge. So far as the question under consid-
eration is concerned this knowledge is wanting; but a mass.
of observed facts tending thereto is all that we possess.
Other soluble conipounds of nitrogen are formed during the
decay and oxidation of animal substances and actually ex-
ist in the liquid manures of the stable and yards, and they
are likely to be absorbed by the roots. of plants when ap-
plied to the soil. Thus urea, a compound of carbon, hy-
drogen, nitrogen and oxygen, and containing about one-
third of its weight of nitrogen, exists abundantly in urine,
and by its decomposition produces carbonate of ammonia.
Being very soluble this substance may enter with water in-
to the roots of plants and be decomposed within the tissues
and made to give up its nitrogen. The same may be ap-
plied to other compounds of nitrogen ; so that while the fact
that animal manures are very beneficial to the growth of
plants, may be considered as favoring the probability that.
EFFECTS OF NITRIC ACID UPON VEGETATION. 91
the ammonia contained in such manures enters into the.
substance of plants and yields up nitrogen to them, it must
also be considered that a portion of the nitrogen contained
in plants and procured from decaying animal substances,
may be obtained from other compounds of it than ammonia,
and in which ammonia may not exist.
Nitric acid is invariably present in the juices of plants
in combination with potash, soda, lime, and magnesia.
Therefore all the evidence afforded by the facts above noted
are also applicable to the belief that this acid is one of the
sources, at least, from whence the nitrogen of plants is de-
rived. This acid has been detected in tobacco, and the sun-
flower, and in the grain of barley in the form of nitrate of
soda. If we were therefore to infer from these facts that
this acid really enters the roots of plants we might draw a
certain conclusion. Like other compounds of nitrogen, it
may have been formed in the interior of plants during the
many changes there effected, and hence its presence proves
no more in regard to a solution of the question at issue than
the presence of ammonia. The same uncertainty would
still exist.
But the most recent investigations go to show that of
all the forms in which nitrogen enters into plants, nitric
acid is the most probable one. It exerts a powerful in-
fluence upon growing crops of grass and grains. It changes
the color of the leaves to an intense green in a short time;
and largely increases the quantity of nitrogenous matter in
grain, as well as the yield of the crop. For instance it has
been found that a dressing of nitrate of soda has increased
the amount of gluten in wheat from 19 to 252 per cent.
reducing the starch from 55% to 493 per cent. Many other
similar instances are recorded, all tending to show the fav-
orable effect of nitric acid upon the growth of vegetation.
Heretofore a still more striking instance has been given of
similar results from the use of manures rich in ammonia.
But recent researches of the leading investigators espec-
ially those at the Rothampstead farm in England under
the supervision of Sir J. B. Lawes, aided by a most efficient
92 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
corps of assistants, have shown that there is much reason
to believe that ammonia is oxidized and changed to nitric
acid and in this form it is that the nitrogen enters into the
circulation of plants.
To sum up the conclusions in regard to this question, of
such surpassing interest to farmers, which are presented by
a consideration of the facts known in this connection, the
following propositions result.
First—That uncombined nitrogen of the atmosphere may
enter into the circulation to a small extent, either in its
natural form of a gas or in solution in water ; and this prob-
ably does happen. But the quantity so gained by plants
is very small and is wholly insufficient for their needs and
only a small proportion of that which vegetables actually
contain.
Second.—That ammonia has the power of entering into
plants and of yielding nitrogen to them to a very large ex-
tent and actually in excess of their necessities so that the
normal quantity of nitrogen in the product is largely in-
creased; and it does appear, but is not proved, that plants
do derive nitrogen from this source.
Third.—That in like manner nitric acid has the power of
entering into plants and of yielding nitrogen to them to a
larger extent than they need to produce a normal product
and there is reason to believe that plants do derive the
largest portion of the: nitrogen they contain from this
source.
Fourth—But there is also reason to believe that ammo-
nia is changed to nitric acid in the soil, and perhaps in the
plants, and in this combination it is that nitrogen enters
the roots of plants and contributes to their substance.
THE INORGANIC ELEMENTS OF PLANTS.
PART SECOND.
ee =
yas er ie eV
THE INORGANIC ELEMENTS OF PLANTS.
When any vegetable substances are burned in the air,
the whole of the crganic elements disappear, and a small
quantity of ash remains. The proportion of the substance
which has disappeared varies from 88 to 99 per cent. This.
has all been derived from the air, and is made up of the
four elements which have occupied our attention up to this
point. The small remnant left after complete combustion
constitutes the inorganic elements of plant growth. These
are now to be studied.
The results of recent investigations have wholly exploded
the notions which formerly prevailed, to the effect that this.
inorganic matter was of no serious importance to the crops,
and was a mere accidental circumstance, and might be ab-
sent without any serious detriment to the growth of the
plants. It was discovered in course of careful experiments
that this ash of the plants represented exactly the various
mineral substances which were taken from the soil, and that
these, to the smallest proportion, were of vital necessity to
the plants.
The results of long continued study, finally gathered into
systematic order, showed that on whatever soil a plant might
be grown and mature its seed fully, the quantity and char-
acter of the ash is nearly the same; and that though grown
on the same soil, plants of different species and character
leave an ash entirely unlike; the ash varying characteristi-
‘94 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
cally with the species. Moreover it was found that when a
plant was grown out of the soil; and with its roots envel-
oped only in water; it grew with equal luxuriance as if
grown in the soil, provided that the water held in solution
the same mineral substances which were found in the ash of
the same species, together with the needed quantity and
variety of its organic elements. Thus the soil was found to
possess functions of more importance to plant growth than
the mere mechanical support for its roots, and really sup-
plied to the plant a number of constituents. without which,
or any one of which, the growth was enfeebled or wholly
failed. Hence there was no longer any doubt that the ash
of plants represented really essential portions of their nutri-
ment, and the farmer then was able to understand the whole
secret of the art of manuring; viz; that to grow abundant
crops every constituent part of the plants must be present
in the soil, or if not, they must be supplied to it in the form
of manures or fertilizers. This discovery necessarily modi-
fied the notions held by farmers, and regulated the prac-
tices of agriculture in every branch. One of the most use-
ful reforms in thought and practice was to abolish the idea
which was prevalent among unintelligent farmers, viz, that
books and other literature were totally useless to them, and
that the only way to become good farmers was to spend a
life time in copying the ways and methods of older men,
and learning from them what they knew of their art. We
have now learned that while this is all useful, there is some-
thing else which is pre-eminently necessary; viz; to study
the laws of plant growth and with the knowledge thus
gained from books and other sources to give careful and in-
telligent consideration to the nature of the soil; the princi-
ples upon which its proper culture are based; the most
perfect machinery for this culture; the ait of manuring;
the nature and use of artificial fertilizers; and the produc-
tion of manure, made richer in the needed elements of
plant growth by feeding cattle. And for the purpose of
encouraging this study and of spreading abroad the neces-
sary information for it; a special literature devoted to agri-
THE FEEDING FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. 95
culture, consisting of books and periodical journals, sprang
into existence, and was eagerly procured and read; and
lastly special schools for teaching the science and art of
farming were established jointly with farms and laboratories
for experimental culture and chemical investigations. Thus
step by step the art of growing farm crops became an intelli-
gent industry, and farmers are respected in proportion to
the importance and dignity of their vocation.
For all this we are indebted to numerous pains-taking
men, who with unusual self-denial, patience, and _per-
severance, have spent their lives in industrious retirement;
heard of by few and known by less; busy in their fields
and experimental plots, or hidden in their laboratories;
gradually building up, fragment by fragment, the grand
edifice of knowledge which now represents what every man
who desires, may know of the culture of farm crops.
One very important point of this knowledge is the fact
that vegetables feed—that is, absorb and assimilate or build
up their substance—upon mineral substances, as well as up-
on the remains of vegetable matter. That while these re-
mains in the shape of completely decomposed farm manure,
or animal matters, contain the various inorganic compounds
which are found in the ashes of plants, and which are
known to be necessary to their growth, yet the same com-
pounds drawn from a mineral origin, are equally serviceable
as plant food. Thus, lime procured from the lime kilns;
potash from the rocks of which it forms a part; gypsum or
plaster; phosphate of lime; soda in the form of salt, or as
nitrate of soda; sulphate of magnesia; and other mineral
substances; when finely ground, and made soluble, produce
precisely the same results when used as fertilizers as the
same substances in the ashes of plants, or in their decayed
remains. They are absorbed by plants with equal facility,
and are utilized in the same way and to the same extent, in
forming the tissues of the plants. They are in fact plant
food. Hence the common idea that these fertilizing sub-
stances are stimulants only, and merely encourage the
crops to put forth some unusual effort, so to speak, by which
96 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
some unnatural and excessive product is yielded, is a wholly
wrong and mistaken one. Wrong terms and ideas are in-
jurious, notwithstanding that a name has no effect in chang-
ing the nature of anything; for they lead to wrong prac-
tices and grave errors in the management of the crops, and
these cannot fail to result in loss.
The inorganic substances upon which plants feed and
which they extract by their roots from the soil, have been
mentioned in a previous chapter, but they may be conven-
iently repeated. They are lime; potash; soda; magnesia;
sulphur and sulphuric acid; phosphoric acid; silica and
chlorine. These, with the exception of sulphur and chlor-
ine, which are elements, are the oxides of metals which are
elementary substances. The first four are usually found in
the ashes of plants combined with carbonic acid as carbon-
ates; lime however is found as a sulphate being combined
with sulphuric acid in the ashes of clover and a few other
plants. There are a few other substances of inorganic ori-
gin which are occasionally found in plants, such as iron,
manganese, iodine, &c. but these are evidently accidentally
absorbed with the water in which they happen to be in sol-
ution, and being innoxious do not interfere with the devel-
opment of the plants, but are not strictly plant food.
The proportion of the various mineral elements of plant.
growth varies greatly in the different species of vegetables;
so much so as to become a leading characteristic with them.
Thus there are what may be called potash plants; lime
plants; soda plants, &c.; and these dominant elements will
be found to have a considerable bearing upon the question
of fertilizing crops, to be hereafter treated. Thus on refer-
ence to the tables given in the next chapter, it will be seen
that the ash of the stems and leaves of potatoes contain from
39 to 46 per cent. of lime and 16 to 22 per cent. of mag-
nesia; pea straw cantains 38 per cent. of lime; but wheat:
straw only 6 per cent.; and the tubers of potatoes only 2+
per cent.; while the ash of the last mentioned contains 60
per cent. of potash; that of turnips 50 per cent., clover 35
to 50 per cent.; of young grass 56 per cent.; and of tobacco
THE LAWS OF PLANT GROWTH. 97
273 per cent. The dried tobacco plant has 24 per cent. of
ash while the whole wheat plant has but 33 per cent. It
must not be supposed that these peculiarities are of no im-
porfince to the farmer, and that the fact that the ash of
beets, turnips, and carrots, including leaves and roots to-
gether, contains from 12 to 243 per cent. of soda, and from
6 to 11 per cent. of chlorine; while that of most other
plants contain a very insignificant quantity of these sub-
stances; or that the ash of clover contains along with the
large quantity of lime a considerable amount of sulphuric
acid, and that this acid exists in the ash of turnips, cabbage,
rape and kohl-rabi, mustard and other plants of the Cru-
cifere family to the enormous extent of from 8 to 164 per
cent. For these facts explain the reason why an applica-
tion of salt (chloride of sodium) and of gypsum (sulphate
of lime) furnishes these elements to the crops mentioned, and
thus supplies necessary food without which they could not
grow. It results, in fact, that the soil must contain all these
substances, which are found in their ashes, in such quantity
and in such form as to yield easily to each crop as much of
each, as the plant specially requires. This is the first grand
law which controls the culture of farm crops. The second
is that the soil must be brought into such a proper condition
by tillage, as to enable the roots of plants to avail themselves of
the needed food which it contains.
A special study should be made of the tables given in the
next chapter and specially placed by themselves that they
may attract the notice which they demand. For a third
law controlling the growth of plants is, that ¢f one of these
necessary substances is wanting in the soil, or is existing there .
in deficient quantity, the crop will prove a failure; it will
either be weak and diseased (for itis the weak and ill nour-
ished plants—and animals equally—which are subject to
disease) or it will fail to grow at all.
The intelligent farmer will then naturally ask what are
these mineral or inorganic substances upon which plants
depend for their successful growth, and in what proportion
do they require them; and further, in what proportions do
98 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
these needed mineral substances exist in the soil; and when
any of them are deficient, how can they be supplied in the
easiest, most advantageous and most economical manner?
The first of these questions will be answered by the tables
given in the next chapter and the others will be considered
in their turn.
THE ASH, OR MINERAL PARTS OF PLANTS.
CHAPTER: XVI.
THE ASH OF CULTIVATED PLANTS AND ITS VARIED
COMPOSITION.
In the following tables collected from various sources in
which the results of thousands of experiments by the most
noted agricultural chemists and investigators have been
published, will be found the average composition of the ash
of the plants named. These plants have been gathered from
the crops grown under ordinary circumstances, and when
there has been any unusual variation in any samples, a
large number of analyses have been made and an average
taken. These analyses have been verified so often by more
recent examinations that they have been accepted as the
standard, and are used for all purposes, and for reference in
all recent agricultural study. They may therefore be ac-
cepted by students with the utmost confidence and reliance.
They are given in full because hereafter frequent allusions
and references will be given to them in future chapters.
CoMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF AGRICULTURAL
* PRODUCTS.
S as a S)
Lge WAR eles Oe Nak UGE Re
Substances. S% re) A eg a3 a §
See gi oe CRRA nO asta wane Sia
oO I ie oD) o
HAY AND GRASS.
Ordinary hajy................... 7-78 25.6 7.0 4.9 11.6 62. B14 29-6) .60
YOUNE STASS........csceeceseoeee 932 562. LS 28> 107-105 0 103° ;2.0
FEIDG AY 5 0 csesk- ce cscs cceesent a. 76. 29° Bay 19. 22 . O07 Gah) OF
BTTIMI@UIDY, asncvne~ceo=4-2-s ess ereee Tel 98.8 2.7 3.7. 94 108 .39 %.6 5.0
PU PATI 25.0255. 85--.s sew eeees 7.23 37.4 8.00 MES) Se a6. 25.0> Oe
CLOVER AND FODDER PLANTS.
ath OY Ol ese,s0-0 5020 008000-eae 672 34.5 16 122 340 99 30 27 3.7
White Clover..............+--++ "16-175 78 100 322 141. 88 45. 32
WUC CEM scconceinidgaves von dee ons o22e 714 Oa dy Gee C4 8b. 61 (2.0. £9
Alsike Clover.........2-: e+. -s0+ BS) Se8 ocbibe dae -st:9- 104 40 12) 28
Green pea (in flower)...... 7A0* 40.8 0.2. $2 28.7 13.2 3.5 26 1.8
GTEEM TAPEC.........0eeeeee ee eeees Sa7 73S 2 ae get 8.7 16.8. 3.2-) yhG
Co ST CO NT OV
MNOWDORUOG
ft
© ©
Sr Se) SU Ores Sok
wWwhbonb Uta
5.4
24.0
8.7
100 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
ROOT CROPS (Roots.)
Potstoes 1.5, sis is ett 8.74 59.8 16 4.5 io 1958.
Betsy. .c..esesiks. Gash eseeeaceeee 6:86 63.1 14:8 5.1 46 9.6
Sugar beets. 1. cvsecigoceeses 435 494 96 8.9 6.8 14.3
TULIPS Hts; isc ndesasaieeeess 8.28 39.3 114 3.9 10.4 13.3
Re DASAS ict steeeeae NBO oleae | 0. to). 260 9:7 15.3
OBITO a coccse est teree? ae ee bt Susb ee DIS | 107 12.5
ROOT CROPS (Leaves and Stems.)
Potatoes (green)... onic agdsee 257 168) 39:0 6.1
decay Civ? eter ee eae ais 5A «6.8 OB 22.6 « 46.2 - 5.5
TAGOUS scaibecesied. andasaace saeuaass 190 2OAk 2A0: GET 1A 4.8.1.
SMP HTD CCiStsesncsstevscicsineg LESOw Sol, 168, ABS AS7 7s4
SEAN aot dapasstivennatstts 13:68 22.9 7.8 45 324 89
EATNOUS SH cicesdecsartessesgaatuies 13.57 14... 233b 4:6: 33:0 4.7
0°) 0) 00: I eae Re ese ne re 10.81 48.6 3.9 3.8 15.3 15.8
STRAW. /
Winter wheat.................. ASG INS *2.9° 256 6.2 5.4
MIIET! THOS So cswceovianceee MeSHP Sel ce) teed: 7.000 4.7
MIPTIME TV C\. va co'cscats veciesoenoess 5.59 23.4 2.8) - 3.9 G5
IONS sis tcdeevstneeeteventns AO “SEG? 4h Se ie eS
(2 i nl ee ae, Se 5.12 2210: 53) 40 92) 4
Corn DAS” 38.3" 1.2" “bb AON 6 S8al!
TRIE Ss cnsijeastts wsvaccnum asians shaver Hid 21 Bt (5S We) BRO “76
Bains: oo Sa Rea 1.12 444° 33 “8 230948
Buck wheat. cciscsccsccssscveecass 6:15) 46:6; 22° 316 18.4 =1139
TDA Gctnesecenne scascndidigtoes fem 4.58 25.6 10.3 5.7 265 7.0
CHAFF.
WORE evisinetivtd on sectoentngs mis 9. LS 12 - 1.9: se
DROS ices etvasnecaccbente’s an Mos, 127 O08 18 14. (28
RiGee, ccotagereeet cane acres 9:22 Tal) 438" “286 8.9 02
Corn (CODS) i005. se daalea Tests 0.56471. 12 42 -34. 44
FIBER PLANTS.
Sax (CMTC). oes isz.tenve yore 4.30 32 4.8 9.Q 15.5 23.0
Hemipy So viesccesseusteesen te 4:60. 1875 SIS" OG 8 aay “146
MURS (fo aa sen ise dake ves 0.87 26.2 - 3.8- 5.8:" 36.0 121
"TAHACCO:.0.0<0ssecsesse sntpisaee 24.08 27:4 3.7 “10.5 8710. 3.6
LITTER.
Heath 458 1.2 6.3) 84 (188 .b1
GTN ye ov civet itus ccs ezeccas ene veres ks ADS A. Veneer OT
SOR“ WOGUS v.21 cicensnasedeseecves 14.39 14:5 240. 95 18:9 ‘32
Beech Jeaves..............0 6.75)5:2. 016 6.0). 44:9" 4
Oak : ME ~ © Se Soteteesd cred 4:0 35 ‘06 4.0 48.6 ~S1
White pine “ 1.40 10.1 99 414 16.4
| 5G 00) Sad ae eee ee Ee 5.82 1.5 2:3) Ap)’ 82
Salt Diack grass... .ccc.:2...0c 5.30 36.6 66 64 95 - 64
Salt marsh grass............... S08: SER Ss VAD eo hy
GRAINS AND SEEDS.
Boye SEE, omer St pee 2.07 311 35 122 3.1 46.2
Rye.. 2.03 30.9 1.8 10.9 2.7 47.5
Barley Zoo 2G 28 33 2.5 32.8
Oats 3:07 159 38 73 3.8. 207
GIT senidens ssn dec desc nasedscdeece 1.42 27.0 1.5 146 2.7 44.7
Ll
2.3
3.3
3.0
2.4
0.5
2.0
8.0
4.2
4,8
3.1
3.8
5.6
1.2
66.3
58.1
59.9
53.8
48.7
38.0
5.9
2.5
4.6
4.5
2.1
10.2
LOA
0.4
4.4
14.2
5.6
COMPOSITION OF FARM CROPS. 101
RIC Giese oe so oe serie ssaanneeere 7.84 18.4 45 8.6 Bly 47:20 06 0.6
AVE iee enea.- cecauceaswas oeeean 46 4.49 TO. 10. 8:4 WO Zee Oy © Ses
SOR SIN occa wees eensnsa se 1.86 23.0 3.3 14.8 1.3: 50:9 1S
PUICIAWHEAE . woceassdeaswseennas LOT 2351 ~ 6.2) 13.4 3.5, 48.0 2.1 ay
PERRI ca enaeiocatedeersnes sxescedenss Asod 98he al 1252) 13:8) A319: (3.6 th Os
SO OSUEITD Spice dec amdoncedscacsovecese 780 37.42 836 1610 3:0 33:16 0.27 2.8 0.2
IFRS coos sate nome naapionease eciee SG aoe on aS BLD 8.4 40.4 Lil Ta Ok
ig (200 0h Oe eee ore Sas OO Lea Gaon) eee oo.o ~O.2). 12.8. 0:3
SMISHRIG 55... 2c taSecee tos onewce 4:30 15:9 5:8 10:2 188 39:0. 4.7 2.4 0.4
Aan ont) CORE SRS eee ore OS) SEO) SS deh ADD (ZO1 0.7
COATT Olisvags digacuscccsss evweewateens $50 195 “48. 6:7 88:8 15.8 6:6 Bidie Oise
PRR oa ctiewedastaicicnsasoen set mnes 2:81 --40;4 S27 8.0 4.2 36.3 3.5 0:9 238
SEIS cis s abewanns Suaaen smeanne Sib: AOS. Ae. 16,7 m2 39:2. bil 2 + 2D
MONIO Ti con avduakoconsancaeneers ice Ald shee ORG a ole 2 6.2 33.5 -4.7 24. ks
WOOD.
RGU EIVC)- oe ncehs pas apadcakxs -saare Rib 2058 16:7) 6:8. B78 alee) | 27 0.8 0.8
ES EU GUN 2s Sascnsseeindeacveedsaveesy 6 Ql 11-6, 5.8 . 3:9 600" 8:5. 1013 48 0.6
MOO.) nt cctin Scaeccanon tacks S25 16:1) --2:7 14,0) -60:2. 8.07 AO 5.4 O21
MM ete ee aC cut cet Gosh cid c's wasauh M21 7100 3:6!) 48. 73.6. bb) We i Oe
MV HUMGWG is bocedes cosa svesns ccadecsiee 0450 135°) 5:6: JOu 50:8) 216-4-- 3 OF7) 0:6
WPL Tiee-seoce ae fonts wesesasess seers PES 24 St 0.0) 379 S86" «b:4 6.2 6.7
WAP os oo ss adagea socsedas LAR 35:89 6:0, 4.2. 20.9" 14:9) "5:8 2s ee
ES eae ae 10 0 16 87 TAO 46 28. 218 02
HRC UAC ss, ca cb naaden naps > done ses 0:35: -b.2 26:8 - 6:2 47:9; 6.1. » 3.0 2.0 40
VV GIGS JOUING. 8.0.22 mer escnes sees O28) 15.35 °9:9 5:9 50 5.5" «3.0 6:0: 0.2
ES ISSEHIWMTIT: ook 29 aos = 2a
‘ oa PNG GIUUWIN 535: 855 Sone gacessoescseseee ees 14°33. 6:2 (9.7) 26:3" ~41éa eas
sf OS FL MMERY OOS fc coses ccoste once coattodac 15.0 “7.0 -TET = 21:9) SAG ees
“s ad UTE oe Soccecnesccuvnsussteecencaneesuse 16.0° “7-0 I3.b- 19:3. --40.4° "S20
Rbd. Clover, POOP: 200s, -DeiG eeee
MOGUGT WiVG ss iciccsisetsuecicdnceesccumewseosus cccszaeeos 143 '5.1 104 23.1 445 28
ERD OGEU See tap a ea'e wos cok wraev dena cee oareae tone 14.3°°4.5) Ovi 227 49.82 3.0
DtaliamcRye Grass, cas: occ. seca cess saseacatevoceectex: 14.3. 4.8 12" 22.9 .40:6)9 oe
Amelia dey C2 GLASRs ns ..esecsocs dodvetncveatevedeared sas 14.3 6.5 “10:2: 180.2 36. ar
PreneCn eye MRASS 1, oo.nes Cocksoen feeeac eee staeetes 34:3) 9:9 WE OSs GB2.6 ae
Upland Grasses, A&verage.........c..sssccecceeseeees 14:3.. 5.8 « 9.5. 28:7 ~ 39. — 2:6
PUN Paris Grass..\.couscatsetetcorceecne ented eeeeeeat 18:4. ° 5:7 10:8" > 294 > 88:5: 22
“Pan
COMPOSITION OF FODDER PLANTS,
GREEN FODDER.
Grass just before DlOOM.............ccccceseeeee eee eeee 75.0
ABU GEASS s+ 5. sresececeensansscssasevssecucertidesesevesa 80.0
IG HEP ASiINC GTASNe.. dethansc acanteartcacdsacrsenteseJols 78.2
DUAL ATA ER VE TORS. os cnslivesaenveenes2 casnneoSatacaes onnana 73.4
PCS EV Cs GLASS x 2sccaae-=c0 82.0
Lucerne, Quite YOUNG. .........cccccserccresrsersereeees 81.0
ee at beginning of blossom................. 74.0
Sand Lucerne, at beginning of blossom....... 78.0
ESPATSette ........scsecceeersecseesecscsssseeesessseeseneees 80.0
BUN eices ccs cewsacee once cote ebanctadues cieneascoaeasns rece 81.5
Hp CLOVCL...........scscceceesesssnsenecesnssesscecens cneees 80.0
ROEM Tae oe eens wavdes spew deve oeaeaenes seestmacunctten 80.0
Lupine, MeCGiUM...........cceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeteeeeeeeees 85.0
4 WEY EMO soda seapet seven dis eve-soac ncese- 028 85.0
Field Beans at beginning of blossom............ 87.3
Fodder vetch at beginning of blossom.......... 82.0
Hodder Peas in DIOSSOM. ...22....500655.0..d0000 senses 81.5
Bek WHat MO WIOSBOML, ..2.2.52..-.0sscceensessea5ss>- 85.0
GYEEN RAPe..........2--cscosecesescsnseseecoessecnsenrncoees 87.0
NG GOT OM DAE Cre. c-scceseac-osceesenccravaesessseececess 84.7
NV TTL CED DARE. 2... .vcc--ncasecnvecesesscceses tenons coesse 89.0
Cabbage Stems..............ccceseeeseeceeeceeeeeenes cenees 82.0
Potato Tops, OCLODET............cccccseseeeeceeeeeeseees 78.0
MOREY ENT IESUCBiuace cen eet ennai taser cers stance Dmecdeucenw eres 82.2
Fodder Beet leaves. ..........:ssccssccceeees Banas 90.5
Rutabaga leaves..........cccecceceeeseeeeeeseeseneeeees 88.4
TOO MIATANOE LOAVES. co5.s00- 20s cane nes aes soc eee cnccesvar anaes 85.0
Artichoke Tops...............000--.ccseesscceesrneeeceeees 80.0
Fermented hay from Maize............:.:c0esee 83.5
« Pe UITUTICY. cha caperods ss oee= 79.9
- ss 5 Beet leaves............... 80.0
ag x ‘ Potato, Tops:.....2. 2... 77.0
es 6 ME Red CLOVE...2.. sseeerees 79.2
STRAW.
