, :.— . - ~ • li 4\ti\\ •• - . i .\\ii - . i • .. , • ---•--:.---. , . -. i>5S5SS551 , [ j - - . , t\t\\v\v: - . i\\\\\\\v . - - k\\i. i • .. - •- ' - ' ' - -. , . - • -. - - . .', \ < \ \ \ . - ' - ' - -. ' • ' ••....•• -- • • r_ .. - - ...... • . . • • - -• •. .••>-.- . • '• • • • , •, .,--.... . ' ""' • • \\\\\\\\\\\\.\ -• ' • •• - - • • --.--, \ ..':•.'- : '. . . - ... . • • -..'•- ' . . _. - . . " ' . • •: | \ ,:•••• • • • - - - •' . ---• - - 4. >«t?^^\v*» - - VA^ ' . • - • > • - - -Wf-.v' GIFT OF C. H. Hovey THE GRAPE CULTUPiIST: A TEEATISE ON THE \ , ' ,•••>', } CULTIVATION OP THE NATIVE GRAPE. BY S. JFULLER, practical $?otticuUurtet, BrooMp, H, ¥. NEW YORK: PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR, BY DAVIES & KENT, 188 WILLIAM STREET. 1864. P? Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864. BY ANDREW S. FULLEE, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. PREFACE. THE object in presenting this little treatise upon the cultivation of the native grape is not to promulgate new theories or principles, but to elucidate the practice of those already known. Neither is it offered for the purpose of instructing those who are already familiar with the subject, but only for those who do not know and are seeking knowledge. For several years past I have been urged to give the results of my experiments m grape culture to the public. I have now partially, at least, complied with the request, stating the difficulties that have been met and how they were overcome — not in finely-drawn sentences, but in the plain and perhaps homely language of a practical horticul- turist. Scientific terms that are not familiar to all have been avoided as far as possible, as it has been my aim to make the subject so plain that none could accuse me of misleading, if I did not properly direct them. The horizontal arm and renewal system of training has been given, as I believe it to be the best for general vineyard culture as well as for gardens, where circumstances will permit of its being used. It is now twelve years since I trained the first vine with horizontal arms ; and though various systems have been tried since that time, none have given me such uniform and satisfactory results as this. It may not be the best system known, but is certainly a good and reliable one. G6S5S4 IV PREFACE. At the present time there is much excitement throughout the country with regard to grape culture ; old systems are being revived, and new ones invented. The same is true with regard to varieties ; many of the old, discarded kinds will be brought forward as new, and when introduced with really good ones, they will be tolerated until their worthlessness is again ascertained. In the short notice that is given of some of the most prominent varieties in cultivation, as well as some of the different modes of cul- ture, I have endeavored to avoid all extremes ; and if in doing so I shall save the reader from some of the bitter disappointments which are more or less the lot of all who undertake the cultivation of fruits, then will my object be fully accomplished. THE AUTHOR. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. . . CHAPTER II. GROWING FROM SEED 16 CHAPTER III. PROPAGATING BY SINGLE BUDS 21 CHAPTER IV. CUTTINGS OF UNRIPE WOOD 87 CHAPTER V. PROPAGATING HOUSES 41 CHAPTER VI. CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIR 49 CHAPTER VII. LAYERING THE VINE 59 CHAPTER VIII. GRAFTING THE GRAPE 64 CHAPTER IX. HYBRIDIZING AND CROSSING 72 CHAPTER X. TRANSPLANTING 80 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER XI. PAGE SOIL AND SITUATION 88 CHAPTER XII. STEM APPENDAGES 101 CHAPTER XIII. PLANTING THE VINE 113 CHAPTER XIV. GRAPE TRELLISES 120 CHAPTER XV. TIME TO PRUNE, AND PRUNING AND TRAINING 123 CHAPTER XVI. GARDEN CULTURE 160 CHAPTER XVII. MISCELLANEOUS 180 CHAPTER XVIII. INSECTS AND DISEASES 187 CHAPTER XIX. DESCRIPTION OP VARIETIES. ./. 212 CHAPTER XX. REVIEW OF VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF TRAINING 240 THE GRAPE CULTURIST, CHAPTER INTRODUCTOKY. EVERY one who has read ancient history, or studied any of the numerous works on vine culture, is aware that the grape has been cultivated and esteemed as one of the choicest fruits ever since the earliest period. Vine culture has been a constant attendant upon civilization, following it from country to country, and progressing with it ; yet the same species of vine that thrives so well over a great portion of the Eastern Hemisphere has, except in a few isolated locations, entirely failed in this our favored land. Although we may regret that the European grape is un- suited to our climate, yet we may congratulate ourselves that we have indigenous species from which new varieties- have been produced which rival, in point of flavor at least, any of the foreign ones ; and we are encouraged to hope for a native grape which shall equal the European in every good quality. The culture of the vine in this country has had many obstacles to contend with. Those who had been accus- tomed to the fine grapes of Europe could see nothing in the inferior native grapes of this country to induce them to attempt to cultivate them. For many years the vine- yards in this country were planted with foreign varieties 8 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. which, of course, failed, and the vineyardist,* thinking that there was nothing among our indigenous vines worthy of his attention, replaced them with new importations from Europe, and found his trouble again rewarded by failure. After two centuries of unsuccessful attempts to grow the European grape in open culture in this country, pomologists turned their attention to the improvement of ;6ur native, specie* of vine, and their experiments have given us many choice and beautiful varieties. It is only since foreign varieties have been discarded for our hitherto rferglected native sorts, that vine culture has become estab- lished as a branch of American industry. BOTANICAL CHARACTER OF THE VINE. Botanists have differed as to the number of species of vine belonging to this country, and this can not be won- dered at in a plant which is so disposed to run into varie- ties. Professor Asa Gray, the high authority of whose works will be conceded, makes a much less number of spe- cies than many other botanists, and I have followed him in the classification on next page. I must remark, however, that there are several native varieties which are found in certain sections of the country, which are very puzzling, and one is at loss as to which of the admitted species they should be referred. These varieties, though growing in- discriminately with others about which there is no doubt, seem to preserve their identity, and it is very difficult to decide whether to call them distinct species or marked varieties of the species enumerated by Gray. Practically * Although this word has not yet found its way into the dictionaries, it appears to be just as applicable to the cultivation of the vine as orchardist, pomologist, etc. , are in other departments of fruit culture. It has been employed by several writers of late, and was used so long ago as 1853 by Dr. Togno in a letter to Charles L. Fleischman. See American Polytechnic Journal, page 317. INTRODUCTORY. 9 it is of little consequence what view is taken of these unu- sual forms, as the cultivator is interested in them only as varieties, and it is of no particular moment to him whether we have one hundred or only one native species, so long as there are a sufficient number of varieties to suit all soils and locations. VITIS, (GRAPE.) Calyx very short, usually with a nearly entire border or none at all, filled with a fleshy disk which bears the petals and stamens: petals 5, cohering at the top (Fig. 1, A), while they separate at the base, the corolla usu- ally falling off without expanding : 5 thick glands or lobes of the disk alternating with the sta- mens, between them and the base of the ovary : flowers in a compound thyrsus, dioecious-polyga- mous in all the American species, exhaling a fra- grance like that of Mignonette; leaves simple, rounded, and heart-shaped, often variously and variably lobed. Vitis Labrusca* — (NORTHERN Fox GRAPE.) Branchlets and young leaves very woolly; leaves continuing rusty- woolly beneath ; fertile panicles compact, berries large (J to f of an inch in diameter). Grows in moist thickets, common. Flowers in June. Berries ripe in September. Dark purple or amber color, with a tough, musky pulp. Vitis aestivalis. — (SUMMER GRAPE.) Young leaves, downy, with loose, cobwebby hairs beneath; smoothish when old, green above ; fertile panicles compound, long and slender ; berries small (^ to i inch in diameter), black, with a bloom. Thickets, common ; climbing high. Flowers in May and June. Berries pleasant ; ripe in October. Vitis COrdifOlia. — (WINTER OR FROST GRAPE.) Leaves thin, not shining, heart-shaped, acuminate, sharply and coarsely toothed, often obscurely 3-lobed; panicles com- 1* 10 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. pound, large and loose; berries small (i inch broad), blue or black, with, a bloom, very acerb, ripening after frost. Variety, RIP ARIA; with the leaves broader and some- what incisely toothed and cut-lobed. Thickets and river- banks, common. May and June. Flowers very sweet- scented. Vitis Ylllpilia. — (MUSCADINE OR SOUTHERN Fox GRAPE.) Leaves shining on both sides, small, rounded with a heart- shaped base, very coarsely toothed with broad and bluntish teeth, seldom lobed ; panicles small, densely flowered ; berries large (^ to f inch in diameter), musky, purplish without a bloom, ripe early in autumn. Rivers, Maryland to Kentucky and southward. May. Branchlets minutely warty. Fruit with a thick and tough skin. A variety yields the Scuppernong Grape. The two thousand varieties of the grape that are now or have been under cultivation in Europe, are supposed to have originated from one species — namely, the Vitis vinifera, and it is not positively known which one of these two thousand varieties is the original, although it can be proved that many of them are not : it is therefore impos- sible to give a description of the foreign vine so that it can be recognized by one not previously acquainted with the general appearance of the many varieties belonging to it. Language, however skillfully applied, is often inadequate to describe to others our own knowledge or impres- sions. For instance, we may have a friend whom we wish to describe to another so that he shall be able to know him among a thousand ; but unless the one described has some unusual mark to designate him, twenty may be found in the thousand to answer the description exactly — at least to a stranger. So it is with the foreign vine ; to those who have become acquainted with both it and the native species, it is an easy task to distinguish one from the other, no matter how much each may vary ; but to describe the two so that others may learn the difference is not so readily INTRODUCTORY. 11 done. Foreign varieties have leaves -ranging through all the gradations of color known as green — so have ours ; some approach the red — so do ours ; many have a very shining surface, and others are downy or woolly — so are ours. The leaf of the European grape also presents every conceivable shape, preserving, however, characteristics enough to be recognizable as belonging to the grape genus. And we have one species, the Labrusca, the varie- ties of which will match any of them in shape. The young wood of many of the foreign varieties is covered with a grayish-blue bloom, said by chemists to be wax : this is sometimes considered a distinctive mark of the foreign varieties, but our cordifolia is abundantly furnished with it. We could multiply these parallel characters indefi- nitely, but enough has been said to show how difficult it is to designate the species to which a particular variety be- longs, especially if we have words only for our guidance. There are, however, certain characteristics so prominent that they may serve as a partial guide until some freak of nature admonishes us to lay them aside. 1st. The skin of our native grape slips from the pulp, while that of the for- eign varieties adheres to it like the skin of the apple, and those which have a flashy pulp allow the seeds to drop from it when it is broken. The seeds of our native grapes are enveloped and held together by the pulp, more or less persistent in different varieties; but to observe this the fruit of some of the newer ones must be examined before they are fully ripe, for at that time the pulp has be- come so tender that it is scarcely more than a liquid. The tough pulp is a prominent characteristic of the Vitis Labrusca and its varieties. 2d. The bark of the native grapes, particularly on the one-year-old canes, parts very readily from the wood; it is also quite tough, and in some instances it may be divided into small threads re- sembling hemp, while the bark on the young wood of the foreign vine usually adheres more firmly, and is also quite THE GEAPE CULTURIST. brittle. The bark of the native vines, particularly the northern species, is harder than that of the foreign one, and the prevailing colors are dark maroon or brown, vary- ing to light orange. Very few of the cultivated native varieties have any bloom upon the young wood, while that of the foreign ones, when grown in the open air, usually has a grayish or ashen hue, and is also more or less sup- plied with a peculiar blue bloom. Many other peculiarities might be noticed, but as we do not recommend foreign varieties for out-door culture in the Northern States, there is no necessity of pursuing this subject further. PROPAGATION BY SEED. As the propagation of the grape from seeds is the only method by which new varieties can be produced, it is all important to the welfare and prosperity of grape culture in this country that it should receive the attention of all friends of progress in this department of horticulture. Although great advance has been made in the last few years, and we now have a few fine table and wine grapes, yet we have none that are perfect, o? but what may be far surpassed, even if only ordinary skill is applied to the growing of seedlings. The seeds should always be gathered from grapes that are fully ripe, and from the best varieties that can be obtained. Those varieties which have any prominent de- fect, such as slow growth, thin small leaves, those that are liable to mildew, vines that are tender, or ripen their fruit very late, should be avoided, unless they possess some excellent quality which it would be desirable to perpetuate, and which can not be found in any other variety. It must not be expected that good, strong, healthy seedlings will be grown every year, even from the very healthiest native variety, as the seeds of the grape are not fully developed INTKODUCTOKY. 13 every season, although the grape itself may appear to be perfect. I mention this, that those who fail to grow good healthy seedlings on the first trial may not be discouraged. The next season, with no greater care, they may have per- fect success. It must not be expected that all the seed- lings, nor any great portion of them, will produce better fruit than the parent, for although the vine has a tendency to improve upon its wild nature — a return, as it were, for the care and labor bestowed upon it — yet after it has taken a few steps toward civilization, a large portion of its off- spring show a disposition to recede to their original state. In growing a thousand seedlings from a choice improved variety, if we succeed in getting one even but little better than the parent, we would be well repaid. It is this very uncertainty that affords the pleasure and the rarity of satisfactory results which gives value to this department of grape culture. Seedling grapes are from three to ten years in coming into bearing — usually the wildest and the most inferior varieties will grow the strongest, and come into bearing first. In 1862 I marked several two-year-old seedlings that showed strong indi- cations of their wild character, for the purpose of ascer- taining how near one could judge of the worthlessness of a seedling by its leaf and growth. This season several of those marked produced fruit, being only three years old, and every one of them was as worthless in fruit as they were wild in growth, although they were all from improved varieties. Occasionally a seedling will be grown that will never produce fruit; for (see botanical description) our native varieties are sometimes dioecious, that is, one vine produces flowers having only pis- tils, and another only stamens. Fig. 2 shows a grape flower (somewhat magnified) after the petals have fallen. The pistil, c, is in the center, while the five stamens, B, Fig-. 2. 14 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST. Fig. 3. surround it. If it should happen to be the former (pistil- late), then the flowers may be fertilized from the perfect flowers of another vine ; but should it prove to be one of the latter, with staminate or male flowers, then it will pro- duce no fruit. Although we speak of flowers being stam- inate, yet we have never seen, nor have we good authority for believing, that there are any varieties or species that are entirely wanting in the rudiments of a pistil, though it may be so deformed that its usefulness is destroyed. Again, there will occasionally appear seedlings with both perfect and imperfect flowers on the same vine and in the same cluster ; such vines are called polygamous. These occur more fre- quently than the dioecious; and if imperfect flowers occur, then of course we have very imperfect bunches of fruit, although this may not always be owing to a deformed stigma, but to an insufficient sup- ply of pollen, owing to deformed stamens. The Taylor grape (white) and Oporto (black) are striking illus- trations of perfect and im- perfect flowers in the same cluster. But the imperfec- tions in the flowers of these seem to be mostly in the stamens, they being very much deformed ; for when the cap or petals drop off, the stamens are bent down, as seen, B, in Fig. 3 ; not standing erect as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 4 represents a fair sample of the bunches pro- duced upon a vigorous six- Fig 4i year-old vine of the Taylor. INTRODUCTORY. 15 Some of the bunches contained more perfect berries than the one from which this engraving was made, and others with not more than two or three perfect ones. The small undeveloped berries are those that were not fertilized. Other varieties of this class show the same phenomenon, and all that I have examined exhibit more or less the de- formed stamens as shown in Fig. 3. The Taylor and Oporto are both pure native varieties and nearly related, and belong to what appears to be a distinct species, found growing along the Alleghany range, from southern New York to Alabama, and along the banks of those streams that flow from these mountains. It probably is also found near the Rocky Mountains, as several varieties lately re- ceived from Nebraska and Kansas appear to belong to the same species. Some of the individuals of this group possess excellent qualities, which, when properly developed, and their defects remedied, will make the most valuable wine grapes of the country. 16 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. CHAPTER II. GROWING FROM SEED. GATHER the grapes when fully ripe, and either dry them in the sun or in a dry room, until they appear like raisins, and keep them in this way until spring, or, when they are gathered, the seeds may be separated from the pulp. Put in pots or boxes of pure sand or sandy loam, and set away in the cellar or bury in the open ground until spring. Mice are very fond of grapes and grape seeds, and they should be placed where these pests can not reach them. No matter whether the seeds are frozen or not, all that is requisite is, that they shall not get too dry ; if they are kept cool and moist, their germinating powers will remain unimpaired. The soil for a seed bed should be light, moderately dry, and thoroughly pulverized to at least two feet in depth. If not naturally very rich, it should be made so by adding a liberal quantity of old well-decomposed manure from the barnyard, and incorporating it well with the soil. The whole success often depends upon getting a good, strong, healthy growth the first season. So soon in the spring as the weather will permit, sow the seeds in drills about a foot apart, and not too thickly in the drills — one or two inches apart will do ; cover about three quarters of an inch deep, and give a liberal supply of water, if the weather is dry. When the plants first appear above ground, they should be partially shaded, to prevent their being burnt off by the sun. The shading may be dispensed with so soon as the second or third leaves are formed, at which time small sticks, say from a quarter to one half inch in GROWING FBOM SEED. 17 diameter and two feet long, should be stuck by the side of each plant ; every little plant will throw out its tendrils and attach itself to the sticks, and grow much more rapidly than it would if such a support were not given. The stakes, if set thickly together, will afford a partial shade to the young plants, which is often very beneficial, espe- cially if the summer should prove very warm. Another method with which I have succeeded most admirably, is to sow the grape seeds thinly in the drills with apple seeds ; the apple seedlings coming up with those of the grape, or usually a little before, they afford just sufficient shade for the young vines ; and as the vine grows, they fasten them- selves to the young trees, which serve in place of stakes. A still better plan would be to sow the apple seeds in drills, running east and west, one foot apart, and the seeds about one inch apart in the drill, after which sow the grape seeds on the north side of the drill, but close up to them, say within two inches at least. I use apple or pear seeds instead of cherry, peach, or similar kinds, because they produce but very few side roots the first year, and conse- quently do not interfere with the growth of the seedling vines. When the plants have made a few inches of growth, a light mulch of leaves, hay, or moss may be spread over the entire surface of the bed ; this will keep the roots moist and prevent any sudden check to their growth. If the weather should prove dry, give an occasional water- ing— not a sprinkling, but a good soaking ; once a week will be sufficient. No liquid manure will be needed if the soil was properly enriched when the bed was made ; but if the vines do not grow as rapidly as desired, then put a few shovelfuls of good fresh barnyard manure into a barrel of water, stir it well, let it settle, and then draw off the water and apply it to the plants ; or, instead, a solution of two pounds of guano to a barrel of water may be used with good effect. If there should be signs of mildew on the plants, a few handfuls of sulphur, scattered over the 18 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. plants and bed will usually prevent its farther progress. Grape seedlings when well started, usually grow quite rapidly, often making two. to four feet of wood the first season. Those who have green-houses or hot-beds may sow the seeds in boxes or seed-pans, and place them in these structures, so that they may receive artificial heat ; but for growing hardy varieties the open ground is preferable, as it is more natural ; and the sickly seedlings, of which there are always more or less, will be more likely to show their feebleness in the open ground, and can be selected from the vigorous and thrown away, avoiding further trouble. When the plants have made one season's growth, and the frost has killed their leaves, they should be taken up, a portion of the stem cut off, and the long perpendicu- lar root shortened at least one half its length ; then heel them in, in some dry warm place in the open ground. All small sickly-looking plants should be thrown away, for they will seldom make good vines if they fail to make a good growth the first season.