EATEN LIGAEN s sidetce vos neacatoscc~s en nea sresisVusascoansens 14.3
Winter Rye...........cscscccssssscresccesnescccsevecseecsees 14.3
Witter Barley i...c.1c-0.2.c.c05.eccvecansacreecevsedeoenese 14.3
Summer Barley.......... papssh octch cine aetbackoesssamenaee 14.3
Ostia; Diaseveseatuaes Ractreuas daccstawewensta cusstess Srareses 14.3
3.1
2.0
2.2
2.8
2.0
2.2
PALE
1.6
1.4
1.0
1.0
EE
1.8
1.5
1.5
1.3
2.0
1.5
1.8
L7
2.0
His,
1.5
1.6
1.5
1.8
0.7
0.7
1.0
1.8
1.5
1.4
1.6
1.6
1.2
1.9
3.0
3.6
1.8
2.3
1.8
2.7
Pt
2:9
4.1
5.3
2.1
4.6
4.1
5.5
4.1
4.0
3.0
3.0
4.5
3.6
3.6
3.4
3.4
3.3
2.3
12
1.8
2.5
3.1
4.6
3.3
3.0
3.5
3.3
3.3
4.5
4.5
4.0
3.2
2.7
3.5
3.0
3.1
4,2
2.8
3.5
3.2
2.4
29
2.0
1.5
ita!
2.3
3.2
139
2.1
2.8
2
Oo.
1.2
3.1
3.0
2.9
4.2
3.0
3.0
3.3
3.5
4.0
6.0
4.0
4.0
Wed
10.6
8.0
10.1
7.9
6.5
4.7
4.4
6.7
8.5
2.8
4.5
5.8
6.0
4.5
6.0
5.0
9.5
8.0
6.5
6.2
6.0
5.2
5.1
4.5
3.5
5.5
5.6
4.2
4.2
2.4
2.0
2.8
6.0
3.0
1.3
1.6
1.4
3.4
5.3
6.8
PE |
4.7
5.9
40.0
44°0
43.0
40.0
39.5
a Ts)
7.5
36.9
39.3
32.5
36.7
36.2
103
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.0
Tat
1.0
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.7
0.8
12
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.3
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.8
1.2
2.6
2.2
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.4
2.0
104 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Summer Grain Straws medium.................... WSs 41 3.8 394 a= Ly
" rk AES EIT OME Scie sso Sush saan 1438 6.7 69 386.7 229 25
Winter sp OCs AUT OG) TNM e aces eaten sas 02 14.3 48 42.0 349 13
* - iS: a a ne 14.3 5.3 37.8 36.7 124
JEL C ORS Net yeh 12) i 1 Le ee ee sell, Ca eg ee ea 16.0 4.5 43:0. 29:0\ 4:0
38:0 340. 0
34:0 ‘34.2 “Wp
Straw of Legumes, medium...............002sseceee 16.0 4.5 . 38.0 32.4 1.0
AN ee . MET BOO. ninsscearka hanes 160 65.1 10.2 #45 “32 ae
I STIURUS Sorc a sence asa taaktnuveuuacacke nesta eaee tee eae 16:0 6:5 14:0 .33:6 279. 220
METOUIIG) oi 500 7apsae- so tecongdescaitac senna sanent se aban tea 160 41 5:9 408 adios
CE COLO VOI nos siia esc acetsis or anpldon ce shes senen aes tees 16:0 66 94 20 2 20
EONS Fcce sale ob ehav atv eWateoanieomolunor sbanbacsehemeenetereees 140 42 35 40.0 354 190
OGRE 2.5 akc on stole ane enh ae ae eee ae 1510, 4.2 310° 40:0 3627. io
CHAFF, HULLS, ETC. 4
RI Sic ces no ve cae ca ate ones ane doemee races 143) OiO'2) A238. BBD (B40) Ss
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The above figures show precisely what imorganic, or min-
eral substances, plants draw from the soil. They also show
that the quantity of inorganic matter contained in the same
weight of different crops varies greatly. Thus while the
grain of corn contains only 1.42 per cent. of inorganic mat-
ter; peas contain twice as much; oats two and a half times
as much; and rice five and a half times as much. Also the’
quantity contained in the various parts of the same plant
varies in a similar manner. Wheat grain has but 2.07 per
cent of ash but the straw has more than twice as much
and the chaff has over five times as much. Barley shows a
still greater difference in this way and so on through the
whole tables. The same facts apply to trees and their bark
and leaves.
Another important point is peculiarly worthy of notice;
this is the difference between plants in an early stage of
growth and when they are mature. Young grass for in-
stance contains considerably more ash than ripe hay and
this ash consists of much more important elements of vege-
table growth. The large quantity of potash and phosphoric
acid shown to be needed by such grass as is used for pastur-
ing, seems to disappear as it grows older and to be replaced
by silica. What becomes of these two substances, so valua-
ble and indispensable in the aliment of animals, and which
gives to the young stock the materials for building up their
growing muscles and bones; and how is it that the mature
grass has so large a quantity of silica which is of no use as
aliment to animals? But we see a purpose in this, although
it operates to the disadvantage of the farmer. The first law
»)
106 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
of nature is the survival of all living things, and the most
perfect fulfillment of its purpose in creation. And we see
an instance of the perfect order and wise adaptation of
means to ends in nature, in this excess of silica in the stem
of a ripe herb, for it requires stiffness and strength to enable
it to hold up the seed until it ripens. Were it not for this
silica in ripe hay and the straw of the grains, the stems.
would not have strength enough to stand upright and
would fall and rot on the ground and the seed would
perish.
These variations are not accidental, for they exist every-
where, on all soils and in all climates. They must there-
fore originate in some natural and universal law. That
they are so, inures to the advantage of the farmer and
makes agriculture possible. For otherwise, there would be
no certainty that after he had prepared the soil and had
sown his seed, he would reap the crop he desired; or that
what his land produced would suit the purpose for which
he intended it, either for the subsistence of mankind or for
feeding his animals. But being based upon a universal
law, the farmer has a safe and constant rule for his guid-
ance, and may be able to furnish his crops with precisely
what they need, when he has by long use lessened the orig-
inal fertility of the soil to the point of impoverishment.
Moreover by this law the farmer can find a reason why
various trees preponderate in the forest and learn from it
sufficient of the character of the land under the surface soil
to guide him in the choice of afarm. When he sees the land
covered with plants of the heath family, the huckleberry;
cranberry; &e.: or with a forest of balsam fir; or with
birch or beech timber; he can as safely judge that the soil
is light and sandy, as if it were all exposed to view; and
on the other hand where oaks, elms, maples and basswood
flourish and grow to a large size, he may be sure that the
land is rich in potash, lime, and phosphoric acid; the most.
important elements of plant food; and that with judicious.
cultivation of such soil his labor will be rewarded with
abundant crops. |
&
INORGANIC ELEMENTS OF PLANTS,
CharT hh AV IL.
THE COMPOUNDS OF THE INORGANIC ELEMENTS
OF PLANTS.
The inorganic elements of plants, viz. potash; soda;
magnesia; lime; phosphoric acid; sulphuric acid; silica.
and chlorine, exist in combination; and never in their
original elementary condition as simple substances. It has
been shown that the organic substance of plants contains
four elementary substances ; oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and
nitrogen in various proportions; and that the inorganic
part of them is made up of eight elements; mentioned in a
previous chapter; and rarely of a very small portion of a
few others chiefly, aluminium, iron and manganese. These
eight elements are chiefly in combination as shown in the
following enumeration of them.
Name In combination with Forming
Potassium Oxygen Potash
“ Chlorine Chloride of Potassium
Sodium Oxygen Soda
ee Chlorine Salt
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesia
Calcium Oxygen Lime
Phosphorus Oxygen Phosphoric acid
Sulphur Oxygen Sulphuric acid
Silicon Oxygen Silica
Chlorine Metals Chlorides
With the exception of sulphur these elementary bodies.
are not known to exist on the surface of the globe in their
simple uncombined state, but in combination as above men-
tioned they form the greater part of the mass of the earth
and of the soil upon its surface. It is these combinations
which are of interest to the farmer in his study of the prin-
ciples and laws of vegetable growth.
POTASSIUM AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
PotassIvumM is of most importance in its form of
CARBONATE OF PorasH,
108 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
a combination of potash with carbonic acid. This is the
form in which potash exists in wood ashes; and in the pot-
ash and pearl ash of commerce. It has a most important
influence upon the growth of plants, as may be seen by
reference to the tables in the previous chapter. Its use
for this purpose as a fertilizer dates back to the time of the
ancient Hebrews, Egyptians, and Romans, and the value
of wood ashes as a fertilizer has been mentioned by several
of the ancient writers. Moreover it is well known that
wood ashes are more favorable to some plants than to oth-
ers, “bringing in,” as it is termed, plants like the clovers
which are rich in potash, and so crowding out useless weeds,
and improving the land at the same time.
PorasH is extremely caustic, destroying all vegetable and
animal matter very rapidly. It is easily produced as fol-
lows. 12 parts by weight of carbonate of potash are dissolv-
ed in water and boiled with half the weight of newly
burned (or quick or caustic) lime slaked in water, the lime
takes the carbonic acid from the potash and settles to the
bottom, leaving the potash in solution in a caustic state.
Caustic potash so readily absorbs water, from the atmos-
phere, that it can only be kept dry with difficulty. It is
not known that potash in this form is of any service in the
growth of plants, but it is thought possible, because of the
action of lime upon the carbonate; and when lime is ap-
plied to the soil, as it frequently is, it is quite possible that
it may exert this effect upon the soluble carbonate of pot-
ash with which it comes in contact.
PorasstuM, may be obtained by mixing the dry caustic
potash, procured by evaporating the solution above de-
scribed to dryness, with powdered charcoal and iron filings,
and submitting the mass to intense heat in a closed retort.
The potash is decomposed; its oxygen combines with the
iron, and the metal potassium is left pure in the form of a
vapor which is distilled over and appears, on cooling, in
the form of white silvery drops. This process was one of
the remarkable discoveries of Sir Humphrey Davy to whom
we are indebted for much that is known of agricultural
*
POTASH COMPOUNDS. 109
science. This metal can be kept only in some liquid which
contains no oxygen, hence it is immersed for keeping in
pure turpentine, or in naphtha, which are compounds of
carbon and hydrogen. When exposed to the air it is quick-
ly oxidized; when it is thrown upon water, it floats and ab-
sorbs oxygen from this fluid, so rapidly that it takes fire
and burns. A curious experiment in this direction may
be made by placing a small piece of the metal upon ice,
when it at once inflames by combining with the oxygen of
the ice. Hydrogen gas is of course liberated in the decom-
position of the water. The oxide of potassium thus formed
is caustic potash, and weighs one-fifth more than the potas-
sium; the increase being due to the oxygen combined.
CHLORIDE OF PorTAssIUM, is very useful as a fertilizer,
furnishing to plants not only potash, but chlorine. It ex-
ists In sea water along with common salt; it is found mixed
with salt in the salt mines and is extracted in large quan-
tities from the salt mines of Germany, from whence it is.
brought as “muriate” (chloride) of potash to this country
and sold as German potash salts. It consists of potassium
combined with chlorine. It can be easily produced by dis--
solving pearl ash in hydro-chloric acid, until effervescence
ceases and evaporating to dryness. It is extensively used
in the manufacture of alum which is a double sulphate of
alumina and potash. ‘This salt of potash is found in the
ash of nearly all plants, and in large quantities in sea weeds;
salt marsh grasses; and sedges.
SULPHATE OF PorasH, consists of potash and sulphuric:
acid and is a most useful and cheap form from which pot-.
ash may be furnished to the crops. It may be formed by
dissolving the carbonate of potash in sulphuric acid until
gas (carbonic acid) is no longer given off, and evaporating:
the solution. It exists in considerable quantities in wood
ashes, and in the ashes of plants; and forms 18 per cent. of
the weight of common alum. This salt has been found to
act beneficially upon clovers; peas; beans; cabbages; tur-
nips; rape and other plants: all of which will be found,,
on reference to the preceding tables to contain both potash
110 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
and sulphuric acid in notable amounts. Hence the favor-
able result of its use as a fertilizer for these crops.
NirratE OF PorasH or saltpeter is a well known sub-
stance and consists of potash and nitric acid, and can be
formed by dissolving pearl ash (carbonate of potash) in
nitric acid and evaporating. It exists in large beds in
South America and is generally diffused in the soil in small
quantities, being produced wherever potash and decaying
vegetable matter happen to be in conjunction in the soil,
by the action of the nitrifying organism which exists in the
soil and is supposed to aid in the production of nitric acid.
This salt exerts a most remarkable effect upon plants; con-
taining as it does two of the most important elements of
plant growth and being extremely soluble. As little as 50
lbs. per acre, applied when the soil was damp has exerted
a marked effect upon the vegetation in the course of a sin-
gle night.
OXALATE OF PotTasH.—Oxalic acid has not been men-
tioned heretofore, but it deserves a passing notice here be-
cause it exists in many plants which are known by their
agreeable acidity. Sorrel, and the common garden rhu-
barb, owe their sourness to this acid; itis also found in the
chick pea; several varieties of the rumex family (to which
rhubarb belongs) as the docks; also in tormentilla; bistort;
gentian; saponaria; and many others. Lichens and va-
rious mosses also contain this acid in combination with lime
and soda. It is also noteworthy because it is closely akin
to carbonic acid, being a derivative from the element car-
bon, ecnsisting of two parts of carbon and three of oxygen,
and can be easily formed in a plant by the addition of one
equivalent of carbonic oxide (C. O.) to one of carbonic ac-
id (C. Oz); forming together(C2O3) oxalicacid. This acid
is very readily changed to carbonic acid by heat: thus
when oxalate of potash is heated in a capsule over a lamp,
it is decomposed and carbonic acid is left. It has been
supposed that this salt of potash exists freely in plants and
trees, and that this change occurs in their combustion, and
the formation of the ashes. It may therefore perform an
SODA COMPOUNDS. 111
important part in the changes which occur in the interior
of plants, although its direct agency in this direction has
not hitherto been distinctly understood.
TARTRATES AND CITRATES OF PorasH, exist in many
fruits; the citrates abound in the citrus class of fruits,
oranges, lemons, shaddocks, and limes; and the tartrates
in grapes. ‘These salts are easily decomposed by heat as
the oxalate of potash is, leaving carbonate of potash. Few
experiments have been made in regard to these compounds
of potash; probably because of the slight difference between
them and the carbonate and the ease with which they can
be interchanged in the process of growth of plants.
SODIUM AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
Sodium is never found uncombined and of necessity has
no relation to vegetation. It is of some interest however
as being the base of various compounds which are inti-
mately connected with the growth of plants. Like potas-
sium it is a soft silvery white metal, light enough to float
upon water, and like it will oxidize and burn on contact
with this fluid. It is produced from soda in precisely the
same manner. Its compounds are first
CHLORIDE OF SopIuM,or common salt. This substance
is universally diffused. It forms 2% per cent. of the weight
of the ocean and isfound more or loss in all soils; it also’
exists as a rock in enormous beds among the strata of the
earth’s crust, some of these being considerably over a thou-
sand feet in thickness. It formsa portion of the substance
of all plants and animals, and hence is of great interest to
farmers, as being a most important manure for crops; for
which purpose it has been used from the earliest ages. It
consists of sodium and chlorine. — It is so well known that
its properties need no further consideration at this time.
SopA, is the oxide of sodium, and resembles very strongly
the corresponding oxide of potassium; although its proper-
ties are not so strongly marked. It is extremely caustic
and absorbs moisture from the air. The sodium compounds
seem to be everywhere diffused, being found everywhere,
12 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
and even in the particles of atmospheric dust. But although
their presence is universal, they possess a less marked im-
portance in vegetable growth than the potash compounds;
appearing in much less quantity in the ashes of plants.
With the exception of salt, none of these compounds are
used in agriculture, excepting incidentally as impurities in
the more costly potash fertilizers. These consist of sulphate
of soda and chloride of scdium chiefly, and are mingled to
a considerable extent with magnesia salts in the so called
German potash salts from the Strassfurth salt mines.
The universal diffusion of these compounds in nature sup-
plies all the needs of the farmer for the growth of his crops,
and if any one is thought necessary, salt will serve every pur-
pose. This will be considered at greater length when the
subject of manures is under consideration.
CALCIUM AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
Catcivm, like the preceding two metals is silver white in
color, and by its union with oxygen forms lime. It is not.
known to exist in an uncombined state in nature and there-
fore has no direct action upon vegetation.
LiMg, is the oxide of calcium, and has so very great an
affinity for water and for carbonic acid that it only remains
in its pure state a short time. It is prepared from the com-
mon limestone, the crystallized form of which is known as
marble, by burning it ina kiln. The carbonic acid is driv-
en off in the combustion, leaving the lime in a caustic con-
dition, or as it is termed quick lime, and loses 44 per cent.
of its weight in the burning.
Lim, is by far the most important mineral constituent
of plants and forms the greater part of the ash of the major-
ity of them. Its relation to plant growth, and its action in
many ways upon the soil, gives it a high position in the es-
timation of farmers, both as a direct fertilizer, and an indi-
rect aid in the preparation of the soil for the growth of crops.
It has an exceedingly destructive action upon all organic
matter, quickly decomposing it and reducing it to its origi-
nal elements, and preparing it for plant food. It has also
LIME COMPOUNDS. Ts
a solvent action upon silica, decomposing combinations of
it with potash, and soda, and forming silicates of these sub-
stances which are soluble; thus forming a most important:
addition to the plant food in the soil. It gradually absorbs
carbonic acid from the air, and from any decomposing or-
ganic matter brought into contact with it, and thus slowly
returns to its condition of a carbonate of lime, in which it
is inert, excepting when it is dissolved in water. Its many
valuable properties will be more fully detailed in the chap-
ter on manures.
CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM, is the well known chloride of
lime, of daily use as a disinfectant. It has no important
relation to plant growth although it has a most useful effect.
in various ways in purifying the air about farm build-
ings, manure yards and drains.
SuLPHATE OF Live or gypsum, is an exceedingly val-
uable compound of lime and deserves special study. It is
composed of 523 parts of lime, 462 of sulphuric acid, and
21 of water; the water existing as water of crystallization
which is driven off when the gypsum is exposed to a heat of
300 degrees. This substance is atranslucent, yellowish or
white, soft, rock; which is easily ground into a fine powder.
It is inert and exercises no action upon other substances,
but is easily decomposed when its constituents enter into
other combinations, as will be hereafter described. It is a
most valuable fertilizer, supplying the crops with sulphuric
acid and lime, and enters in its combined form into some
plants. It is soluble in 400 times its bulk of water. It is
largely and beneficially used as an absorbent of ammonia
in stables and manure heaps; exercising this action by the
ease with which it parts with its sulphuric acid; giving this
up to the ammonia, from which it takes in exchange car-
bonic acid; thus forming carbonate of lime and sulphate of
ammonia.
NirrateE oF Limf, is little heard of in agricultural lit-
erature and yet it undoubtedly has a most interesting rela-
tion to plant growth. The production of nitric acid, arti-
ficially, in the so called “niter beds,” has been already
114 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
referred to, but may be usefully recalled in this connection,
because nitrate of lime is formed as a result of the combina-
tions. This compound rapidly absorbs water, and is never
found as a solid in its natural condition, but always in so-
lution as a liquid. It is supposed to exist in all fertile soils,
and to furnish most valuable plant food; but being extreme-
ly soluble and being rapidly changed to carbonate of lime
by a low heat, it escapes detection in the analysis of soils or
vegetable substances, while its constituents have entered in-
to other combinations.
PHOSPHATE OF Lime, formed by the combination of
lime with phosphoric acid is an exceedingly important ele-
ment of vegetable and animal substance. It forms 57 per
cent. of the dried bones of an animal and exists to some ex-
tent in every part of its body. ‘It is largely contained in
the seeds of plants, and in all the grasses. Next to nitro-
gen it is the most valuable constituent of manures and fer-
tilizers, and its sufficient supply to the soil gives the farmer
much care and anxiety in regard to the culture and perfec-
tion of his crops. It exists naturally in the rocks as apa-
tite, or mineral phosphate of lime, and thus consists of 543
per cent. of lime, and 452 per cent. of phosphoric acid; bone
phosphate of lime, containing 512 per cent. of lime, and 483
per cent. of phosphoric acid. A bi-phosphate of lime is
found in animal manures, chiefly in the urine, in which
there are 712 per cent. of phosphoric acid and 28% per
cent of lime. The phosphate of lime and bones, furnish
the basis for the manufacture of superphosphate of lime
which is one of the most valuable fertilizers.
MAGNESIUM, is a metal having many points of similar-
ity to those above mentioned. It is white, easily inflamma-
_ ble, and when burned in the air unites with oxygen form-
ing a compound or earthy oxide known as magnesia. It is
of no direct interest in relation to vegetable growth. Its
compounds enter into vegetable and animal substance, at
times to a considerable extent.
CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM, exists in the water of the
ocean to a larger extent than chloride of sodium and gives
MAGNESIA COMPOUNDS. 1 Tee
to it its bitter taste. It is met with in the ash of plants, and
also mixed with salt in the water of salt springs and in
rock salt. It therefore forms a constituent of the German
potash salts in which it exists in a considerable proportion;
although it is not estimated at all in the market value of
these fertilizers.
SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA, is the common Epsom salts.
It has been used as a substitute for gypsum in the same
manner, and for the same kinds of crops, but it is too costly
for this purpose. It has been considered as injurious to
crops by some farmers, and as it exists abundantly in al-
most all soils, and is an ingredient of widely distributed
rocks, but little interest is afforded by its consideration.
CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA, is found abundantly in many
kinds of marble and other limestone as an impurity, and is
not considered of any value.
PHOSPHATE OF MAGNESIA, exists in the blood and tis-
sue of all animals and in the ash of nearly all plants. It is
in this form that it chiefly enters into the substance of
plants; but as it exists in the soil in sufficient quantities it
has never been brought to the notice of farmers as necessary
fcr the growth of crops. No doubt there are conditions
under which the soil may be beneftted by an application of
some form of magnesia, but this can easily be given indi-
rectly with the potash salts or with lime. It forms a con-
stituent of nearly all commercial fertilizers, in some com-
bination or other.
PuospHorvus.—This element does not exist in a free or
uncombined state in nature, this being impossible because
of its extreme inflammability. It is a soft, colorless, trans-
lucent, wax-like substance which takes fire on the slightest
friction and burns with much violence; emitting dense
white fumes of phosphoric acid. It is insoluble in water.
It was discovered by Brandt more than 200 years ago, and
because of its intensely inflammable character, was much
dreaded by the uninformed alchemists, who termed it “the Son
of Satan.” It exists in vegetable and animal substance;
being a constituent of albumen and fibrin, and of the ner-
116 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
vous substance. It is a far more abundant element in organic
nature than sulphur, which resembles it in many respects.
PuospHoric ActD, is the form in which this element is
of the greatest interest to farmers; because of the universal
and most important relation which this compound bears to
vegetable and animal life. This acid is exceedingly sour;
is readily soluble in water, and is corrcsive to vegetable and
animal substances. It does not exist ina free state, although
it is frequently mentioned as a constituent of the ash of all
plants; but is always found in combination; chiefly with
potash, soda, lime, and magnesia. In these forms it is uni-
versally diffused through nature and it is in these combina-
tions that it is of interest in the study of its relation to plant
growth.
SULPHUR, is too well known to need any detailed de-
scription. It is only of interest in its combined form as sul-
phuric acid and this in its state of combination with other
substances. Alone, this acid isthe most corrosive substance
known, dissolving or decomposing all organic and many —
inorganic substances. When in combination with metals
or alkaline substances it forms sulphates. These exist
abundantly in nature and some of them, as sulphates of
potash and lime are useful to vegetation, while others, as sul-
phate of ircn or:sulphate of alumina are hurtful.
SILICON, exists only artificially as a dark brown powder
prepared with great difficulty by a tedious chemical process.
In its oxide as
Sinica, it is one of the most abundant substances, form-
ing the larger part of almost all minerals; being almost the
sole constituent of the most common rocks and a part of al-
most every one of others. Its character is that of an acid,
as it combines with alkalies, and forms silicates, as silicate
of lime; of potash; of soda &c. It exists in the ash of all
plants without exception, and quite largely in many, form-
ing the outer coverings of the stems and seeds; thus pro-
viding support for the plant, and protection for the germ,
or vital portion of the seed. These silicates are soluble in
water or are easily decomposed by water containing some
THE SILICATES. TIF
caustic alkali, as lime, in solution; and the silica is then
made available as food for plants.
The insoluble silicates of potash, lime, soda and magnesia
exist in many mineral substances. The transparent glassy
mineral known as mica, and often wrongly called “isin-
glass” and which is used for the windows of stoves, is a sili-
cate of alumina and potash, being composed of 46.3 per cent.
of silica; 36.8 per cent. of alumina; 9.2 per cent. of potash,
with a little iron; the very common mineral, feldspar, is
another silicate of alumina, containing 16.95 per cent. of
potash: another abundant mineral, prehnite, contains 26
per cent. of lime in combination with silica and alumina;
other similar minerals have soda instead of potash, and some
have magnesia in their composition. As these minerals
which form vast rocks, and mountain masses, are slowly de-
composed by the action of the atmosphere and the carbonic
acid contained in it and by the rains; or are broken up by
the frosts of repeated winters, the debris is carried down
and borne to the lower grounds and forms the richest soils.
The glistening specks of mica which are seen so abundantly
in the soils over extensive areas, all tell the story of inex-
haustible stores of potash, and soda, held safely until the
slow action of the weather, the effective labors of the farmer,
and the chemical agency of the manures and fertilizers he
applies to the soil, unlock them from the close embrace of
the silica and release them to become aliment for the crops,
and bring comfort and wealth to mankind.
These silicates are a subject for most interesting study,
and although silica is rarely considered by farmers as of any
value to them, it is really one of the most important of the
inorganic elements. But it exists so abundantly in nature,
and in such a readily available form, that like the air and
the water which come to us unbidden, this really precious
plant food is furnished as a free gift, without money or price
and is lavished most abundantly upon us, so that the farmer
is in no way concerned in regard to it.
CHLORINE, is a gas of a most pungent and offensive char-
acter; of a greenish yellow color; and is one of the elements
118 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
which, combined, form hydro-chloric acid ; commonly called
muriatic acid. This element fortunately does not exist in a
free state but is quite abundant in combination; forming 60
per cent. of common salt; (chloride of sodium). It is easily
produced by decomposing salt by means of the black oxide.
of manganese, mixed with it, and placed in a bottle or jar
and pouring sulphuric acid upon the mixture. The chlo-
rine is separated from the salt and is given off in the form of
the gas described. It is a most characteristic element. It
extinguishes fire; but it causes phosphorus; gold (in the
form of “leaf’’); potassium; sodium; and many other met-
als, to take fire when immersed in it, and burn; combining
with them and forming chlorides. It is 43 times heavier
than air, and may be poured from one vessel to another.
Animals cannot breathe it, and when unmixed it destroys.
all living vegetables. Yet its solution in water promotes.
the germination of seeds.
It exerts astrongly destructive effect upon organic matter,
and hence is employed as a disinfecting agent, to decompose:
the noxious gases which emanate from putrid vegetable and
animal matter. It also quickly destroys colors, and on this
account is used for bleaching cotton goods. It is extensive-
ly distributed in nature as may be seen by its universal pres-
ence in the ash of plants, in some combined form. It is also
present in all the secretions and other fluids of animals, and
forms, as hydro-chloric acid, a portion of the gastric fluid of
the stomach. This acid is composed of chlorine and hy-
drogen.
We have thus enumerated and described, as far as may
be useful, the inorganic elements of plants, and those parts
of them which are derived from the soil. The nature of the
soil itself next claims our careful consideration.
md
THE SOIL.
Cherlin eV ELT,
THE SOIL.—ITS ORIGIN AND FORMATION.
A study of the principles of geology will be found very
useful and instructive to the farmer, for they explain how
the soil which he prepares for his crops, and from which the
subsistence of man is procured was formed; from what ma-
terials it was derived; and how it came to be available for
his purposes.
The earth was once “without form and void and water
covered the great deep.” This is the testimony of inspira-
tion as given in the Scriptures and it is the testimony given
by the rocks themselves. Everything in relation to the
rocks and the soil which has been derived from them, prove
the combined agency of great heat and of water, in their
construction. The solid earth is composed in greater part
of a few elements only; the larger part of the 64 which are
known to exist, are found only in small quantities; and
when we enumerate the 8 inorganic substances already men-
tioned as contributing the mineral elements of vegetation
and add to them the single one alumina which is chiefly
represented by clay, we have all the elements which make
up the vast bulk of the globe and form the soil which cov-
ers its surface.
The solid rocks which form what we call the crust of the
earth are of two kinds, viz: those which give evidence of
haying been erupted from a molten mass and of having been
cooled into a solid state, and those which give evidence of
having been deposited by the agency of water. It may per-
haps best explain our subject by giving a short history of
what is believed to have been the manner in which the earth
was brought into its present condition.
The condensation of the gaseous materials of which the
earth is composed, at its original formation, produced a heat
120 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
incomprehensible to our minds in its intensity, and of which
we have an example in the present condition of the sun.
In course of ages the gases became condensed to fluids and
by a gradual process of cooling the-various elements became
plastic and more adherent; separating from each other by
molecular attraction and forming layers or masses, which
formed a crust around the central portion, still fluid from
the retained heat.
At this period of the earth’s history it was surrounded by
a dense atmosphere of steam ; produced by the vaporization
of the water by the heat. Upon still further gradual cool-
ing the watery vapor became condensed, in part; and the
heated masses of plastic rock were enveloped in an ocean of
boiling water, above which floated the dense volumes of
steam. Here was indeed chaos, and the darkness which
covered the waters and the earth. As the cooled crust
hardened, it shrank, and as the pressure of the molten mass
within it burst the thin shell, it was vomited forth into the
ocean, causing explosions and outbursts of steam, which as-
cending, became cooled and fell in tremendous torrents of
rain, into the ocean. A seething, boiling, tumultuous ocean,
thus enveloped the globe; while vast eruptions from
beneath it forced mountain masses of plastic rock far above
its surface, and these were washed with the descending rain
‘torrents. The soft rock was thus broken down into mud
which flowed into the depressions, forming vast beds at first
horizontally spread out. All this went on during vast ages;
a period of terrible commotion and chaotic disturbance.
As the gradual cooling proceeded, the disturbances became
less frequent. At times the pressure from below the hard-
ened crust lifted this slowly, breaking it into fissures and
throwing up the rocks upon their edges, or into vast waves.
These waves of rock were sometimes burst at their summit,
when melted matter flowed over them and filled the depres-
sions between them; or one side of the broken crust would
fall back to a lower level leaving a precipitous wall of rock
on the other side. The ocean beating upon these heated
rocks, quickly wore them down into mud or sand; and
THE FORMATION OF THE SOIL. 1a
these spreading out under the great depths were soon pressed
and hardened into the slates or the sandstones which we
know so well. The hot water holding silica in solution gave
up its burden as it cooled, and gradually added it to these
beds furnishing the cement which bound them into a firm
mass; or it filled the fissures and formed the quartz beds and
veins so prominent among the existing mountain masses.
Then came long periods of rest. The ocean cooled and +
no longer gave forth the vast clouds of steam which hid the
sun. Then came the light, and the day and night. The
dry land was formed by the lifting up of the earth’s crust
along continuous lines; the rocks being broken and tilted
on their edges, and higher in places than in others, formed
lines of islands through the enveloping ocean. Thus were
formed the great chain of the Rocky mountains, and the
lesser chain of the Blue ridge and Appalachians which stretch
from Georgia to the north into lower Canada, and of which
the White mountains and the Adirondacks are a part. A
great broad valley was formed between these mountain
chains, anda gradual slope on either side down to the
depths of the ocean. By gradual shrinking of the still cool-
ing crust, the mountain chains were lifted up and great de-
pressions were formed into which the ocean withdrew, leav-
ing broad continents stretching from the south to the north
poles. All these changes of course were accompanied by
- vast floods which washed the loose materials into depres-
sions and formed layers of gravel, sand, clay and earth, much
as we find them to-day when we excavate the banks of earth
on the hill sides. .
Then came the ice period. Everywhere over half the
earth’s surface were vast beds of ice. These spread from
the mountain tops down their sloping sides to the valleys.
As the lower portions melted, the pressure of the enormous
masses above, forced these beds of ice downwards, slowly
but continuously; as the glaciers of the present age move
down the mountain sides. The tremendous pressure ground
down the rocks into powder; wearing away thousands ~of
feet from the top, cutting off the crests of huge bends and
122 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
waves: andas the ice melted under the heat of the pressure
and friction, great floods emerged from under the glaciers
and carried the broken down rock, sand, and mud, with them,
and spread them in the valleys; forming broad shallow lakes.
which eventually dried up and left wide areas of soil.
Thus were formed the broad plains and prairies; the
gently swelling vales and the broad valleys; and the hills
and mountains were left to give birth to the rivers which
cut their ways through the soil, on their passage to the
source from which the all powerful beams of the sun first.
drew them.
Then came the first plant; a humble moss or lichen, covy-
ering the soil in the first ages of vegetation, and gradually
gathering from the atmosphere the carbon, nitrogen, oxy-
gen, and hydrogen; and the various inorganic elements which
have been described; furnished by their death and decay
the sources from which future ages of life might spring.
And by the gradual accumulation of stores of carbon and
nitrogen in the soil, a better and richer vegetation was
evolved, until the time came when the sweetly odorous
flowers; the verdant meadows; the glorious forests; the
teeming fruits and the nutritious grains covering the prolific
soil; made a fit home for man; and the earth was given to
him for his eternal heritage and dominion.
Thus was the soil formed and man became a tiller of the
eround.
THE ROCKS THE ORIGIN OF SOILS.
Cite? Tee xX Ex.
THE ROCKS.—THEIR COMPOSITION AND INFLUENCE
UPON THE SOIL.
Rocks are divided by geologists into two great classes;
one termed primary ; igneous; or unstratified; such as gran-
ite; quartz, &c: the other, secondary; stratified; or sedi-
mentary; as sandstones slates &c.; by which is meant that
the latter has been formed from the debris of the former as
has been explained in the previous chapter. One other
class is termed, generally, the tertiary or third formation;
and this consists, of the water worn pebbles; gravels; marl
beds; clays and sandstones which have been formed by the
later changes'on the earth’s surface and since animals of
the kinds which now exist appeared on the globe. For this
class of rocks are distinguished by the frequency of animal
remains in them, which are similar to or identical with
species which now exist.
These three classes are divided into various sub-classes
called systems and these again into formations; each of
these having some common resemblance, which shows that
_ they were deposited under nearly the same general physi-
cal conditions of the earth’s surface. Thus there is the car-
boniferous system, consisting of a series of limestones; sand-
stones; iron stones; and beds of coal; which contain animal
and vegetable remains of the same species, and are thus
shown to have been formed at one special era of the earth’s
history. From the characteristics and formation and order of
deposition of these beds, the geologist or an attentive intelli-
gent student, can formas clear an idea of what occurred
during the age in which these plants grew and these ani-
mals lived, and these rocks were deposited and formed, as
if he had the open volume before him in which he might
read the history. This is a study of the most intense inter-
124 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
est to the farmer, who plows the soil and reaps his crops
from the land made rich by the remains of past ages of veg-
etable and animal life; and the history of which is recalled
as he turns up in his fields the fossil or stony remains cf creat-
ures which existed, we know not how many ages ago.
The composition of the various rocks is of great interest
to the student, because, as the soil is formed from the rocks,
and its character is recognized by fragments of the prevail-
ing rocks of which it is made up, the nature of the soil is
necessarily similar to that of the rocks of which it consists.
This knowledge of the rocks is indispensable to farmers, for
without it they cannot know what they should of their soils,
and the adaptability of these to the crops which they grow.
For there are wheat lands; corn lands; grass lands; soils
for fruit; for the vine; for the dairy; for sheep; and for
other special crops as hops, tobacco, &c., and a right choice
of land for a special purpose is indispensable to successful
agriculture.
Granite is the foundation rock of the globe. It is the
basis of the oldest mountain ranges whose granite peaks,
bare and rugged, point their pinnacles to the noon-day sun
and defy the foot of man to reach them. This rock is of
great importance in the formation of the soil; for it contains
the most indispensable elements for vegetable growth; viz:
silica; potash, alumina and soda; and in veins which are
contained in it, lime; magnesia; phosphoric acid; sulphur
and chlorine are found. Thus from this one rock and its
accompanying minerals may be furnished to the soil, every
inorganic element needed for the successful growth of crops.
It is made up of crystals of quartz, feldspar, and mica, ce-
mented together most compactly and making a rock of ex-
treme hardness. The quartz is the clear, glassy, white,
mineral; which makes up the larger portion of the ordinary
sand; the feldspar is a flesh colored, or white, milky col-
ored substance, softer than the quartz, and is usually in the
form of square or rhomboidal crystals; the mica is in white
yellow or black scales.
There are no richer soils than those derived from granite,
FERTILITY OF GRANITE SOILS. 125
the component parts of which contribute every necessary
element for abundant and vigorous vegetable growth; while
the large proportion of silica existing in them, with the
alumina and magnesia, give them a loose open texture which
makes them easy of cultivation and permeable to water.
These soils produce wheat and all the grains, grasses, fodder
crops, and fruit, to perfection. They may be readily dis-
tinguished by the glistening of the small bright particles of
mica which glitter in the sunlight, and by their loose open
mellow texture. They bear a forest growth of oak, hick-
ory, elm, basswood and white pines of the largest dimen-.
sions and finest quality; and having a deep surface soil with
an open subsoil rarely require artificial drainage.
The principal constituents of the feldspar of which these
soils largely consist are silica, alumina, potash, and soda;
the soda feldspar is called albite; the potash feldspar is.
called orthoclase. ‘These minerals have the following com-
position.
Orthoclase, Albite.
SHR ITCCL? ty Rape RE. Sie Wes Bee 65.21 69.09
AG) PLYTUNTV EY ic ane conan aanngosess cusands 18.13 19.22
PS REISE che tatoo tenes Covanees panases 16.66
RRM ED Sauercerpanate Gravnvecs ceacasaaaaeneots ee 11.69
100.00 100.00
The mica contained in the granite has a varied composi-
tion, one kind containing magnesia in considerable propor-
tion. The following are analyses of these two kinds.
Potash Mica. Magnesia Mica.
SD BRR ee aaa Se ose tes ca ba chara 46.10 40.00
PAMAITVAUE cee teccncnwavacwasaccncdsscse 31.60 12.67
REA CLEVOFE IPOM Gs ocisct. ccc cssiwescsess 8.65 19.03
REGUS Nieto. aap sae ds dodadnaneaccach sa 8.39 5.61
LN: ee 1.40 16.33
PORMOPTCNANCN soo oc cccccecesscees aces T12 2.10
Muisitiesteectcn ti. ahectcscks ds osucps anatoueens 1.00 —
MEMTIAC BOI. cvatasseensaveonces +230 a 1.63
98.26 97.37
When the granite contains hornblende in place of mica
it is called Syenite. Hornblende is a black glassy mineral,
very tough and hard; and contains the following substances..
126 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Basalt Hornblende. Syenite Hornbdlende.
SUGAR eavdeccescutasticrivadisdeseacs 42,24 45.69
cA VURTTUTTNG ease seseevantarees eure sanvcsas 13.92 12.18
ATOR ce eae dca chia i Poach opce 12.24 13.83
IW AGTIONIH cv evainecsotesrecdessseqreses 13.74 18.79
OMIDGOE TOU s. neces evseesovceess 14.59 7.32
Oxide of Manganese............. 0.33 0.22
IREGOEIG CIO sc ceterssessvecuscarseuens —— 1.50
97.06 99.53
This variety of granite is distinguished by the absence of
potash and the presence of lime in notable quantity.
Granite also contains a number of other minerals in veins,
or scattered through the mass. Among the most important
of these are apatite or phosphate of lime; marble or crys-
tallized carbonate of lime; tourmaline; epidote and cryso-
lite. These furnish to the soil the phosphoric acid, which
is indispensable for vegetable life and growth, and contrib-
ute lime, magnesia, potash and soda as well. Where these
minerals abound, the soil is fertile and bears abundant crops.
The greater parts of New England; northern New York;
eastern Canada; Pennsylvania, parts of New Jersey, West
Virginia and southward along the mountains and eastward
to their feet, are covered with soil produced by the decom-
position of this class of rocks and prove by the high culture
and value of the soil, how well it is furnished with the ele-
ments of plant food.
The same may be said of all the other rocks of this class;
which consist of similar minerals varying more or less in
proportion. This variation naturally has an effect upon
the character of the soils derived from these rocks. For
when phosphoric acid is deficient, no surplus of other ele-
ments will make up a fertile soil; and when the lime or
potash has been washed from the soil on the higher lands
into the valleys, the sandy land which remains has no good
quality to attract the husbandman.
The most fertile soils are those derived from the decom-
position of limestone rocks. When the traveller across the
continent passes the Appalachian mountains, he enters the
grand valley of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, and
traverses a vast region of the utmost fertility, renowned as
VALUE OF LIMESTONE LANDS. 127
the granary of the world and surpassingly rich in cattle.
The blue grass region of Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio and
Iowa; the inexhaustible bottoms of the Ohio rivers; the
“loess” soils of Nebraska and Kansas and the rich prairies
and forests of the north western states, are all underlaid with
limestone rocks and covered with a limestone soil of unsur-
passed fertility. These lands have made the United States
the richest and most powerful nation of the world; for they
have attracted the many millions of industrious enterprising
immigrants which have covered these lands with fertile
farms, the produce of which has given employment to the
great railroads and fleets of steamships which carry abroad
millions of tons of grain and provisions and bring back more
of the wealth of muscle and brain, which makes up the
strength and power of this great nation. The following ta-
ble exhibits the character of the soils referred to.
1 2 3
From Kentucky From the From
blue grass region. Ohio valley. Nebraska.
Silica and fine sand............. 76.20 85.14 80.51
PAUUUUTTNITY Ocak cates wav epieesngnshe verse 8.51 5.66 6.81
ORAMEOL, ANON: 2 sescaesncassecesssce 2.59 aloes 0.31
NAUUTT ES ees decbcsauvsuaueteatesrscsseaeed 3.92 1.56 4.40
PEM ESA Sc cesseoncescconeasataces 1.68 -ol 1.16
HEHE ceeskvetinees on standensscsee: 2+ 1.14 48 2.13
OE coeaac cisco cees- veers soaseeleeesaccn 0.64 .02 ai
PHOSpHOrig ACI... 5.026.002. as, 65 1.60 1,22
MSPS ca ccaxseesaeeanychshpaeecusecs SOL 02 .09
CUNVOTAIVE hoc canettense oasbehaccauecacs .O1 .03 .03
MEY HGMICURCIG...2.x0c SR Ae ee ee Ge a ee eS
WHY SOILS BECOME EXHAUSTED. ~ 149
An inspection of the table above presented gives only a
faint idea of the extent to which the elements of fertility
are withdrawn from the soil in the regular course of crop-
ping. If we figure up the amount of mineral matters car-
ried off during the ordinary 4 course rotation of wheat, oats,
corn, and clover for 2 years, on a well cultivated farm, we
have the following results.
Wheat. Oats. Corn. 2 years Clover. Total.
INTGVOP EN \soccscverse ase 45, 52. 56. 204. 357. Ibs.
POULT ovens ee er esleaves 7.8 8.0 14.7 18.8 49.3
IPOLASI A epeesaieteres 27.9 38.1 58.0 174.8 298.8
CMV eo a ck Sexeses 3.4 3 2.0 8.2 20.9
WGTELG) Acne: otsswecetee.exs 10.2 11.8 15.7 172.2 209.9
Magnesia.............+. 7.7 9.2 12.3 61.8 91.0
Phosphoric acid.... 22.7 18.9 25.1 50.2 116.9
HIGEING'.2 5 eaccsc0s 500 19 5.5 18.8 26.2
SUNG AG. ccccevetacieucst> 111.1 94.1 54.5 13.6 273.3
237.7 244.9 238.3 722.4 1443.3 -
The amount thus taken from the soil in 5 years is very
large, and considering that it is all derived from the stock
of soluble plant food existing in the soil, it is no matter for
surprise that 20 years of such cultivation should leave the
soil destitute of fertility and unable to bear the same abun-
dant crops. Indeed to such a condition of sterility have a
large portion of the cultivated lands in New England and
the Southern States been reduced by this process of exhaus-
tive culture that a larger expense will be required for their
restoration to even a moderate degree of fertility, than
would be equal to their value when thus restored. No far-
mer who lives by his mere labor, and who has not a large cap-
ital to spend in fertilizers anda slow costly process of re-
covery, can hope to do anything with these farms, many of
which are abandoned to the slow process of recovery by nat-
ural methods and the gradual accretion of carbon and
nitrogen from the sparse contributions of the atmosphere,
which may sustain a thin growth of weeds and humble
plants during a long series of years, the remains of which
may in time gather a sufficient provision for a new culture.
It has been explained that some of the mineral constitu-
ents of a fertile soil exist in sufficient abundance for all the
requirements of cultivated crops for ail time. Alumina and
150 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
silica however are the only parts of the soil which are thus
bountifully provided by nature. Every one of the others,
even lime, of which 30 tons per acre are contained in many
soils—and in some there is much more than this—is quite
rapidly exhausted, so far as the requirements of a full crop
are concerned, by a few crops; for although there may be
many tons of lime still remaining in the soil only a small
quantity of it is available because it is soluble in water to
a very small extent. The same is true of the potash; soda;
phosphoric acid; and magnesia; all indispensably necessary
to the crops as has been shown above.
A small quantity of all these elements of plant food is
dissolved in the soil by the rain water, aided by the carbon-
ic acid which (as has been previously explained) the water
holds in solution. The quantity so set free in the soil is the
measure of its natural fertility: just as the 7 to 10 pounds
of nitrogen which is known to be contributed by the at-
mosphere in the form of ammonia and nitric acid, and the
few pounds of carbon supplied by the carbonic acid which
is also derived from the atmosphere, are the measure of
the natural resources of the soil in these respects. This
natural fertility is able to support the common spontaneous
growth of soil which contains no accumulated stock de-
rived from the decay of previous crops. If the soil dug
from a deep well is thrown out on the surface and sown
with seeds and cultivated, the yield would represent pre-
cisely this natural fertility. A very poor growth would be
the result. Ifthe precise quantity of all the available ele-
ments of plant growth in such a soil could be ascertained
and the amount deducted from the known quantities drawn
from the cultivated soil by a full crop, we could then cal-
culate with reasonable exactness what the soil loses each
year, and what the farmer must supply to it to prevent its
final exhaustion and preserve it in a fully fertile condition.
But there are so many accidents of season, and other
circumstances, which interfere with the growth of the crops,
that the farmer could not safely depend upon such a cal-
culation. To be safe, he must leave a very liberal margin
VARIATION IN THE CHARACTER OF PLANTS. THE
to cover these risks; and on the whole he will not feel safe
until he supplies to his fields at least as much as, and if
possible more than the crops draw from them, and_ not
only retain the original stock of fertility and accumulate
each year the contributions of the atmosphere, but keep
adding to these, either by direct additions in the shape of
manures, or of green crops or other vegetable matter
plowed in, or procure some additional matter from the soil
through the agency of tillage.
It is a frequent supposition that crops of different kinds
are constant and unchangeable in regard to their constitu-
ents and the quantities of the various elements they draw
from the soil. And while it has been stated as a rule, that
these drafts made upon the soil are in so great a measure
constant and regular that they are typical of the various
crops grown, yet within narrow limits, a certain variation
is found to exist which is the result of distinct differences
in soils. Every farmer has known in his own personal ex-
perience, or through the experience of others, that any par-
ticular crop, as wheat, varies in character according to the
nature of the soil. That upon soils of a silicious or sandy
character with an abundance of lime in it, the wheat has a
bright clean thin husk and a stiff bright clean straw, while
upon other soils containing a large quantity of organic
matter and being deficient in silica and lime, the grain has
a soft thick husk, a very weak chaff, and straw that is not
able to bear the weight of the ear and lodges very easily.
Similar differences have been experienced in regard to
other crops; oats; barley and potatoes; and even with for-
- est trees and niany other plants and their fruits. Wheat
straw has been known to vary so much in this respect that
various samples of 100 lbs. of it grown upon different soils,
have contained 34 lbs. ; 44 lbs. 62 Ibs. 153 lbs. and 163 Ibs.
of ash, varying with each particular soil. Where the ash
was the heaviest the soil consisted of a limestone gravel;
while the straw with the lightest ash was on reclaimed
swamp land.
The same variations are well known to occur on the same
152 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
farm in different fields where the soil varies much in char-
acter; and there is no crop that is grown which is not sub-
ject to modification in this respect. Even the amount of
organic matter in plants is affected by the differences of
soils; for some lands produce wheat much richer in gluten
than other kinds, and much above the average quantity
contained in this grain, and thus draw from the soil a lar-
ger quantity of nitrogen in which gluten is exceptionally
rich. Sweet corn is much richer in sugar, as is also sugar-
cane when grown upon lands rich in carbon, while pota-
toes grown upon reclaimed—but well drained and dry-
swamp lands, rich in the same element, contain the largest
proportion of starch; and onions grown upon the same soil
yield far more abundantly.
These instances tend to show that the exhaustion of the
soil is not an element in the culture of crops that can be
figured out with precision, as is pretended by some persons,
and that it is therefore exceedingly unsafe and unwise for
the farmer to run close to the limits indicated by the fig-
ures. He must provide sufficiently for the demands of his
crops, as shown by the tables previously given, without de-
pending to any large extent upon the store which he has
reason to believe exists in the soil, and thus maintain a
large balance in hand to serve in cases of any possible and
unexpected exigencies.
To sum up the interesting considerations which present
themselves in this regard, it may be stated;
First—That plants appropriate from the soil varying
quantities of inorganic, or ash, substances, as their age and
condition of growth may vary; and that the'different parts
of the plant draw from the soil, some more, and some less
of these substances than others.
Second.—That if the substances necessary for the growth
and perfection of one part of a plant more than another,
abound in any soil, the crop will be chiefly developed in
that direction; one will run to straw, another to leaf and so
on; but as long as the crop can find food in the soil, it will
take it if only partially.
RELATION OF CROP GROWTH TO EXHAUSTION. 153
Third.—Some substances appear to enter into the circu-
lation of plants, not so much as actual and necessary con-
stituents but more as agents by which other compounds
may be conveyed into them. Salt for instance appears to
enter into the substance of plants chiefly for supplying
chlorine in some cases, and soda in others. In such cases
when these substances are found to exert any marked ef- |
fect upon the vegetation, it is to be concluded that the soil ~
is deficient in them, and that their use necessarily causes a
larger draft upon the soil for other kinds of plant food to
supply the larger growth of the crops.
Fourth.—That while the soil may contain a very large
quantity of the substances required for the growth of vege-
tation, yet the most of these may be in an unavailable con-
dition for the use of the crops.
Fifth—That every soil possesses a certain amount of
natural fertility, which has been accumulated during past
ages, and that this stock is exhausted in a comparatively
few years, and during this time it will produce full crops
in proportion to the amount of plant food which it con-
tains.
Siath.—That when this store of accumulated fertility is
exhausted, or any one element of it, the crops fail and final-
ly refuse to grow.
Seventh.—That the soil then is able to afford a certain
amount of plant food, which is derived from its natural re-
sources; and that these consist of certain contributions from
the atmosphere and from the mineral compounds which ex-
ist in the soil: but these are wholly inadequate for the pro-
duction of crops.
Fighth.—That when the soil has been reduced to this low
condition of natural fertility, the farmer is obliged to sup-
ply an adequate amount of available plant food for the
growth of crops, in the form of manures, composts, or fer-
tilizers.
Ninth—That it is not safe for the farmer to depend
wholly upon the analyses of the various crops as to the
amount of plant food required by them; but should supply
154 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
a surplus in the form of manures or fertilizers so that the
soil may be kept in a constantly fertile condition.
Tenth.—That thorough culture and pulverization of the
soil, are indispensable for the development of the plant
food contained in it.
IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS.
CHAPTEEH :X% X It.
IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. BY MECHANICAL
METHODS.
The facts given in preceding chapters afford indubitable
proof that the natural capacity of the soil for the produc-
tion of farm crops varies so considerably, that the ability
of the farmer to grow them profitably is at times very much
restrained. Every soil encourages by its natural condition,
a kind of vegetation best suited to it, and is unable to pro-
duce anything different or better until this natural condi-
tion is changed. A knowledge of the laws of vegetable
growth, and of the nature of the organic and inorganic ele-
ments of it, with the obstacles to the development of these
into food for plants, which exist by reason of the unfavor-:
able physical conditions of the soil, will enable the farmer
to take such means as will overcome and remove these ob-
stacles and enable the soil to entirely change the character
of its products.
The farmer can change the character of the land itself;
he can alter its physical condition, and its chemical consti-
tution; and can thus fit it for growing other species of plants.
than it naturally bears, or if he chooses, can cause the land
to produce these with greater luxuriance and in more prof- —
itable quantity. It is in fact the production of these chan-
ges by the exertion of rightly directed labor and _ skillful
management which constitutes the whole art of agriculture,
and the laws which control and make possible these changes,
comprise the whole science of this art.
To attain these desirable ends the farmer may drain the.
wet lands; irrigate dry lands; lighten heavy clays by deep
plowing and subsoiling, and the addition of lime, composts,
sand, or peat; consolidate light sandy soils by similar
methods; darken the color of light soils by adding composts of
156 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
swamp muck; and by any other means consistent with his
opportunities to remove the difficulties which stand in the
way of the most productive culture of crops.
An excess of water in the land is hurtful in several ways.
The roots of plants are drowned in it and perish for want
of the needed air and oxygen; for where water is air cannot
go, and where it comes the lighter air is driven out. Plants
are starved, because the abundance of water so weakens the
solutions of plant food, and presents this to the roots so
much overcharged with water, that the plants are unable
to pass the large quantity which is necessary to supply the
requisite solid nutriment, through their leaves, and they
perish for want of aliment.
The soil is cooled by the excessive evaporation and made
incapable of growing crops for the want of sufficient heat to
nourish them and by which the necessary circulation of air in
the soil is produced. The warmth of the sun cannot pene-
trate a wet soil, however ardently its beams may descend
upon it; for heat cannot penetrate water from the surface.