^ At the approach of very cold weather, cover the entire tops with soil or coarse lit- ter, deep enough to insure them against being severely frozen, not that freezing would be sure to kill them, but it would tend to impair their vitality. In the spring take out the plants and cut the stems off to within four inches of their roots, then plant them out in rows four feet apart, and three or four feet apart in the rows. The ground for their reception should be made rich and deep, using any old well-decomposed manure that may be at hand, or old sods, or muck ; if the latter is used, a peck of ashes to the square rod, or half that quantity of lime, may be added with good effect. The whole soil should be worked over at least eighteen inches deep, either with the plow or spade. The roots of the vines should be carefully spread out, so that no two will come in contact ; then sprinkle the soil GROWING FROM SEED. 19 among them, covering so that the upper bud on the four- inch stem will be just above ground; this will give about three inches of soil above the upper tier of roots, which is sufficient for young plants, and more than this would be injurious. After the vine is planted, press the soil down with the foot, so that it shall be firm, but not packed. A good strong stake, say one and a half inches in diameter and six to eight feet long, should now be put down by each plant to tie it to as it grows. Let but one shoot grow, and pinch oif all side branches as they appear ; keep the vine tied to the stake so that it shall not get broken off by the wind and thereby checked in growth, Keep the ground clear of weeds, and stir the surface often with the hoe or rake, but never deep enough to reach the roots. On very loose and porous soils it is better to mulch the plants ; but if the soil is a compact loam, or somewhat clayey, then it is better to hoe often than to mulch, be- cause if you cover up soils that are naturally compact, they will hold too much moisture, and sometimes become soured for want of aeration. At the end of the season's growth, and just before the ground freezes, the vines should be pruned, by cutting them back to within eight or ten inches of the ground ; then bank up the soil about them, or bend them down and then cover them ; if covered with straw or leaves, there is dan- ger of their being destroyed by mice. All that is now re- quired is to protect them slightly from the sudden changes in winter. The following spring remove the covering and give the vines a top-dressing of manure, and work it in with the hoe during the summer. The vine should be al- lowed to make only a single shoot this (the third) season, and if healthy and vigorous it will make a growth of ten to fifteen feet if not checked ; but if allowed to grow un- checked, it would necessitate very long and stout stakes, besides the trouble of keeping them tied. It is best not to allow them to grow so long, but pinch off the tops when 20 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. they have grown five or six feet high, and when they start again and have grown a foot or more, check them again ; also pinch off the ends of all the side shoots, or laterals, as they are termed ; this concentrates the strength of the vine and hastens its maturity. The vines are now three years .old, and we may begin to look for fruit next season, if they have not already shown it upon some of the strongest. But to be sure of getting a strong growth next season, we should prune the vines back to two feet, and allow but two shoots to grow ; and further, they are more likely to produce fruit from the lower than the upper buds, particularly if cut back. This cutting back may be deferred until the last of Feb- ruary, unless it is desirable to cover the vines again, which it is not, unless the climate is so severe that it is not ex- pected they will ever withstand the winter. In the vicin- ity of New York I would not cover seedlings after the sec- ond season. "We have now followed our grape seedlings until they are four years old ; they should-now be kept pruned pretty short, say to two or three buds of the previous season's growth, every season until they have fruited, and then select those that promise well and discard the others. If cuttings or layers are taken from the seedlings, they will often produce fruit before the parent plant. For the man- ner of making these, see chapter on propagating by layers and cuttings. PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 21 CHAPTER III. PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. THE mode of propagating of the grape from single buds or eyes is particularly valuable when it is desired to in- crease rare and desirable varieties. It is supposed to have been first suggested by the Rev. Mr. Mitchell, of England, in 1777, and has been practiced sufficiently to establish its true merits — some of which are : 1 st. A greater number of plants can be produced from a given quantity of wood than by any other mode. 2d. Vines so propagated con- tain just enough of the parent vine to insure the perpetu- ation of a healthy plant of its kind, but not enough to transmit disease to it by its decay, as sometimes occurs when a large amount of the old wood is used. 3d. As in this mode of propagation so small an amount of wood is used that it admits of a large number of cuttings being started in a small space, and as the buds are always forced into growth by artificial heat, we may commence much earlier in the season than when propagating in the open air, thereby giving a much longer time for increasing, prolonging, and ripening their growth. This is secured even if they are planted out in the open ground so soon as the plants become well rooted and the weather sufficiently warm. 4th. But the greatest benefit arising from this mode of propagating is, that vaVieties that are very diffi- cult to increase by other methods can be multiplied with the greatest facility by this. In fact, no variety or species has yet been discovered that can not be grown readily with artificial heat from single bud cuttings. properly grown from single buds are certainly 22 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. equal to those propagated by any other mode ; but if im- properly grown, they are of but little value and often en- tirely worthless. The buds used for propagating should be large and well developed, and at no time of their growth should the plants be allowed to receive a check, either by being too cold or too hot. While it may be necessary to keep up a vigor- ous growth, it must be borne in mind that the plants may be forced too rapidly by the use of stimulating ma- nures and by subjecting them to too great heat, the result of which will be soft, spongy, unripened wood and roots. Sometimes the roots will have small tuberous appendages at their ends, which is often caused by the presence of too much stimulating food. When vines are propagated from single buds, and are kept in pots during the entire season, the enlargement of the ends of the roots will usually occur upon all those that grow out until they reach the sides of the pots. This does not show disease nor overgrowth, but merely that the roots are crowded, and that they need more room. But when these little tubers are found on the small roots all through the soil, it shows that they have been made unhealthy by injudicious treatment. The same phenomenon of dropsical roots is often seen upon vines grown in the open air, especially where large quantities of muck and fresh manures are used without first being thoroughly decomposed. MODE OF OPERATION. Cut the wood from the vines in the fall, after the leaves have fallen, but before it has been severely frozen, and put away in moist earth or sand in the cellar or bury it in the open ground, where it will be protected from the frost and can be reached when wanted. The last of February or the first of March is the usual time in this latitude to com- mence starting the buds. There is nothing gained by PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 23 forcing the buds into growth too early; better wait until the season arrives when they naturally begin to swell, as they will then grow more readily and make more healthy plants than if started in the early part of winter. At this time take out the cuttings and cut them up into pieces as represented in Fig. 5 ; put these into water as they are cut ; this will pre- vent their becoming dry while they are being pre- pared ; and if they are allowed to remain in the water for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, it will do them no harm, but often be of benefit, especially to the hard-wooded varieties, as it softens the alburnous matter from which the roots grow, and loosens the outer bark, and thereby allows the roots to push through it more readily, there being always more roots produced from other parts of the cutting than from that part where the cambium has been exposed by the knife. It is also a benefit to some varieties that produce roots very tardily, to scrape oif a portion of the outer bark and the remains of the old leaf-stalk which immediately surround the base of the bud, so as to par- tially expose the inner bark. When a quantity of the buds are prepared they should be put into moderate-sized pots (six or eight inch is a con- venient size) filled to within about an inch of the top with pure and moderately coarse sand, firmly packed. Place the cuttings, with the buds up, about an inch apart all over the surface; press them down firmly with the thumb and finger ; sift on sufficient sand to cover the upper point of the bud about a quarter of an inch deep, then press it all down evenly, using the bottom of another pot for the pur- pose, after which apply water enough to just moisten the whole contents of the pot. Sand taken from the banks of fresh-water ponds or run- ning streams is the best for propagating purposes, as it is 24- THE GRAPE CULTURIST. nearly free from impurities. That taken from common sand banks often contains oxide of iron and other foreign matters to an extent that renders useless all attempts to grow anything in it. When pure sand can not be ob- tained, the other can be made to answer by exposing it to the action of the air and rains for a few months, or by washing it thoroughly before using. After the pots have been filled with cuttings, they should be placed in a temperature between 40° and 50°, and allowed to remain from two to three weeks, water- ing just enough to keep them moist, but not wet. As roots are formed at a much lower degree of tempera- ture, and less rapidly than leaves, we are thus enabled to cause the process of rooting to begin (which is very essential) before we place them in a position to commence growth ; and when this does start, the roots, being formed or in process of formation, will then issue with such rapid- ity that they will be capable of absorbing food to supply the new growth as soon as it has consumed that food which was laid up in the bud the previous season. After removing the pots from their first position, place them in the frames, which should be partially filled with sand and located over the flues or hot- water pipes, plung- ing them at least one half their depth in the sand ; give them bottom heat of 60° for the first few days, then gradually raise it to 80° ; keep the frames partly open, and the tem- perature of the atmosphere in them ten degrees lower, if possible, than that of the sand under them, bearing in mind that we wish to excite the roots to grow before the leaves. When the buds begin to push, allow the tempera- ture to increase to 90° or 95°, close the frames and keep the atmosphere moist by frequent waterings; a liberal application once a day will usually be sufficient. Pure rain water is best, and should always be of the temperature of the air in the house, or nearly so. Cold water would surely check the growth of the plants. Examine the young PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 25 growth every day to see that it does not commence rotting or damping off, as it is called ; should there be signs of this, give a little more air ; but be careful of cold currents from the outside, as these are often fatal to the young plants. Also avoid the direct rays of the sun, either by whitewashing the glass, or nailing up strips of white mus- lin or paper to the rafters of the house. When the plants have made a growth of two or three inches, they should be shifted into two-and-one-half to three-inch pots, putting one plant into each. Up to this time no material has been used which con- tained any appreciable amount of plant food, nor has it been needed, for the growth of roots and leaves has been produced from the food stored in the bud and the wood attached, and what little they may have obtained from the water and sand. The plants are now in condition to use more substantial food, consequently the soil in which they are to be potted may be composed of rotted sods, taken from an old pasture, mixed with one half its .bulk of old, well-decomposed barnyard manure, or instead of sods use muck, or leaf mold from the woods. These should be mixed together at least six months before using ; add one eighth to one quarter sand, and turn all over until it is thoroughly incorporated, then sift it all through a coarse sieve before using. Having put a quantity of the soil upon the potting bench, which should be in the propagating house, and provided a quantity of broken pots or bricks for drainage, take the pots containing the plants from the frames, lay them on their side and give them a sudden jar with the hand, so as to loosen the sand around them, then draw out a plant carefully and hold it in one hand while with the other you place a small piece of the drainage material into the small pot, cover it with soil, then put in the plant, allowing the roots to spread out naturally ; fill in soil around them until the pots are full, without covering the roots where they join the stem more than half an inch 2 26 THE GRAPE CULTURTST. deep ; press the soil down firmly, but not so hard as to break the roots. When the plants are potted, place them again in the frames, give them water to settle the soil about their roots, and keep the air somewhat confined for a few days until they have become well established in the soil, when a little more air may be given them. Keep the temperature at 85° to 95° during the day and 70° to 80° at night. When the plants have made four to six inches of stem, they may be taken out of the frames and placed in another house which, if they are to remain under glass during the season, should have been made ready for their reception. Some propagators do not use frames within the house at all, but depend entirely upon keeping the air moist and hot as well as sufficiently confined by the ordinary methods of heating and ventilating the house. While an experi- enced propagator will usually succeed in this way, for those who have not had experience in propagating, the frames are much safer, and are enough better to pay the extra cost even for the use of the most skillful. When the plants are first potted in the small pots they will require so much more room than before, that it will often be found inconvenient to furnish frames enough to hold them ; in such cases they may be set upon shelves in the open house, and they will do well in such a position if care is given in keeping the atmosphere within the house moist and warm, as well as in shading the plants and avoid- ing direct currents of cold air from the outside through doors or when ventilating the house. To get good, large, and strong plants, they will require re-potting at least three times during the summer. At each change the pots used should be increased in size about two inches. The same compost may be used for each re-potting, and the ball of earth around the roots should not be broken, neither should the plants be placed more than a half inch deeper than before. The proper PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 27 time for re-potting is when the roots have reached the sides of the pot and become crowded. The fresh soil put around the roots should be pressed in firmly, to make it of the same "density as the ball of earth containing them. The plants should always be kept tied to stakes, and the ends of side shoots pinched off, not allowing more than two additional leaves to remain on them at any one time. The plants should also be allowed plenty of room, so that their leaves may fully expand, and receive plenty of light and air. If this is not attended to, they will grow tall and slender, and often fail to ripen their wood ; besides, they will be very likely to be attacked by mildew. The plants should receive the direct rays of the sun from the time they are firmly established in the small pots. To hasten the ripening of the plants, toward autumn pinch off the top and lower the temperature by giving them more air. A little close observation during the growth of the plants will enable the propagator to judge of their wants and the proper amount of water, heat, etc., they require. Sometimes it will be necessary to give them a little liquid manure, but this will seldom be re- quired if the compost in which they are grown is properly made and the plants allowed good-sized pots. PLANTING IN BEDS. To avoid the expense of a sufficient number of pots of the various sizes required for re-potting a large number of plants several times during the season, cheap glass struc- tures, without artificial heat, may be erected, and the soil in them made rich, into which the plants may be put directly after they have become well rooted in the small pots in which they are placed at the first potting. These beds may be made with the natural soil in the house, or they may be made of strong plank frames, deep enough to hold a foot of soil, and elevated some two feet from the 28 THE GKAPE CULTUKIST. ground ; in this manner the roots receive more heat than when planted in the natural soil. The same care will be required, the same watering, staking, etc., as if they were in pots. Plants of superior quality may be grown in this manner with much less expense and trouble than attends those that are grown in pots through the season. SINGLE BUDS IN OPEN AIR. This is another, and cheaper mode than the two preced- ing methods, as the expense is but trifling after the plants leave the propagating house. But when vines are to be grown in this manner, they should not be started too early, for the weather must have become warm and settled before they can be planted out. The method is as follows : when the vines have been re-potted into the small pots, and are well rooted, they are turned out and planted in beds previously prepared, in the following manner : First make the soil rich and deep, and have it thoroughly pulverized and raked level and smooth ; then lay it off into beds three feet wide, and the required length ; drive down strong stakes along the sides, to which nail boards to the height of three feet or more, then across the top nail a few strips to keep all firm. Stretch oiled or plain muslin over the top, for shading the plant when first set out. When all is ready, take the plants from the house and turn them out of the pots (be- ing careful not to break the ball of earth as it is slipped from the pots), and plant them about afoot apart each way in the beds. Now water them and place the muslin over them, when the sun shines, for at least one week; by, this time they will have begun to extend their roots into the fresh soil, and the covering may now be removed, but the boards at the sides should remain all summer as a protec- tion against wind and severe driving rains. Water the plants as often as needed ; cover the soil with two or three PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 29 inches of mulch ; clean straw, hay, or leaves are good, and perhaps the best for this purpose. Keep the plants tied to stakes, etc., as already directed. It is no unusual thing for plants, grown in this manner, to reach the height of six feet the first season, and they are usually more stocky than when grown all the season under glass. It is best not to start all the plants in the propagating house at one time, as in that case they will all be ready to be re-potted or planted out the same time ; but they should be started at different periods, say a week or ten days apart, making two or three lots, especially if there is a large quantity to be grown. Then the different stages of growth will enable the propagator to attend to each lot as its growth requires, and at the proper time. When the plants are planted out in the open ground, as I have just described, the material used for shading the first lot may also be used for the second, and so on, instead of being compelled to purchase enough to cover all at one time. The boards for protection are sometimes omitted, as well as the shading, and in some protected situations they may not be needed. There is also a great difference in the strength of the leaves in the different varieties, some being capable of withstanding sun and strong currents of wind much better than others ; yet I believe all will grow enough better to pay for the expense of protection. STARTING IN HOT-BEDS. The main object in making a hot-bed is to produce art- ificial heat, and to have this heat continue uniformly for several weeks. For this purpose various materials are used, such as tan-bark, leaves, hops that have been used by the brewers, etc. ; in fact, almost any fibrous material may be used that will continue to ferment a sufficient time to produce the amount of heat necessary to cause seeds and cuttings to grow, and keep the soil and atmosphere within 30 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST. the bed from twenty to forty degrees above the freezing point, even if the atmosphere without is far below. Be- sides the materials for producing this heat, we must have a structure called hot-bed frames, in which we may control it when generated. These are made of planks of any required size, with a sloping top covered with sash. They may be of any length or breadth, but they are usually four to six feet wide, and of any convenient length. The sashes are made without cross bars, and of a length sufficient to cover the frames crosswise. If the frames are six feet wide, then the sashes may be six feet long and four feet wide ; but if the frames are but four feet wide, the sash may be three by four; these are convenient sizes. The size of the glass is immaterial, but six-by-eight and eight- by-ten are sizes commonly used. As there are no cross-bars to the sash, each pane of glass is made to overlap the one below it from one fourth to one half an inch, like the shingles on a house. The more the glass overlaps, the more liable it is to be broken by the freezing of the water which will always accumulate, more or less, between the panes. The glass should be bedded in soft putty, and fastened with tin, the sash well painted ; but put no putty upon the upper side of the glass ; if anything is needed to stop the joints between the edges of the glass and sash, apply thick paint. If the glass is well bedded in putty, nothing more than painting the upper side will be required, and they are far better without the putty than with it. The hot-bed may be, as we have said, composed of vari- ous materials, but