A fire may be built upon ice and will melt it only very slow-
ly; while if a stratum of boiling water is carefully poured
upon the top of a quantity of cold water or ice, the heat
will penetrate only to a very little depth. And if the heat
of the sun should warm the surface of the soil and set in
action the consequent evaporation, this will immediately
convey away the heat as fast as it is absorbed, and the soil
will remain cold below, where the roots of plants must find
room to push their fibers.
The excessive water soon becomes charged with injuri-
ous acids produced by the decomposition of the organic
matter, and these are deadly in their effects upon vegeta-
tion. The oxygen which is required for the change of this
decomposing matter into plant food being denied entrance
into the soil, no aliment is prepared for the plants; but in-
stead of food, matter which is injurious is offered and there
ean be no healthy or useful vegetation.
But when the first step for the improvement of a wet soil
is taken, all this is changed. The drains carry off the stag-
BENEFITS FROM DRAINAGE. 157
nant water, and give a ready escape for all that may rise.
from springs, or which falls inthe rains. A flowing current
is at once established and life and health at once take the
place of the unwholesome effects and death, which accom-
panied the stagnant water. The active current brings in
oxygen and carbonic acid which is given up to the soil;
the atmosphere takes the place of the withdrawn water and
the heat of the sun enters the now porous soil and starts the
active circulation within it, which represent precisely, but
in a minute way the air currents above the earths surface,
which we call winds; but which are caused and controlled
by the same changes of temperature which occur in the
dried soil. Every operation of nature which inures for
the encouragement ‘of plant growth is now actively at work
in the soil, and the production of plant food goes on with-
out hindrance. The soil, solid and compact before, is now
open, loose, porous and friable; the frosts pulverize it; the
just sufficient water dissolves it; the acids are oxidized, or
neutralized by the alkaline solutions which ebb and flow
through it; and the farmer no longer delayed when the sea-
sons work presses is able to plow and plant in due time.
Every shower then refreshes and fertilizes the land; brings.
down with it useful substances from the atmosphere, which
are absorbed at once by the soil, instead of being wasted
and washed away, as they were when the surface of the
land was saturated and flooded; and at the same time it re-
news the air within the soil, causing fresh accessions of such.
plant food which the air may supply. Moreover this mode:
of improvement of the soil is equivalent to a considerable
deepening of it, for it opens it to the plow and permits the
roots to forage to a depth as far down as the drains are
placed. It thus enables the farmer to vary his crops and
grow such kinds as he may wish and which will be most
profitable to him.
Lastly the farmer who drains his wet fields, confers a
benefit upon the locality in which he lives. The greatest pest:
of the American farmer and to his cattle as well, is the ever
prevailing miasma which rises from stagnant water, below,
158 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
as well as above the surface of the soil, and which is known
by the common term malaria. This miserable disease which
makes the life of the American citizen uncomfortable and
wretched the greater part of the year, is bred in swamps
and undrained lands; and when these are improved and
freed from the constantly evaporating water, the pestilence
is laid and health is restored. The chilling dampness which
loads the air with poisonous gases no longer rises in foul va-
pors from the land; and the air becomes pure and _health-
ful. The farmer thus confers a blessing upon his neigh-
bors, while he improves his own circumstances, and thus af-
fords a new proof of the fact that he who helps himself helps
the world, and that no man works for himself alone; much
less the farmer, whose vocation makes him the feeder and
clother of mankind.
The practice of irrigation is the converse of draining. It
consists in bringing water from distant streams or other
sources, by means of canals and ditches, and spreading it
over lands where the rainfall is not sufficient for the growth
of crops, or in many cases where the ordinary climate pre-
vails, water from adjacent streams or springs is brought
and spread over lower lands which are laid down in grass
and are kept in permanent meadow. No other country in
the world, than ours, offers such a vast scope for the im-
provement of lands by this means. Millions of acres of land
unsurpassingly rich in all the elements of plant growth want
only water to make them fruitful and productive of all the
varied farm crops; and by means of this mode of improve-
ment millions of farmers may find homes and a comfortable
subsistence and furnish great wealth to the community,
where now desolation and solitude prevail. At the same
time many farmers, whose grass crops are cut offand whose
winters supply of hay is greatly reduced by drouth have an
abundance of water running to waste upon their farms by
the use of which the yield of grass and hay might be doubled.
Comparative poverty might thus be turned to actual wealth
by the mere employment of water at a little cost, which
now flows away uselessly, or perhaps spreads out injurious-
VALUE OF IRRIGATION. 15S
ly into a pestilential swamp. Grass is the grand crop of
the farm. It is the pivot of our agriculture. It supports
all our live stock in one way or another, and is the very
basis of our agricultural prosperity. No farmer ever yet had
too much of it: and very many are constantly mourning
over the scarcity of it. A large proportion of these have
the power in their own hands to double the product of it;
by merely conducting such streams, as may be so carried,
over the land and spreading the water upon the grass.
Water-meadows exist in Europe which have been pro-
ducing green forage and hay for centuries, without any ma-
nure and no labor except cutting the grass. The growth is
enormous. One inch per day during the summer, or 120
inches in the aggregate, has been cut from the Rye Grass
meadows of Italy; and in England 6 tons of hay per acre
is a common yearly product. The water of the streams
comes loaded with fertilizing matter which keeps the land
increasing in productiveness notwithstanding the large
product.
The largest crops of grain and vegetables on record are
now produced in Colorado and some Western Territories,
where 10 years ago not a blade of grass grew and no civi-
lized human inhabitant had a home. The prevailing sage
brush and cactus gave a somber and dreary view to the
broad plains, and the wolf chased its prey among the brush,
where now the self-binding reaper sings its clattering songs
and scatters the golden sheaves; and villages and surround-
ing homesteads cover the land. All this is the grand trans-
formation worked by the fairy water; one wave of the mag-
ic wand, and the stream flows to one side and scatters it-
self through thousands of channels amid the smiling ver-
dure which has sprung up from the arid barren soil at the
touch of the creative, life giving fluid. The fairy is hu-
man industry and enterprise and the magic wand is human
- labor. In another chapter, this subject will be further
treated, and some few practical directions given, so far as
space will permit, for the practice of this most profitable
method of improving soils.
160 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Plowing and subsoiling for the improvement of lands is.
a practice which has been but little practiced, and much
less understood and appreciated in America. The practice
has been in use for several centuries in Europe where farm
land bears a higher value than it has here. But our cheap
lands are now nearly exhausted and it no longer pays to
make a farm, ruin it by wasteful culture, and then abandon
it to sterility and weeds, and seek a new one which will be
treated in the same manner. With a rapidly increasing
population, the division of the land among the citizens has
been nearly completed and the far distant territories do
not offer sufficient inducements for young farmers to go:
through the wasteful practices of their parents. A few
years ago this book would have been a premature work;
but now that the best culture of farms and the most_profit-
able culture of farm crops are the only ways to success in
gaining a comfortable subsistence. Every known and possi-
ble method of improving the land and increasing its pro-
ductiveness, and every means for study and for acquiring
information leading to these desirable ends, become of the
greatest interest to farmers.
Hence practices and operations which would not be
thought of or undertaken a few years ago, now become in-
dispensably necessary, and what has been done in older
countries is to be studied and repeated with such improve-
ments as better knowledge and larger experience may make
possible. Plowing is a most important part of the farmers
art, but it has been scarcely studied at all, and has been
very imperfectly practiced hitherto by American farmers.
The plow has been used, not for the permanent improye-
ment of the soil, but merely to loosen it sufficiently to make
a bed for the seed and to cover up the debris of the preced-
ing crop. Mechanics and inventors havespent much thought
and study npon the perfection of plows and other imple-
ments of tillage; and no other country has such a diversity
of excellent plows as ours; but the farmers have certain-
ly been neglectful of their opportunities and advantages in
regard to the use of the plow in improving their lands.
IMPORTANCE OF GOOD PLOWING. 161
Very few farmers ever plow a field twice in preparation for
a crop and it is nothing uncommon to see the land a mass
of hard clods, which the farmer is vainly endeavoring to
break down by the use of the spike tooth harrow or the rol-
ler, into a fit condition for the reception of the seed.
The soil is quite as rarely ever plowed to a sufficient
depth and nothing is feared so much by American farmers
as permitting the plow to run an inch or two more deeply
than usual or to turn up “the yellow clay” to the surface..
All this is an injury to the soil. The passage of a plow
back and forth over the same bottom of a furrow for sever-
al years hardens it makes it tough and compact, and im-
permeable to air and water; and really reduces the depth
of the soil from which plants can procure their food to the
few inches which the shallow imperfect plowing turns over:
Nor is the plowing even. The plowman is not instructed
in the art of holding or guiding the plow, nor in the neces-
sity for keeping the furrow of even depth and width, and
of avoiding balks by which the plow is thrown out and a
portion of the soil is left wholly unturned. In many parts
of the Southern States the soil is not even turned, but is
merely torn by the common bull tongue which leaves the
soil only scratched in lines and a large part of it is not
touched. In the great states of Ohio; Indiana; Llinois;
and others; wheat is sown upon the corn stubble and simply
covered by a harrowing and this with a most ineffective
implement. ‘The soil is not turned and is not pulverized.
From what has been said in previous chapters this sort of
culture is seen to be wholly ineffective for its intended pur-
pose, and is utterly useless as a method for improving the
soil after it has been exhausted and wasted by this treat-
ment.
The plow is constructed for the purpose of cutting loose
and turning over a portion of the soil, having a cross sec-
tion of 5 x 7 inches up to 7 to 10 or more; depending upon
circumstances. American plows are made with shorter and
more curved mold boards so as to break up the furrow slice
by bending it at a short and sharp angle and are exceed-
162 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
ingly effective for the purpose of breaking up the ground.
But for the improvement of the land and for increasing its
fertility one plowing alone is quite insufficient. The soil
should be broken up and pulverized thoroughly all over
the field, and the sub-surface over which the horses have
trodden and which the sole of the plow has rubbed and
hardened and made solid and impermeable, should be
broken up and opened to the admission of water and air.
Several plowings should be given. A wheat crop should
never be put in without at least two plowings and the land
for a corn crop should be thoroughly well and deeply
plowed in the fall. Plowing at this season for a spring
crop is a most effective way of improving the land. The
land roughly thrown up in ridges is left with as much sur-
face as possible exposed to the frost, that the soil may be
pulverized and made fine and mellow. A winters expo-
sure in this way will liberate much mineral plant food by
disintegrating the soil and bringing it in larger part into a
soluble condition. The newer soil brought up by the fall
plowing is thus brought under the free action of the atmos-
phere, and aided by the effects of the frost, this develops
the plant food in it and makes it available for the crops. A
‘consideration of the principles discussed in previous chap-
ters which relate to the relation of the atmosphere, water,
and heat and cold, to the soil; with a knowledge of the
precise purposes for which the plow is intended; will en-
able any thoughtful farmer to work out the requisite
methods for improving his land by plowing, for himself.
Subsoil plowing, has been a bugbear to many farmers be-
cause the practice of it has been mistaken. It is commonly
supposed that this term, means the use of one plow behind
another in the same furrow, for the purpose of turning up
8 or 10 inches more soil on the top of the first turned over.
This is not intended and would result in a permanent injury
to the land. All that the subsoil-plow should do, is to fol-
low the first plow and break up the sub-surface and the
hard crust left by previous surface plowings. This hard
crust seals the lower soil against the entrance of air and
THE GROWTH OF THE ROOTS OF PLANTS. 163
water, and offers an obstacle to the deeper penetration of
the roots of crops.
The presence of oxygen is indispensable in the soil wher-
ever the rootsof plants may go. It is—or should be—obvious
to the intelligent reader that the more of the soil that can
be occupied hy the roots of a crop, the better for the crop,
for it extends the feeding ground. It is something like
opening asecond field, by removing a fence, and throwing it
open to a herd of cows or a flock of sheep. It increases the
food supply proportionately, and as plant food is always be-
ing carried down into the lower soil by the water, the far-
mers desire should be to give the roots of his crops the ut~
most facility for extending themselves in their search for
food. Roots are very enterprising in this way, and farmers
cannot do better than take a lesson from the instincts of the
plants which they cultivate. Wheat, which is considered
a shallow rooted plant, has been known to send its roots
down 8 feet into the subsoil. The author has traced the
roots of corn in a deep washout nearly 10 feet from the sur-
face; clover sends its roots down 10 or 12 feet; lucern—a
most eager feeder and consequently exceedingly productive
—has been known to extend its roots 18 feet down into the
subsoil. Common grassroots often go down 3 or 4 feetin the
soil where inducements in the shape of available food are
given. No doubt these are exceptional cases, but they
show what plants will do in their search for food, and in
every case these deep rooted plants are the most vigorous in
growth, proving that their purpose in sending down their
roots was successful. Where these roots went there were
air, and oxygen, and carbonic acid with it; and had not
the soil been porous and accessible to these nutritious gases
the roots could not have penetrated into it. It is not nec-
essary to break up the soil to this depth; all that is needed
is to break up the crust under the surface, by running the
subsoil plow a sufficient depth under the first furrow, to let
in the air and open a way for the rains to enter freely, and
to permit both air and water to pass and repass, under the
influences of heat, and expansion and contraction, with the
164 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
most perfect freedom.
Deep surface plowing should be done gradually. It is
not wise to bring up a subsoil until the air has had time to
act upon it. All soils, as we have seen, contain sulphuric
acid and iron, and the combination of these substances form
a most noxious substance viz, sulphate of iron or copperas.
This is frequently found in subsoils to which air has not
penetrated and when the roots of plants touch it, the crop
sickens, turns yellow and perishes. By the admission of
air, with its oxygen, this noxious compound is decomposed;
the sulphuric acid is divorced from the iron, and is set free
to be appropriated by the crops in other and useful forms,
and the iron unites with the oxygen forming a useful sub-
stance—oxide of iron— which enters to a small extent into
all vegetable growth. For this and other reasons of like
import the subsoil should be broken up by the subsoil plow;
but the subsoil should be brought to the surface only as it
has been acted upon by the atmosphere and by the manure.
A soil may be plowed as deeply as it is occupied by plant
food and new soil may be gradually mixed with this by
gradual deeper plowing. An inch a year, brought up in
the fall, and left to the influences of the air and weather
and then mixed with the other soil on the surface, may be
safely and usefully added to the depth of the cultivated
soil, until 8 or 10 inches has beenenriched and fitted for
the aliment of plants.
A farmer intent upon the improvement of his soil should
not rest until he can safely plow the land to this depth. A
table previously given shows how much fertilizing matter
may be contained in 9 inches of arable soil over an acre.
When the soil has been brought into this condition by me-
chanical means, then the farmer may use all methods for
making this vast store of plant food available. What might
be the maximum yield of crops has never yet been ascer-
tained. 240 bushels of grain corn per acre have been pro-
duced: the authcr has grown 125 bushels per acre, and 99%
bushels per acre over a whole field, more than once; and 80
bushels frequently. 6 tons of timothy hay per acre has
THE MAXIMUM PRODUCT OF THE SOIL. 165
been gathered at one mowing: 80 bushels of wheat per
acre has been produced and more has been claimed: 65
bushels per acre has been commonly grown by the best
English farmers in good seasons. 125 bushels of oats and
80 of barley have been produced on favorable soils. 1329
bushels of potatoes have been made per acre by one farmer
by ordinary methods of culture: 600 bushels is a common
yield in the rich potash and lime soils of the Southern
mountain region. 75 bushels of buckwheat per acre has
been grown by the Author, 80 tons of mangels has
been prodnced in England and 1200 bushels per acre of
this root have been grown as an ordinary crop. These are
not to be supposed to be unsurpassable. No one knows what
a fully fertilized soil may produce under every favoring cir-
cumstance, but it isthe business of the farmer to provide
everything in the soil for as large a product as may be pos-
sible and then to accept what a kind and favoring Provi-
dence—ever ready to recompense honest effort, and sustain
the industrious energetic faithful and conscientious worker
—may enable him to secure. It is very certain that he who
does not sow, will not reap, and it is equally certain that he
who sows with pains will reap joyfully.
It is scarcely necessary to extend these considerations to
a greater length than to merely mention a few other me-
chanical methods of improving the soil. The principles in-
volved have been perhaps—and as we hope—made suffi-
ciently clear. Heavy clay soils have been greatly bettered
by a mixture of fine sand and gravel. As has been ex-
plained the presence of silica in the soil exerts a beneficial
effect upon all crops, but especially upon the grains. This
process is not so costly as it-may seem. Where a supply of
sand is conveniently situated 160 loads per acre or one to
the square rod is spread in the winter on the fall plowed
land, left in ridges and as rough as possible to get an even
mixture. This may be done for $40 per acre if the work is
hired; but if in the season of leisure, the farmer and his
workmen undertake it, the work may be done at a nomi-
nal cost. Where 10 acres are to be sanded, it will greatly
166 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
lessen the cost to lay a portable track of 2 x 4 timbers and
run a self dumping truck upon these rails. In this way
farms have been sanded in Germany at a cost of $10 per
acre and the outlay has been returned the first year by the
increased crop. The land is plowed and cross plowed in
the spring by which the sand becomes evenly mixed with
the clay; the texture of which is very much improved.
Sandy soils are equally improved by the admixture of
decayed swamp muck. As this class of soils are usually
well adapted for special cultures for which the addition of
clay would partially unfit them, this operation is not recom-
mended unless in special. cases; but 100 or 200 loads per
acre of peat composted with lime has been known to entire-
ly change the appearance of the soil and to largely increase
its productiveness: As 100 tons of good peat free from
sand or clay will contain 2000 to 4000 lbs. of nitrogen, this.
with the addition of lime in the porous soil, freely entered
and occupied by the air, will enable the process of nitrifi-
cation to go on with great rapidity, enriching the soil with
nitrates to a large extent, and thus ensuring a great im-
provement in the fertility of it. Perhaps—draining except-
ed—there is no mode of mechanically improving soils that
is so effective in increasing their value and productiveness
as this.
The addition of lime to peaty or heavy clay soils has the
effect of removing most of the objections to them; but unless
it is previously drained the labor is thrown away and inef-
fective. Lime fits peaty soils for growing grain, but is
greatly aided by a mixture of sand. A limed swamp
meadow at once changes its product of grass, and if seed is
sown, the better kinds of grass thrive excellently. The
lime loosens and mellows heavy clay, and makes it less re-
‘tentive of water and productive of better grain. This how-
ever will be more fully treated of when the use of lime as a
fertilizer is taken up in a future chapter.
THE PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE.
CTRAr ti h «1 iT:
HOW TO DRAIN LAND.
The manner of draining land necessarily depends upon
several conditions such as the character of the soil; the
amount of water; the manner in which the water exists in
the soil or in which it arrives there, the kind of materials
at hand; the outlet for the water and others which may
present themselves in any particular case. A few general
principles however will enable the farmer to adapt his
methods to his circumstances without difficulty.
The soil— Whenever, in early spring, the water appears
on the’ surface, or in the furrow after the plow, or remains
upon the surface after rain and interferes with the cultiva-
tion, the land requires drainage. It may be that the water can
be carried off by open surface ditches; or that the sources
of the water may be tapped by a few converging drains
meeting in one main ditch by which the whole of the water
may be carried off from the land. It may be on the other
hand that the subsoil is full of springs which are supplied
from distant sources and that in this case deep drains are
necessary to cut offthe water and carry it away. Or the
soil may be of stiff impervious clay under the surface, or an
impermeable hardpan prevents the surface water from pas-
sing down and making its way from the land. All this
must be studied and known before any work is done, lest a
costly job of draining may be done unnecessarily or without
useful effect. To learn this, it is proper that the subsoil
should be examined by digging with the spade 3 or 4 feet
deep.
Springs, frequently fill a large area of low land with
- water, which flows under the surface and immediately upon
a hard bed of clay or gravel hardpan. To understand
clearly how this occurs, it may be well to explain the na-
ture and action of springs.
168 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Water being a fluid seeks its level under all circumstances,
being forced to this level by its gravity or weight, and the
extreme mobility of its particles among each other. It is
clearly evident from common experience that water cannot
be heaped up as sand or earth may be; nor can hollows ex-
ist in the surface of a body of it. If a barrel of it is set
upon high ground and the contents are let out they will
flow readily to any lower level; but the water cannot be
made to flow up again of its own motion or gravity or
weight.
Now, when water falls in the form of rain upon high
ground which is underlaid by clay or hardpan, it sinks
down to this impervious stratum, and not being able to pass
through it, it flows along its surface down to lower levels,
until, gathering there in excessive quantities, or being arrest-
ed in its flow by some obstacle, it makes its escape’ to the
surface by some easy way; through a bed of sand or gravel
in the form of springs; or it spreads through this open and
permeable soil and forms swamps or fills the soil with stag-
nant water at certain depths, less or greater as the case may
be. When one digs down through the surface to this under
current of flowing water and taps it, the water rises and
makes a well, in which it maintains a height equal to the
level of its source or nearly so. Thus a well is an artificial
spring under these circumstances, but when the water flows
into the well from the surrounding soil and does not rise
from the bottom it is not a spring well but simply a cistern
which is supplied from above by ordinary drainage.
Remembering this fact, it is easily seen that when low
land is saturated with water which comes from a higher
level it may be effectually drained by cutting a ditch to in-
tercept it at the foot of the slope; and by carrying off this
water to a convenient outlet the whole of the lower land
may be freed from it in a very easy and economical manner.
Ditches, required for drains should be 3 feet deep; but
under certain circumstances this depth may be less or more.
It has been already explained that soil has the property of
capillary attraction by which water is raised above its level
HOW DRAINS SHOULD BE MADE. 169
in and among the spaces or interstices between the finer par-
ticles of the soil. This necessarily has a close connection
with the depth of the drains; and in this manner.
If the level of the stagnant water, or the under current
which flows from higher land, be, 1, 2, 5 or 4, feet below
the surface and the drains are made at either of these depths,
it will be clear that the water will flowin the drains; but
that if the drains are 20, 30, 40, or 100 feet apart, the cap- -
illary attraction of the soil will cause the water to rise at
the center line between the drains, to certain heights, vary-
ing with the distance between the drains. Thus if the
drains are 20 feet apart the tendency of the water to seek its
level and flow into the drains will overcome the capillary
attraction and the tendency of the water to rise in the soil,
to a greater extent than if the drains were 30, 40, 50 or 100
feet apart. Therefore the distance between the drains must
be regulated by this property of the soil, the quantity of
water which exists in the soil, and the character of the land
in regard to its absorbent power and its ability to retain the
water in its pores. In clay land or in peaty soil the drains
would need to be closer than in open gravel or sandy loam
soils, which are underlaid by clay or hard pan; and neces-
sarily they should be made deep enough to reach and pass
through this impervious water bed.
Upon these principles itis not difficult to decide upon
the depth ofthe drains and the distance between them to
make them most effective.
Open ditches should be made not less than 4 feet wide for
3 feet in depth, or 3 feet for 2 feet in depth; and if the sur-
face soil is open and porous and the water rises from the
subsoil, a depth of 22 or 3 feet will be sufficient. Asa rule,”
the water flows into the drains from the bottom; the press-
ure of the surface water, tending to force its way down-
wards, causing the water to rise in the drains just as it does
in the case of a spring or a well; as has been explained
above. |
Ditches for covered drains need be made no wider than
is required for the convenience of working in them and the
170 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
depth may be from 23 to 3 feet; and very rarely more; as
the case may require. 18 inches at the surface gives ample
room for working in such a ditch; and 6 inches is sufficient
for the width at the bottom. In estimating the cost of dig-
ging these ditches, the question should be considered, if 4
feet ditches at 100 feet apart would not be cheaper than 3
feet ditches 60 feet apart: the cost would be less certainly,
for the labor of excavating 6 ditches 4 feet deep would be
less than making 10 ditches 5 feet deep and the ground
covered would be the same in either case.
The materials, for making the drains in covered ditches
are tiles, stones, gravel and wood; and each has its good and
bad points.
Tiles are pipes made of clay burned like brick in kilns.
They are made of various diameters from one inch for the
short lateral drains up to 6 or 8 inches for the main and
outlet drains; and are about 15 inches long. They make
the best and most lasting drain, when well made and laid
with accuracy. They should be hard burned so as to ring
when struck; free from flaws; straight, and smooth at the
ends, so that they will make close joints and exclude sand
or sediment which might choke them. The ditches should
be finished to an even grade with a narrow scoop made for
the purpose, which digs out a hollow the exact size of the
tile and thus provides a bed for them in which they lie easi-
ly and in a line, and may be placed quickly. To lay the
tile the workman stands on the bank of the ditch (all the
earth is thrown out on one side only, to give room for this
work) and picks up each tile with a red provided with a
straight projecting arm at the end, which is put into the tile;
and lifting it into the ditch the workman places it in the
hollow in line with the one before it, taking care that the
joint is made close. The ditch should be wholly finished
before the tiles are laid, and the work is begun at the upper
part so that there is no possibility of anything being
washed into the drains by the flowing water.
By making the drains in this way there is no risk of
making any mistake in any way, either in the grade or in
MATERIALS FOR DRAINS. 171
laying the tiles. As the tiles are laid they are covered
with sufficient earth to protect them from injury by any
accident, and the filling in of the ditches may be finished
after the tiles are all laid.
One inch tiles are sufficiently large for the lateral drains,
unless these are longer than 500 or 600 feet, when the low-
er part should be 14 inch. Drain tiles carry 4 times as
much water for twice the diameter; (increasing in capacity
as the square of the diameter, or the diameter multiplied
by itself.) Thus a 2 inch tile carries as much water as 4 one
inch tiles; 9 times as much for 3 times the diameter; 16
times as much for 4 times the diameter and so on, thus in-
creasing as the square of the diameter. If16 one inch tiles
are discharging to their full capacity, a 4 inch tile will
take all the water; but as an excess of water stops the flow
and backs up the water, and favors the deposit of sediment,
it is advisable to have the-main and outlet pipes larger than
is absolutely necessary so as to secure as rapid a discharge
of the water as possible. |
Stones make an excellent and permanent drain when
well laid. A clear channel is made by placing long nar-
row stones along each side of the ditch and covering these
with flat ones placed crosswise. These are covered with
round stones packed ‘closely, and these again with small
and flat stone over which earth is thrown. This method
is economical when the land is stony, and gets rid of stone
cheaply and permanently.
Gravel, may be used for making drains where it is
abundant and near at hand. The drains in this case are
made 6 inches wide at the bottom and are filled in with
clean gravel 18 inches deep; over this the earth is filled in.
The gravel should be clean and free from clay or sand
which would be washed into the bottom of the drains and
choke the flow of water.
Wooden pipes may be used in draining marshes and quick-
sand bottoms, with good effect. These are best made of
hemlock boards—which are the most durable under water
—6 inches wide, and nailed together in the shape of a V;
172 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
the top being made of strips nailed across, so as to form
many crevices for the entrance of the water. By extend-
ing the end of one board a foot past the end of the other
the laps in the drain may be joined firmly. These drains
are placed with the narrow part down, by which the flow
is made more rapid and the deposit of sediment in avoided.
The outlets of the drains should be amply large to avoid
back water and should discharge if possible above the level
of any high water. If in time of freshets or floods water is
backed up into the drains, or there is any danger of it when
making the outlets, it is advisable to fit a gate to the outlet,
so that when the water rises it may be closed against the
entrance of sand or mud, and opened when the water has
subsided, so that the discharge may be rapid and carry off
any sediment that may have settled in the drains.