in any case they should be prepared some time before they are wanted for use. When leaves are used they should be obtained in the fall, and placed where they can be turned over several times during the winter, and a proper degree of moisture retained ; tan-bark should be treated in the same way. Hops may often be obtained from the breweries in a state of fermentation, and then all that is required is to immediately put them into a PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 31 proper shape, and place the frames over them. But the above-named articles are comparatively little used, horse manure being equal, if not superior, to any other material for the purpose, especially when a small quantity of leaves is mixed with it. It is not necessary to describe the mode of preparing hot-beds with other materials, as the process is similar with each. The manure should be taken as fresh from the stable as possible, thrown into heaps to ferment, and worked over several times ; all large, coarse lumps should be broken into pieces, and if it becomes dry, add water to keep it from becoming burnt and musty. This working over is to cause the fermentation to act upon all parts, and to give it an even texture throughout. If leaves can be had, they should be mixed with the manure when it is being worked over. One fourth to one half the quantity may be of leaves. If the ground is quite dry upon which the hot-bed is to be made (and such a situation is always preferable to one that is wet), make an excavation one foot deep and one foot larger than your hot-bed frame ; then spread in the manure and leaves in a layer about six inches thick, and beat it down evenly with the fork, then put on another layer and strike it down in the same way, and so on until you have at least two feet in depth ; three feet would be still better. By spreading the manure in layers, and pressing each down separately, a more uni- form degree of texture will be obtained, and consequently a more even temperature will be had throughout the bed. Bank up on the outside even with the top of the frame, writh the fermenting manure, so as to assist in keeping out cold air, as well as to prevent the escape of the heat which is generated within. Fig. 6 shows a hot-bed of four sashes when completed. When all is neatly finished, put on the frames, close the sash, and keep all tight. If it is cold weather, cover the sash at night, and in cloudy weather also, with straw mats 32 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. or board shutters, so as to allow as little heat to escape as possible. So soon as the bed has become warm and the steam begins to rise, which will usually be in four to six Fig. 6. days, cover the whole surface ot tne manure within the frames with fine soil to the depth of four inches, and so soon as this is warmed through, the bed is ready for use. The pots containing the buds — which should have been prepared several days or even weeks previous, and have been kept in the cellar or some convenient place away from frost — may now be plunged into the soil, nearly or quite down to the manure. The buds or cuttings, as they are called, should be made in the same manner and potted in the sand, as recommended for the propagating house. Our main object now is the same as before ; that is, by the assistance of bottom heat to excite the roots into growth before the leaves ; therefore, before the leaves start, admit as much air as possible without cooling the soil or causing a too great waste of heat. " Head cool, but feet warm," is applicable here, for the first week or PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 33 two ; but so soon as the buds push above ground, then the air should be kept more confined, to prevent a too great evaporation from the leaves as they expand. The same care in regard to watering should be given as when grown in the propagating house ; also shade the young plants in a similar manner. We do not want to exclude light so much as we do to avoid the direct rays of the sun while the leaves are small and the plants are forming roots. Give the plants air by lifting one end of the sash a few inches whenever the weather is fine, and the thermometer goes above 90° or 95°. The atmosphere should be con- stantly humid, but do not- so saturate the soil as to cause the plants to rot or mildew ; also avoid sudden changes from extreme heat to cold, for a change of 30° to 40° will most surely give a check to the growth, and this is almost certain to be followed by disease. So soon as the plants have rooted, pot them off into two or three inch pots and place them again in the frames. If the weather has become quite warm, they may be placed in frames where there is no bottom heat. The prop- agator must be his own judge in this matter, only bear in mind that a heat of 70° to 80° must be maintained to insjure success ; and if this can be had without bottom heat, then the latter will not be necessary. The plants may be kept in these pots until they are well filled with roots, then they may be planted in the open ground as before directed. Some of the hardy grapes, such as Concord, Hartford Prolific, etc., have such a thick and enduring leaf that it is not positively necessary to erect frames to protect them when first planted out, yet even these will be benefited by so doing. When the soil in which the young vines are planted is thoroughly prepared, they will require but little care dur- ing the summer, except to keep down weeds, and even this will not be needed if they receive a liberal mulch. But it will sometimes be necessary to water the vines in 2* 84: THE GRAPE CULTURIST. locations where drouths occur, and there are but few sec- tions entirely exempt; therefore it is expedient to be always ready for such an event, by saving an abundant supply of rain water if possible, and where this can not be done, let there be casks or cisterns made in which well or spring water may be placed to become warm by the time it may be wanted. FORM OF SINGLE-BUD CUTTING. Thus far I have mentioned but one form of making one- eye cuttings, yet the shape may be varied to suit the fancy of the propagator, so long as a sufficient amount — but not too much wood — is left adhering to the bud. Fig. 7 shows one style ; in this the wood is cut oif about three quar- ters of an inch above and below the bud, and the wood on the side opposite the bud is cut away deep enough to expose the pith the whole length of the cutting ; the cutting is then placed in the sand with the bud upon the upper side, pressing it down hori- zontally, as it is shown in the cut. The advantage claimed for cutting away the wood is, that it exposes to the soil a greater surface of alburnous matter (or, strictly speaking, the cambium) from which the roots are produced. If the roots from vine cuttings were dependent upon the exposed cambium, as with some other plants, then the su- periority claimed might be conceded ; but such is not the case, as a greater part are produced from around the base of the bud, or pushed through the bark from other points on the surface of the cutting. In Fig. 8 the cutting is made square across, close at the base, or just under the bud, leaving about an inch and a half of wood above it. It is placed in the pots at the an- gle shown, the dotted lines indicating the surface of the PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 35 sand above the bud. The advantage of this form, if any, is that it exposes the cambium to the soil at a point where it is to be found in the greatestabundance, i. e., at or near the base of a bud. Fig. 9 is another form of making the cutting so as to ex- pose as large an amount of cambium to the soil as possi- Fig' 8> ble; and further, to have a portion of the cutting go deeper into the soil than in the other forms, thereby avoid- ing suffering for want of moisture, if, by accident or neg- lect, the soil in the pot should become dry near the surface, which would destroy the cutting if made in the other forms. The cutting is placed in the pots in a sloping position; Fig. 9. the dotted line above the bud represents the surface of the sand. The only objection to this shape is, that being made thin at the lower end, it is more likely to become water- soaked and decay than if left with more substance. It is, however, a good form, and has some advantages over sev- eral of the others. There is not only a great diversity of opinion in regard to the shape of the cutting, but also the best material in which to grow them. Some successful prop- agators use leaf-mold from the woods, others loam, charcoal and loam, burnt clay, etc., etc., but none of the materials 36 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. have the least advantage over pure sand, in which to start the cuttings, and a majority of propagators, if I do not mis- take, use pure sand in which to place the cuttings until they form roots. It is not only the safest material for the inexperienced propagator, but it is all that is required by cuttings in the way of soil, until they are in a condition to absorb food through their roots. Sometimes it is well to place a little rich soil in the pots — an inch or so below the cuttings — so that when the roots reach that depth they will find nutriment to sustain growth ; in this case the re-pot- ting may be deferred longer than would be safe without such a precaution. This is often done by those who ex- pect to have more work on hand than they can attend to at the proper time. Circumstances will sometimes occur when it is not convenient to start the cuttings in pots ; if so, they may be put into shallow boxes or directly into the frames, but when this is done, the plank used in making the boxes or frames should be new ; if not, they should be coated on the inside with ordinary water cement, mixed thin, and laid on with a brush, or covered with slate. Planks that have been used one season will usually have be- gun to decay, and this rotting is often the source of a fun- gus that will spread rapidly through the damp, warm sand, and this is very likely to kill every young root with which it comes in contact. I have known many a thou- sand cuttings to be destroyed by fungi, while the propa- gator was searching for a cause in another direction. CUTTINGS OF UNRIPE WOOD. 37 CHAPTER IV. CUTTINGS OF UNRIPE WOOD. ALTHOUGH the grape vine may be readily propagated by cuttings taken from the vine while in active growth, circumstances seldom occur when it is judicious to do so. Unless more than ordinary care is bestowed upon the young vines throughout the entire season, they will not only be feeble, but often so diseased that they never be- come strong and healthy, though at first they may give promise of being so. Thousands of vines are annually produced from green cuttings, but it is questionable whether the country would not be better off, on the whole, without such vines than with them. That good, strong, and healthy vines are sometimes produced from green cuttings, I admit, but also assert that the great majority are worthless. The facility with which vines may be multiplied in this way is a great inducement, to those who are disseminating the new and rare varieties, to use it. It requires no more skill than propagating from single buds ; all that is requisite is to have a propagating house (or even a hot-bed will do), where a steady and uni- form high degree of heat can be maintained. The mode of operation is as follows : Place the vines, from which you desire to propagate, in pots, or plant them in the ground within the propagating house, and make the soil in which they are planted very rich, so that they shall not want for food. When the vines have made a new growth of a foot or so, take off the young shoots, or a portion of each ; do not cut back all the shoots at one time, as this 38 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. might too severely check the growth of the vine, but three quarters of the number may be cut back, or entirely re- moved, without doing any injury. The young shoots that have been selected for cuttings should be divided into pieces of two buds each, cutting them off just below a bud ; the leaf adjoining the lower bud should be removed, but the upper one must be left entire. Fig. 10 shows the appearance of the cutting when ready for planting ; a shows the surface of the soil when placed in the pots. Plant these cuttings in six or eight inch pots filled with sand, putting several cuttings in each, but not crowding them ; press the sand down firmly around the cutting, leaving only the upper leaf and bud uncovered, and then put the pots within the frames, Fig* 10< in the same manner as de- scribed for single eyes. To prevent rapid exhalation from the leaves, the atmosphere in the frames should be kept a little more confined than for ripe wood cuttings. Venti- late the frames but little until roots are produced. Keep the heat from 80° to 90°, and see that there is plenty of moisture, but not so much as to rot the cuttings or cause them to mildew. Ventilation will usually check the mil- dew, and withholding water prevent rotting. In from two to four weeks, if successful, the cuttings will be sufficiently rooted to be separated and put into small pots. An occasional examination of the cuttings will enable the propagator to determine the proper time to do this. When the roots are two inches in length, they should be removed from the large pots and placed in three- CUTTINGS OF UNEIPE WOOD. 39 inch pots, filled with the same rich compost recommended for other cuttings, except that the soil is mixed with sand enough to constitute one half its bulk. After being potted they should be again placed, for a few days, in the close frames, until they have recovered from the check received in potting. The plants may now be treated the same as the single-eye cuttings, except, if you wish to produce good plants, it wih1 be necessary to keep them under glass the whole season, as the wood will usually fail to ripen fuUy in the open air. When but few plants are to be grown, or there is no lack of room, they may be started in the following man- ner : Take an eight-inch pot and put some broken pieces of pots or coarse gravel in the bottom for drainage, then set a four or five inch pot within it — the hole in the bottom of the smaller pot being stopped tight; fill the open space between the pots with sand, in which insert one row of cuttings, an inch and a half or two inches apart, letting the base of each cutting touch the inner pot, which is to be filled with water ; enough of this will percolate through the pot (if it is of the ordinary kind) to keep the sand suf- ficiently moist. This is a safe mode, and will often be successful when all others fail. The pots are to be kept within the frames until the cuttings are rooted, the same as before. Fig. 1 1 shows the arrangement of the pots ; /» /> / are the cuttings ; c, c, sand between the pots ; c?, water in inside pot; #, clay with which the hole in the bot- tom of the pot is closed ; 5, drainage in the outside pot. The wood of which the cut- tings are made must not be too young or too old, but must be taken just at the proper time, Fig. 11. that is, when it begins to show a slight firmness, but is not 4:0 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST. really hard nor fully formed. If the growth of wood is very rapid, it is well to check it by pinching off the end of the shoot a day or two before it is wanted for use. After one set of cuttings has been taken off, another set will soon push out ; these are to be removed when three or four inches long, cutting them close up to the main stem, BO as to preserve a portion of the enlarged part at the junction ; also cut off an inch or so of the small end of the shoots ; these will usually grow more readily than those taken at first. The young growing wood from vines in the open air may be used, but it does not strike root so readily, or make as good plants as that from vines grown under glass. All the varieties of the grape may be grown from green cuttings, but some root more readily than others, and there will also be a great difference in growth of the plants, some starting vigorously and continuing so through the season, while others under the same treatment will be but poor feeble plants at the best. PKOPAGATINXJ HOUSE. 41 CHAPTER Y. PROPAGATING HOUSE. PERFECTION should be our aim in every department of horticulture, and especially in the cultivation of the grape, and while it is not to be expected that every vine will be made to appear as regular and systematic as represented in engravings, still that is the point to be aimed at, and though we may fail with some, it is possible to very nearly reach it with all. So it is in constructing propagating houses. It is not expected that every one will have the means at command, nor would it always be expedient if they had, to go to the expense of building an extensive propagating house, unless it were desirable to produce a large number of vines, and for a number of years in suc- cession. The size of the house will depend entirely upon the number of vines to be grown. If only a few thousand are to be produced, then only a small structure will be required ; for the best vines, or the best results, are not always produced in the most expensive houses. Many a careful propagator annually produces his few thousand of superior vines with only a small lean-to house, heated with a common brick furnace and flue, and these perhaps of his own make. And while this same propagator might tell you that he would prefer, as a matter of convenience, a propagating house with all the modern improvements, still he would scarcely admit that the plants produced in his small, cheap way were any more liable to disease, or in any way inferior to those grown in the most elegant and expensive house. 4-2 THE GRAPE CULTDEIST. PROPAGATING HOUSE. 43 Fig. 12 gives an interior perspective view of a section of a first-class propagating house. It may be made of almost any length or width that is desired, but eighteen to twenty-five feet is the usual width for a span roof, The sides of the house may be of brick or stone, or of two thicknesses of plank, one nailed on each side of good strong posts set firmly in the ground, and ?he space be- tween filled with tan-bark or sawdust. The common cement and gravel wall, such as is used in some parts of the country, will answer the purpose as well as any other, and in many places w^ould be most economical. The wall should be low, seldom above two and a half feet, on the top of which put a two-foot sash, which will make the eaves of the house four and one half feet from the ground. Bank up the wall on the outside, and cover the embankment with sods. The glass should be of the best quality of plate or sheet. ' This is preferable to cheaper kinds. Embed with putty and fasten with tin, but put no putty on the outside — use nothing but thick, pure white lead paint. The size of glass is immaterial, but if the best and heaviest is used, then the panes may be of any size, from 8 X 10 up to 10 X 1 6. The engraving shows the interior arrangement very mi- nutely, except the posts which will be necessary for sup- porting the roof. The house stands its longest way north and south ; the southern end is of glass, which may reach to the ground or stop at the height of the frames. At the north end is the furnace room, where also the potting bench, pots, etc., may be kept. The best and most eco- nomical mode of heating a large house is by means of hot water. For this purpose there are several kinds of boilers in market, many of which are very good. The hot-water pipes should lie side by side instead of one over the other as they are usually placed in ordinary green-houses. The flow-pipe passes under one of the side frames, thence through and back under the middle one, and then under the frame on the opposite side. The return Y 44 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. pipe passes back along by its side, both lying on iron rests, made for the purpose. This arrangement gives eight pipes the whole length of the house, besides the elbows and the few feet that it takes to cross the end. The center frame has four pipes under it, while the side frames have but two. The center frame may be used for starting those varie- ties that are the most difficult to strike, or the pipes may only pass under the two outside frames, and the center one be used for the plants when they are first placed in the small pots — or the pipes may pass under the center frame and return under the outside ones without returning as shown. If the house is twenty or more feet in width, then for convenience the center frame should be double the width of the outside ones, and in that case the four pipes will be needed under it to keep its temperature equal to the. others. Again, in place of frames through the center, a table may take its place, on which to set the plants after they become sufficiently rooted not to need so much heat or so confined an atmosphere as while young. The inside frames are only necessary while the cuttings are rooting, and for a few days after the first shift, but they are indispensable when a number of varieties are to be grown, for the air can not be kept sufficiently confined in a large house to insure success with all. To be sure, there are varieties that will grow from single-bud cuttings without recourse to frames, but writh such as the Delaware, •which seldom shows any roots until the young shoots appear, it becomes a very difficult matter to prevent a too rapid evaporation from the young leaves in the open house. If this takes place, of course the cutting dies, for, until the roots are produced, the young growth is supported entirely upon the alburnous matter contained in the cutting. The frames are ventilated by raising one end of the sash, as shown. They should be made one foot deep, and of good, sound plank. The pipes must be entirely shut in so PROPAGATING HOUSE. 45 that the greatest heat in the house will be under the frames ; but there should be small doors placed along the entire length, opening into the passage ways, which may be opened to let the heat escape into the house when necessary to raise its temperature, or to lower that under the frames. The passage ways between the beds should not be less than two and one half feet wide, and three feet is better. The frames should not be over four feet wide, as it would then be inconvenient to reach across them. A house eight- een feet wide will allow of three rows of frames, and two passage ways of three feet each ; or the outside frames may be but three feet wide, and the center one, as it can be reached from both sides, may be six feet. The places for ventilating the house may also be arranged to suit the convenience or fancy, but they should be mainly at the top. • The sashes should be made in two sections — the upper one much shorter than the lower, and arranged so that it can slide down over the other, and leave an opening at the peak, as shown. Two of the sashes on the right-hand side and one on the left are shown as open. If small roll- ers are put in these upper sashes, they can be moved very easily. Sometimes the sashes are made very short, not more than three feet long, and then hung so that they will nearly balance ; in this way they are easily managed by attaching a small rope to one end. The short perpendicular sashes at the sides of the house may be made so that they can be opened ; but this will seldom be necessary, for if the upper ones are opened the heat will pass off rapidly, and sufficient fresh air will find its way into the house through the small openings, of which there will always be more or less. There are hundreds of methods of ventilating glass struc- tures ; the object of all is the same, but these I have men- tioned are the most simple and will answer every purpose. The slope of the roof should be at an angle of from 35 to 45 degrees ; the one shown in the engraving is at an angle of 35 degrees, or very nearly. THE GRAPE CULTUBIST. PROPAGATING HOUSE. 47 A SINGLE-ROOFED HOUSE. The single roof or lean-to houses are usually preferred by propagators in the more northern States, as they are less exposed to cold, being often built against a side-hill or some building ; where such a protection is not convenient, then a wall is built running east and west, or nearly so, and the roof is placed against this, sloping to the south. Fig. 13 shows a lean-to house, with interior arrange- ments similar to that of the span-roofed house. The fur- nace and general store-room is built against the north side, instead of at the end. This not only affords a protection to the wall, but gives a good-sized room for storing the com- post, sand, etc. Four hot-water pipes pass the whole length of the house, as shown. The boiler and furnace are set in the room back of the wall, and the pipes pass through it into the house. The chimney may be built in the wall or be carried up by its side. When brick or tile are used for flues, then a brick furnace is made in the wall, the greater part of it within the house ; but the door should open outside, so that when opened the gas from the tire may escape into the furnace room. The furnace should be placed so low that the flue may gradually rise from it to the point where it connects with the chimney, and still not come too near the bottom of the cutting frames. If the furnace is placed with its top level with the surface of the ground within the house, and the flue be made to rise one foot, rather abruptly, as it leaves the furnace, it may then be carried fifty feet with not more than six inches rise, and stih1 it will have sufficient draft. If the house is fifty feet long, the flue should pass under the frames at the front, and return under those at the back, the chimney being near the furnace. The point where it enters the chimney should be at least eighteen inches above the top of the furnace. Of course, 48 THE GRAPE CULTCRIST. the more it rises, the more rapidly the smoke and heat will pass. The size of the furnace will depend upon the size of the house, and also whether coal or wood is used. TO MAKE THE FLUES. Lay a row of bricks flat and crosswise, where the flue is desired ; on the ends of these place two others on their edges, and across the top lay a row flat in the same way as the bottom ones were placed. This gives the dimensions of the flue four inches by eight in the clear. But a larger flue is better, say six by eight inches, for a house of fifty or more feet in length, and it is also better to cover the top of the flues with the ordinary inch tile, as the heat passes through these more readily than through brick. No correct estimate of the cost of building a prop- agating house, of either of the styles named, can be given, because the price of the materials entering into their con- struction is continually changing. CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIE. 4:9 CHAPTER YI. CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIR. SUCCESS in growing cuttings in the open air is often de- pendent upon the proper selection and preparation of the cutting-bed. The soil may be loam, sandy loam, or fine muck, with an admixture of sand — the latter is one of the best, provided it is not too wet. Any soil that is retentive of moisture, but not really wet or swampy, will answer the purpose. A soil at least eighteen inches deep is one of the requi- sites of a good cutting-bed. If the soil is naturally heavy and compact, a liberal quantity of sand, charcoal, or fibrous muck should be applied to lighten it, else it will become too hard and dry in summer, and the cuttings will suffer in consequence. A rich soil is also indispensable, for it is necessary that the cuttings should make a vigorous growth, that they may ripen a large portion of their wood and roots early in the season. This they can not do without a proper supply of* food. But no fresh unfermented manure should be mixed with the soil, though it may sometimes be admissible upon the surface, after the cuttings are planted. If the soil is not naturally rich, a liberal quantity (say enough to cover the entire surface four to six inches deep) of old, well-rotted barnyard manure, or a compost made of manure and sods, muck, leaves, or some similar mate- rials, may be thoroughly mixed with the soil to the depth of one foot or more. The cuttings will usually produce roots from the lower end first, therefore it is necessary that a portion of the 3 50 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST. enriching materials should be placed as deep in the soil as the roots will extend. An application of a peck of ashes to the square rod will often be found very beneficial. It is always best to prepare the cutting-bed in the fall, so that all the materials of which it is composed may become intermingled by spring. TIME TO MAKE CUTTINGS. In this latitude the fall of the year, soon after the leaves have fallen, is the best time to take cuttings from the vine, but where the winters are mild they may remain on the vine until mid- winter, or even later, without injury. When taken from the vine, the wood may be cut into the required length, or, in other words, the cuttings may be made and put away in moist soil in the cellar, or buried in some dry place in the open ground, or the wood may be put away entire, and the making of the cuttings deferred until spring. SELECTION OF CUTTINGS. Cuttings should be made of the past season's growth — • that is, shoots that have been produced during the summer are to be taken for cuttings in the fall. These are called cuttings of one-year-old wood. That which is strong and vigorous and well-ripened is the best, although the very largest does not always make the best cuttings, nor does it root so readily as that which is of medium size. All soft, spongy, and unripened wood should be discarded, as good plants are produced only from good, healthy wood. FORM OF CUTTING. There is as great a variety of opinion among cultivators in regard to making long cuttings as there is respecting the form of those of a single bud. They are made of van- CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIR. 5t ous lengths, from four inches to two feet. I much prefer a short cutting to a long one. A cutting of six or eight inches in length, when properly planted, will make as good if not a better plant than one of twice that length. The following is the method that I practice, believing it to be the best. About the last of November, or the first of December, I select the wood for cut- NN tings, and with a pair of garden shears cut it up into lengths of about six inches, leaving not less than two buds upon the cutting. If the wood is very short-joint- ed, a cutting of this length will have three or four buds upon it ; if so they are all the better, as roots usually start from each bud, but are seldom emitted the first season, in cuttings grown in the open ground, from the stem between the buds. With a sharp knife smooth off the wood close up to the base of the lower bud, and cut off" the top end about an inch above the bud, at an inclination as shown in Fig. 14, which gives the form of a two-bud cutting. A three-bud cutting is the same, with an additional bud between the two. When the cuttings are all prepared, they should be put away in the ground where they will not be frozen or become too wet. I usually set them thickly in a shallow trench, then cover them up, leav- ing the top bud just above ground, after which cover all up with straw to keep out the frost. So soon as the ground is settled in spring, fork over the cutting- bed, rake it level and smooth, then draw Fig. 14. 02 THE GRAPE CL'LTURIST. a line across it, place the back of the spade to the line and throw out the soil, leaving a trench nearly perpendicular at the side next to the line, and a little deeper than the cutting is long ; then set the cuttings upright in this trench, unless they are more than six inches long — if so, incline them — placing them about three or four inches apart, and so deep that the upper bud will be one inch below the surface of the soil. Fig. 15 shows the position Fig. 15. of cuttings in the trench before being filled. When the row is filled with cuttings, put in about two inches of soil, and press it down firmly around the base of the cutting ; then fill up the trench evenly, just covering the upper bud, bat do not bury it too deeply. This will leave a shallow basin of an inch in depth the whole length of the row — the dotted- lines in Fig. 14, above the upper bud, show the form in which this basin should be left. The rows of cut- tings should be about two feet apart ; the soil between the rows will be about two inches higher in the middle than at the rows. The time required for the cuttings to strike root and push into growth will vary considerably. If there is much rain and the weather is warm, then they will start quite early ; but if the weather is cool, they will often re- main comparatively dormant until June, and even later than this, and then start and make a good growth by fall. The upper buds should be carefully preserved from injury, because it is from these that the shoots are usually pro- duced. When the cuttings have made a grow h of four CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIK. 53 Fig. 16. 54 THE GKAPE CULTUKIST. or five inches, the ground should be leveled so that the upper buds on the cuttings will be covered an inch or more ; then, if two inches of mulch are spread over the ground between the rows, it will keep it moist and pro- mote the rooting of the cuttings. Roots from the lower bud will usually be produced first, but soon after the base of the shoot is covered, a set of roots will issue from near it, which will assist the growth. If the cuttings make a good growth — four to six feet* is not uncommon ; they should be tied to stakes, as this will promote the ripening of the wood. Fig. 16 is a fair rep- resentation of a two-eye cutting at the end of the first year. In this sketch the roots and top are necessarily shown much shorter, in proportion to the length of the cut- ting, than they were on the plant from which the drawing was made, and the small rootlets cover all the roots, while they are here represented on only a part. When roots have these small appendages attached to them in abund- ance they are called fibrous-rooted. All vines when grown in congenial soil will have more or less fibrous roots, for it is through these that the plant derives a large portion of its food from the soil. They are often as minute as those shown in Fig. 16, and they are soon destroyed if exposed to the air. When cuttings are grown in the above manner they are readily changed into one-eye cuttings by severing the stem just under the upper tier of roots; this will give as good a one-eye plant as though it was grown under glass and from a single eye. Fig. 1 7 shows the plant after the lower section of the roots have been removed. Growing plants in this way involves a waste of buds, and, moreover, cuttings are not so certain in the open air as in the propagating house. It is very difficult to make some varieties grow from cuttings in the open air, while others do so readily. Some CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIR. 55 kinds require more moisture than others, and if planted in a situation where they will receive an abundant supply throughout the season, they will often produce as strong Fig. 17. plants as the others will in ordinary soil. It is also some- times advisable, with those kinds that do not strike root readily, to plant the cuttings in the fall in the same man- ner as we have described for two-eye cuttings, then cover the bed with straw, so that it shall not freeze. In the spring remove the straw, leaving enough on the bed to keep it moist. 56 THE GRAPE CTJLTTJRIST. Where the soil used for the cutting-bed is naturally dry and porous, any or all the varieties may be planted in the fall, provided they are protected from frost during the winter. That there are certain varieties of the grape that grow more readily from cut- tings than others, in the open air as well as under glass, is well known to every vineyardist. But a variety that is very difficult to propagate by cuttings in the open air in one section of the country may grow readily in another. Climate has much to do in this matter, and while I do not wish to convey the idea that there are certain circumscribed spots where a particular kind will grow from cuttings when it will not do so elsewhere, I wish to remark that the same skill that would produce a good plant of some varieties in Missouri might fail to produce one in New York. Knowing this to be the fact, we are enabled to account for the di- versity of opinion often expressed by different cultivators coming from widely separated sections of the country, for each speaks of his own experience or observation in his own particular local- ity ; and while each may state the truth, their stories will not agree, and one may exactly contradict another. Tig. 18. MALLET CUTTINGS. The mallet cutting is usually made by selecting only the lower portion of CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIE. 5T the one-year-old cane, and by cutting through the two-year- old wood, leaving a small piece of it attached, so that the whole resembles a small mallet. Fig. 18 shows the form of the mallet cutting. The advantage derived from the presence of the piece of old wood is not, as is sometimes stated, because roots are more readily produced from it, but because there are several buds at the point of junction of the old and young wood, and, consequently, a larger deposit of cambium than where there is but a single bud. The piece of old wood assists in protecting these buds until roots are produced. The number of cuttings that can be obtained from a vine is necessarily but few, as only one is made from each cane, and it will depend very much upon the mode of training whether it will do to cut away the old wood for this pur- pose. The cuttings should not be made more than ten or twelve inches long ; they are sometimes made much longer, but it is unnecessary, as too much wood will often prove injurious. There are some varieties of grapes, for instance the Delaware and Norton's Virginia, that grow much more readily from mallet cuttings than from the ordinary two or three-bud cuttings. Sometimes the laterals that have been allowed to grow unchecked, and have produced canes of considerable size, are used, leaving a piece of the main cane attached to form the mallet. The mallet cutting is perhaps the most ancient form of cutting. The Romans made their cuttings in this manner, and they were called malleolus, from the Latin malleus ; hence our word mallet. The French vineyardists still adhere to this form of cutting, and with them they are called crosetts. There are some vineyardists in this country who, to ex- tend their vineyards, depend almost entirely upon the few cuttings of this form which they are able to get from their vines, and there is no doubt but that excellent vines may 3* 58 THE GKAPE CULTURIST. be grown from, such cuttings ; but it is equally true, that other portions of the vine will, with proper care (though not always quite as readily), make vines equally as good. It matters little what form of cutting is adopted, nor does any particular portion of the wood possess any supe- riority over another, provided it is thoroughly ripe and healthy. The requisites are: to keep its vitality unim- paired from the time it is taken from the vine until it is planted, then give the cuttings a position where they will secure plenty of heat and moisture with a full supply of nutriment to sustain them when they begin growth. LAYERING THE VINE. 59 CHAPTEK VII. LAYERING THE VINE. THE propagation of the vine by layers is one of the most certain and convenient methods in use ; and while the number of plants to be obtained from a given quantity of wood is not so great as in the other methods, yet the size of a one-year-old plant produced by layering will far ex- ceed that produced in any other way. A layer is a cutting which is left attached to the parent plant, and derives nourishment therefrom until it has pro- duced separate roots of its own. Much discussion has taken place upon this subject among cultivators of the grape, some asserting that in the first stages of the growth of the layered plant it was entirely dependent upon the parent for its food ; consequently the roots that are produced later in the season from the layer itself do not fully ripen, and are of but little value to the young plant when separated from the parent. For more than two thousand years layers have been recommended and con- demned by different authors, and all have some plausibility in their arguments. But the facts are that, when property grown, layers make as vigorous and healthy plants as are produced in any manner. When vines are to be grown expressly for layers, they should be planted six or eight feet apart, in very rich soil, as the object will be to get a large growth of wood with- out regard to fruit. The vines when planted should be cut down to the ground, or within a few inches of it, and only one cane be allowed to grow the first season, and this must be kept 60 THE GKAPE CULTURIST. tied to a stake. In the fall or winter this should be cut back to within three or four buds of the last season's growth ; this number of buds is left to guard against ac- cident, but only two are to be allowed to grow. The next spring the two buds that push the strongest are to be allowed to grow, and should be kept tied to the stake as before. If the vine this, the second, season grows strong, and makes a growth of from six to ten feet, it will do to commence layering it the next spring, at which time it will be in its third season after planting. But if it should not produce a strong growth, then one cane should be cut entirely away, and the other to three or four buds, allowing but two to grow as before, and defer the layer- ing until the fourth year. For there is nothing gained by taking layers from a vine until it is strong enough to make good plants. But so soon as the vine has made two strong canes, of from six to ten feet long, whether it be the sec- ond or third year, it may be layered. HOW TO LAYER THE VINE. If the wood that is to be cut off is wanted for cuttings, then the vine may be pruned in the fall ; if not, defer the pruning until the last of February or the first of March. Select the largest cane for the layer ; if it be ten feet long it should be cut back to six or seven feet, but if not so long then cut it back still more ; then cut the other cane down to within three or four buds of its base. After the buds begin to swell in the spring (or even if they have grown an inch or two it is no matter), layer the cane in the following manner : Dig a trench from four to six inches deep, six inches wide, and of a sufficient length to receive the cane ; now bend it down and fasten it in the trench by hooked pegs, or by laying a stone or two upon it. The bottom of the trench should be level and the vine laid flat in the bottom, and not turned up at the end as is some- LAYERING THE VINE. 61 times recommended. The cane may be bent sideways, in a circular form, and it will be a benefit to it, as it will cause the buds to push more evenly than if laid straight, but that portion in the trench should still be as nearly level as possible. Now let the vine remain until the shoots have grown from three to four inches, then select those that are wanted and break off all others ; those that are allowed to remain should be as evenly distributed as possible through the entire length of the layer. Four to six are all that should be allowed to grow on a cane six or seven feet long. If allowed to grow, every burl will make a plant, but not a good one; the less number, che better they will be. Fig. 19 shows the layer in the trench after the superfluous shoots are removed, also the roots as they will appear later in the season ; B, c, the young shoots starting from the buds on the main stem. The first roots push from near the buds, as Fig. 19. with cuttings, but afterward they will start from between the buds. When it has been decided what shoots shall be allowed to remain, then good stout stakes should be put down by 62 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. the side of each ; and so soon as the shoots are from six to ten inches high, they should be tied up. And at this time a little soil should be drawn into the trench, enough to cover the vine an inch deep will be sufficient. In a week or ten days an inch or two more may be put on, and so on at intervals of a few days, or at each hoeing, until the whole trench is filled up. If it is filled while the shoots are very young, it will cause the part below ground to rot. Each of the young canes should be kept tied to the stakes, and if a particular one takes the lead and appropriates too much of the sap to itself, it should be checked by pinching off the top. The canes nearest the parent vine, and the one at the extreme end of the layer, will usually grow much more rapidly than those between ; if so, they should be checked before they have gone so far as to weaken the other plants. Hoe the ground often during the summer, or cover it with a mulch to keep down the weeds. The cane that was cut down to three or four buds should be allowed to pro- duce two or three shoots ; these are to be tied to the stakes shown in the engraving. Next season the same operation may be repeated, and if the vine has grown very strong, two canes may be layered instead of one. After layers have been taken from the vines two or three seasons in succession, it is best to let them pass over one season with- out taking any layers from them, for if layered every season, they wih1 soon become exhausted. Any vine that has a young shoot which can be made to reach the ground may be layered, but it is not advisable to take layers from vines that are planted for fruiting. When only one vine is wanted from a plant, then a branch may be bent down into a short trench in the spring or fall, and covered up at the time, leaving only the end . above ground. In this way a very strong vine wih1 be pro- duced the first season. The layers may be separated from the parent vine at the LAYERING THE VINE. 63 end of the first season or the spring following. In taking them off cut them loose from the jstakes, then lift them, using a fork instead of a spade, and proceed to cut them apart. First cut the layer close up to the parent vine, and then cut off that portion that was above ground and has no roots ; the next cut should be between the first and sec- ond upright shoot near the first, and so on to the end, leaving those roots on each plant, below it or toward the parent vine. I am thus particular in showing how the vine should be separated, because I have seen layers so separated that the roots left on them were nearer the top end of the layer than the shoot was, and the sap would have to reverse its course and descend the layered cane to reach the new vine. It will do so sometimes, but not readily. Other methods are practiced in making layers, but I believe those described are the best. 64 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. CHAPTEE VIII. GRAFTING THE GRAPE. THE propagation of the grape vine by grafting is prob- ably as old as its cultivation, and many of the modes prac- ticed at the present time are accurately described in most of the ancient works on gardening and agriculture. But with all the information which we have derived from both ancient and modern authors, it still seems to be generally considered a rather difficult if not uncertain method of prop- agation. On account of the peculiar structure of the wood of the vine, a lasting union is seldom obtained when grafted above ground, and is far from being certain even when grafted below the surface by the ordinary method. When we compare the benefits to be derived from grafting the vine with grafting the pear, apple, etc., it appears to be of little value, because the vine may be readily grown from cuttings of almost any portion of the wood, while the lat- ter produce roots from cuttings only sparingly, even with the greatest care and under the most favorable circum- stances, but they may be propagated very easily by graft- ing and budding. Thus it appears that nature has pro- vided a way for the rapid multiplication of every species and variety of plants, but she has left it to man to discover the way and means. There are circumstances constantly occurring under which it would be quite desirable to graft the vine ; for instance, when we have a new and valuable variety which we wish to multiply as rapidly as possible ; to do this we must produce wood for the purpose, and if we can produce wood more rapidly by grafting than by any other means at command, then it becomes very import- GRAFTING THE GRAPE. 