In plowing drained lands, the open furrows should never
be made over drains, lest the water lying in them should
find its way down and make a channel through the soil by
which sand or mud.may be carried into the drain. The
location of every drain should be marked by permanent
stakes or posts in the fencee so that it can be reached when
desired without difficulty.
we
IRRIGATION.
(HA POPE Re me ys,
IRRIGATION OF FARM CROPS.
No other country in the world offers so wide a scope, and
such enormous opportunities, for the application of irriga-
tion to the profitable culture of farm crops, as the United
States. A grand chain of mountains, in which are the
sources of several of the largest rivers in the world, presents
a watershed of enormous proportions, which supplies a myr-
iad of streams whose waters flow down into dry plains, de-
prived of rain by the interception of the mountains. The
summer rainfall and winter snows which fall upon the moun-
tains, are thus carried down into the arid plains, where a
wealth of the richest soil lies uselessly, for want of rain..
When the streams which thus flow down, are turned from
their natural channels into canals provided for the purpose,
and the water is carried over the land in irrigating ditches,.
the soil yields the finest crops with the greatest ease. No
adverse weather interferes with the labor of the husband-
man. The unclouded sun, beams down upon the verdant
fields, and ripens the crops, invigorated to most abundant
fruitfulness, by the constant and ample supply of water thus
provided.
But it is not only in these arid climates that irrigation
_becomes a most valuable aid to the farmer in the culture of
his crops. Wherever streams can be turned to this use, and
their waters poured out upon lower ground, the grass crop:
may be doubled or trebled; and what is of more account,
may be made safe against all the adverse contingencies of
weather. The common and necessary rotation of crops in
ordinary farming may be an obstacle in the way of the gen-
eral use of irrigation, but for permanent meadows it will be
found invaluable and exceedingly profitable. There are
thousands of opportunities for making these meadows along
174 _ THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
the river bottoms which are periodically overflowed, but
which are torn up and washed by the floods instead of being
fed and enriched. }
The mode of procedure is as follows. A dam is made
across the stream in the:most convenient situation, and the
water is carried out on one side in a ditch, as if for the pur-
pose of running a mill. When the ditch attains a sufficient
elevation to cover the desired space of ground, the water is
let out through gates and small channels on to the land.
The land is previously leveled and made smooth by repeated
plowing and scraping, until an even surface has been formed.
It is then sown with the kinds of grasses best suited to this
mode of cultivation; but any of the best varieties, as timo-
thy; perennial rye grass; orchard grass; meadow fescue; red
. top; meadow oat grass; fowl meadow grass; may be grown
under this system. As the land will slope a little towards
the river bank, the space between this and the ditch will be
best laid out into broad terraces, enclosed with low dams,
by which the water is retained over the smooth level sur-
face at a depth of 3 inches, or thereabouts, in each division,
whenever the grass needs the water. This may be weekly,
in the growing season, and the water may be turned on for
one night in every week, to soak the ground thoroughly, and
prevent it from drying so as to stop the growth of the grass.
There is no danger of injury to the ground, because the
gates are made to discharge into ditches which gradually
overflow until the whole surface is covered. When this is
effected, the surplus water flows off through gates on the
border of the river; and through the lower dam or bank.
Thus a continuous sheet of water is left flowing over, or
through the grass, carrying the most luxuriant vigor to the
crop, and stimulating the growth enormously. The more
water that passes over the grass, the more of the most val-
uable plant food is brought within reach of the roots. Ev-
ery blade of grass acts as a filter which retains matter that
may be in solution, or is carried in suspension in the water
which slowly passes over the ground. Any solid matter that
may be carried in the water is thus deposited on the land,
MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATED MEADOWS. 175
and adds a large amount of the most valuable elements of
fertility to it. Thus the meadows need no manuring ex-
cepting at rare intervals, to restore the exhaustive drafts
upon the soil made by the enormous crops that are grown
in this manner. 80 tons of green grass, equal to 20 tons of
hay per acre, have been produced annually upon irrigated
meadows in England, for more than a century; and no
manure, more than that brought down in the water, has ev-
er been applied to the land. This process of irrigation may
be used in both summer and winter, where the climate per-
mits of it. All through the southern states, and the lower
middle states, winter irrigation will not only feed the grass,
but protect it; and the water may be kept on the land—but
always in motion—during the greater part of the winter, or
from December to March, with benefit to the grass. Where
the winters are cold enough to form ice, and the water can
be raised to a sufficient height, it may be permitted to flow
under the covering of ice; thus avoiding the injuries which
result from alternate freezing and thawing during the cold
season.
In the spring, when cold nights follow warm days, and
frost occurs, the water is let on to the grass as a protection
to it, lest the tender, succulent, growth produced by the wa-
tering may be injured. When the weather is dry, it is ad-
visable to flow the water over the grass every night, and so
keep the growth unchecked even in the hottest and dryest
weather.
Meadows of this kind are not suitable for pasturing, but
are kept only for hay, or for cutting for soiling cattle on the
green fodder.
Where the supply of water is insufficient for full irriga-
tion, it may be gathered into reservoirs during six days of
the week, and the whole used on the seventh day. Or the
land may be divided into sections, and the water which has
been turned on to one may be let on to the next one the
next day, and so on, until it has been all absorbed. Where
springs only can be thus utilized, and the supply of water is
small, a reservoir may be constructed to gather the water; and
176 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
when it is full, the water may be discharged by an auto-
matic arrangement (such as is described in the Authors work
on Irrigation for the Farm, Garden, and Orchard; in which
the full details of the preparation of the land and all ap-
pliances for the use of the water in the culture of all kinds
of crops, are given).
In many cases, the water of springs rising on high ground
may be used for partial irrigation of grass lands, by con-
veying it in furrows back and forth down the slope, at such
an inclination as will cause a sufficient flow. In this method
a furrow is turned down the slope so as to form a channel
for the flow of water. Here and there the furrow slice is
cut through, and the water is permitted to escape down the
slope. By stopping these openings with sods, the flow is
stopped, and turned through others on to fresh ground.
This simple method of irrigation may be made available on
many farms, where now the water escaping uncontrolled, is
a source of injury to the land.
In other cases, a number of springs, the waters from which
formed previously a useless swamp, have been connected by
ditches, and the gathered water conveyed on to lower land
for watering the grass. Thus a serious and injurious evil
has been turned to a double benefit, by reclaiming, upon
one hand, a useless marsh, and greatly increasing the pro-
duct of land which formerly suffered by want of sufficient.
water. All these different points should be studied by the
farmer, who may be on the alert to turn every opportunity
which comes to him, to his own advantage.
But there are other methods which may be turned to
profitable uses under circumstances which at first sight
might seem to be unavailable. The water may be raised
by mechanical means, from rivers on to lands upon a high-
er level. Several cases have come to the Authors notice in
his practice as an Agricultural and Hydraulic engineer, in
which land has been irrigated in this way; the water hay-
ing been raised from rivers and small streams by the mo-
tive power of the streams themselves. A very simple water
wheel moved by the current, works a force pump, by which
QUANTITY OF WATER USED FOR IRRIGATION. 177
the water is raised to a sufficient height; or a submerged
rotary or “‘propeller” pump raises the water; or a windmill
may be used. In short, where water can be procured, and
it can be used with profit upon the land, there is no reason
why it cannot be made available through the skill of the
engineer or the enterprise of the farmer; either by the force
of its own gravity, or by some mechanical application.
The quantity of water used in irrigating farm crops, va~
ries from one cubic foot per second for 200 acres, todouble
that quantity. That is, a stream of water flowing through
a gate having one square foot of area, or 144 square inches,
at the rate of 60 feet per minute, is sufficient to water 200 acres.
of land. But meadows consume a much larger quantity of
water than this. In some of the irrigated meadows in the
South of France, where the climate is hot and dry, the ex-
traordinary quafitity of water is poured over the grass, as
to be sufficient to cover the surface 1300 feet in depth in the
whole year. In other cases, water to the equivalent of a
total of 27 feet in depth has been used in 6 months of the
growing season. In general it has been found that the
more water that can be made to flow over the grass, the
greater will be the product.
From what has been said in a previous chapter, on the
relation of water to the growth of plants, it is easily realized
how important it is to the farmer to make use of this prac-
tice of irrigation wherever and whenever he can; how it
may be made to secure and increase crops under the ordi-
nary circumstances of the farm culture, and as an aid to the
natural rainfall, and how, by the use of it, the desert may
be made productive of every crop of the farm, and to sup.
port an jndustrious and enterprising population, where for-
merly no useful plant could grow, and where the wild beasts
roamed and howled in search of their prey. Thus it is that
man has dominion over the earth and all that it contains,
and turns it to his uses, and for the good of his race, by all
the natural forces which his knowledge, experience, and
skill, enable him to make available for his purposes.
THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
ee Pe a XV.
PLOWING.—ITS PURPOSES AND ITS RESULTS.
The plow is the principal implement of farm culture. The
name of it has become typical of agriculture and of peace-
ful industry; as the sword typifies war and slaughter. — Its
precise purpose in agriculture, however, and the principles
of its construction and action, are very rarely understood
by those whose business it is to use it, and whose subsistence
is procured by its use. At first, the plow merely stirred and
loosened the soil, and consisted of a crooked beam of wood,
a limb of a tree, guided by a handle and drawn by an ox.
For thousands of years this imperfect implement served the
purposes of the cultivator of the soil. At this day, and in
our own enlightened country, the plow in use over a large
portion of the land, is little better than that which prepared
the ancient fields of Hgypt, India, and Rome, for the recep-
tion of the seel. In the north and west, however, the plows
in use are the most perfe:t productions of the mechanical
inventors genius and thought, and of the manufacturing art.
Its curves have a deep purpose and significance, but
these are unknown to most of those who handle it. And
yet a knowledge of this purpose and significance is neces-
sary to the most effective use of it.
No plows in the world are able to do better work than
the American plows, and no others are so light and easily
handled. But it is a sad truth, which cannot be denied or
excused, that worse plowing can scarcely be seen than
the average work on American farms. Perhaps this
is the reason why the average yield of our crops is smaller
than that of any other civilized country, and that American
farmers complain that their business is not profitable. If
the foundation is weak and ill constructed, the edifice can-
not be firm or substantial; and when the plowing is imper-
A
IMPORTANCE OF GOOD PLOWING. 179
fectly done, and the soil is not well turned, no after opera-~
tion can be fully effective however well it may be performed;
and the crops must necessarily suffer.
The mold board of a plow has a complex curve intended.
to raise the furrow slice and turn it over on its edge at vary-
ing angles, or to entirely reverse it. The latter operation
is rarely practiced, and generally the furrow slices are laid
over at an angle not far from 45 degrees. This is the best
position for all sorts of plowing, excepting perhaps for fal-
lowing land and destroying weeds; but this last mentioned
necessity should never occur in the best culture of farm
crops, and it is one of the purposes of this work to show
how this necessity may be avoided by thorough culture of
the soil. American plows are made with a short, sharply
curving mold board, which bends the furrow slice so much
as to crack and break it, and so to leave stubble land par-
tially pulverized, unless the soil is quite stiff clay, and then
it is considerably loosened and broken, when it is in the
right condition for plowing, and not too wet or too dry.
The soil should be in this right condition before the plow
is put into it. When it is too wet, the passage of the plow
through it draws over and plasters the surface, and instead
of breaking it, leaves it tough and compact. Then the
furrow slices dry hard and cloddy, and no amount of har-
rowing will reduce the land toa fine tilth. Not even, the
Acme harrow, the most perfect implement of the kind that
has been devised or made, can fully overcome the injury
thus done to the land, which may remain for many years.
When the soil is too dry, the plow can scarcely be kept to
the proper depth, and the land is turned up in clods
which are equally refractory under the harrow. This of
course refers more particularly to clay soils, but lighter
loams may be injured for the season, or for years, by being
plowed when too wet.
The farmer who desires to secure the best results of his
labor in plowing, should choose the time when the land is
moist but not wet, and when it may be pressed by the hand
into a ball which will cohere and retain its shape, until it
180 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
is dropped to the ground, and then it will break apart into
loose, small fragments. Then the soil will turn over and
break apart and offer the very best opportunities for the
final working and thorough pulverization by the harrow, if
this is not deferred too long.
The plow will do the best work when it is hitched by the
traces, so that it runs the required depth without any effort
on the part of the plowman to keep it down to its work, or
to prevent it from running too deeply. This is to be secured
by a few trials, and such adjustment of the draft as will
produce the desired effect. Then the plowman has three
important things to attend to, viz; to keep the depth of the
furrow even and regular; to preserve the width of the furrow
exactly the same; and to make the furrow perfectly straight.
These three points comprise the essence of good plowing,
and no other sort of plowing will secure the best culture of
the crops, and the highest yield attainable.
When the furrow is not of even depth, there will be some
parts of the land too hard and compact to furnish the re-
quisite depth of pulverized soil for the proper growth of the
plant. Not only will the roots be unable to penetrate to a
sufficient depth in the soil, but the atmosphere will be ex-
cluded from a considerable portion of it, and all the various
effects of the circulation of the air through. the soil which
have been particularly pointed out in previous chapters—
and the importance of which will be now realized, if it has
not been before—will be missed, to the serious detriment of
the crops.
When the furrow is not of even width, there will be still
mvre unevenness of the soil. A portion of the land will not.
be cut and turned over at all, the slice of soil will not be
severed at the wide part but be simply bent over, leaving a
strip of land wholly unplowed. The turned soil will lie
upon this hard space, and just there, will be a barren spot
upon which the crop will surely fail to some considerable
extent. The error first made will be repeated in every sub-
sequent furrow, unless the careful and painstaking plowman
will remedy the fault by taking less land at the next furrow
WHAT GOOD PLOWING IS. 181
at these places, and so bring it out even again. But even
then the previous mistake and injury is only balanced by a
second one,.and two bad spots are left in the field.
When the furrows are not straight it is impossible to keep
them of even width; and to plow the land evenly and keep
it free from hard spots upon which only weak plants will
grow. For the result of such plowing is, that a certain
portion of the land is not plowed at all, and these unplowed
spots will show, not only in the succeeding crop, but for
years afterwards, and the repetition of such irregular plow-
ing will leave a field spotted over with these infertile patches
upon which the crop will appear quite inferior to the rest
of the field. It is this bad plowing to which the “spotty”
appearance of the land when covered with crops is owing,
and it goes without saying, that this is necessarily accom-
panied by serious loss to the farmer.
When a field is well plowed, one may walk over it and
thrust a stick down through the soil anywhere, and find ev-
erywhere the same depth and the same ease of penetration;
the foot will sink in the soil everywhere to the same even
depth; and when the harrow passes over such a field, it
hugs the land closely, every tooth doing its service, and the
implement will not jump and bound as it does when there
are hard unplowed spots to throw it out of the soil.
But the soil varies very much in composition, character,
and surface; and each variation calls for special treatment.
Level ground offers no difficulty whatever to the passage of
the plow, but clay soils require different management from
that of lighter land. One purpose of plowing is not only
to break up the land to fit it for the crops, but to expose as
much of it as possible to the influence of frost, and rain, and
the air, to bring it into the finest condition; to set free a
large quantity of mineral plant food in it; to decompose
the organic matter in it; and to enable it to absorb as much
as possible of carbonic acid and nitric acid from the air.
This purpose is best attained by fall plowing; and this
should be done as early as possible so as to give time for
the desired effects to be produced. .
182 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
The stiffest clay soil is brought to a fine and mellow con-
dition more easily by frost, than by any other means. The
expansion of waier in the act of freezing separates the par-
ticles of soil from each other, and breaks up their cohesion.
When the soil thaws, the particles fall apart and form a loose
mass. A rough plowing in the fall, by which the land is
broken up and a large surface isexposed to the weather, is
thus the very best preparation for the spring crops; and the
land thus plowed, is fitted in the very best manner without.
any more plowing, by the use of the harrow; especially the
Acme harrow and pulverizer; which breaks down the soft-
ened clods; turns over the surface; smooths and levels it;
and thoroughly mixes the soil. Thus, fall plowing and the
subsequent exposure to the winter of as large a surface of
the soil as may be, is a very important operation in the cul-
ture of farm crops.
Sloping ground requires a special kind of plow, by which
the land is always turned down the hill, and an even mellow
surface is procured. It is impossible to turn a furrow up the
hill as evenly as it can be turned down the slope, hence the
use of a common plow on sloping ground is objectionable.
There are several kinds of hill-side plows now made, which
do excellent work and should be used on this kind of ground
in preference to any other. From many years use of this
kind of plow, some farmers prefer them for use on level land.
The great advantage in their use on level ground, is, that
there are no open furrows or ridges in the field, as the land
is all plowed one way; or by beginning in the middle, one
half the field is plowed one way first, and the other half is
turned the other way afterwards. To prevent ridges in any
kind of plowing, either with the hill-side plow or the ordi-
nary kind, the simple plan may be followed of first plowing
out a wide open furrow and then reversing it, so as to fill
the furrow level, and leave a plain smooth surface. This
should be done in all kinds of plowing, as it avoids the dis-
advantage of leaving a strip of unplowed ground under the
back furrows, in the center of each land; and the conse-
quent waste of a considerable portion of the soil.
RESULTS OF GOOD PLOWING. 183
The use of the subsoil plow is a very important accessory
to the best culture of farm crops. It is used to follow the
common plow in the same furrow, and breaks up the hard
bottom for several inches in depth. The advantages of this
cannot be overrated. It gradually deepens the fertile soil
by bringing the subsoil under the influence of the air, and
of heat; and also of the decaying vegetable and animal mat-
ter which goes into the soil in the form of manures; as well
as of the chemical influences of lime, potash, and other spe-
cial fertilizers.
The importance of this operation of tillage has always
been recognized by the most intelligent and thoughtful far-
mers, and should not be overlooked or slighted. “Tillage
is manure,” has been an accepted principle of agriculture
since it was first tersely propounded by Mr. Jethro Tull,
an English farmer, about a century ago; and it is now,
more than at any previous time, that the truth of it is re-
cognized and realized.
The results of good plowing are varied. They secure a
fitting bed for the seed, and afford favorable opportunities
for the growth of the roots, and their most perfect penetra-
tion in and through the soil. The soil is opened to the ad-
mission of the atmosphere and of the rain and dews;: the
heat of the sun penetrates it and sets in action the various
currents, which, flowing in and out of it, bring in oxygen,
carbonic acid, and nitrogen; all of which have a most inti-
mate and effective relation to the growth and perfection of
the crops. Good plowing facilitates, and makes more effec-
tive, every subsequent operation of culture, and thus helps,
to a very great extent, towards the ultimate end of the far-
mers labors; which is large crops, and a satisfactory return
for the labor and capital employed. It is in fact the foun-
dation for the profitable culture of farm crops, and as such,
deserves the closest study and most intelligent application
of every good farmer.
THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Comat TER A XVI.
HARROWING.—ITS EFFECTS UPON THE SOIL AND ITS
RELATION TO THE GROWTH OF CROPS.
The harrow is undoubtedly the most important implement
that is used in the preparation of the soil for farm crops.
While it follows the plow, and as a rule cannot be used un-
til the plow has done its work in breaking up the soil, its
effect in pulverizing the ground is still more necessary to
the growth of piants. Ifa proof were wanting, the exceed-
ingly low average of the yield of the crops in the South,
where good harrows are rarely seen, would furnish it suffi-
ciently to convince any intelligent farmer. Where a nat-
urally rich soil, under a favorable climate produces no more
than 5 bushels of wheat; 10 bushels of corn; 150 lbs. of cot-
ton to the acre; there must be something wrong; and this
is, beyond a doubt, to be found in the most imperfect tillage
of the soils.
When the land is plowed ae soil is rset over in layers
lying side by side, and having, more or less of open space
between these layers. Unless these layers are perfectly
broken up and the soil is pulverized so as to fill up all these
spaces, the seed falls into these vacancies, where it germi-
nates and sends out its spire and roots. The young plant,
at first subsisting upon the nutriment contained in the seed,
soon pushes its roots into the soil for the purpose of finding
food, and moisture whereby it can absorb this food. The
roots thus pushed out under the unfavorable circumstances
here described, fail to find any mellow compact soil into
which they can enter, but vainly spreacing in search of it
wither and perish, and as soon as the seed is exhausted of
the nutriment in it the young spire also dies. This is the
reason why, of the more than one million seeds that are con-
tained in a bushel and a half of wheat, and which are sufh-
cient to give 25 plants to every square foot in an acre, or
LOSS BY DEFECTIVE HARROWING. 185
one to every 6 square inches, or to a space 2} inches apart
each way, the majority fail to germinate successfully and
perish in a short time; thus leaving not more than a fourth
of their number of vigorous plants to survive and make a
crop. One peck of seed on well prepared and fertile soil,
will cover the ground with plants thick enough to make a
yield of 50 bushels per acre at the harvest. Defective har-
rowing is the cause, then, of the loss of millions of bushels of
seed, and the reduction of the yield to the low general average
of 12 bushels of wheat, and other crops in proportion, per acre.
‘This enormous loss, which is felt in the same way with ev-
ery crop grown, may very reasonably be held to be the suf-
ficient grounds for the common complaint that “farming
does not pay,” and extinguishes to a most enormous extent
the possible—nay the certain—results of the farmers work
were it performed in a perfect manner.
There are several kinds of harrows in use, some of which
are very inefficient and unfit for the purposes for which they
are used. The purpose of this implement is too commonly
supposed to be to smooth the surface, and to cover seed.
The first intention is rarely carried out because of the infe-
rior plowing, and the other canscarcely be consummated be-
cause the implement is by no means fitted for covering seed.
It does this in a most irregular manner by scratching small
furrows in the soil with which the seed is pushed by the
hinder teeth, and is partially covered by the superficial stir-
ring of the ground. The usually uneven surface of the
ground and the irregular motion of the harrows, interfere
greatly with this intended effect, and lead to the waste of
seed and the inferior yield of the crops above mentioned.
The common spike tooth harrow is the most objectionable
in this respect; but the objection prevails equally against
all forms of this implement which merely tear the soil and
do not systematically pulverize the land; compress, smooth,
and level the surface; and thoroughly mix and turn the soil;
and when used to cover seed, thus do not leave it under a
layer of fine mellow soil which might provide every requi-
site and desirable condition for its most perfect germination,
186 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
and the successful growth of the crops. The definite and
special purpose of the harrow should be to prepare the soil
for the seed, leaving the seeding and the covering of the seed
to be performed by the seed drill.
The effects of plowing the soil which have been described,
make necessary more effective implements than the kinds
of harrows above mentioned. A great improvement was
made when the coulter harrows were introduced. These are
provided with sloping cutting teeth which penetrate the
plowed ground easily, and cut and consolidate, while they
pulverize it, in a more effective manner. The gradual im-
provement in this class of harrows has culminated in an im-
plement which does the work ina more thorough manner
than any other. This is necessarily a combined implement
furnished with an iren bar or frame which crushes the clods,
and levels the surface; a set of teeth which slope backwards
and further break and pulverize the soil; and lastly, a dou-
ble coulter which turns over the crushed soil, in the manner
of a set of small plows, to a depth of 3 or 4 inches or more,
which is easily regulated by tho operator. It may not be
out of place to refer to this implement by name as the
Acme Pulverizing Harrow, Clod Crusher and Leyeler,
because this name perfectly well describes not only what the
implement does in the soil, but what a harrow should do to
effect its purpose in preparing the soil for the growth of
crops.
This purpose and preparation consist in tearing apart the
furrow slices; breaking and crushing the clods; cutting up
and compacting the soil as far as the plow has penetrated;
and pulverizing the whole ground; and leaving the surface
fine mellow and open for the circulation of air and the ab-
sorption of moisture; as well as the reception of the seed.
From a consideration of previous chapters, and the knowl-
edge of the relations of the atmosphere; the various elements:
of the soil; of heat; of moisture; and the chemical effects
and reactions of the various combinations of these, to the
growth of plants, it is easily seen of what importance it is
that the pulverization of the soil should be as complete and
WHEN HARROWING IS MOST EFFECTIVE. 187
perfect as possible; and how indispensable it is for the sue-
cessful growth of crops, that the implements used to effect
this purpose should be most perfectly adapted for it.
Harrowing will be the most effective and useful the soon-
er it follows the plowing. As soon as the soil is turned it
begins to dry very quickly; and if at all adhesive, it forms
intractable clods which resist all efforts to pulverize them.
But when the harrow follows the plow, the moist soil is eas-
ily and quickly reduced to a fine tilth, and when well pul-
verized it does not dry out as when left untouched for a few
days after the plowing. This is very important when pre-
paring the soil for fall crops, because the plowing should be
done as early as possible and before the dry weather bakes
and hardens. it. Then an immediate harrowing breaks it
up and mellows it, and repeated harrowings consolidate it
and fit it in the best manner for the seed.
THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
ee Ac eat Wl |
CULTIVATING CROPS.—THE EFFECT UPON THE SOIL
AND UPON THE GROWTH OF THE CROPS.
The cultivation of crops during their growth is not by
any means the least important mechanical process for the
improvement of the soil. Although it is a temporary pro-
cess, and is used for a special purpose, yet its results are
quite as permanent in improving the land as any other pro- —
cess which can be used to gain the same effect. Every far-
mer who reads and studies the literature of agriculture, has
learned that the culture cf root crops has a beneficial effect
upon the land. The farmer who grows a good crop of corn
by means of thorough cultivation of the soil during the
growth of it, knows that the following oat crop is benefited
by it, and yields better for the work which has been done
the previous year. These are simply the necessary results
of the frequent stirring of the soil by which the contributions
of all the atmospheric agencies are secured to add to the
amount of available plant food; and while the growing crop
is benefited, a surplus remains for the next crop.
Summer fallowing, or the frequent working of the bare
soil during the growing season, was formerly considered an
effective means of improving the soil. This mechanical op-
eration consisted in plowing, harrowing, cross plowing, and
repeated harrowing. The effect was to destroy weeds, and
to pulverize the soil so that the air and the atmospheric
moisture might contribute to it whatever they could, and
also by their chemical action develop the fertility which
was latent in it. The operation was no doubt a useful one,
but it was thought, in time, that the advantages accruing
from it were gained at too greata cost; and the loss of a
crop was too great a price paid for the benefits received.
This truth was finally accepted, and the growth of a culti-
vated crop was substituted for the bare fallow. Certainly
hit
THE BENEFITS OF SUMMER CULTIVATION. 189
everything that could be gained by the working of the bare
ground was secured by the cultivation of a growing crop;
and more; for the shading of the land preserves the moisture.
and chemical action goes on more effectively in the moist
soil than in the dry. Thus the gain resulting was found to
be a profitable crop and the improvement of the soil to as
great, or nearly as great, an extent as though no crop was
taken and the labor was spent on the bare ground.
No farmer dreams of summer fallow now. He prepares
the land for corn, potatoes, beans, mangels, or some crop
which can be thoroughly worked during its growth; and
thus gains all the benefits which can result from this thor-
ough working. What then are these benefits which result
from this summer cultivation of the land ?
It has been shown in previous chapters that the soil de-
rives a considerable amount of valuable plant food from the
atmosphere, and necessarily these contributions are greater
in proportion to the quantity of air which passes through,
or into and out of the soil; by circulation. It is known that
the soil gathers from 7 to 1Q Ibs. of nitrogen every year, in
the form of nitric acid and of ammonia from the atmosphere.