65 ant to know how to perform the operation successfully. There are usually in every garden where grapes are grown, inferior varieties which it is desirable to exchange for bet- ter, and if we employ grafting as a method of propagation, then these otherwise worthless vines may become valuable as stocks on which to graft better kinds ; and if by the use of these we can make every bud to produce a shoot of from five to twenty feet in a single season, of larger and better wood than we can by any other means, and that, too, with- out the aid of any artificial heat, it becomes very important to know how to do it. Sometimes it would be desirable to change a whole vineyard from an inferior variety to a new and superior one, and if the operation is judiciously performed, it can be successfully done ; but I will consider this further on. The time generally selected for grafting the vine is early in spring, before the vine starts, or after it has started and made a growth of a few inches ; both of which I have found highly objectionable; for if grafted early, the operation must be performed several weeks be- fore the vine starts, so as to allow the graft sufficient time to form a union with the stock before the latter starts, or else the excessive flow of sap will drown the graft. This early grafting is very difficult in a northern latitude, where the ground thaws out only a very few days before the sap begins to flow. It is always desirable to graft the grape below ground. If we wait until the vine has begun to produce leaves, and the sap has thickened and flows less rapidly, then by cutting down the vine to receive the graft we give it a severe check, which often destroys it ; and if not entirely killed, it is so much injured that it does not afford sufficient nourishment to the graft to produce a very strong growth. Besides, if hot, dry weather sets in, the graft is almost sure to fail. Another reason why grafts do not unite more readily with the stock at this season is because the sap in the vine is in a state of active circulation, and in a different condi- f 66 THE GRAPE CULTURI8T. tion from that in the graft, for in. the former the cambium (or elaborated sap) is of recent formation, while in the lat- ter it was formed the season previous ; consequently there is but little affinity between the two. These are but a few of the difficulties that I have had to encounter when grafting at these seasons, and in the ordi- nary manner. To avoid them I have practiced with per- fect success the following method : in the fall, after the leaves have fallen, and any time before the ground is frozen, say in October, November, or December, varying accord- ing to latitude, dig away the soil from around the stock (which may be of any size, from one half inch to two inches in diameter) to the depth of four to six inches ; then cut it off, and split in the ordi- nary manner for cleft grafting; make the graft of one eye with about four inches of wood, and insert it in the stock, being careful to have the in- ner bark of the stock and graft meet, then tie in the graft by winding around the stock some bass-bark or strong twine enough to hold it firmly in place. Fig. 20 shows the graft inserted and ready for tying. Next, throw in soil enough to fill up around the graft, leaving the bud just above the surface ; then put a flower-pot (a box will answer the purpose) in- verted over the graft, as seen in Fig. 21 ; then bank up, d, d, around the flower-pot to the top, but not over it: now put on some straw, e, say six inches deep, and cover the earth, /", over all. In this manner the graft is perfectly protected against the frost, and it has all winter to perfect a union with the stock, and Fig. 20. GRAFTING THE GRAPE. 6T by spring it is ready to grow. It should not be uncovered until the cold freezing weather is over. It is necessary that a box or flower-pot should be placed immediately Fig. 21. over the graft, so that when it is uncovered in spring, the graft will not be disturbed by digging down to uncover it ; and it also protects the graft from being injured by water running down it and getting in between the graft and the stock. I have sometimes used grafting wax for covering the junction between the stock and graft, but having suc- ceeded just as well without, I abandoned its use ; besides, I have sometimes noticed that the wax injured the graft when it came in contact with it. Grafting clay may be employed with safety, but I do not consider it necessary to use anything but the bass-matt, and then put in the soil. The twine or bass strings will usually become so weakened during the winter that they will give away when the stock commences to grow. One-year-old wood should be used for grafts, and only that which is firm and well ripened. If the wood is very short -jointed, the grafts may be of two buds instead of one, but usually one is sufficient. Grafts inserted in the fall in this manner will make almost as strong a growth as the original vine would have 00 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST. done if it had not been grafted ; besides, the operation can be performed at a season when there is usually not so much business as in spring, and it requires no more skill in its performance than other modes of grafting. It can also be performed at any time during the winter, provided the ground is not frozen. But I prefer early in fall, as in that case there is more time for the union to take place ; be- sides, the sap in the roots of the vine remains longer in the fluid state in the fall than in the top, as may be seen by examining the roots after the leaves have fallen, and when no sap is observable in the branches. This is owing to the fact that roots, in a great measure, are out of reach of the frost, which has checked the flow of sap in that por- tion of the vine above ground. All the roots of the vine are seldom in a perfectly dormant state, consequently the sap is always ready to flow upward into the branches whenever they are not frozen. The vine, as well as nearly all woody plants, continues to expand its buds during the winter months. And if there were no such action as this, then there would be no production of new fibers and cal- losities, which every practical horticulturist must have observed as taking place, especially upon the roots of trees and plants that have been transplanted in the fall. These facts led me to try the grafting of the grape early in the fall, and the results have been all that I could wish ; for when the grafts have been properly inserted, I have found them in the spring, without an exception, to be firmly united to the stock. When the grafts have made one season's growth they may be cut down and used for grafts or cuttings, or they may be layered. If sprouts should come up from the stock they should be immediately removed, as they would rob the graft of nourishment. When there is a scarcity of stocks for grafting, an old vine may be layered, as shown in Fig. 19, and instead of taking up the layers the young canes may be grafted in GRAFTING THE GRAPE. 69 the fall, inserting the graft as near the layered cane or roots as practicable. And when the grafts have made one season's growth they may be taken up and separated, or be again layered and several vines produced from each. But in grafting the one-year-old canes the cleft or wedge- graft should not be used unless the canes have grown very strong, and are at least five-eighths of an inch in diameter; but instead of it, splice-graft them as follows : select one- year-old wood for the grafts as near the same diameter of the stock as possible ; cut the stock obliquely upward and the scion downward, with a corresponding inclination, so Fig. 22. that the two shall fit nicely together, care being taken that the bark on one side, at least, of the graft and stock shall meet exactly. Fig. 22 shows the manner in which they are united. Bind them snugly together, and proceed to cover, etc., as with the cleft-graft. THE GEAPE CULTURTST. Sometimes it is desirable to graft a whole vineyard, and if the vines are young and healthy it is perfectly practi- cable to do so ; but if the vines are, as is often the case, old, stunted, and diseased, it is better to dig them up and plant new ones. Because, if very large and old vines are cut down and grafted, a large portion of their roots is very likely to die in consequence of the severe check they re- ceive by having ah1 the top removed ; and these dead and decaying roots will have a tendency to convey disease to the whole plant. In these days, when men are planting acres of compara- tively new and untried varieties, there will be, without doubt, hundreds of vineyardists who will soon discover that they have many sorts whose fruit will not pay for cul- tivating the vines. Yet many of these varieties will make good stocks on which to graft other kinds. Where a num- ber of vines or a vineyard are to be grafted, and they are to be grown for fruit only, I would not depend entirely upon the stock for permanent support, but I would layer a portion of the graft when it had grown one season. The vines should all be layered one way ; that is, take up the stakes to which the grafts have been tied, and set them in a line one side of the vines and about two feet off; then dig out a trench five or six inches deep, from the vine to the stake ; bend down the vine into it, and bring up the end and tie it to the stake, GRAFTING THE GEAPE. 71 being careful not to break the graft from the stock ; fill up the trench, covering the vine except the end tied up. Fig. 23 shows the manner of layering ; the cross line shows where the vine should be cut off. All of that por- tion of the young cane that is covered will throw out roots the next season, and very materially assist its growth ; besides, it will be firmly established upon its own roots, and not dependent upon the stock for support. In the above manner a whole vineyard may be changed from an inferior to a superior variety in one season, and at a trifling expense. It is often the case that the best varieties are naturally slow growers, and the most inferior kinds the stronger, so that the grafting may be beneficial not only in exchanging a poor variety for a good one, but will very much assist the latter in growth. There are many other modes of propagating the vine, such as budding, summer-grafting, inarching, etc., besides dozens of modes of layering and grafting ; but few of them are of any practical use to the vineyardist, and none supe- rior to those I have given. 72 THE GEAPE CULTUEIST. CHAPTEE IX. HYBRIDIZING AND CROSSING. THESE are operations that should demand the attention of every one who undertakes to produce new varieties. If these are artificially performed, improvements are more certain than if we depend wholly upon the natural varia- tions occurring in vines grown from seeds which have not been influenced by artificial fertilizing. Many of our best varieties of grapes as well as other fruits owe their superiority in a great measure to the careful manner in which the flowers of the parent plant were fertilized. The two words hybridizing and crossing are used indis- criminately by many writers in this country who follow the European custom of calling every plant that shows a mixture of two varieties a hybrid. This is an error which we should avoid, for although the mode of operation is in both instances precisely the same, the results are entirely different. A hybrid grape, properly speaking, is a mixture of two distinct species, not of two varieties of the same species. For instance, if we should take an Isabella grape, which belongs to the Vitis Labrusca species, and the common frost grape ( Vitis cordifolia), and by fertilizing the one with the other produce a plant with the characteristics of both parents, we should then have a proper hybrid. But if we should fertilize the Isabella with the Concord we would have a cross between two varieties of the same species. Hybridizing, then, is the mixing of two species, and crossing or cross-breeding (as it is termed) is the mixing of two varieties. HYBRIDIZING AND CROSSING. 73 True hybrids are generally forced productions, but cross fertilizing is constantly going on naturally among nearly all cultivated plants. . During the last few years many new varieties of grapes have been brought to notice that are claimed to be true hybrids, and doubtless many of them are ; but it is to be regretted for the cause of science that nearly all of these are in part a mixture of the varieties of Vitis Labrusca, or its direct offspring ; for of all the known native species this is the most variable, producing of itself, with- out being fertilized by other species or varieties, almost every conceivable shape, color, and quality of fruit, as well as a great variety in leaf, stem, and growth. I think that I may safely assert that until some other varieties and species have been operated upon than those heretofore employed, but little reliance can be placed upon the assertions that are constantly being made about this or that grape being a true hybrid. We know that plants in a state of nature generally per- petuate their species and varieties with great uniformity. Yet a slight change is sometimes observed, and it has been upon these variations that pomologists and florists have mainly depended as the starting-point from which they produce their innumerable varieties. The effect produced by change of soil and climate upon plants when removed from their native habitats has long been observed, and their variations turned to valuable account. Although these changes have been slow, yet by the preservation of them we are indebted to most of the valuable fruits and flowers now in cultivation. When plants are removed from one country to another, and become acclimated, the effects of this change will sometimes show itself in the seedlings grown from them in a distinct and wonderful manner, so much so that some are inclined to think that it is the result of accidental hybridization. These phenomena lead many to believe 4 : THE GRAPE CULTURIST. that they have a hybrid variety, when it is only a variation produced by natural causes. If we have a number of fruits which reproduce them- selves without variation, it is not positive proof that they are distinct species. But it only goes to show that the natural forces of the plants are perfectly balanced. We see this principle fully illustrated in the different breeds of cattle, sheep, etc., which are descendants of an original species, but are now divided into breeds, as they are termed, each of which perpetuates its distinctive features unless some disturbing cause is allowed to interfere and destroy the established character. The case is very similar with plants, for we often possess varieties that have all their functions so fixed and balanced that they reproduce themselves from seed, generation after generation, if not disturbed by being brought into close contact with other and different varieties of the same species, or by a too great change of soil, culture, or climate. But when there has been a disturbance of these forces either by hybridizing or cultivation, and the func- tions of generation have been disarranged, then variation begins, and it becomes difficult to decide whether hybrid- izing may or may not have produced this change. Suppose we fertilize the Isabella grape with the Sweet Water and the result is a white variety, would the simple fact of its being white be a proof that hybridizing had been accomplished ? No, not at all, for there have been plenty of white varieties raised from the seed of the Isabella without its being brought in contact with any white kind. I fruited several seedlings of the Isabella the past season, and two of them gave fruit that in appearance were exact types of the Delaware, yet the vine from which the seeds were gathered to produce these seedlings was not within twenty miles of a fruiting Delaware ; but had I fertilized an Isabella with the pollen from the Delaware and pro- duced such fruit as the result, it would have been pro- HYBRIDIZING AND CROSSING. 75 nounced by nine out of ten casual observers to have been a perfect success in crossing these two varieties. But as the facts are, I know that no such causes did exist, and that the production of the fac-simile, in outward appearance, of the fruit of the Delaware was only the result of the in- herent variableness of the parent variety. To convince us that hybridization has actually taken place, we need to see more than one of the prominent characteristics of both parents mixed in the offspring. Again, if the offspring should appear to be only a repro- duction of the mother plant without variation, it would not prove that the hybridizing process had not been effectual. But it would only show that there was a pre- dominant power in the mother plant to reproduce itself, and the influence which the artificial fertilizing had produced was entirely hidden in the present generation of seedlings, but in the next generation it might show itself distinctly. A good test to determine whether a plant is a true hybrid or a mixture of two species is to plant a quantity of its seeds ; a portion of the seedlings thus produced will be pretty sure to show more prominently than others some of the characteristics of one or the other of the parents ; or, in other words, the mixture will again separate, and a part will return each to its original progenitor. There are at the present time several varieties of grapes under cultivation which are called hybrids ; the most noted are Allen's Hybrid, and a number of varieties under the name of Rogers' Hybrids. These are said to be the result of fertilizing one of the varieties of the Vitis Labrusca with one of the Vitis vinifera, the former being a native species, and the latter a foreign one. By growing a quan- tity of seedlings from these sorts, we may ascertain if they are true hybrids, as claimed, for, if our position is correct, a portion of the seedlings will be more like the Vitis Labrusca than their parents, while others will show more of the characters of the Vitis vinifera. 76 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. These difficulties in determining the cause that may have produced a certain change, ought not to deter us in our efforts at hybridizing. The world cares but little how a thing is produced, or where it is from, but is only interested in the results. Our greatest danger as cultivators lies in the fact, that partial success will often direct our thoughts into a region of false theories, from which it is difficult to extricate ourselves without unlearning all that which we have previously learned. In all our efforts at hybridizing, attention should be given to the adaptation of the plants to the circumstances under which they are to be grown. If it is our object to produce a plant for this latitude, we should avoid, if possible, crossing with a variety that ripens late, or is otherwise unsuitable. The aim in all our opera- tions should be, to develop those qualities that are most valuable, and discourage those that are not; for these inter- crossings will often produce an individual variety more valuable to us than either of the parents. Again, we may cross two superior varieties, and the result will be a kind that is very inferior. But it is this very uncertainty that makes the operation of fertilizing so fascinating. If we could know exactly what the results of our labor would be, it would be robbed of half its charms. It is undoubtedly the fact that true hybrids have been, and can be produced. ; even if they had not been, none will deny that the crossing of varieties is often of the utmost importance to grape growers, therefore I can not do less than urge all to try it often and persistently. HYBRIDIZING AND CROSSING. Fig. 25. MODE OF OPERATION. That we may proceed understandingly, let us examine the flowers of the grape. Fig. 24 shows a flower as it is expanding ; A shows the five petals cohering to- gether as they are lifted up and cast off by the stamens ; the petals do not open, as in the rose, lily, and most other flowers, but drop off with- out expanding. Fig. 25 shows the flower after the petals are gone ; the five stamens are now sur- Fi£- 2*- rounding the center of the flower ; the little knobs at their summits (B) are called anthers, which produce a fine dust called pollen — this is the fertilizing material which we wish to control. Soon after the flowers open, or the falling of the petals, this pollen is carried by the air or insects to the stigma (c), which is the terminal p6int of the pistil, placed in the center of the flower. The surface of the stigma is covered with a viscid sub- stance, to which the pollen adheres ; and so soon as the pollen lodges here, it penetrates the stigma and passes down through the pistil to the ovules or undeveloped seeds. Now, this operation goes on without the assistance of man, in all perfect flowering varieties of grapes ; but when we wish to cross or hybridize a variety, we fertilize its stigma with the pollen from another plant, and prevent the pollen of the flower fertilizing its own stigma. To do this, so soon as the flowers open, we cut off the anthers with a small pair of scissors, leaving the flower as seen in Fig. 26 (D, stamens with the anthers removed), then take the pol- len from another variety, and dust it over the stigma. This last operation is performed with a fine camel's-hair pencil. Suppose we wish to produce a cross between the Union Village and the Delaware, which would certainly be very desirable, as the former is very large but not Fig. 26. 