But this result was proved by experiments made in the cool
climate of England and not upon cultivated soil. Itis well
known that heat is a most active agency in developing ni-
tric acid and ammonia; and that if nitric acid is produced
in the atmosphere by the action of lightning, and if ammon-
ia is produced by the decomposition of organic matter, that
in our hot summer climate, when electrical disturbances are
most active, and when decomposition is most rapid, we may
expect the fullest and most effective results of these agencies
and a correspondingly large product of these forms of com-
bined nitrogen. Thus the contribution of these forms of
plant food are more copious during the summer season than
at any other.
But these contributions are brought down by the rains.
and by the air which circulate in the soils. It is evident
and obvious that the more the air can be made to circulate
through the soil, and the more water that passes through it,
190 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
the larger will be these contributions of the richest kind of
plant food. It is equally evident that the more the soil is
worked and stirred, the more the changes from hot to
cool, and from moist to dry, will affect it; and thus in
consequence of all this, the soil that is cultivated during
the summer must gain the largest accessions of plant
food from the atmosphere. This is the first and greatest
benefit that thus accrues from the summer cultivation of a
growing crop.
It has been shown too, that a large quantity of carbonic
acid is brought to the soil by the atmosphere which circu-
lates in it, and by the rain which descends upon it; and
that carbonic acid has most distinct and important relations
to plant growth. It furnishes the carbon, of which more
than one-half of the dry substance of plants consists. More-
over, water containing carbonic acid exerts a strong solvent
action upon the mineral compounds of the soil, decomposing
them and fitting them for use as food for plants. This is
another and most important benefit accruing from this me-
chanical operation upon the soil; for the larger amount of
water received and passed through the soil by evaporation,
the more effect is produced by the action of the carbonic
acid dissolved in it.
The same may be said of the oxygen which: is absorbed
by the rain water, and of the effect of the nitrifying influence
of the peculiar germ known to produce nitric acid in the
soil. These too, exert a more potent influence in porous
and moist soil than in compact and dry soil. Thus in
many ways we are able to perceive the useful results of the
frequent working of the svil during the growth of a crop.
But this is not all. The summer fallow was designed for
the destruction of weeds, as well as for the reduction of the
soil to a mellow and pulverulent condition. When a culti-
vated crop is worked as it should be, every weed is de-
stroyed most effectively. And just here a most important
point for consideration comes up. As a rule the summer
cultivation of the soil is not sufficiently thorough. Some
weeds are permitted to escape. Thisisan injury to the soil
INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF WEEDS. 191
and to the crop, and should not be suffered by any good
farmer. The full purpose of cultivation is not secured, un-
less the weeds are destroyed before they appear above the
soil. When the cultivation is the most effective one may
see on examination of the soil, a vast number of newly ger-
minated seeds; which, had they been permitted to gain a
foot-hold in the soil, would have drawn nutriment from it
and would have checked the growing crop. A large pors
tion of them would have gained a sufficient foot-hold, or
root-hold, to resist the shock of the overturning and could
not be wholly destroyed by the disturbance of their roots.
Thus the land will not have been kept clean, and injurious
weeds will have been perpetuated. These remarks are cer-
tainly justified by the appearance of the corn and root fields
on nearly every farm. The crops, halfsmothered in weeds, are
robbed of their necessary food. A vast quantity of water, in-
dispensable to the full growth of the crops, is appropriated and
exhaled by the weeds, and in this way too, the soil is de-
prived of its fertility, and the farmer of the expected re-
wards for his toil and time.
No weed should be permitted to appear above the ground
in such a case. If it does, the main purpose of the cultiva-
tion is not effected. This is not to kill weeds, so much as to
improve the soil, and were the soil wholly free from weeds,
the regular working should be carried on in the most thor-
ough manner. The weeds are destroyed incidentally; and
the farmer should not wait for them to appear before the
cultivator is started in the rows. This should be done be-
fore the young plants of the crop have appeared above the
ground, and should be continued at such short intervals as
may be necessary to keep the soil loose and mellow.
THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Greer en XX VIL. "
MANURES.—THEIR MECHANICAL EFFECTS UPON
THE SOIL.
- It has been shown in a previous chapter how the ming-
ling of vegetable matter in the soilaffects its character; giv-
ing it a larger capacity for absorbing moisture, and for
holding it against evaporation; and thus greatly improving
its value for the production of crops. The art of manuring
is one that should be well understood by the farmer, for it
is somewhat intricate, and has more than the one result of
adding plant food to the soil. This useful addition of plant
food is by no means the only thing necessary to secure good
crops. There must be with it, as has been previously ex-
plained, a certain condition of the soil by which the plant
food is made available. Just as it is unavailing to a starv-
ing man to know that a store of food is contained in a sol-
id stone building closed with iron doors, and secured by
great bars and locks, which he cannot open, so it is una-
vailing for the crops that the soil may be rich in all the
elements of plant food, and yet its mechanical condition is
such that the roots cannot reach this food or the atmosphere
make it soluble and nutritious. Manuring not only adds
plant food to the soil, but it so affects the mechanical con-
dition of the soil, when it is used in the right manner, as to
quickly reduce it to a state of decomposition and make it
soluble in water. Manure may be buried in the soil, or left.
exposed on the surface, and in either case be of little or no
use to the crops; for if this be their only dependence, the
young plants would be starved before the roots had gained
strength and growth enough to reach the manure.
This mechanical effect of manures on the soil is of great
importance, for it affects the value and usefulness of the
manure itself, and exerts a considerable effect upon the
growth of the crops, beyond the mere supply of the crude
HOW MANURE IS BEST APPLIED TO THE LAND. 193
elements of fertility. This effect should be understood, lest
labor and manure, both, be wasted.
If the manure be plowed under with a flat furrow, for in-
stance, it is buried out of reach of the influences of the air,
by which oxidation and conversion into plant food are ef-
fected. The seed sown upon land so prepared may germi-
nate and put out roots, but the growth will be weak until
the manure is reached; when there will still be weak and
slow growth because the manure has not become available
for plant food by decomposition. This is therefore a loss of
material and of time; the mechanical effect of the man-
ure upon the soil is missed; and the soil is neither made
more absorbent, nor more retentive of moisture. When the
manure is spread upon the land as a top dressing, the same
absence of useful results prevails; and there is no change in
the soil; although, if rains intervene, the soluble part of the
manure is carried into the soil and is made available for
the crops.
When the manure is spread upon the soil, and is then
plowed under with lap furrows, which are laid over at an
angle of 45 degrees or thereabouts, there is an intimate mix-
ture of the manure with the soil. These are intermingled
in alternate layers set on edge. All the furrow slices of 5
or 6 inches in thickness have between them a layer of man-
ure, and the edges of all the layers are fully exposed to the
atmosphere and to the rain. Decomposition of the manure
and the chemical reaction of this process upon the mineral
particles of the soil, go on with rapidity and perfection.
The soil and the decaying organic matter are further inter-
mingled by the harrowing after the plowing, and if the har-
rowing is done in an effective manner the intermixture Is
perfectly made.
The result of this is a more or less altered physical condi-
tion of the soil in proportion to the quantity of manure
which has been used. It matters not so far as the mechan-
ical effect upon the soil is concerned, whether this mixture
is rich manure from the stables or consists of composted veg-
etable matter, swamp muck, green crops grown for the pur-
194 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
pose, or a sod of grass or clover. The decayed organic
matter of considerable bulk, and porous, and absorbent,
opens and loosens the soil; makes it able to absorb and _re-
tain moisture; admits the air with its enriching gases to it;
and by changing the color, warms it by the absorption of
the sun’s rays. This is the result of the mechanical effects
only; the chemical results are not now considered. And
these are seen to be so important in so many ways to the
growth of the crops, that the farmer desirous of procuring
from the fields, the largest possible product, will make ev-
ery exertion to increase the quantity of this bulky vegeta-
ble matter which he can turn to such valuable uses.
There is no scarcity of this kind of matter: Straw; leaves;
coarse weeds—which should always be free from seeds;
swamp muck; the wastes of woolen mills; charcoal waste;
sawdust; lime; refuse from brewerles; soap factories; sugar
factories; tanneries; sweepings of streets; burned clay; and
the refuse of brick yards and lime kilns; as well as the ex-
crements from animals; and nightsoil; all these and any
other matters that can be turned to this purpose—whether
they be rich in fertilizing matter or not, should be gathered
by the farmer for the mechanical improvement of the soil.
Clay soil and sandy land are equally benefited; the one
is opened and made loose and porous; the other is made
more compact; and both are made more absorbent and re-
tentive of moisture by this means. So that the farmer may
not stand upon the order of his performance, but do this
work how and when he can. If one season is preferable to
another it is the fall, when there is a large quantity of use-
ful materials that may be collected, and when leisure per-
mits the time to be given to the work. The preparation
"of the composts may go on through the winter season as
well as during thesummer; but the best opportunities occur
in the fall. Many opportunities are missed for want of
thought or knowledge of the facts. Every village may
supply hundreds of loads of available materials, which, un-
used, are a costly burden to be got rid of. Every city is
overburdened with the most valuable waste matters; the
MATERIALS FOR MANURE. 195
woods are deeply covered with them; and the thousands of
factories are concerned how to get rid of the troublesome
surplus. The farmer need not make a very close search to
find them within easy reach.
THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
PART FOURTH.
Ss SO
CHAPTER 'XX1IX.
THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY CHEMICAL
MEANS.—ANIMAL MANURES.
The various methods of improving soils by chemical
means, are based upon the following principles which have
been already explained.
First.—Plants obtain from a fertile soil a variable pro-
portion of their organic nutriment, and the greater part of
their nitrogen is derived from this source.
Second.—The inorganic food which they require, they
procure solely from the soil.
Third.—Difterent kinds of plants require a special supply
of different kinds of inorganic food, or of the same kinds in
varying proportions.
Fourth—Soils vary considerably in respect of the va-
rious inorganic compounds they contain, some soils may be
deficient in some of them, and others may contain an
abundance of all of them; therefore the growth of plants
upon various soils differs accordingly.
The whole art of improving the soil by chemical means,
or of manuring and fertilizing it is based upon these few
principles.
There are three distinct methods of improving the soil in
this way.
First; by removing from it some injurious substance, and
affording it an outlet by means of drains, in a word, by
draining.
Second; by the addition of some substance which may re-
move, or change the character of noxious substances; or so-
change inert substances as to make them available by them-
ACTION OF MANURE UPON THE SOIL. 197
selves, or by reaction upon other substances. For instance,
by adding lime to peaty soils or reclaimed swamps, we may
neutralize noxious acids, and develop the nitrogen and eth-
er inert substances which they contain, into available plant
food.
Third; by adding to the soil various substances which
afford food for plants. This is done by manuring the soil;
although as yet we are not able to determine whether what
we add to the soil actually feeds the crops or only prepares
food for them. There is however reason to believe that
some substances, as lime, potash, soda in various forms, but
chiefly as salt, act in both capacities; now feeding the plants
and then liberating from the soil and preparing other
nutriment which enters into the circulation; at other times
or at the same time entering themselves into the substance
of the plants. This distinction makes it necessary to class-
ify all these substances which either enter into the substance
of plants or prepare other substances to do this, or which
perform both functions, as manure.
In this sense we may call these substances either simple
manures—such as common salt; lime; nitrate of soda; gyp-
sum; or as mixed or complete manures, as barn yard man-
ure; and the various artificial mixed manures which contain
all the elements of barn yard manure, and which are now
in common use and are largely sold.
But in considering specially these various manures which
improve the soil or promote the growth of crops in any way,
we may take them in the following order, viz: animal man-
ures; vegetable manures; and mineral manures.
AntmMAL MAnures.—Animal substances have always
been considered as exceedingly valuable manure, because
they are highly concentrated and so readily decomposed that
their action upon vegetation is both immediate and remark-
ably apparent. The various animal manures may be in-
cluded in the following list, the solid excrements of farm
animals and of human beings, and their urine mixed with
litter and various vegetable substances which are used as
absorbents; flesh; blood; horn; hair; wool; bones; and guano.
198 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
The excrements of animals, both solid and liquid, with
the litter used in stables, is the main supply of the farmer
for the feeding of his crops. These vary in character, but
not as is commonly supposed as the animals themselves dif-
fer, but on the contrary, as the kind of food varies. Horse
manure is considered the best of this class, but it is because
horses are fed chiefly upon grain and hay; in like manner
the manure of sheep, cows, and pigs, varies in quality as
these animals are fed upon grass, straw, or grain.
The liquid excrement of animals—the urine, so called be-
cause of the large quantity of urea contained in it—is richer
in the valuable elements of plant food than the solid drop-
pings. Urine containsa large quantity of water, thus in
1000 parts,
rgan
Water, ne
Human urine contains.................- 969 23.4 7.6
Horses DoH Sl eme eer h es. 940 27.0 33.0
Cows zx AG ita Cocaacbauaa oacaes 930 50.0 20.0
Pigs na Be ttaccsteeeec s satin Sees 926 56.0 18.0
Sheep ‘“ Ph a hou eka gh pay 960 28.0 12.0
The urine is the most important and valuable of all nat-
ural liquid manures, and instead of being wasted and made
a source of offense to the sensitive membranes of man and
animals by reason of the pungent ammoniacal vapors evolved
from it, it deserves to be most carefully saved and preserved
for use in fertilizing the soil and in feeding crops. The
need for this is shown in the following figures, which give
the amount of the most valuable elements of plant food
contained in it.
CoMPOSITION OF URINE IN 1000 Parts.
Of Man. Horse. Cow. Sheep. Pig:
IVSLGET 2, so waceccebec doce setnaev ses oe 933.0 940.0 926.2 960.0 926.0
Dee da ee Ty Oa eo | ae
Mucus and other matter...... 17.4 C 2.0
Sulphate of potash.............. 3.7
Sulphate of soda..........-..0++0 oo
Phosphate of sOda...........0ee08+ 2.9
Phosphate of ammonia........ 1.6 33.0 31.8 12.0 18.0
Chloride of sodium............... 4.5
Nitrate of ammonia.............. 1.6
Various phosphates..........++. gh
: 1000.0 1000. 1000. 1000. 1000.
VALUE OF URINE. 199
Carbon. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Oxygen.
Urea consists of in 100 parts......... 20.0 6.6 46.7 26.7
Nearly one-half of the solid matter of wrine consists of nitro-
gen, and it is therefore far richer in this invaluable element
than flesh, blood, or any other fertilizing substance of which
the value is supposed to exist in the nitrogen it contains.
Urea possesses a further valuable property, in that when
it ferments, which it does very rapidly, it changes entirely
to carbonate of ammonia. The ammonia thus formed how-
ever at once begins to escape into the atmosphere, and it is
this volatile gas, thus escaping, which causes the pungent
odor of unclean stables. The absolute necessity then of
preserving this valuable substance—the urine—from loss,
either by waste when fresh, or by decomposition afterwards,
is paramount, and cannot be neglected by the farmer who
expects to succeed fully in the culture of his crops. The
enormous waste resulting from the common neglect of far-
mers in this respect, is illustrated by the following figures
which represent the quantity of urine yielded by a man, a
horse, and a cow, during a whole year, and the solid matter
contained in it.
thereare of solid matter. Urea. Ammonia.
In the urine of a man......... 1000 Ibs. 67 lbs. 30 Ibs. abrir
In the urine of a horse........ 1500 lbs. 90 lbs. 45 lbs. 25 Ibs.
In the urine of a cow......... 13000 Ibs. 900 lbs. 400 lbs. 230 Ibs.
These figures are given by Sprengel, and differ from those
by Boussingault who increases the amount of the ammonia
in the case of the horse by 50 per cent. and reduces that in
the case of the cow. But as has been observed these results
depend very considerably upon the kind and quantity of
food consumed by the animals.
Many farmers give considerable attention to the amount
of ammonia which the soil gathers from the air, or which
is brought down in the snow; but if the total amount of this
which is believed to be thus derived is certainly gained, the
quantity secured by 50 acres is not more than is produced
by one man, and a horse, and a cow, in the urine alone.
How important then is it that this latter source of fertility
of the soil should be most jealously guarded.
200 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
The solid excrements of animals, man included, contain
every element of plant growth; but by no means in the
perfect proportion required by the crops.
The constituents of ordinary mixed farm manures are
as follows (in 1000 Ibs).
Fresh. Half rotted. Wholly rotted.
WOON es Pear Sia stehcacaas i bass aw deer 710 750 790
OOTPATIEC THAUGET cs. 0s ads cocusdes ice geckstes 246 192 145
PRACT RINE aio. cin iclowe tiv me eeaes 44. 58 65.
Nitrogen (in the organic matter)... 4.5 5. 5.8
ME OUENLS (econ ict aoceeo nies vega vavcanameences 5.2 6.3 5.0
Phosphoric acid in the ash........... PARI | 2.6 3.0
Dene IBS: AS 2 Ass ease cocceesccesne 5.7 7.0 8.8
Magnesia in the ash................0000 1.4 1.8 1.8
Horse manure is considered more valuable than any other
part of the common stable manure. It heats quickly and
gives off ammonia copiously, and is really richer than other
manure because of the less quantity of urine voided, although
the horse may be no better fed than other animals. But
when cows or fattening oxen are well fed upon bran and
oil meals, their manure heats as readily and exhales am-
monia by its rapid decomposition as copiously as horse man-
ure. The difference between the manure of a horse and a
cow is very slight as may be seen by the following analyses
of the dry excrements.
Horse dung. Cow dung.
Carbonr(per CGnbi):.2..cs.-2-s52000- 38.7 42.8
Papers ~ F0 PA en ctet ee 5.1 5.2
Oxygen te nat Useiease ear eeec deme Bled 37.7
NATE EE ee eta tee cue De 2.3
Ash pet tte So ee SR 16.3 12.0
100.00 100.00
Water gee Wah Ga eo aire ee 300.00 566.00
400.00 666.00
The moister condition of the cow manure explains the
reason why it heats less rapidly than that of the horse.
Night soil, or human excrement, is generally a rich and
valuable fertilizer; but it is commonly so mismanaged that
the most valuable portions are lost by exhalation, or by
solution and waste. When mixed with dry earth, or peat,
or powdered charcoal, it can be handled without offense and
waste. It isa matter of public loss and general offense,
MANAGEMENT OF MANURE. 201
that this useful fertilizer should be wasted in the manner
in which it now is, and the vast quantity of plant food in it
should be worse than thrown away. China sustains a pop-
ulation now 8 times as large as that of the United States,
and supports all its vast consumption by its own products;
and yet without any fertilizers but those derived from the
night soil, which is carefully preserved for this use by
mixture with earth.
The excrements of the sheep furnishes a manure second
only to that of the horse, and is highly valued by the best
farmers, especially for the production of grain. The feed-
ing of sheep is, on this account, made a special business
upon grain farms where their manure, and the profit from
their flesh and wool, are found to be exceedingly desirable
and satisfactory.
The value of stable manure depreciates by the length of
time during which it is kept and by exposure to the weath-
er. The loss sustained in keeping manure in open yards
for 8 months is fully one-half; partly by washing by the
rains, and partly by the escape of the ammonia evolved
during the decomposition. The values above given are
those of the best preserved manure, and the farmer who
wishes to realize these values must take measures to so keep
his manure, as to preserve all its fertilizing qualities. This
is easily done by putting it in flat heaps which will gather
the rain that falls upon it, and no more, and to control the
heat of the fermentation by turning it over before the heat
becomes injurious. Overheated manure is of little value;
-but overheating will rarely occur when all the manure of va-
rious kinds are regularly mixed together and kept in a com-
pact heap, flat on the top, to receive the rain. The liq-
uid manure should be carefully saved by the use of absorb-
ents, of which dried swamp muck is the best, or by tight
drains through which it is carried to an underground cis-
tern in which the solid manure is kept to absorb it. The
escape of ammonia is easily prevented by the free use of
powdered gypsum scattered on the stable floors and about
the yards, and through the manure heaps.
202 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Poultry manure is considered to be a valuable fertilizer,
and is in fact richer in useful plant food than any other
kind of manure from farm animals; but it is not nearly so
rich in this respect as is generally believed. Its composi-
tion is as follows:
ANALYsIs OF Hen MANURE.
Dry Fresh
WOtCr DEL CORT. 5. recnceceecostentagvavesy 8.35 45.73
IPHOSPHOLIC ACG en: 22-ac0 cenecevcvee sss. 2.02 47
PENG yee en avenues ve toice enon codcuienatensesens 2.22 97
MID OST CS1H 2575; ons cecssscseeesnercciedraseres 0.68
POUASINE. ccd. fecetec estas seezgnasdeeenwscnteee 0.94 © 18
ENTEPOR OM 1554, Sot oc seaeee sees acte wee ec eeecere 213 .79
Insoluble WMAG!L:. ss. ncsvowesscses 34.65 39.32
Welch Pee FOR se,c4 eo ccted neo equnciteen $10.55 $ 3.42
The cause of its higher value than that of ordinary farm
manure, is, that it contains the solid and liquid evacuations
together; these being expelled together by birds; hence the
urine is intimately mixed with the solid excrement. The
grain, and animal food in the form of insects, consumed by
poultry, tend to give the manure a high value. It is how-
ever but little, if any, more valuable as a fertilizer than
equally dry manure from well fed horses or sheep. Its con-
centrated composition enables it to be used with advantage
in the common form of compost, with plaster and wood
ashes; in which it is very often applied to corn, cabbage,
and garden crops. It is however too valuable to be neg-
lected as it frequently is, and might be saved and used with
profit in the above named compost and as top dressing for
grain crops in the spring, for which its soluble character,
and its pulverized condition, make it both useful and con-
venient.
GREEN MANURING.
EN A oe a eG:
VEGETABLE MANURES.—THEIR ACTION UPON THE
SOIL AND THEIR VALUE AS PLANT FOOD.—
GREEN MANURING.
Vegetable manures consist of green crops grown for the
purpose, plowed into the soil; of the roots and remains of
the crops; and of any vegetable matter which may be gath-
ered for the purpose of increasing the bulk of the common
farm manures. Green manuring is the plowing in of any
green crop in its fresh state and while growing upon the
soil. It is necessarily an economical operation as regards
labor, and is especially well adapted for the manuring of
distant fields, or of hilly land where manure could not be
hauled except with much labor and expense. But this
practice is advantageous in other respects. Air and water
—it has been shown—are most effective agents in the de-
composition of organic matter, and green vegetable sub-
stances contain much water in themselves and are much
mixed with air when loosely covered with soil; hence they
decompose very rapidly and become serviceable when thus.
mixed with the soil. /
The sap of plants contains certain compounds of nitrogen
which not only very readily decompose, but have the prop-
erty of inducing by their own decomposition, the elements
of other substances, with which they come in contact in the
soil, to assume new forms and to undergo various changes
by which they enter into new combinations. The sap of
plants, in its own rapid decomposition, quickly propagates
in the woody fiber and other substances of the plants, an
active fermentation which results in the speedy decomposi-
tion of these substances of which the plants are composed.
Then the elements of which sap and the solid substance
of the plants are composed form new compounds, which are
useful to the growing crops, and which supply them with —
food. This action going on, in and under the soil, is not
204 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
accompanied by any waste as would occur were the decom-
position to be completed in the open air, and when carbonic
acid and ammonia would be produced, and being gases,
would escape into the atmosphere. Moreover if this green
vegetable matter were to be exposed to the weather during
its decomposition, a considerable quantity of its mineral el-
ements would be washed out and wasted, the potash for in-
stance would be almost wholly lost in this way, but in and
under the soil there is no loss. Hence the practice of green
manuring, or of the use of any green vegetable matter in
the making of composts, is exceedingly advantageous to the
farmer, and greatly assists him in the growth of large crops.
Some of the results from which these advantages accrue, »
are as follows:
First.—Growing plants, especially the deeper rooted ones
as clover, bring up from the deeper soil where the roots of
other plants cannot reach them, several substances which
are useful to these more shallow rooted crops, and retain
them in their leaves, stems and roots; and when these are
plowed under the surface, they contribute these acquisitions
to the upper soil and greatly enrich it. Thus, although
nothing may be gained to the soil but what is taken from
it, yet the gain is made from a portion of the soil which
could not be reached by the crops to be benefited by it, to
the portion where these crops can reach it. Thus it results
in practically largely deepening the soil and extending the
growth of the roots.
Second.—This manuring is effected with the least loss and
the greatest economy, and in no other manner can the same
crop carry back to the soil an equa! amount of fertilizing
matter as in that of its growing leaves and stems. And the
farmer will sooner and more cheaply fertilize his land by
plowing in green crops than by any other method whatever.
The selection of plants to be grown for this purpose is to
be made from among those which grow most rapidly, and
which produce the largest amount of vegetable matter in
the shortest time, and at the least cost. There are a large
number of plants which may be used in this way.
CROPS FOR GREEN MANURING. 205:
BuCKWHEAT grows rapidly, and two crops may be grown
and plowed under in the course of four or five months. It
is too well known to need further notice.
SPuRRY is a plant not much known in America, but is
extensively used in Germany for this purpose. Three crops
may be grown where the season permits; the first sowing
may be made in May, and the last is plowed in for the fol-
lowing wheat crop in September or October. This plant is
thus well adapted for this use in the Southern States.
Ware Lup!n is another crop largely grown in Europe
for green manure. It matures in less than 120 days and
furnishes 10 to 12 tons of herbage. It is particularly rich
in nitrogen and belongs, as clover does, to the leguminous
family of plants.
RAPE AND MusraprpD are plants of the cabbage and tur-
nip tribe; the former may be sown in the fall for use in the
spring; the latter is sown in the spring.
RYE is a crop of considerable value for this use, as it may
be sown in the fall and plowed in, in May; and then fol-
lowed by two crops of buckwheat before the time for sow-
ing fall wheat arrives. No other crop affords so much veg-
etable matter in the period of its growth, at so little cost.
and at such an early season as this. For a manure for a
corn crop it is the most convenient, for these reasons.
Turnies may be sown in August, and will produce 10
or 12 tons of green matter to be left to decay on the surface
and then be plowed under in the spring. This crop has.
been used with advantage in the summer seeding of clover
and grass, in August, for the purpose of being left during
the winter for the protecticn afforded by the leaves, and in
the spring for the manure afforded by the decaying roots.
Rep CLOVER is the most popular green manure on ac-
count of its surpassing richness in nitrogen, yielding froma
full crop as much as 180 pounds of this element to the acre.
But its growth is slow, and it is only the second years crop
which can be used for this purpose. One cutting may be
made in June for hay, and the second growth turned under
in September for wheat. Its large, fleshy, solid, tap roots,
206 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
furnish a very large quantity of rich fertilizing matter
for plowing in. The character of clover however prevents
it from being used for the improvement of poor land. Its
use is better adapted for the manuring of soils in good con-
dition, and as a substitute for barn manure. Land has been
kept in the most productive condition by the use of this
crop alternating with wheat; two years being given to the
clover and the second growth of the second year being
plowed in for the wheat; gypsum being the only fertilizer used.
The yield of wheat on this land, which was a naturally rich
limestone clay loam in central New York, during over 40
years, averaged 40 bushels per acre.