78 THE GRAPE CULTTJKIST. remarkably good, while the latter is small but most excel- lent ; and suppose we choose the Union Village for the fruiting parent. Now, it is very desirable that they should come into flower at nearly the same time ; but if they do not, it is positively necessary that the one to be fertilized should be the last to bloom ; for the pollen can be kept good for a few days by cutting off the anthers when in a proper condition, putting them in fine, soft paper, placing the whole in a bottle, and corking it up until wanted. When the plant, the pistil of which is to be fertilized, comes into flower, it can not be retarded, and the opera- tion must be performed as the blossoms open — although the period of blossoming may be hastened or retarded if the vine is operated upon early in the season for that pur- pose. When the Union Village shows signs of flowering, we should watch it closely, and so soon as a flower drops its petals, the anthers should be immediately cut away, and some pollen from the Delaware applied to the stigma. Operate upon every one that is sufficiently advanced to admit of it, and then inclose the entire bunch in a gauze bag, to prevent insects from bringing pollen from other flowers, which they often do, and thereby interfere with our operations. If a portion of the flowers were operated upon, say at ten o'clock A. M., by three or four in the afternoon another set will be open, at which time they should be fertilized in the same manner, and more pollen should also be applied to those operated upon in the forenoon, as they may not have absorbed that first applied. The flowers do not open all at one time, neither is the stigma always fertilized by the first application of pollen, but it should be repeated a number of times during several days. When the fertilization has been complete, the min- iature grapes commence swelling, and their growth proceeds rapidly. The gauze covering should be removed so soon as ah1 the HYBRIDIZING AND CROSSING. 79 flowers on the bunch show that they have been fertilized. Mark the bunch, and take care that no worm or insect in- jures it during its growth. It is best to thin out the flowers before they open ; cut away at least one half the number, as it will be more con- venient to operate upon those left. Besides, the berries will have more room to grow, and will be larger and ma- ture better than if all were left on. When the fruit is ripe, gather it, and proceed the same as recommended for seedlings in the preceding chapter. 80 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST. CHAPTER X. TRANSPLANTING. VINES, whether grown from cuttings in the open ground or under glass, will often require one season of nursery culture before being planted in the vineyard. In such cases they should be transplanted from the cutting-bed, or, if grown in pots, they should be taken out, the earth shaken from the roots, the tops and roots shortened, and then planted in the nursery. This rule does not apply to well- grown layers, nor to extra large one-year-old cuttings, but only to such vines as are usually produced in nurseries. The benefits derived from transplanting young vines should not be overlooked. Vines, for instance, that are grown in pots, generally have a mass of roots that are crooked and distorted by being confined in a small space, and which need to be separated, their ends cut off, and sometimes a portion of them taken out entirely, and then planted where they can have special care, such as mulching, watering, etc., or they will make but little progress. It is much more convenient to do this when planted in a nursery than when scattered over a vineyard. A large portion of the vines that are produced from cut- tings in the open air will have but few roots, and some- times these will be nearly destitute of small branching ones ; but if they are taken up and have their roots short- ened, and are planted again, they will throw out a number of roots from each of the original ones. The same remarks apply to one-bud cuttings in open air. But the most important result derived from the nursery culture is, that the vine becomes sufficiently strong the second year to allow it to be placed at the proper depth TRANSPLANTING. 81 when planted in the vineyard. This can not be done with small one-year-old plants without detriment to their future growth. To be sure, they can be planted in the bottom of a shallow trench, which may be left open and not filled up until they have made a strong growth ; but this will require extra care in cultivating ; besides, in most soils, these trenches would have to be cleaned out after every heavy shower. Vines may be left in the cutting-bed until they are two years old ; some cultivators do so, but they do not make so good plants as when transplanted. Some- times they are left there for several years, or until they are wanted for planting or selling ; but such plants are of little value after the second year, as the roots are usually so long that it is impracticable to take them up entire, and they are cut off, leaving all the fibrous roots in the ground, and the remaining roots are so old that they possess but little power to produce new fibers. Had they been transplanted they would have been furnished with an abundance of fibrous ones. For these and other reasons I believe it is better to transplant the one-year-old vines from the cutting- beds or pots to the nursery preparatory to their final plant- ing in the vineyard. The soil for the nursery should be in the highest state of cultivation, containing all the manu- rial ingredients necessary for the growth of the vine, in addition to being deep and thoroughly pulverized. It is expected that while the young vines are in the nursery, not only will their roots be improved, but their general char- acter will be so developed, that a proper selection can be made when they are transplanted into the vineyard, so that plants of equal vigor may be planted in the same row, and every vine upon the trellis may be in an equal state of forwardness, so that each step in the system of training may be applied to all the vines at the same time. This is of the utmost importance if anything like neatness and uni- formity are to be obtained in the vineyard. But it is diffi- cult to secure this if one-year-old vines are planted, as at 4* 82 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. that time their real vigor or weakness can not be readily determined. To prepare the vines properly for the vineyard, they should be carefully taken up in the fall of the first season, and " heeled-in" in a cool cellar or in some dry place in the open air. They should remain in this situation until spring, when the ground has become sufficiently dry "to work easily ; but the earlier they can be planted, provided the ground is in suitable condition, the better. When taken out for planting, the roots should be shortened at least one third, and if very long — say two feet or more — then they may be cut back one half, as it will not only be more con- venient to plant them if shortened, but the plants will be benefited. The plants should be kept under cover while being trimmed, and the roots kept moist and out of the wind, which would soon destroy the small fibers and injure the large ones. The trenches in which the vines are to be planted should be dug before the vines are taken into the field. Draw a line across the plot of ground to be planted, and dig out a trench as shown in Fig. 27 ; this is eighteen Fig. 27. inches wide, and three deep on one side and five on the other, the bottom being slightly oval ; the soil is thrown all upon one side. When a number of trenches are ready, bring out the vines and plant them in the following man- ner : place the vine in the trench upon the shallow side and spread out the roots toward the opposite side, then throw on soil enough to hold them in place and cover them, TRANSPLANTING. 83 then put in another vine in the same way, setting them so far apart that the roots will not crowd ; twelve to eighteen inches will usually be sufficient. Oae person may plant while another fills up the trench. When one trench is filled, proceed the same way with another, always being careful to have each trench dug descending the same way, so that the vines will be uni- formly on either the right or left side of the trench. Then, when the vines are to be taken up in the fall, it will only be necessary to examine one vine to ascertain on which side the greater part of its roots is to be found, and the workmen can then proceed systematically, for they will know just where to dig and thus be able to avoid in- juring the roots. The rows of vines should be four feet apart, which gives plenty of room to work between them during the season. When the vines are planted and the ground about them leveled off evenly, they should be cut down close to the ground, and a good strong stake six or seven feet long be put by each. That portion of the stem which is left generally has more than one bud upon it, each of which may push into growth, but usually only the upper bud will start ; but if more than one should grow, the strongest only should be allowed to remain, and when this has grown a few inches it should be tied to the stake. This tying will have to be attended to at least once a week throughout a greater portion of the season. The laterals also must be pinched back as often as they start, leaving one leaf the first time, two the next, and so on ; but usually two stoppings will be all that is necessary. As the stopping or pinching off the ends of the laterals constitutes a greater part of what is termed summer prun- ing, and as I shall have occasion to refer to it frequently in the following pages, the reader should fully understand what is meant by laterals, and their mode of treatment, as it is nearly the same upon vines in all stages of their growth. THE GRAPE CULTUK1ST. Fig. 28, E represents a portion of a vine in summer. Now, while this vine is growing it produces young branches from a bud near the axils of the leaves ; that is*, from that point where the leaves join the main stem ; f shows one of these young branches, which is called a late- ral ; at the point where this lateral unites with the main stem there is also a bud. Now if this lateral were broken out entirely it might injure this bud, or cause it to push into growth ; or if the lateral is allowed to grow unchecked, the strength of the vine is divided into so many branches that none of them will become strong or well ripened. To prevent this, and retain as many leaves for the elaboration of the sap as is necessary for the full development of the plant, we pinch off, with the fore-finger and thumb, the end of the lateral at a, when it has made two or three TRANSPLANTING. 85 leaves, taking off all but one leaf. If the vine is growing rapidly, the lateral will start again and produce a young shoot from the base of this leaf, and when it has grown a few inches it should be pinched off at 5, leaving one more leaf; c shows where it would be stopped the third time, should it be necessary ; d shows a lateral as it appears when first starting. This checking the growth of the late- rals not only concentrates the strength of the plant into the main cane, but it prevents the formation of a large number of small thin leaves, which are of no benefit to the plant, and are of themselves so feeble that they can not resist disease like large and strong ones, consequently they are often attacked while others escape. There are cultivators of the vine who neither stake them or check the laterals, but allow them to grow upon the ground in disorder until they are wanted for the vineyard. This is a slovenly method at best, and Vines of the first quality can not be produced in this manner, for it is not only necessary to keep them tied to stakes for the purpose of concentrating their strength, but to insure the ripening of the wood, and thereby the maturing of the roots as well. And it is a fact not to be controverted, that whenever the vine has unripened branches, there is also a corresponding number of immature roots ; and these are as likely to be- come diseased, if not entirely destroyed, during winter, as the unripened branches. Neither will the leaves on the vines that are left trailing upon the ground be so fully developed or remain as healthy as when the vine is tied to stakes, where the air can circulate freely among them, and the direct rays of the sun reach every leaf. When vines have grown one season in the nursery they ought to be large enough to be transplanted into the vine- yard; but if not, then they should be cut down to within one or two buds of the last Season's growth, and but one cane allowed to grow, as in the year before. If at the end of the second season in the nursery the 86 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. vines have not made a growth of from five to ten feet, then we may rest assured that there is something radically wrong, either in the soil or the vines, and they should be dug up and either discarded altogether, or trimmed root and top, planted again in another situation and treated the same as one-year-old plants. But if the vines have made a vigorous growth, then they are ready for the vineyard, and in much better condition for the purpose than they will be at a future time. Vines older than three years are seldom so valuable for transplanting as those younger. When the vines have arrived at the proper size for vine- yard planting, and so soon as the leaves have fallen in the autumn, they should be carefully taken up by means of the garden fork. Raise the roots as nearly entire as possible, for if any are to be shortened or to be cut entirely away, it is better to have all before the eye so that a selection can be made, than to do it with the spade and wholly by chance. When the vines are taken up they may be imme- diately planted in the vineyard, provided all the circum- stances connected therewith are favorable ; if not, they should be put away in the ground, where they will remain safely during the winter. This latter operation is called HEELING-IK The usual method of heeling-in plants, or laying in by the heel (roots) is as follows. Having selected a dry and protected situation, a trench is made in the soil a foot or more deep, and wide enough to receive the roots of the plants, and of any required length, the soil being thrown out upon one side. The plants are then set thickly together in the trench, with the tops in a sloping direction, and against the bank of soil thrown out of the trench ; another trench is made parallel to the^first, and the soil taken from it is thrown into the first, covering the roots, and carefully filling in all the interstices between them. Press down the TRANSPLANTING. 87 soil and smooth off the surface, so that water shall not lodge thereon. When one trench is finished, set the plants in the next, and proceed as before. When all is completed, dig a shallow trench around the whole, so as to carry off the water and keep the situation dry. Fig. 29. Fig. 29 shows the form of the trenches with the embank- ment against which the vines are placed. But the trenches are shown at a considerable distance apart ; this, of course, is not as it would be in fact, because the first trench is filled up in making the second, so that the trenches are actually joined together side by side, atid the vines in the two rows need not be more than a foot apart. The entire vine may be covered, if desirable, to protect the top from being injured by cold (the dotted line over both trenches in the above figure shows the form of the embankment when the whole top is covered) ; or the vines may be cut back before they are heeled-in, but in either case, if the whole vine is covered, it is best not to do it too early in the fall, nor let the earth remain on too long in the spring. It is also best to assort the vines before cutting off the tops, because we can better judge of the condition of the roots by the ap- pearance of the tops than we can after they are removed. The roots may be abundant and large, yet if they are not well ripened they are of but little value, and it is not always an easy matter to determine their condition when coated with soil, as they usually are when first taken from the ground. 88 THE GKAPE CIJLTUEIST. CHAPTEK XI. SOIL AND SITUATION. WHEN we take into consideration the wide extent of territory in which the grape is found growing, either in its wild or cultivated state, on both the Eastern and Western continents, we may well ponder over the oft-repeated asser- tion, that the vine does not succeed over the whole extent of any country, but only in certain circumscribed localities ; and while we may admit its truth, we fail to comprehend the reasons why certain soils or sections of a country should be more congenial to the vine than others. Yet the fact that success does attend its cultivation in particular loca- tions, while it entirely fails in others, is patent to every casual observer. Whether these failures are attributable to the injudicious selection of varieties, or to the mode of culture, is not always easy to determine. That the climate of both the Northern and Southern States, as well as that portion of the United States lying west of the Rocky Mountains, is congenial to the vine, is abundantly proved by the numerous varieties found growing wild over this vast region of country. No doubt there are particular varieties which are better suited to one section than to another, and that the same situation and exposure that would be most suitable for a vineyard at the South, might be the worst that could be selected for the North. A situation protected from the cold north winds, so as to insure sufficient heat to mature the fruit, is always desira- ble in a cold climate ; but in a hot one the heat may be so great as to exhaust the powers of the vine by a too rapid evaporation from its leaves, and it consequently fails. SOIL AND SITUATION. 89 Nearly all the writers on grape culture recommend the declivities of hills and mountains inclining to the south as the best exposure for a vineyard ; and the next in order are the southeast, east, southwest, but never a north or a full western exposure. Virgil said, " Nor let thy vineyard bend toward the sun when setting," and these words are as applicable at the present time as they were two thou- sand years ago. A full southern exposure is no doubt preferable in the Northern States, and if the land descends to the south, so much the better ; but if very steep, it will cost more to pre- pare and keep in order than if it is level. While I admit that a side-hill is a very desirable location for a vineyard, I am quite certain that there are many situations equally good that are perfectly level or nearly so. I have often observed that the success of a vineyardist was attributed to his soil and situation, but never to the skill of the cultivator or to the varieties grown, and this, no matter whether his soil was light or heavy, or the situ- ation low or elevated. Still, we know that soil and situa- tion have often much influence upon the growth and quality of the fruit ; for the instances of such an effect being pro- duced are too common in Europe, at least, to aUow us to deny its truth. In selecting a situation for a vineyard, all the surround- ings should be closely observed and taken into account. If the land has no protection from the north and northwest, see what the facilities are for supplying one either by walls or a belt of trees. [If trees are to be used, evergreens are best, and often the small trees may be had in the woods near by — we now refer to the Northern States.] ' See that the land is sufficiently elevated, thirty to forty feet at least above streams or ponds of water ; for, if near the level of small bodies of water, the situation will very likely be sub- ject to early and late frosts. Large bodies of water are not so injurious as small, as 90 THE GKAPE CULTUEIST. they absorb heat in such quantities during summer and give it off slowly in the fall; this affects the surrounding country very materially by preventing early frosts. In gpring, the water being cold, it keeps the atmosphere cool for quite a distance from the shore, and thereby prevents vegetation starting so early as it otherwise would. This, I have always observed, was the case on Long Island ; we seldom have frost as early in the fall as they do a few miles back on the mainland, and vegetation does not come forward so early in spring as to be cut off by late frosts. When the soil is sandy or gravelly, it will require an ap- plication of some organic materials, either in the form of barnyard manure, muck, or leaf-mold. The latter two can often be readily obtained, where the former, in any con- siderable quantity, would be out of the question, or would be so expensive that it would very much lessen, if not en- tirely absorb, the profits of the vineyard. There are thousands of acres of sandy or gravelly lands in the Eastern States that would make the very best vineyards in the country, simply by applying the enriching materials that are to be found in abundance in their immediate vicinity. Strange to say, these lands are now considered almost worthless, because barnyard or special manures (as they are called) can not be had sufficiently cheap to make them profitable for cultivation. While a sandy soil may not naturally produce the most luxuriant growth, it is certain that it produces fruit of the richest quality. Such soils are moderately favorable to the growth of the vine, are easily worked, and do not retain an excess of moisture, as they are thoroughly underdrained by nature. Both granitic and limestone soils are excellent for the vine, and as they are usually what is termed strong soil, they need but little more than a slight change in their me- chanical condition, which is readily accomplished by plow- ing or trenching. And here let me remark, that very often SOIL AND SITUATION. 91 the mechanical texture of the soil has more to do with suc- cess or failure than do the ingredients it contains. A moderately loose and friable soil, whether it be loam, sand, gravel, or the debris of rocky hillsides, especially if of a calcareous nature, are to be chosen in preference to clay or muck. These latter may be somewhat reclaimed and made available by underdraining, trenqhing, etc., yet in a majority of cases they prove unsatisfactory in the end. The soils in many portions of the Western States, and in some portions of the others that have but recently been brought under cultivation, need no addition of fertilizing materials. New soils are to be preferred to those that have long been in cultivation ; for it is extremely difficult to supply artificially to worn-out soils the lacking materials in a form so perfectly adapted to the wants of plants as that which they originally possessed. I am well aware that some agricultural chemists have endeavored to impress upon the minds of cultivators the importance of analyzing the soil, in order to ascertain what particular ingredients it may need, or what it may possess in too great an abundance to produce any particular crop or plant in perfection. And while I admit that chemists may sometimes determine when there is an excess of any particular constituent (which practical men will often do by merely looking at it), I have yet to learn that analytical chemists can tell how little of any particular ingredient is needed for any partic- ular crop. An acre contains 43,560 square feet of surface, and if we call the soil a foot deep (and there are few plants that do not penetrate deeper than this), then there will be that number of cubic feet. A cube foot of ordinary soil will weigh from 75 to 100 pounds — we will call it 80 pounds — this gives 3,484,800 as the weight of an acre of soil one foot deep. There are circumstances of frequent occurrence when a farmer, by adding 100 pounds of some particular material to an acre of grain, will increase the 92 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. crop twenty-five per cent. And certainly it is not reason- able to suppose, nor do I think that any theorist will maintain, that it is among the possibilities of chemical sci- ence to detect even a trace of 100 pounds of a substance in 3,484,800, yet plants will detect it. I make these remarks because I have seen men, when looking for a situation on which to plant a vineyard, who were very particular to have the soil analyzed by some celebrated chemist before they would purchase or plant. I do not wish to depreciate the science of agricultural chemistry, for it has been one of the powerful auxiliaries in the advancement of agriculture, but I would warn those who implicitly rely on all the theories advanced, that they may ask too much of it, and thereby be led astray. PREPARING THE SOIL: The manner of preparing the ground for a vineyard de- pends entirely upon the kind of soil and its natural condi- tion. If it is heavy and compact, the first step wih1 be to underdrain it either with stone drains or tile. The number of drains required, and the depth to which they should be laid, will also depend somewhat upon the nature of the soil and the amount of water to be carried off. If the land has springs in it, then the drains should be placed so as to cut them off near their source and prevent, as much as possible, the excess of water from spreading. But soils containing springs, except they be gravelly, should be avoided, as they are perhaps the most unsuitable that could be selected. There are also many soils that are called dry that should be underdrained, especially if they are inclined to heavy loam or clay, not so much to carry off the water, but to aerate the soil — that is, allow the air tc penetrate and circulate through it ; for air always carries with it more or less heat and moisture, and if the mechan- ical texture of the soil is such as to readily admit air, then SOIL AND SITUATION. 93 it will be more likely to be in a condition to transmit moisture rapidly, but not to hold a superabundance. Drains are usually placed from 20 to 40 feet apart, and three to four feet deep, according to soils, situation, and the crop to be grown on the land. For vines, the drains should be placed deeper than for ordinary farm crops, else the roots will soon penetrate to and fill them. To describe the differ- ent kinds of materials used in draining lands, as well as the manner of laying, cost, etc., would occupy too much of our space, and we must refer those of our readers who wish to plant a vineyard upon soils that require draining, to those works that treat particularly on this subject. When vines are to be planted upon steep hillsides or upon stony soils, the only thorough method of preparing the soil is by trenching. This is done by digging across the field to be planted a trench two feet wide and two feet deep — some recommend three feet or more ; but if it is full two feet it will generally be deep enough, and deeper than nine out of ten do actually trench when they say three feet. After the soil has been thrown out upon one side of the trench, a parallel strip of soil, of the same width of the trench, is thrown into it, and by this means the soil is in- verted, the top or surface soil being placed at the bottom, and in this way one trench is dug to fill up another, until the whole field is trenched over. The soil taken from the first trench will consequently remain on the surface above the level of the surrounding soil, and there is no soil to fill the trench last made. It is usual, on level ground, to take the soil that was dug out from the first trench and put it in the last ; but to do this is often inconvenient, and I have yet to see a piece of land, of any considerable size, without a spot somewhere upon it where the soil thrown out of the first trench would not improve it by filling it up ; and if the trenching is finished off upon the higher portion of the field, the trench last made may be filled up from the ad- joining soil without injuring its looks. It does not mat- 94 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST. ter where we begin to trench, whether in the middle or at one side of the field. This inverting the soil, as described, is the simplest method of trenching, and is as efficient as any, provided the subsoil is not of a character so inferior that it will not be rendered suited to the growth of plants by being ex- posed a few months to the atmosphere. The subsoils of light sandy soils are often richer than the surface, as a great portion of the enriching materials that have been applied to the surface has been carried down by the rains to the subsoil below. But the natural richness of the subsoil when thrown upon the surface should seldom be depended upon, but manure must be added, and thoroughly incorpo- rated with it before planting. There are many circumstances in which the soil may be inverted to the depth of two feet with benefit — such as sandy or light loamy soils, or where manure can be liber- ally applied, and a year be given for the amelioration of the condition of the subsoil before planting. Where these circumstances do not exist, it is best not to throw the sub- soil on top, but to mix it with the surface-soil at the time of trenching. To do this thoroughly and conveniently, the workmen should stand in the trench, and keep an open space at the bottom on which to stand. Then, by digging down the bank and throwing it over against the opposite side, break up the lumps at the same time ; the soil may not only be thoroughly pulverized, but the surface-soil and subsoil will become thoroughly intermingled. A five-tined spading-fork is the best implement for trenching unless the soil is very hard and stony, in such cases the spade and pick must be used. Although trenching is indispensable upon very hard and stony soils and upon steep side-hills, on level situations or those with only a moderate inclination (and they are always preferable) the plow may take the place of the SOIL AND SITUATION. 95 spade, and it will very much lessen the expense ot prepara- tion. If the soil is stirred to the depth of twenty inches, which it may be by using a subsoil plow, it will be as deep as is really necessary to insure a good and healthy growth of vine. I do not believe that it is desirable to encourage the roots to penetrate to a great depth, especially in a northern climate, for when the roots penetrate deeply they do not come into full action until late in the season, and they also continue to act late in the autumn, thus preventing the early ripening of the wood. If the soil is not naturally rich, spread the manure upon the surface before plowing, then turn it under with the surface plow, and let the subsoil plow follow in the same furrow, breaking up the subsoil. After the ground has been all plowed over in this way, then cross-plow it in the same manner ; this will insure a thorough breaking up of the soil and mixing of the manure with it. When the land has been both plowed and cross plowed, if it is then gone over with the cultivator it will still benefit it very much, as it will break to pieces the lumps which will be left unbroken after even the most thorough plowing. We should always endeavor to make thorough work in the preparation of the soil before planting the vine, for it is not an ordinary crop that we are to plant, nor one that necessitates a seed-time to each harvest, but it is one that requires but one planting in a lifetime, yet it will reward us with many harvests. There are very few soils that a person of good judgment will select that will need any further preparation than that which can be done with the plow, with the addition, per- haps, of underdraining. Manures, of course, must be applied where the soil is not rich enough without them. yb THE GRAPE CULTURIST. MANURES AND THEIR APPLICATION. The quantity of manure required by an acre, to fit it to produce a strong and healthy growth of vine, can not be known until the fact has been ascertained by actual experi- ment upon each individual piece of land, and the vineyard- ist only can be the judge in the matter. But it is always best to be on the safe side and put on enough, because the vine will soon exhaust the surplus if any; while if too little is given, a complete failure may be the result. As vines seldom starve to death the first season, although their growth may be small and weak, if supplied with a sufficient quantity of the proper fertilizers the second year, they may not only li ve but finally become strong and productive, at a loss to the cultivator of a year's growth, the penalty for his ignorance or negligence. In ah1 sandy, gravelly, and light-loam soils there is usuaDy a want of organic materials, and that want must be supplied by applying muck, leaves, leaf-mold from the woods, sods, or barnyard manure, or it may be supplied by growing clover or some other similar crop and turning it under while green. When muck or leaves are used, it is best to compost them with barnyard manure. This may be done by spreading the materials over the barn- yard a foot deep, and then spread the manure over it and let the cattle tread it in ; and when the manure has accumu- lated to the depth of six inches, spread on another foot, and so until it is three or four feet deep ; then it should all be forked over and mixed together. If the whole is under cover it is better ; but it is not very essential, unless manure is very scarce and valuable. The muck absorbs all the liquid portions of the manure and prevents waste, and a compost of three-fourths muck or of the other materials named and one-fourth barnyard manure is more valuable for a light soil than if the whole amount were barnyard manure. SOIL AND SITUATION. 97 When it is not convenient to make the compost heap in the barnyard it may be made anywhere in the fields, by first laying down a foot in depth of any of those materials and then drawing out the manure and spreading it over the surface, putting on alternate layers until a sufficient quantity is obtained. The compost heap should be kept level on the top or a little inclined toward the center, so that it shall receive the water that falls upon it. This will cause it to decompose more rapidly than if the water did not penetrate it. The compost should be frequently turned over, so that it may become fine before it is wanted for use. It will seldom be fit to use in less than six months, and it is better to let it remain one year. Ashes may be applied to the compost at any time with • benefit ; also ground bones, charcoal, horn shavings, offal from the butcher's, refuse from rope-walks, woolen and cotton factories, etc. ; in short, almost any such materials may be mixed in ; they are all good, but not positively necessary, nor worth while spend- ing any great amount of money or time to obtain. Lime and ashes are both very beneficial to light soils, but they may be applied alone, and upon the surface of the soil after the vines are planted. Lime especially should be applied in this manner, as it descends rapidly into the soil and needs no mixing with it ; besides, when applied upon the surface it will often assist in the destruction of the larvae of insects, in the decomposition of vegetable matter, etc. Shell lime is considered the best, but the difference is so slight that it will not pay to transport it any great distance if stone lime can be had near at hand. The compost should be spread upon the soil and plowed in as has been described, before the vines are planted. The quantity may vary from fifty to five hundred two- horse wagon-loads per acre, but it is not judicious to put on too much at first, as it will cause a rampant growth ; 98 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. it is not desirable to produce such, as it will be trouble- some to keep it in check when we come to train the vine. It is better to apply sufficient to give the vines a good start and apply more in after-years as needed. There are sections of the country where there are sandy and gravelly soils that are well suited for vineyards, but barnyard manure can not be obtained. If either muck, mud from streams, or leaf-mold can be had, they may be used without the barnyard manure, but they should be placed in heaps where they can be forked over occasionally so that they will become sweetened, as it is termed, before using ; and it is well to mix a quantity of lime or ashes •with them, to assist the decomposition. A bushel of salt to every ten or fifteen loads may also be added with benefit. Soils that are more compact, such as are called heavy loam, or approaching a clay, do not need so much of the organic materials as those called light soils, as most of them contain more or less of them ; but they require thorough pulverizing ; after which, if a good dressing of well-rotted barnyard manure is added, little more is needed before planting the vine. Any soil that will produce a first-rate crop of corn or potatoes is rich enough for vines. A few shovelfuls of manure, or two or three quarts of bone-dust may be mixed with the soil when the vine is planted, especially if the vine is not one of the strong growing varie- ties. And it may not be out of place to mention here that there is a great difference in the growth of varieties, and the soil should be prepared with reference to this fact. Some kinds would entirely fail upon soils which would be rich enough for others. If we should make the soil rich enough to produce a strong growth on a feeble growing variety, and then plant it with a strong growing one, there would not only be a waste of materials and labor, but the rampant growth produced would be an abomination to the vineyardist when he came to train his vines ; for he not only endeavors to train them, but to control their growth. SOIL AND SITUATION. 99 SPECIAL MANURES. There are many kinds of manures known as " special," some of which are, no doubt, valuable; but where those materials which have been mentioned can be obtained, there will be no necessity of looking after the specially concentrated manures. Guano, poudrette, superphosphate of lime, etc., may occasionally be used with benefit to give the vine a start when first planted, but it is doubtful whether it would be judicious or economical to depend entirely upon any of them to carry it through a succession of years. I have found fine ground bones to be a safe and not very expensive stimulant for the vine. I use two to four quarts to each vine when planting, mixing it with the soil immediately about the roots. After a vineyard is planted, manuring must not be neg- lected, for the vine needs not only to be supplied with food at the start, but it will want feeding continually, if it continues to grow and bear fruit. How often it will need a supply the vineyardist must be the judge. All that is required is to keep up a healthy growth. Too much ma- nure may increase the size of the fruit, but it will injure its quality. The manure may always be applied upon the surface and worked in with the cultivator or hoe, but the plow should never be admitted into a vineyard, as it will cause more injury than benefit. Frequent and regular top-dressings of manure are better than large applications at long intervals. Rank unfer- mented manures should not be used for this purpose, as they will often injure the flavor of the fruit ; besides, they will more or less affect the health of the leaves. " Upon very open and porous soils a mulching of leaves, straw, tan-bark, or similar materials will be very beneficial, but upon more compact soils it is better to keep the sur- face of the soil open by frequently stirring it with the hoe 100 THE GRAPE CCLTURIST. or cultivator, so that it will the more readily admit the air, and with it heat and moisture. When such soils become surcharged with water, as they frequently do during long rains, they will give off much of the surplus moisture if the surface is kept open and uncovered; but when they are covered with a mulch, they retain too much near the sur- face, and the soil will become soured and the surface roots be destroyed in consequence. With all the care that may be bestowed upon the vine in regard to soils, manures, etc., much will still depend upon the system of pruning and training adopted. STEM APPENDAGES. 101 CHAPTER XII. '^ STEM APPENDAGES. THEEE are various appendages to the stem of the vine, such as spines, hairs, etc., which are of service to the bota- nist, as they assist him in determining the different species, varieties, etc. ; but those that are of the most interest to the practical vineyardist are the laterals, leaves, tendrils, and buds. The mode of treating laterals has been given in a pre- ceding chapter, in which it was shown how they may be- come injurious or beneficial to the vine, according to the will of the vineyardist. Leaves are the most conspicuous appendage of the vine, and they are of the greatest import- ance, as it can not exist without them. They are some- times called the lungs of plants, and many beautiful theories have been brought forward in accordance with the simili- tude. Their chief office appears to be to assimilate materi- als which are taken up by the roots, and to do this it is necessary that their surface should be exposed to light. The greater surface of leaves that a vine exposes to the sun, the greater power will it have to take up liquids from the soil, and with them those constituents which go to make up the whole structure of the vine. This being the fact, it can readily be seen how, by di- minishing the number of leaves, we check growth, or vice versa. But it should be borne in mind that simply taking off a portion of leaves will not always actually diminish the strength of the vine ; for instance, if they are much crowd- ed, one portion may shade the other, and all may be small, feeble, and of little use. If a part of these are removed, 102 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. those remaining expand, and one leaf may become of more importance to^the vine than a dozen when crowded. 0, This, is, way w&. pinch off, thin out, etc. ; for the results of r,these ccger&ticns show that, when under cultivation, vines will prcdu-be a larger number of leaves than are ne- cessary to secure the proper development and health of the plant. Although the general appearance and structure of vine leaves are very similar, yet there is a great difference in the relative power of leaves of different varieties to with- stand the various changes of climate, disease, etc. ; and it is of the utmost importance that their full development should be attained in all cases, so that they shall not be affected by the ordinary changes of the temperature during the period of growth. FORMS OF LEAVES. To mention even a hundredth part of the various forms of vine leaves would occupy too much of our space. But I have given the following illustrations for the purpose of showing the different characteristics of the leaves of some of the different species, and at the same time convey a bet- ter idea of the meaning of some of the terms commonly employed in describing the leaves of the different kinds, than could be done without engravings. The leaves are necessarily shown much smaller than the natural size, but in doing so I have endeavored to preserve their most prominent features. In making the selections for the engravings from my sketch-book, I intended merely to choose those which were quite distinct ; but since they were engraved I have found that, although inadvertently, I have selected those that are natives of as widely separated portions of the globe as completely as I could have possi- bly wished had I aimed at doing so. The leaf has two distinct portions — the expanded part, or blade, and the STEM APPENDAGES. 103 leaf-stalk, or petiole. The petiole is attached to the base of the blade, and the opposite point is the apex. The gen- eral outline of grape leaves is more or less heart-shaped- Fig. 80.— THE OPORTO. The Oporto (Fig. 30) is round, heart-shaped ; the Nebraska (Fig. 31), acuminate or pointed-heart-shaped; while the Scuppernong (Fig. 32) is scarcely heart-shaped at all, but nearly orbicular. The edges of the leaves are variously notched, and these markings, as well as the general shape, are of importance in distinguishing species and varieties. It will be seen, by comparing the different figures of grape leaves, that the notches differ not only in shape but in depth. These divisions upon the margin when small, and shaped like those in the leaf of the Oporto, are called teeth, and such leaves are said to be dentated or toothed ; here 104: THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. the leaf is finely dentate, while in the Scuppernong (Fig. 32) they are coarsely dentate, and in the Yeddo (Fig. 33) crenate or scolloped-toothed. Fig. 31.— THE NEBRASKA. The leaf of the Nebraska grape (Fig. 31) is cut-toothed, the divisions being irregular and sharp. When the divi- sions are larger they are called lobes. In the Texas Post Oak grape leaf (Fig. 34) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are lobes, and the leaf is said to be five-lobed. The Yeddo leaf is three-lobed, and the Nebraska and Oporto are obscurely three-lobed. In STEM APPENDAGES. 105 the Post Oak grape leaf the lobes 1 and 5 overlap the leaf- stalk, and these portions which do this are called alae, or wings ; some of the other lobes in this leaf overlap, but no Fig. 82.— TUB SCUPPEKNONQ distinctive name is applied to them. The spaces between the lobes, as well as the depression at the base of the leaf where the petiole is attached, are called sinuses, and the shape and depth of these afford distinguishing characters. These are the principal terms used in describing the shape of grape leaves, and the strikingly different forms can be described so that they may be recognized ; but it is often the case that the difference in foliage in distinct varieties is so slight that, although it is readily perceived by a prac- tical eye, it is not possible to express these distinctions in words. 5* 106 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. There are also many other marks that aid us in distin- guishing the different varieties — perhaps the most variable of these is color, as the leaves of scarcely any two varieties Fig. 33.— THE YEDDO. possess the same shade of green, although it is the pre- dominant color in all. The Scuppernong leaf is a light green, and smooth on both sides, and shining on the upper, while the Post Oak grape leaf is a dark, dull green on the upper side, and rusty- woolly on the under side. The petiole and veins of some leaves are red, others dark brown, and in others the red color pervades, more or less, the whole leaf. When the leaves are smooth they are called glabrous, and if not, STEM APPENDAGES. 107 they are called pubescent — woolly, or hairy, according to the degree of roughness. When the leaves are merely smooth, they are called glabrous, but if they have a polished Fig. 84.— THE POST OAK. surface, then they are called shining. When "the leaves are covered with a whitish bloom, or waxy substance that readily rubs off, they are called glaucous. There is also a great difference in the texture of leaves, some are very thick and tough, while others are brittle, But the thinness or thickness of the leaf does not indicate 108 THE GEAPE CULTURIST. the strength, for some that are quite thin are very strong and enduring. Other characteristics of vine leaves might be mentioned, but enough have already been given to show that there is a sufficient number to enable a close observer to distinguish the different varieties, however closely they may be related. TENDRILS. Tendrils are but a tortuous elongation of the woody fiber of the stem, and they preserve their vitality but one season. They are always situated directly opposite to a leaf, and remain connected permanently to the stem until they Fig. 35. decay ; while the leaf is united only temporarily, and drops off at the end of the season. In the wild vine the tendril STEM APPENDAGES. 109 Fig. 86. 