The quantity of fertilizing matter added to the soil by the
various crops above mentioned is given in the following table.
of dry matter
5 in 1000 Ibs. % S
Plant. of Sp gq 28 23 Forwhet soils
gs Aas 83 BS aS best fitted.
mS fe 63 A 5
of F
on & S
TSBUTTY ccs dyentacrane 6500 199 21 14inches 8 _ Dry, sandy.
White lupin...... 25000) a. -188. 7 12 2b 1 Any kind.
Buckwheat........ S000 A710, > 0 2h ee 2 Dry, sandy and clay.
ROP sis saiinse sian 16000 214 16 Bye i 1 Rich and fertile.
IBVIO Vs cesar senaneatens 8000 221 16 St il All.
us i ubwohy ols peer ee eee 120C0 77 PAL Dia. iT All.
NOLO WOT: cice-istestaxe S000" 9250: lay 9 2b ase 14 Fertile, of all kinds.
It is important to bear in mind in regard to the practice
of green manuring, the following suggestions, viz:
That a sufficient quantity of seed should be sown to =
the ground well covered and to secure as large a yield as
possible, with the most effective smothering of weeds.
That the crop should be plowed under at the time when
the plants are about to burst into flower, for the purpose of
securing the most advantage from their condition at that
time, and to avoid stocking the land with seeds.
That the vegetable matter should not be plowed under
more than 4 or 5 inches, and that it should be completely
covered with soil; using, to secure this end, the usual chain
Joop attached to the beam of the plow and the end of the
double tree; so that the decomposition of the matter may be
rapid and perfect, and that there may be no waste.
COMPOSITION OF ROOTS AND STUBBLE. 207
- That this practice is adapted for the improvement of all
soils.
It is a common practice among farmers to plow under a
sod of grass grown for the purpose, as manure. The usual
seeding of clover and timothy is thus intended for breaking
up at the end of the second year for the corn crop. It will
be interesting to know what amount of fertilizing matter is
thus contributed to the soil. The following table affords .
this information.
AMOUNTS AND CoMPOSsITION OF Roots AND STUBBLE
OF THE FOLLOWING CROPS.
Nitrogen in Phosphoric
organic matter acid. Potash.
per per per per per per
cent. acre. cent. acre. cent. acre.
Pounds of air
dry substance
in the in the
ash. ash.
OLS Ce Ge eee ee ey omnis 6580 2.15 180 3.91 yal 4,26 ‘an
VIE Ue. toeseytbanea vases sseessve 2240 0.68 a2 1.08 isl 1.70 17
MUM Gaede skiics foves sev cvevdndae scence 3400 1.26 62 i aata) 24 1.90 30
MOIS: sPavaia ce ae cnetevte eansacneaers 2200 0.71 25 2.08 28 1.48 24
PURTEVO UI Y.s55snracn'escaceesceceevs 1982 1.40 28.5 .03 6.5 .04 Feke
IEC IIG oR ee RRO ayn he Aer 2400 1.76 De 2.24 14. 1.70 11.0
Mixed grasses and clover 5000 2.00 100 2.10 58 1.80 48.
These figures will probably be found below the average
of what are called good crops. For it has been found that
the living roots and stubble of a four year old sod has been
equal in weight to one-sixth more than the weight of the
last years crop. Also, that in an old pasture or meadow
which has been laid down for many years, the actual vege-
table matter contributed to the soil has been ascertained to
be equal to four times the weight of the last years vegeta-
tion above the surface. The author has found by careful
measurement and weight, that the amount of vegetable mat-
ter contributed to the soil per acre by turning under an old
growth of quack grass, (Triticum repens), was equivalent
in weight and bulk to 80 tons of ordinary stable manure.
When land is in grass for a number of years there is a
very large accumulation of organic matter in the soil from
these sources, viz: the contributions from the atmosphere of
combined carbon and nitrogen; from the dead and decay-
ing roots and stems of the grass; and from the mineral parts
208 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
of the soil which is favorably affected by the chemical ac-
tion of the decaying. vegetable matter. The total amount.
of this accumulation is not accurately known, but is cer-
tainly very large. And when the grass or hay from the
land is all consumed upon the farm, and the manure is re-
turned to the land, the soil of a permanent or old meadow
becomes exceedingly rich in plant food, from the annual
top dressings which it receives naturally from the decay of
the leaves and stems and of the matured and used up roots.
THE ART OF COMPOSTING.
CILAP TER ee eT.
COMPOSTS.
There are a large variety of substances which are not pre-
cisely manures, but which contain more or less of valuable fer-
tilizing matter, that may be gathered by farmers, and mingled
in such a manner as toinducea process of mutual decomposi-
tion by which valuable plant food may be procured. The
art of mingling these substances, and of decomposing them
so that they may be used as manure, is known as compost-
ing. It is not much practiced in America, because farmers
have scarcely been brought as yet to the point of exercising
the strictest economy in this respect; but the time has come
when every available opportunity for gathering fertilizing
matters and converting them into food for crops, must be
strictly and perseveringly sought and seized. The most im-
portant of these are, peat; sea weed; salt marsh mud; leaves
and the undergrowth of woods and forests; the waste from
tanneries, consisting of the fleshings, hair, tan bark, and
leather scraps; the waste from cider mills; from breweries;.
from starch and sugar factories; from fish packing estab-
lishments; from oil mills; sweepings of the streets of cities.
and towns; ashes of various kinds; wastes from slaughter
houses; and in fact any waste matter which can be decom-
posed by the ordinary processes which the farmer can em-
ploy.
To facilitate the consideration of this interesting subject,
and before proceeding to describe the process of composting
the various materials and reducing them to a fit condition
for use, the following table of analyses of the various mat--
ters referred to may be studied.
210 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS MATERIALS FOR COMPOsTs.
Dried at 212° Fahr.
a B i ae
g : S$. € 3g &
Substances 100 Ibs. 3S 5 = 2 PB 2 zs
call hi Se ae a i ie
qa fy S >
TiODELGI BN GUSiy. ccssectsvedescesee 7.27 22.24 1.80 3.52 4.50 22.0
BWOIMD WUCK..6.06.0ccc0s0.0002- o4.40 .134 °.29 . 2 2 Lé 5.0
SOW Tp (0 (0 Memo e SAAN PE ane eee ers 46.36 .66 ol .39 15 .o9 1.75
Bone black waste............... 10.65 29.64 23.70
Fish packers waste............. (oPakt . 60 2.21 4.58
BtANG be Wastes. cncs-csvcbewsens 8.10 18 16 29 2.62 9.33
Rotted Brewers grains......... 78.77 .26 15 04 43 te 2.91
PPPTHSE INOS. i. .+ ictasdonsessoreees 81.00 at 10 ul! 20 -98 3.62
IE GUACCOSLEMIS, 225 vcivse coe sexe aes 10.65 sa Lay hee ol’ 2:65 14.66
Apple pomace...........ceees0 £2.00 . 19° 16° (87 10 ee
Cotton seed meal................. 9.90 22 $6) “£21 ABB. Bee 15.00
Ash of salt marsh grass. | ¥ S46 O29) 2a oa ;
‘« forest leaves...... a 5.8 1.7, Rae
A CRABS oraressyacks z 8:3 4.5 25.2 5.7
potste tope..c.. +e 5,5). ( BN .,.-2Ba a an
‘* beet sugar cake... | 2 Db. 30:5. Mieco 1.2
oP GaP BING. oo as5. Yes 2.0" LIOR SLOd | Fe ok
SS WCAG eco; 4030: | S 16,40, JS. PUPAE oe
«Cotton seed hulls 11.63 15.24 38.82 13.67 - . 50.30
J ae “ ee 13.34 24.16 10.69 39.00
‘* hard wodd (pure) 70.0 12.25 6.0 20.00
a ‘“« (leached) | = 74.0 1.60 6.80 10.40
“© Soft wood........... 3 32.0 12.0 4.0 - 3580
st arn Gabe e «6: 3 20.0 45.0 - 4.50 50.00
“Tan bark... Fo ae 41.0 2.50 1.20 4.50
e215 SOUiCOAL, .cas.cs2 ses 5.0 .20 14 40
‘© Hard eoadls.&.5:..: 2.50 10° 1.05 16
The above table offers a guide as to the value of the
above substances to a partial extent. It gives a basis for
calculating the precise value of the fertilizing elements men-
tioned in a ton, or a load of each; but it does not give any -
clue to the other valuable properties of these substances in
the way of their mechanical or chemical effect upon the
other materials of the compost, and upon the soil, after the
compost has been used.
From what has been previously said upon these effects, it
will be readily perceived that they must be considerable, and
that the addition to the soil of a large quantity of any of
these materials with the other portions of the compost, must
be of very great value. Indeed a few years of the use of
such composts to the land has very much changed its char-
FERMENTATION OF THE COMPOST PAW
acter, and has not only added much to its natural fertility,
but it has developed this to a remarkable extent.
In making composts, the bulk of the materials are inert
and may not readily decay. It is therefore necessary to
add to the mass something which may act as a ferment, and
by which the necessary chemical action to effect decomposi-
tion may be started.
Lime is usually employed for this purpose; but at times
fermenting manure is used; and sometimes both manure and
lime are employed. The process is asfollows. The various
materials, sonie wet and some dry—but the bulk of them are
~ wet, so that the dry substance may be saturated with mois-
ture, and chiefly the whole are wet—are placed in layers
of several inches thick and roughly mixed together. The
lime or the manure, is mixed in layers through the mass; or
at times the mixture is more perfectly made; and the heap
is built up compactly, and well trodden, into a square flat
form; having the top somewhat shallow to catch and retain
the rain water.
Fermentation soon begins and spreads through the mass.
The organic matter decays with more or less rapidity, and
the earthy matter or the peat in the heap, absorbs
any ammonia that may be formed and holds it firmly;
or the sulphuric acid that may be liberated in the
decomposition will combine with it and form a stable
compound. When the heat has spread through the
whole mass, the heap is turned and again mixed, by begin-
ning at one end and forking or shoveling it over and form-
ing a new heap similar to the original one. The exposure
to the air and the fresh mingling of the substances, soon
produce a new fermentation and heat by which the mass is
still more decomposed, and the nitrification made more com-
plete. In a few months—and sooner in the summer—the
compost becomes a homogeneous mass, dark in color and
without any appearance of the raw materials of it by which
they could be recognized. It is now manure, and in pro-
portion to the character of the materials that have been used,
it is equal to, or better in quality, than ordinary farm manure.
312 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
When materials rich in the elements of plant food are
used, such as swamp muck; sea weed; cotton seed; wood
ashes; and lime; the resulting compost will have a value far
exceeding that of barn yard manure, and will be propor-
tionately effective in producing large crops. In this way
the farmer may very largely extend the manurial resources
of his farm at little expense, and by the expenditure of a
moderate amount of labor at such times when other work
is not pressing.
Composts are used mostly for top dressing, on account of
their finely pulverized and concentrated condition, and be-
cause of the solubility of the plant food they contain. They
are used for meadows, and for grain crops in their early
stages of growth; and are especially useful for roots, which
require a large quantity of manure rich in available plant
food. But a heap of well decomposed compost will never
come amiss for any crop, at any time, when the farmer
may want to get the best return for his labor.
MINERAL MANURES.
Cia hh hy xe avr.
MINERAL MANURES.
Although the mineral parts of plants—the ash—form a
very small proportion of their substance, yet they are indis-
pensable to their growth. Without silica, the corn or wheat
plant could not stand erect, but would lie upon the ground;
without lime and phosphoric acid, there could be no seed,
and vegetable substance could not support any animal. The
mineral elements of plant substance, in fact, form the skel-
eton or frame so to speak, upon which the organic matter
is built; just as the bones of an animal support the fibrous
and vascular tissue which make up the apparent structure.
Some plants indeed are so well supplied with mineral matter
that their remains after the organic matter has decayed and
has been dissolved away, make the most delicate and beau-
tiful tissue, which remains intact after thousands of years dur-
ing which vast masses of these skeletons or shells have been
consolidated into clay or stone. Being thus indispensable
to the growth of plant substance, the mineral elements of
plant food bear a most important relation to the culture of
farm crops, and furnish a subject of study to the farmer
which he cannot ignore.
Knowing what mineral substances are contained in plants,
and knowing that these are all derived from the soil; also
knowing that while the soil contains a large amount of all
these mineral substances, they are not in an available con-
dition for the food of plants, it is not difficult to arrive at a
conclusion in regard to what must be supplied to the soil to
ensure a satisfactory growth of crops. |
Moreover, it has been learned by long experience and
careful experiment that certain alkaline substances exert a
remarkable effect upon organic substances in the soil, when
they are brought into contact with each other; and further
that they havea very intimate relation with various changes
214 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
which occur in the character of many mineral compounds
in the soil, by which these are fitted to act as nutriment for
plants. So that, on the whole, mineral manures or fertiliz-
ers are of quite as great importance to the farmer as the
other classes of manures, and should be equally well under-
stood. ,
The most important of the mineral manures are lime;
gypsum; wood ashes; salt; phosphate of lime; potash; and
guano. In these are contained every inorganic element of
plant substance that is ever necessary for the growth of
crops. Lime is the most important of them, not because it
is any more requisite or indispensable than the others, but
because of its peculiar effects upon the soil, and the large
proportion of it which enters into the structure of vegetable
tissue. :
Lime, as has been explained in the description of the me-
tallic element calcium, is never found naturally excepting
in a state of combination, and mostly as a carbonate, con-
sisting of 43.7 per cent of carbonic acid with 56.3 per cent.
of its own substance.
Carbonate of lime is one of the most common of the rocks
and is best known in the form of marble. It is frequently
combined with carbonate of magnesia, which consists of
51.7 per cent. of carbonic acid and 48.3 per cent. of mag-
nesia. The carbonate of magnesia is combined in varying
proportions with the carbonate of lime, and sometimes some
alumina and phosphoric acid are mingled with these. When
the magnesia and alumina are in excess, the lime has the
property of setting hard under water and is known as hy-
draulic or water lime. This class of lime is useless, if not
injurious, for agricultural purposes. Lime is procured by
calcination, in kilns, of the limestone; in which process the
carbonic acid is driven off and the caustic or quick lime re-
mains. 2000 lbs. of limestone yields 1126 lbs. of quick lime,
and increases about one-third in bulk. — Its affinity for wa-
ter and carbonic acid is very active; in a moist atmosphere
or by mixture, it absorbs about one-third its weight of wa-
ter, (9 lbs. for every 28) swells to three times its origina]
THE USE OF LIME. 215
bulk, and falls into an extremely fine dry caustic powder,
which is hydrate of lime. This is a true chemical combi-
nation and is accompanied by much heat, sufficient to in-
flame wood. It also slowly absorbs carbonic acid from the
atmosphere until it regains the normal quantity, when it
becomes carbonate of lime again and loses its caustic burn-
ing or decomposing property. |
Lime is used as a manure in its caustic or quick condi-
tion, and in the form of the fine, dry, pulverulent, hydrate.
It is then spread over the land at the rate of 20 to 50 bush-
els per acre. It is prepared for use by leaving the fresh
lime in heaps in the field exposed to the air and to the rain,
until it has absorbed the requisite quantity of moisture, and
is then spread evenly with a long handled shovel. A very
convenient way is to drop the lime in heaps of one bushel
at distances of 2 rods—35 feet—apart; which is equal to 40
bushels per acre. It is then easily scattered with the long
handled shovel, 16% feet each way from each heap, which
makes an even distribution over the land.
Lime is thus used when the land is sown with wheat in
the fall, and grass and clover seed are to be sown in the
spring. It is spread over the land afer the manure has
been plowed in and the surface has been harrowed once; the
seed is then sown and harrowed in with the lime or drilled
in, in the usual manner. Sometimes lime is used in the
spring when a grass or clover sod is plowed under for corn.
The results are the same in both cases.
When lime is thus applied to the land it has the follow-
ing effects. «
First.—It affords direct nutriment to the crop, being so
finely divided and scluble in water—to the extent of one
part in 700 of cold water and one part in 1100 of hot wa-
_ter—it is readily taken up by the water ofthe soil and is car-
ried into the roots of plants and circulated through their tis-
sues, where it is deposited, by the escape of the water in a
“pure state, and free from the lime, through the leaves.
Second.—It exerts a very strong decomposing action up-
on all organic substances, rapidly reducing them to their
216 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
elements and preparing them for plant food. Its action in
freshly manured soil, to which it is usually applied, is there-
fore of the greatest advantage to the crop; this action going
on slowly in the soil and providing a continuous supply of
nutriment for the crops.
Third.—lIt exerts a peculiar action as a nitrifying agent
in the soil by which nitric acid is produced, and by its com-
bination with this acid as a nitrate, by which the acid is
fixed and retained in the soil, to be afterwards taken up by
the potash or other alkaline substances, and finally absorbed
as food for the crops; and thus become a most important
source of the nitrogen found in the plants.
Fourth.—It exerts a strong solvent action upon the sili-
cates in the soil, by which inert and insoluble combinations
of silica with potash, soda, magnesia, &c., are broken up;
and these foods for plants are made available for the crops.
Fifth.—Its strongly alkaline properties neutralize what-
ever injurious acids may exist in the soil; and these are ren-
dered innoxious, or in many cases beneficial to the growth
of crops.
Sizth—It has a most beneficial mechanical action upon
all soils; loosening, and mellowing, and warming, heavy
cold clays; and compacting and making more retentive of
moisture light sands; and converting cold peaty soils into
warm vegetable mold and fitting them for arable purposes.
In addition to these most useful properties, lime has a direct
beneficial action upon the growth of wheat and other grains,
but especially upon grass and clover; the latter crop grow-
ing most luxuriantly whenever lime has been applied to the
land.
MARL, is an impure form of carbonate of lime. It is
frequently found underlying swamps, or in low grounds
which are the dried up beds of former lakes or ponds in
which minute shell fish—or more correctly molluscs—have
existed. The shells of thousands of generatigns of these
creatures have been collected at the bottom of the ponds;
and have formed beds of considerable depth; leaving amass
of white pulverulent clayey matter intermingled with shells
GYPSUM OR PLASTER. 21
more or less broken, and compacted into a firm substance,
which falls on exposure to the air into a coarse white pow-
der. This substance is of considerable value. It may be
burned into a fair quality of lime, when it is of use for the
same purposes as stone lime. Or it may be spread on the
land after it has dried and become pulverized, as a substi-
tute for lime, with considerable benefit.
SHELL Lime, procured by burning the shells of oysters
and other marine animals, has every useful property that
stone lime possesses; and as the lime is pure, with the ex-
ception of a small quantity of phosphoric acid—which is
valuable—this form of lime becomes a most important source
of supply to farmers near the sea coast or on the shores of
the large tidal rivers.
LIMESTONE, ground into fine powder, has been offered to
farmers as a fertilizer of late years; but its almost insoluble
character renders it of questionable value, as compared with
lime, which can be procured at less cost because it needs no
erinding. Ground limestone is soluble only in water con-
taining considerable carbonic acid in solution, and then on-
ly to a small extent. Its value in special cases may be such
as to make its use desirable; but experimental tests are al-
ways required to discover its usefulness. No general rule
can be given in regard to it, excepting that its value is
wholly aap ioporaeuats to its cost, as oar with any
other form of lime.
GYPsuUM, is a compound of lime, sulphuric cid, and wa-
ter, in the proportion of 523, 463, and 21 qarts of each, re-
spectively. Its remarkable action upon some crops, as
clover; peas; corn; cabbages; and turnips; has led to some
erroneous notions as to the causes of this action, and the er-
rors have been unfortunately fostered to some extent by
inexperienced writers upon agricultural topics. These
erroneous views are chiefly as follows.
That gypsum gathers ammonia from the air and thus con-
tributes this useful substance to the plants.
That it gathers moisture from the air and furnishes it to
218 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
the crops during a dry season, when the supply in the soil
may be inadequate.
That it is a stimulant to plant growth and thus tends to
exhaust the soil.
These errors are very evident when the character of this
substance is understood.
First—While gypsum in solution enters into a combina-
tion with carbonate of ammonia and is decomposed by it,
with the result of the formation of sulphate of ammonia and
carbonate of lime, it has no more affinity for ammonia than
the water of the atmosphere has, and whatever ammonia is
derived from the atmosphere by plants through the rain
water, is carried into the soil and from thence by the water
into the roots of the plants. Hence there is no necessity for
the use of gypsum in the performance of this nutritive func-
tion of plants.
Second.—That gypsum does not absorb water, having
already in combination as much as it can take up.
Third—That plants cannot be stimulated into excessive
growth by any one substance; but when any necessary nu-
tritive element is deficient, the crop suffers and only gains
its natural luxuriance when the absent element is supplied.
Fourth—The peculiar effect of gypsum upon the growth
of crops containing a large proportion of nitrogen, is due to
the contribution of sulphuric acid by it; the sulphur being
required to form the nitrogenous compounds known as al-
buminoids; all of which contain a notable proportion of
sulphur.
Thus the albumen, gluten, and legumin, of plants, are
made up of nearly the same proportions of carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur; and without the sul-
phur these nitrogenous compounds could not be formed.
And it is a fact, that the plants which contain most abun-
dantly these nitrogenous compounds, are largely benefited in
their growth by the use of gypsum.
Gypsum is easily dissolved in 400 times its weight of wa-
ter, and hence the small quantity—rarely exceeding 100 lbs.
per acre— usually applied is very quickly carried into the
PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 19
roots of plants—but never through their leaves—and thus
exerts its notable effect. If reference is made to the table
in which the composition of the ash of plants is given, it
will be seen that red clover, the grasses, white clover, and
other leguminous plants; and cabbage, turnips, rape, mus-
tard, and other plants of the cabbage or crucifers tribe; all
contain a large amount of sulphur and sulphuric acid in
their ash. Thus is most clearly explained the peculiarly
favorable results of an application of gypsum—100 Ibs. of
which convey to the soil 462 lbs. of sulphuric acid.
Woop ASHES, containing as they do all the inorganic
elements of plants in a condition in which these are readily
appropriated, necessarily make a most effective manure, and
are useful to all crops and upon all kinds of soils that are in
a proper condition to bear crops. It is unnecessary to say
further than this in regard to them.
PHOSPHATE OF LIME, exists naturally in the form of an
abundant rock and is widely dispersed through the soil. It
also exists in. vast beds, chiefly in North and South Caro-
lina near the coast and along the banks of the tidal rivers
in the form of remains of marine animals which have ex-
isted in past ages. This substance is used in its raw state
finely ground, and is known in commerce as Charleston
floats—from the locality where it is chiefly dug and manu-
factured. In this condition it is slowly soluble and has
been found to exert a favorable effect upon such crops as it
has been applied to, chiefly those however which are grown
for their seed, as cotton; corn; wheat; and other grains. It
is of most importance however in regard to its use for the
manufacture of super phosphate of lime—to be hereafter
described. In the form of “floats” it is used at the rate of
about 1000 Ibs. per'acre. These floats are ground as fine as
flour, and although practically insoluble in pure water, are
dissolved to some extent by water containing various acids,
more especially carbonic acid, which acts upon the lime and
so releases the phosphoric acid. This form of phosphate of
lime contains from 24 to 49 per cent. of phosphoric acid,
and the low price at which it is sold and the favorable me-
a: THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
chanical condition in which it is offered for sale, render it
of considerable interest to farmers.
Porasu Sats, form one of the most important sources
from which potash manures are derived. They are pro-
cured from the German salt mines and are largely imported
into this country and sold at a low price, compared with
their actual fertilizing value. They consist of varying pro-
portions of potash in combination as sulphate, and chloride,
with similar compounds of soda and magnesia. They are
known in the trade as muriate (chloride) of potash, sulphate
of potash, and kainite.
MorRIATE OF PorasnH is the most valuable of these salts
as regards its contents of potash; but the excess of chlorine
contained in it is believed to be injurious to some crops;
while it is preferable for others which require this element
in considerable quantity. It contains on the average 50
per cent. of potash with some soda and magnesia, and at the
common price of about $40 per ton, the potash in it costs
about 4 cents a pound which makes it the cheapest source
of this material.
SULPHATE OF PorasH, is a more popular form of these
salts, and contains about 35 per cent. of potash. The sul-
phuric acid contained in it is also valuable, and any excess
of it in the salts is quickly combined with other alkaline
matter in the soil and rendered useful, which is not the case
with the chlorine of the muriate. Hence the sulphate bears
a higher proportionate price in the market, and the potash
in it costs nearly 7 cents per pound. A lower grade of sul-
phate of potash contains 25 per cent. of potash, with consid-
erable sulphate of magnesia; the potash in this form costs
nearly 7 cents a pound.
KAINITE, is the name given to the inferior grades of these
salts. A sample of a lot used by the author with excellent
results on grass, fodder corn, and turnips, had the following
composition, viz:
WV SLCT sceccanactadscatratetessesteeseoee 2.15 per cent.
d Bi 0 fare pene Say Siar ae BA se Sk oe WSS *
DEAPTICSIO ; oes indestuernccs saree eee 11.30 af
TOMAS Do: 9, oc see nut 16.48 Py
Silphuriesaeid.. Sore ae ey 21.91 is
THE VALUE OF SALT. pte At
The potash in it, at the price of $14 per ton, cost, without:
allowance for the sulphuric acid, a little more than 4 cents
per pound.
SALt, is the only form of soda which is used as manure;
and this because of its cheapness. As it can be purchased
at about $6 per ton and contains but few impurities, it is a
cheap manure for the return given. Some farmers have
found no benefit from its use, but others have a high opin-
ion of it. Crops such as mangels and beets, whose ash con-
tains much soda, would naturally seem to be much benefited
by it, upon general principles, and this expectation is con-
firmed by the results. 600 lbs. per acre of salt has greatly
benefited this crop as grown by the author, and a dressing
of 500 Ibs. per acre has been found useful to wheat, grass,
and clover. A mixture of 100 lbs. of salt and 100 Ibs. of
gypsum per acre on one half of a timothy and clover field,
had a most favorable effect; the whole field of 13 acres
yielded 272 tons of hay at the first cutting; the dressed half
gave 17 tons and the other half 102. The difference was
very apparent and was equally so at the second cutting,
when the dressed half gave 9 tons and the other half was
not thought worth cutting. A flock of sheep pastured on
the aftermath gave their whole attention to the part which
had been dressed, and spent but little time on the other
part. The following year the field was in corn and was
dressed with the same mixture of salt and gypsum with
manifest benefit.
Salt has been used as a manure from the earliest histori-
cal periods, and this fact alone would give great weight to
the prevalent belief in its value, although no doubt many
extravagant claims have been made for it. It has been
used for all crops, but more especially for wheat, barley, po-
tatoes, grass, turnips, and mangels. Its effect on the grain
crops is to stiffen the straw and produce a thin clear husk;
the latter is especially valuable with barley, and increases
its market value for malting and brewing. Wheat is also
much improved in the same respects.
It has been used for top dressing grass lands by English
222 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
farmers with marked benefit on thin light soils, adding more
than one ton of hay per acre to the usual yield of 23 tons.
This fact, considering that England is surrounded by tke
ocean, and no part of it is beyond the influences of the moist
winds which come over the sea, effectually disposes of the
objection that salt is of no value upon land subject to the
influences of the sea air. No doubt there are many cases
in which no good results have been derived from the use of
salt. But this may be taken as a proof that the land in
such cases has been already fully supplied with it and that
some other kind of plant food was needed. .
A very interesting experiment to show whether the soil
contains salt in any appreciable quantity may be made as
follows: one pound of the soil is taken in dry weather and
washed with a pint of distilled, or pure rain water. The
water is filtered through unsized or blotting paper and the
clear liquid is collected in a clean glass bottle. If salt is
present in the water, a white precipitate will be thrown
down on the addition to it of a solution of nitrate of silver.
Every 10 grains of the dried precipitate represents 4 grains
of salt in the pound of soil tested. Ifa pound of soil yield
one grain of salt, it will be equal to 500 Ibs. upon an acre
12 inches deep. Ifno more than this is contained in the
soil, it will be very safe to conclude that salt may be use-
fully applied to it.
GUANO, may properly be classed among mineral man-
ures; for although it has been supposed to have been de-
rived from the droppings of sea birds upon the islands where
it has been procured, yet it is quite certain that some of the
guanos imported and used as manure are of mineral origin
although perhaps it has been—-like coal—derived ‘from or-
ganic matter. The composition of guano varies considera-
bly. Formerly the best guano brought from Peru and the
adjacent islands, contained as much as 17 or 18 per cent. of
ammonia, and from 30 to 45 per cent. of phosphate of lime,
and was sold at the high price of $150 to $200 per ton. The
best now imported has only from 7 to 10 per cent. of am-
monia and 25 to 30 per cent. of phosphate of lime; while
THE VALUE OF MINERAL MANURES. 223
the phosphatic guanos are almost devoid of nitrogen in any
form and contain from 20 to 50 per cent. of phosphate of
lime; equivalent to about half as much phosphoric acid.
The guanos now in the market are practically phosphatic
manures, and are reduced to superphosphate by means of
sulphuric acid, as will be explained in the next chapter un-
der the head of superphosphate of lime.
All these mineral manures are of exceedingly great value
for the culture of farm crops; so much so that no farmer
ean afford to neglect them. They furnish plant food in the
most available form and when used with skill and judgment
return a large profit on their cost. The example given of
the production of 15 tons of hay by the use of 600 Ibs. each
of salt and plaster costing less than $10 while the hay was
worth at that time $500 is perhaps an unusually favorable
one; but thousands of cases are on record in which the use
of this class of manures has returned in profit several times
the money expended, while extra labor has been only re-
quired to take care of the increased harvest. When an
acre of land is made to produce double its former yield by
the use of manures liberally applied, the cost of the manure
is all the extra charge; the land, the labor in preparing it,
and in the culture of the crop, are all the same whether the
yield be 10 bushels of wheat or 40; or 25 bushels of corn or
80. The enhanced crop then, less the cost of the manure,
is the measure of the profit.
THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
OE: ee Sie We ope sm. Gi ae. a
MANUFACTURED MANURES.
The necessity for the production of the largest possible
crops to meet the exacting competition of the very exten-
sive and fertile grain producing regions of the North-west,
opened by the trans-cuntinental railroads; together with the
general depression of prices of agricultural products during
several years past, has led to the introduction and use of a
variety of manufactured manures; commonly called artifi-
cial fertilizers. These consist chiefly of Superphosphate of
Lime, made from bones, either raw or which have been
boiled to extract the glue from them, or from the various
mineral phosphates; the so called Special Fertilizers or com-
plete manures, prepared for particular crops; Sulphate of Am-
monia, a waste product of the gas manufacture; Fish Scrap
or Fish Guano, a refuse of the fish oil factories; Dried Blood
and Flesh; Ground Bone; Wool Waste; Castor Oil Pom-
ace; Leather Waste; Soot; Cotton Seed Cake, and other
oil cakes; all of which furnish a very large amount of most
valuable plant food for crops, and which form the basis of a.
trade at present amounting to many million dollars, and
rapidly extending and increasing in value and importance
to the farmers. The most important of these is
SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.
This fertilizer consists of phosphate of lime in the form of
bones; or the mineral apatite; or the organic remains of
prehistoric animals which are found buried in vast quanti-
ties near the sea coast of North and South Carolina, and
known as Charleston phosphates; which are treated by sul-
phuric acid. This acid decomposes the phosphate of lime,
and unites with a portion of lime, leaving the phosphoric
acid in a separated and soluble cendition. The discovery
of this process is due to the eminent German chemist Liebig,
who was led to it by a series of investigations in regard to
SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 225
the cause of the favorable action of ground bone upon cer-
tain crops. It was long supposed that this action was due
to the organic matter of the bones, and it was not then sus~
pected that the mineral part of the bones, which was known
to consist in large part of phosphoric acid, had anything to:
do with the luxuriant growth of grass and root crops to
which bones were applied. The experiments of Liebig’
proved that the phosphoric acid was really the most impor-
tant element of the bones, and this was further shown by
the fact that burned bones, bone ash, or “earth of bones,”
as it was‘ called, exerted a very marked effect upon crops.
to which it was applied. But it was found that the phos-
phate of lime, both as it existed in fresh bones and in the:
remains of extinct animals, was too slow in its effects and a.
large quantity was required to show any profitable results.
Hence further experiments were made and it was found
that when the ground bones were digested with a certain
quantity of sulphuric acid, mixed with water, they became
changed in character; that a portion of the lime in them
was dissolved and united with the sulphuric acid forming sul-
phate of lime or gypsum, leaving a double portion of the
phosphoric acid combined with the remainder of the lime.
In this state, the phosphate of lime or the phosphoric acid
in it, was partly soluble in water and still more so in acid-
ulated water; hence this double phosphate or bi-phosphate
of lime exerted a very much more active effect upon the
crops than the bones did. It was further found that it was
possible to take still more of the lime from the bones, leaving
but one-third of it in combination with the phosphoric acid,
and proportionately increasing the ratio of the acid; the re-
sulting single lime, or mono-calcic or treble phosphate being
called superphosphate of lime. This compound is soluble
in water, and hence its effects are still more active than the
former one upon crops to which it is applied.
But in effect, this form of phosphate of lime is unstable,
and easily reverts to its former condition by combining
again with lime which it finds in the soil, or with iron or
other bases, and thus becomes less soluble.
”
226 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
But it is still more soluble than the simple natural phos-
phate and is therefore more available as plant food.
This process of manufacture is carried on upon a large
scale, and a large number of factories are now in operation
making superphosphate, either from raw bones, boiled bones,
or bone charcoal; and from the mineral phosphates. There
is no difference in the result from any one of these mater-
ials so far as the phosphoric acid is concerned, this is the
same in all; but the raw bone contains a large quantity of
organic matter containing nitrogen, hence the superphos-
phate made from this kind of bone has more value than the
other kinds. The extent of the manufacture of this class
of fertilizers may be realized from the fact that more than
400 different brands of it were analyzed by the Pennsyl-
vania Agricultural department in 1885.
From the wide field thus open to the nefarious purpose
of dishonest persons, the manufacture of this class of ferti-
lizers is placed under the purview and control of the va-
rious State governments and stringent laws have been enacted
to secure honest dealings on the part of the makers of these
fertilizers. That this is necessary, and that it is also nec-
-essary for farmers to look closely to their own interests in
this respect, the following analyses of various brands of
superphosphates is a very clear proof.
Superphosphates from
Phosphoric
acid
Soluble.
Cost per lb
of soluble
acid.
Claimed. Found. Cents.
BONE DIAG: Ssicssrecsacee cose 18.00 ie 7.10
ER RE Se aa 17.00 12.75 8.3
rig ole BiupbedsaceSecsseente 17.00 16.47 8.4
BAL” Wine aaewusptensenrevsect 18.00 16.93 |
mh LMR ae ates eee 17.00 _ 16.28 8.6
ROVER sccincddencc teed: eeseseee 31.00 28.92 8.5
Oe eh aka toed eRe aaa ce acaens 18.00 17.01 7.8
8. Carolina Rock............ 13.00 8.76 6.9
if SN ratie tavees 12.00 6.03 10.5
be Py elite. ssccee 13.00 7.07 10.3
BS B EeEU scien iccscee 12.00 10.56 6.7
es Ge ACCA 15.00 13.36 6.3
4g kid geste ie Sone 12.00 5.99 10.3
SS esa seacereces 12.00 5.26 10.0
REVERSION OF SUPERPHOSPHATE. 227
Of these brands, it is seen some cost for the available
phosphoric acid nearly twice as much as others, and it is of
course requisite that great circumspection be used in the
purchase of these costly forms of plant food.
If the farmer wish to do so, he can make his own super-
phosphate from bones in the following manner. A wooden
vat is provided in which the bones, coarsely broken or
ground fine as the case may be, are heaped and thoroughly
wetted with water. Sulphuric acid is carefully poured up-
on the heap of bones, and a strong effervescence at once
takes place accompanied by considerable heat. The bone
is shoveled over to keep it in condition to be acted upon by
the acid. About 50 lbs. of acid is required for 100 Ibs. of
bones to make a completedecomposition. In course of time
the bone is reduced to a pasty condition when it may be
dried by the addition of wood ashes, or potash salts, and
fish scrap, which will add the potash and nitrogen to the
fertilizer to make it a complete manure for crops; that is
one that contains nitrogen in an available form, soluble
phosphoric acid, and potash. When the potash salts are
used, there will be magnesia, soda and chlorine also added.
Superphosphate of lime reverts to the condition of bi-
phosphate or ordinary phosphate, when there is lime in the
sou. This change however occurs slowly unless the lime is
in excess, when the present use of the phosphate is neutral-
ized because it is made insoluble. Hence superphosphate
should never be used when the land is limed.
It is usually applied to the fall grain crops in quantities
varying from 200 to 400 Ibs. per acre, and is sown by means
of an attachment to the drill which drops it in the row near
the seed, and thus makes it immediately available for the
crop in its early stages and when the young plants need an
abundant supply of food. Or it is sown broadcast as soon
as the seed is sown and both are harrowed in together, when
the drill is not used. It is also used for the corn crop either
dropped in the hill at planting, or harrowed in before plant-
ing. From its soluble character it should be brought as
near the seed as possible, that it may be absorbed by the
228 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
*
roots as soon as they are capable of foraging in the soil for
their food. It is also used as a special fertilizer for turnips,
cabbages, and mangels; upon which it has a most beneficial
action. It is used for these crops at the rate of from 300 to
800 Ibs. peracre, according to the necessities of the soil.
As atop dressing for meadows and pastures it is of the
greatest use.
This is readily seen when it is remembered that young
animals are fed chiefly on grass and hay, and that from
this food they must build up the solid frame upon which
the fleshy form is built up. As more than half the sub-
stance of bone consists of phosphate of lime, it is then very
necessary that the young growing animal,as well as the
cow which is yielding milk—which is rich in this compound
as is requisite for the nourishment of young animals—should
be supplied with food that contains this bone-making ma-
terial in abundance, hence the necessity for supplying grass.
lands with this indispensable fertilizer.
CoMPLETE OR SPECIAL MANURES are mixed fertilizers,
which contain every element of barn yard manure except
the carbon, which is supposed unnecessary, as the soil con-
tains an abundance of it. The principal elements of plant
food, the nitrogen; phosphoric acid; and potash; are pro-
vided in about the some proportions in which they exist in
good stablemanure. A comparison of a complete fertilizer,
according to Prof. Villes formula, with barn yard manure,
is given in the following table.
Stable Conrplete
Composition of Manure, Manure,
2000 lbs. 100 dbs.
NitrOPen sa )ceen toy ectens 7 to 10 lbs. 71% lbs.
‘Phosphoric acid.......... 4to 9 lbs. 5 to 7 Ibs.
POlashiies eu. eecctoseee sess 9 to 15 lbs. 7 to 8 lbs.
Thus 100 lbs. of the complete manufactured manure at a
cost of about $2. contains about as much fertilizing matter
as one ton of the best stable manure, and in an immediately
available condition for crops.
SULPHATE OF AMMONIA, is a refuse of the gas manu-
facture and is a distillation from mineral coal. It has been
made at times by the addition of sulphuric acid to stale
ACTION OF NITROGENOUS FERTILIZERS. 229
urine, and the evaporation of the mixture to dryness. It
consists of 35 parts of ammonia; 59 lbs. of sulphuric acid;
and 12 lbs. of water. It is thus an exceedingly concen-
trated fertilizer and can be used only in combination with
‘ other substances or in very small quantities evenly spread
over the soil. It is soluble and active in the soil, and ex-
erts a correspondingly rapid and useful effect upon vegeta-
tion, hence it is sold at a high price; the nitrogen in it be-
ing valued in the market at 182 cents per pound. The
present market price (wholesale) of this substance is $60
per ton, and at the estimation of 202 per cent. of nitrogen,
this is thus procured at about 15 cents per pound.
The action of this fertilizer is a matter of importance, as
it may affect the growth of leaf or grain. Experiments with
it have shown that it is especially useful for turnips, an ap-
plication of 100 Ibs of it having increased the crop from 13
tons on unmanured soil, to 243 tons upon the fertilized part
of the field. Generally it has a most notable effect upon
the foliage; but this is to be considered in relation to the
effect of a luxuriant foliage upon the quantity of starch or
gluten, which may be stored in the plant or in the seed,
Thus a crop of wheat dressed with 100 lbs. of this salt per
acre, gave not only an increased crop of grain, but the flour
made from the grain yielded 103 per cent. of gluten which
was one per cent. more than that from any other application
of manure, and somewhat more than the yield from nitrate
of soda. This is an instance of how a fertilizer containing
a large proportion of nitrogen, increased the quantity of ni-
trogen in the crop. There has rarely been an instance in
“any experiment with this salt of ammonia, of its failure to
increase the growth of leaf and grain. The large quantity
of sulphuric acid no doubt has something to do with the in-
crease of the gluten in wheat, as this substance contains
sulphur; and on this account the use of sulphate of ammonia
is often recommended in preference to the nitrate of soda
for the supply of nitrogen to the soil.
Fis Scrap is the waste of the fish oil manufacture. The
fish, chiefly menhaden, which come near our coasts in enor-
230 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
mous shoals, are steamed for the oil they contain; the re-
sulting mass of moist flesh and bone is then dried and fine-
ly powdered. ‘The substance thus produced is called fish
scrap. It is one of the nitrogenous manures, but contains
some phosphoric acid and a little potash. It has, as might
be expected, somewhat the same character as Peruvian
guano, which is derived from the excrement of sea fowl
which feed upon fish. An analysis of fish scrap gives the
following, from a good sample.
COMPOSITION OF FisH SCRAP DRIED AT 212°
WMOISHITS:) 525 bescecsccctdcctssssesss esr 9.00 per cent.
PROSPNOLIC ACIAs oe cectes. rere seeaes 11.72 a
Reverted phosphoric acid......... 4.41 -
Insoluble phosphoric acid.......... 7.31 ce
IPOGASD 7 osccctiss ichs
252 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
fect pulverization and fertilizing, that the roots may be fully
developed and gather food from the soil in abundance; giving
support to a stout vigorous stem and nourishment for an
abundant foliage; by which all his efforts and labors are
crowned with success, and profitable crops reward his in-
dustry, in proportion to the intelligence and skill with
which he aids the forces of nature to perfect their and his
work.
THE PARTS OF A FLOWER.
Ci ALP Tih. Ao a.
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FLOWER.
The flowers, or the blossoms, are the reproductive parts
of a plant and contain the fructifying organs. They are
not specially constructed but are simply altered branches;
and the several parts are altered leaves. That is to say,
that certain buds, which might have grown into and pro-
duced branches with leaves, under certain circumstances
and for a special purpose become developed into blossoms.
At an early stage of the growth of these buds it is impossi-
ble to say whether they will develop into a branch or a
flower.
The parts of a flower are the stem; the calyx or leaves
which enfold the petals; the petals; the stamens; and the
pistils. In some flowers these change into each other, there
is no distinctly fixed line between them, and sometimes the
whole flower consists only of a cluster of leaves, as in the
green roses which are grown as a curiosity in some gardens.
The principal parts of the flower so far as they relate to
our subject, are the reproductive portions, which are con-
cerned in the growth and perfection of the seeds. These are
the stamens and pistils. It is not the purpose to give a com-
plete botanical description of these organs; this can be
learned by reference to any hand book of botany; but an
explanation of their nature and relations to each other, and
to the development of the seed, will be of interest and value
in removing some popular errors in respect to the reproduc-
tion of species and in aiding the farmer in many ways to
make the culture of his crops successful and profitable.
The reproductive organs of plants have a very close anal-
ogy to those of animals. They are male and female, and
the relation of these to each other, and of the latter to the
production of fruit or the reproductive germ, bear a close
resemblance to those among animals.
254 THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
THE Stamens are the male organs, and in the normally
constructed flower surround the pistil which is the female
organ and is connected with an ovary in which the fecun-
dated germ develops into a perfect fruit, or as it is commonly
called, a seed.
A flower of the normal kind has both stamens and pistils
and is called perfect. Such a flower is the blossom of the
apple or cherry, and of wheat and rye. Whena flower has
only stamens and no pistils, or only pistils and no stamens,
it is called imperfect; the former is called a staminate or
sterile flower; and the latter a pistillate or fertile flower. The
corn plant gives an instance of these kinds of flowers; the
tassel being the staminate or male flower; the silk being the
pistils which proceed from the pistillate or female flowers
which are carried on the cob which is thestem. Sometimes
these imperfect flowers are borne upon different plants, and
not the same individual, as in the case of some varieties of
strawberry; the hemp; hop; in which one plant has only
staminate flowers, and other plants only pistillate flowers.
Such plants are called diwcious (meaning in two households
or families). These plants, such as corn, castor oil, and
the chestnut tree which bear both kinds of flowers upon the
same stem, are called monecious, meaning in one house-
hold or family.
This distinction is important to farmers for it is necessary
in growing such plants to distribute a certain number of
male or staminate plants, among the pistillate or female
plants, for the purpose of impregnation and fertilization;
just as he would mix a certain number of rams among a
flock of ewes for the same purpose.
The stamen consists of two parts, the filament -o > of OF SOUS... 5 -cue ts eco taneas sores 287
Sr. CUNtIVATANE:. 5; cde soseeaccreeeeend 188:
INDEX.
PD
Dew... er Bietistencs ok
Riecomiponias: of matter. beedlivetessas 15
Ditches, size of... .. 169
Drains, caiennis for Beep c een cvsacsestven 170
Se MOR VATIL DOC 5225 ce nce nccledcvaccadees coevove tees 68
Elements, inorganic.................0000 3
a OLEAMICH I. occ ease eho 16
Blementary DodieS..........05... 06. cesese 14
Embryo of plants, formation of.....255
Evaporation, absorption of heat by 57
a of water from soils..134-138
- of water from plants...248
Exhaustion of soils, how pro-
RUNNER se eterna nas ck enacts aay diens vis cos 272
=
Fallowing, summer, effects of......188
Harm Grops; Culture Of; iccsc... 05000: 271
Feeding substances, composit’n of.105
Feldspar, composition of.............. 125
Fertilizing matter in green man-
Fertility, amount of in the soil......273
y how exhausted... ......02....: 275
Filament of the flower..............4..204
Fish scrap, aS manure..................230
Max) Cultivation Of.:..:2.626.4.. 0060 ..s010
Flowers, the production of..............253
= SLUG a eyes eens 228
Species, the persistence of....... 257-262
S ; SPOMLUIS OF PAs socss.cceces acre o-cweoene 269
Salt, COMpPOSitiONn. Of.....:...00+00:. 111-221 Springs, nature and action of........168.
SEB, MRAM con de cceslinstccuen 1M :| Stamens of plants. 20 ...:2..:.-000.0 254
“ fertilizer for mangels............ 137 Staeh aie. tees cce ss occencateancabersanmeneas 237
AM OSTOMOE < Covace ans 9scc0s-cvesas0csbse- 000s 128 <6)” SC OMEPOSIAO TIO Mealectt sano ete eeses 62
Sandy soils, improvement of......... 166 “ eonverted into sugar........... 236.
Sap, circulation of in plants......... 247 Stems) fimetlons Of). s.2-tedcne access eer 247
Seed, Selection Of. .<....62..220.0.-0ccc000 968! | Sabsoil MO Wigs ...8.. 0. scc.cs eens -es000n-t LOZ
Seeds of plants, how formed......... 259 | Sugar, needed for germination......237
** always reproduce them- 6% GOMPOSIIONOM...24. cscecesseom 237
BEVWES rie he rasratossaesseas csaws owes 262 Sulphate of lime...........00000+ 113-220:
Bra TETIEES 5 ccs chip sviasek an dovsnsoahsepenean 217 sulphur, its combinations............ 116.
Silica, as a constituent of plants...116 | gunlight, effects of on plant
Bel EC HLae toh Meee eee ealne >. Seteativs Sevenes TG a SIP ROW GUI vot cesessccesae vases scr ders reseensces
334 INDEX.
Superphosphate of lime......... 114-224 |. W
“4 des of ay atl Water contained in CropS...........06 35
ent brands of...226 its COmposition............-se0¢ 45
“ “how to Mm weight Of... .0..:....és...0ssaspreuien 45
make...... DA RP EVE RZINIG Ols. 31, isetse nce seeneetane 45
ff ** how to use..227 ssdood for plantis.....-.semens 47
Swamp muck, the value of........... 116 “absorption of gases by..... ... 48
> AIM PUTIIES Us = veeser sce vases te oe 48
“a, «solvent powers of............... 48
Tillage, implements Of..............6.+ 274 . sep te aioe of 49
ie . ape VOTOROT ioe ciatsoceet ear
z importance Olsaie ret 183-275 decomposition ofdn planta ad
obacco, composition Of............... 312 pene f 50
us GUL AUION OL... <.ss<0c0seeeees 312 * oe ee See Fra | 54
NCGS. VALGUS, WSO Ol. ¢
| G
HH!) y/ i -
} f! A Y HE
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Clod C
Variety of Sizes Working from three to
fifteen feet wide.
Prices Range from $16.00 to $59.00
ADVERTISEMENT.
“ACME” Pulverizing Harrow,
| CLOD CRUSHER & LEVELER.
The “ACME” has been subjected to the most thorough
practical tests in all sections of the country; the testimo-
nials published in my illustrated pamphlet furnish abundant
proof of its wide-spread popularity and establish beyond
doubt the claim that it is adapted to a great variety of soils
and is indeed the best implement of its class yet produced.
In fact, it is the only Pulverizer combining a |
CLOD CRUSHER, LEVELER & HARROW,
performing the three operations at one time, and is believed
to be the only one yet offered that will do its work thor-
oughly in all kinds of ground, leaving the soil in a light,
loose condition, just as the farmer desires to have it.
While it is invaluable for all purposes where a harrow is
needed it is
Peculiarly adapted to hard clay and
inverted sod,
and to ground which has become packed and baked after
plowing, as well as to leveling uneven land.
A prominent agricultural writer, who is a practical far-
mer, after demonstrating clearly that an increase of
five bushels of winter grain may be obtained with one
dollar’s worth of extra pulverization of the soil (a net
increase in money value of four dollars per acre
above cost), says: “The great benefit conferred on farmers
“by a general introduction of the “ACME” Pulverizing
“Harrow, Clod Crusher and Leveler becomes obvious. If
“the five hundred million bushels of grain raised annually
“in the United States, on forty million acres of land could
“be easily increased but three bushels per acre above cost, |
“Gt would add more than a hundred million bushels of
“wheat to the product of the Union above actua! expense.
“By assisting in the wider introduction of this efficient im-
“plement, enterprising farmers and citizens would promote
“the substantial interests of the whole country.”
ADVERTISEMENT.
Beware of Imitations!
All GENUINE “ACME Harrows have Flevible Gave Bars
FIGURE 1.
Fig. 1 shows front coul-
ters passing an obstrue-
tion such as stone, knoll,
corn stubbge, or other
_, rubbish—the rear coul-
fy ters remain at work in
the soil.
ee ee
ma i.
This flexibility admits of one bar dropping into furrow, while the
other bar is working on a higher level, and it enables the driver
with the aid of the tilting lever, to clear the Harrow of rubbish
which may accumulate under the coulters.
In other harrows where the gang bars are fastened rigidly togeth-
er, neither bar will remain on the ground when the other bar is
passing an obstruction, nor will either bar drop into a dead furrow
or other hollow when the other bar is on a higher level. Neither
ean rigid bar harrows be cleared of rubbish without the driver leaves
his seat and lifts the harrow.
$O2
New Style “ACME” Harrows, Nos. 10,11 and 12
have Reversible Coulters, viz:
When worn out on one end they may be turned ‘‘end for end’’
and in fact are equal in point of durability to two sets of Coulters.
Adjustable Coulters, viz:
The Coulters on this style may be adjusted to cut over more or
less of the surface. In summer fallow the Coulters may be adjusted
to ‘‘overlap’’ so as to practically clean the ground of weeds. if they
have not been allowed to grow up rank. Again on ground where |
there is loose rubbish, the coulters may be set with less flare, and
when thus set the Harrow draws easier.
ADVERTISEMENT.
‘Two-Wheel Sulky Attachment
memes oh, ae a | a
“ACME” Pulverizing Harrow,
Clod Crusher and Leveler.
Can be attached to or detached from the Harrow in ten minutes.
It is arranged so as to regulate the depth of work completely, and
can be used in transporting the Harrow on the road.
The Sulky is very valuable in covering grain, and especially so
where there is rubbish, such as corn stubble, as by means of the
Lever, the Harrow may be instantly raised from the ground so that
the rubbish will readily pass out from under the Coulters.
Where the ground is hard, so as to require extra weight on the
Harrow to force it into the soil, the entire weight of the Sulky may
be put on the Harrow by simply pushing the Lever forward, thus
adding about 80 pounds to the weight.
‘From His Own Experience in Preparing Ground
‘For Winter Grain, by the use of the “ACME” Pulverizing
‘“‘Harrow, the writer is quite free to say that had this implement
‘“‘been used instead of the common harrow, the loss of wheat by the
‘‘hard winter would have been trivial, and that many a single acre
‘‘which has not returned the seed sown upon it, might easily have
‘‘made enough grain to have paid the whole cost of this imple-
‘‘ment.”’
ADVERTISEMENT.
ehh. Aw
DO NOT BE DECEIVED. Don't let dealers palm off a
base imitation or some inferior tool under the assurance that it is
better, SATISFY YOURSELF BY ORDERING AN “ACME”
ON TRIAL. ‘
I will send a DOUBLE GANG “ACME” to any responsible
farmer in the United States; if it does not suit, he may send it back
I paying return freight. I don’t ask pay until tried on his own
farm.
——:0:——
Prices Range from 16. 001 to $59.00
Micctactiat Gusrane
I hereby warrant each and every part of each and every
“ACME” Pulverizing Marrow,
Clod Crusher and Leveler
against breakage, for the term of one season after it leaves
the manufactory or any of my storehouses—and I hereby
authorize Agents and Dealers to FURNISH FREE NEW
PARTS TO REPLACE BROKEN PARTS; the only
stipulation being that the farmer demanding such parts
shall sign a statement that the breakage occurred in fair»
usage. .
DISTRIBUTING DEPOTS.
Goods are delivered free on board at—New YorK-—CoLuMBts,
O.—Cuicaco, Inu.—Kansas Crry, Mo.—Mrxyeapoiis, Mixx.—
LovrsviLLe, Ky.—but all communications should be addressed to
hue a Ridgnas
GRESS
I
LIBRARY OF CON
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