110 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. serves an important purpose in assisting it to climb ; in the cultivated vine, it being artificially supported, tendrils are no longer needed, and may be cut off while young, as they are not only useless, but will, if allowed to remain, often cause the vine to become entangled, and produce confusion where order is necessary. Fig. 35 — -f shows a portion of a vine with tendril (A) attached, the end of the tendril in two divisions, one considerably shorter than the other ; both of these, possess much interest when, instead of being tendrils, they are bunches of fruit. The first three or four tendrils produced in spring upon bearing vines are but the peduncles or flower-stalks of the thyrse of flowers, which eventually becomes a bunch of grapes. But if the elements requisite to support the flow- ers and fruit are not supplied, or by accident the proper amount of light and heat is excluded, then these pe- duncles will become tendrils. Therefore a tendril may be said to be a barren peduncle, and a bunch of fruit a productive tendril, for they may become either under favor- able circumstances. The divisions of the tendril referred to above show a peculiar characteristic in the formation of the bunch of fruit, which is seen in most of our native as well as in many of the European varieties of grapes. The longer division becomes the main body of the bunch, and the shorter becomes what is termed the shoulder. Fig. 36 shows a bunch of grapes as produced from a di- vided productive tendril. This form of bunch might be appropriately called the natural form, and certainly it seems to carry with it more of the general idea of a bunch of grapes than many of the other forms which are occasionally seen. Sometimes a bunch is divided into several small clusters which partly or entirely surround the main body ; when this occurs they are called clustered bunches instead of shouldered. But as the bunches of fruit are more or less variable in the same kind of grape, it is not expected, in STEM APPENDAGES. Ill describing a variety, that more than their general charac- ter can be given. BUDS. Buds are embryo plants, for they contain all the elements necessary to insure or secure, when removed from the parent, a distinctive, individual existence. They contain the rudiments of leaves and stem in a miniature form, and growth is but the development of these individual parts. The buds of the vine are situated at the axils of the leaves only, and are never found upon any other part of the stem. They are naturally single — that is, produce but one shoot ; but vines when under cultivation often show a disposition to produce a number of shoots from a bud, or, in other words, the buds divide indefinitely, and each division is capable of producing a distinct cane. Fig. 35 — e and c show a double bud ; such examples are often seen upon trained vines, and nearly every bud upon vines that have been checked during growth will show the double bud, both of which will often produce a shoot, but seldom of uniform strength. If a shoot that has started from a bud is broken off, others will immediately start from near its base. These are said to grow from accessory buds. They are sometimes incorrectly called adventitious ; but adventitious buds do not exist upon the stem of the vine as they do upon most other woody plants. The word adventitious is from adventive, implying acci- dental, and not necessarily pre-existing in form ; and as I am not aware of any instances where buds have been pro- duced by art or nature upon the stem of the vine, except at the point where buds originally existed, we may con- clude that they are accessory buds. Buds will sometimes be produced from the lateral roots of the vine at the point of separation, especially if they are of considerable size ; these are, strictly speaking, adventitious. Although sev- eral shoots may be forced to grow from what is apparently 112 THE GRAPE CULTUEJST. a single bud, yet it is seldom judicious to do so ; for if the bud produces but one shoot, it will be much more vigorous than if the strength of the plant is divided among several. It is a matter of considerable moment to the vineyardist that all the main buds be fully developed, and especially those that are required for producing fruit and bearing canes, as it is only from such buds that the largest and best fruit is produced. Keeping this fact in view, every precaution should be taken to preserve the vitality as well as the full development of the buds. Nature has provided a protection to the buds by cover ing them with bud-scales, which ordinarily serves to protect them against the sudden changes of the atmosphere while they are dormant; but in some sections of the country this protection is insufficient, and their vitality is either entirely destroyed or very much injured. In such localities .an artificial protection must be furnished. The method of applying such a protection will be given in a future chapter. PLANTING THE VINE. 113 CHAPTER XIII. PLANTING THE VINE THERE seems to be as great a diversity of opinion among vineyardists in regard to the best time to plant as there is upon the various details connected with planting. My own rule is to plant vines in the fall whenever circumstances will permit me to do so ; but if it is not convenient to plant at that time, then I do the next best thing — that is, plant them so soon in the spring as the soil is in a condi- tion to permit of it. I prefer planting in the fall, because the soil becomes settled about their roots, and all wounds made upon them in the process of transplanting will, in a great measure, become healed, and very often new roots will issue before the ground would permit of the vines being planted in the spring. Thus they become all ready to commence growing as soon as the frost is out of the ground. The buds will commence swelling at the first approach of warm weather, and they are then very brittle and liable to be broken off. I think, as a general thing, vines planted in the fall will make at least one third more growth the first season than when planted in spring. In very cold localities, or in soils that are naturally tenacious and heavy, spring planting is perhaps preferable to fall. But it should be a maxim with the vineyardist : never put off until another season that which may be safely done in the present. The condition of the soil must in part govern us in this operation, for it will not do to plant the vines when the soil is soaked with water, for in that condition it can not 114: THE GEAPE CULTURIST. be readily divided so as to be made to intermingle with the roots. Nor will it do to plant when the soil is parched and dry ; but it should be in that moist and friable condi- tion which allows it to be easily worked. ROOT PRUNING. However carefully vines are taken up from the nursery, the ends of a greater portion of the roots will be broken off. These should be cut smoothly before planting. It is also beneficial to shorten the roots considerably, especially if they are long and destitute of branching fibers. Two feet is long enough to leave any root upon a two or three year-old vine ; longer ones should be cut off, not only to render them more convenient for planting, but to incite the main roots to throw out new ones from their ends as well as from their sides. The soil will thereby become filled with feeding roots instead of a few long naked ones, that have no power of absorbing food except through the small fibers which exist only at their extreme ends. The soil within the radius occupied by these long roots is useless so far as furnishing nutriment is concerned, because they are not capable of absorbing it. It will often be necessary to shorten the roots to less than two feet, and it is best to cut off a portion of the ends, no matter what their length may be. For it is not the length or number of roots that deter- mines the quality of the vine, but their condition. If long, soft, spongy, and unripened wood and roots are left upon the vine, they are of but little benefit to it at best, and they will often die, and in their decay communicate disease to the other and more healthy portions of the plant. This is particularly the case with layers — their roots being pro- duced late in the season, they are seldom ripened to their full length ; hence the necessity for severely shortening their roots. And here, I believe, is the chief cause of so much discussion upon the value of layered plants. Those PLANTING THE VINE. 115 who obtain properly grown layers and cut back the roots to at least one half their length before planting, pronounce them to .be equal to plants grown in any other way. But those who have pursued the opposite, and planted them with their roots entire, fail to produce healthy or vigorous plants, and therefore condemn them. Vines will sometimes have so great a number of roots, that when transplanted the number of buds left upon the stem is insufficient to call them into action, and they perish in consequence ; for roots will not remain entirely inac- tive for any considerable time during the growing season without suffering. If the roots are so crowded that they can not be distinctly separated and a clear space be allowed for each when placed in the ground, then a portion should be entirely removed. If the texture of the soil is such as to make it congenial to the growth of the roots and permit them to permeate it without hindrance, their course will be more inclined to the horizontal than the perpendicular, and certainly the former position is more desirable than the latter. For when the roots spread out horizontally, they remain near enough to the surface to receive the full benefit of all top- dressings of manure which may be applied to the vineyard. They are also more accessible to heat, air, and moisture, than when they penetrate deeply. And while it is desira- ble to encourage the spreading of the roots in every direc- tion, so as to occupy every portion of the soil and have them near enough to the surface to receive all the benefit possible from such a position, yet we should not place them too near the surface at the time of planting, nor endeavor to keep them there. For unless the roots are covered deep enough to prevent their being affected by sudden atmos- pheric changes, the vine will surely suffer. Roots that are near the surface appear to be more sensitive than those which are deeper, and they are the first to start in the spring, and the first to be checked by cold in the autumn, 116 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. or by long drouths in summer. The depth to which roots should be covered depends somewhat upon circumstances. In light soils they should be covered deeper than upon heavy, because the air has a more ready access to a porous soil than it has in one that is tenacious ; and while it is necessary that air should reach the roots, it is not judicious to allow it to penetrate too freely, because roots require a partially confined atmosphere, and not one that has any apparent circulation. There is one class of cultivators who advocate deep planting, and they place the roots from twelve to twenty-four inches deep ; another class follow the other extreme, and but little more than cover the roots with earth, and then depend upon mulching for the requi- site protection ; and although both of these extremists offer many plausible arguments in support of their different the- ories, yet a middle course, I am confident, is the safest and best. HOW TO PLANT. When a number of vines are to be planted, it is best to dig the holes before the vines are taken into the field, and when they are taken from the place where they have been heeled-in, their roots should be kept in a box or basket filled with damp moss, or protected in some such manner from the air and sun. The vines should also be pruned before they are taken into the field. Prune the roots, as has already been directed, and cut off the stem to about eighteen inches. The holes to receive the vines should be dug in a circular form, and from six to ten inches deep upon the outside, and four to six inches in the center ; then set a good strong stake in the center of the hole, for unless the stake is placed in position before the vine is planted, there is great danger of injuring some of the roots of the vine in driving it down by its side after it is in position. Now set the vine in the center of the hole close by the stake, spread out the roots in every direction, and throw on a lit- PLANTING THE VINE. 117 tie soil as you proceed, to hold them in position. "When all the roots are properly distributed, then fill up the holes, pressing down the soil with the foot — the weight of a man will not be too much pressure to give the soil over the roots. It requires two men to work to advantage in plant- ing, one to place tlie vine in position and spread out the root, and another to put in the earth. Fig. 37 shows the . Fig. 37. form of the hole, with the stake and vine in position, ready to be filled up. The roots should always descend a little from the stem to their farthest point, and in pressing down the soil upon them, it should be given the same pressure, as near as may be, along their whole length. If the vines are planted in the fall, then a small mound of earth should be made around the stem, so as to protect two or three buds above those that would be covered if the ground were made level. But when the vines are planted in the spring, the hole need not be filled quite full, but a shallow basin may be left about the stem so that the rains shall more readily reach the roots. This basin around the vine may be filled when the vine gets well started into growth. When the buds begin to push into growth, select the strongest and rub the others off; a bud near the ground is preferable to one that is a foot above, and this is one 118 THE GRAPE CULTFRIST. reason why the vines should be cut off quite short when planted, as it makes the lower buds more sure to push. After the one bud or shoot has been selected, the old stem above it may be cut off to within two inches of the young shoot. As the young cane grows, keep it tied to the stake, but do not tie it so tightly as to interfere with its ex- pansion as it grows. Keep the laterals stopped according to the directions already given. Stir the soil about the plants, the oftener the better, and keep down all weeds. Bass is an excellent material for tying the vines, as it is not liable to injure the tender shoots ; besides, it usually costs less than common twine. When any particular vine, or a number of them, do not grow as rapidly as desired, they should receive some extra stimulant, either liquid manure from the barnyard, or a solution of some of the concentrated manures in water, giving enough to completely saturate the soil to their roots. When it is not convenient to apply stimulants in a liquid form, a barrow load of compost may be spread upon the surface about the vine. We should endeavor to produce a uniform growth, so that all the vines in each row, at least, shall be as nearly of the same size as possible. The vines, at the end of the first season, will usually be large enough to be pruned for training, but many of the more feeble growing varieties will require another year, and they should be cut back in the fall or winter to two or three buds, only one of which should be allowed to grow, as in the first year. Layering is another method of assisting feeble growing varieties, and it may always be practiced with the best results. The operation is performed the same as that for layering grafted vines, described on page 70. The most feeble growers will generally make a strong growth the season after they are layered, and while such a practice is very beneficial to the feeble growing varieties, it is entirely unnecessary with the more vigorous vines, as they will PLANTING THE VINE. 119 usually grow as strong as it is desirable, and still have them in a condition easily controlled when we come to train them. There are some propagators who strongly advocate the layering the vines for one or two years after they are planted in the vineyard. This may arise from the fact that they produce-such poor plants that their customers would be very much dissatisfied with the results of their purchase if some such course were not pursued ; or, it may be, that they imagine that the whole object of planting is to obtain a large growth of wood. This certainly would be of great importance to those who grow vines mainly for propaga- tion ; but the vineyardist has a higher aim, as fruit is the object and not wood. This practice of layering the vine to promote growth is an old European method, which is practiced upon old worn-out soils, where there is need of resorting to every plan that will afford any support to the vine. With our strong growing varieties and rich soils, the practice of layering all kinds is certainly not advisable. 120 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST. CHAPTER XIY. GRAPE TRELLISES. THE usual manner of making grape trellises with wires running horizontally is not only very objectionable, espe- cially when the vines are trained with horizontal arms, but it is a much more expensive method than the one shown in Fig. 38, consisting of two horizontal bars and perpen- dicular wires. Everybody who has made trellises in the ordinary manner is aware of the difficulty of keeping the wires straight, even if the posts to which they are fastened are not more than eight feet apart, as the wires will con- tract and expand at every change of temperature, being loose on hot days and tight on cold ones. Besides, much larger wires must be used, if put on horizontally, to sup- port the fruit and the vine. But the most serious objection that I have found is, that the wires, unless very near to- gether, are not where they are most needed when the young bearing shoots first start, for they must be tied to something to support them when only a few inches long, or they are very liable to be broken off by heavy driving rains. If the wires are eight inches apart (which is nearer GKAPE TRELLISES. 121 than the usual custom to place them), the young shoot must be at least twelve to fifteen inches long before the strength of the vine will admit of its being tied to the hor- izontal wire ; besides, when tied, the strings will allow the shoot to slip lengthwise of the wire, and often it will crowd or become entangled with its neighbors. To tie the vine very tight to the wire would cause it to become girdled as it expanded in growth. The above are but a few of the difficulties which I have had to overcome in using the common grape trellis with horizontal wires or bars, and to avoid these difficulties I have adopted upon my own grounds a trellis with horizon- tal bars and perpendicular wires, shown in the preceding illustration. It is built in the following manner : select posts of good, hard, durable wood, of from four to six inches in diameter and six and a half feet long ; set them in the ground two and a half feet .deep, and in a line with the vines, and eight feet apart — that is, if the vines are that distance apart ; a post should be placed between each two vines at equal distance from each. When the posts are set, nail on strips two and a half to three inches wide and one inch thick, one strip or bar being placed one foot from the ground, and the other at the top of the posts. Then take No. 16 galvanized iron wire and put it on per- pendicularly, twisting it around the lower and upper bar, each wire being placed just where the upright bearing shoots are to grow. It is well not to put on the wires until the vines are ready for" training, and then lay down the arms by the side of the lower bar, and make a mark on it where each wire is to be put, before fastening the arm ; then remove the arms to one side while putting on the wire. If a wire should not be in the exact place where it is wanted, it can be easily moved to the right or left, pro- vided it is only twisted around the bars. The distance between these upright wires will differ according to the variety of vine, as the distance between the buds varies 122 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. very materially in different varieties, but usually from eight to twelve inches will be the proper distance, some- times wiring at every bud, and with others only at every alternate one. It will readily be seen that in this mode of making a trellis, when the young shoots start they can be tied at any time when necessary; and there is no need, nor is it judi- cious, to tie them tight to the wire ; they should be left at least one inch from it, the two shoots being tied to the one wire. The cost of wire is less than when large horizontal wires are used. The arms should be fastened to the lower bar, either by strips of leather tacked on or by tarred twine tied around the arm and lower bar. It is impossi- ble for me to give anything like a correct estimate of the cost of building a grape trellis after this plan, because the different materials used in its construction are very variable in price ; besides, that which would constitute the greater part of the expense in one section of the country might be the least of it in another. Galvanized iron wire should always be used in preference to any other. It costs from three to five cents per pound more than the common an- nealed wire, but its lasting qualities are so much greater that it fully compensates for the additional expense. i? 14- 16 ^S' 39 shows the relative sizes of such as are commonly used for trellises. Nos. 14 and 16 are large enough for the perpendicu- lar wires on such trellises as I have de- scribed; 8 and 10 are the sizes used when put on horizontally. The number of pounds of wire required for a given length rig. 39. Of trellis may be readily ascertained by calculating the number of feet required, and then dividing the amount by the number of feet in a pound, which is as follows : No. 8. 13 feet to the pound. No. 10. 20 " " " No. 12. 33 " «' " No. 14. 54 feet to the pound. No. 16. 102 " " " TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 123 CHAPTER XY. TIME TO PKUNE VINES. THE time for pruning vines will vary with the locality in which they are grown ; but, as a general rule, it may be commenced as soon as the vine has shed its leaves in the autumn ; and if the wood is to be used for propagation, it is certainly better if taken from the vines before it has been severely frozen. But in pruning in the autumn or winter, the vines should not be cut back to the bud or buds that are wanted for fruit, but leave one or two extra ones above them, and then go over the vines a few weeks before they start in the spring, and cut off these extra buds. This second pruning I usually do the last of February or the first of March, always pruning before the cold weather is entirely past ; for if delayed until the sap begins to flow rapidly, it will issue from the wounds in such excessive quantities as to materially injure the vine. If the vines are pruned in the autumn down to the bucls which are wanted for producing fruiting canes, the uppermost buds are very likely to be winter killed. Even where the winters are not severe, it is best to leave one extra bud, because the sap will usually recede from the part which has been cut, and the end will become somewhat dried, if not injured by cold. Where vines are laid down and protected in winter, then the pruning may be completed at once, as no second prun- ing will be necessary, the covering given to the vines pro- tecting them both from the effects of the cold and dryness. Some vineyardists do not prune at all until the latter part of winter or early spring, in which case no extra buds 124: THE GKAPE CTTLTUKIST. should be left. There is a theory in regard to time of pruning which is of very ancient date, and as it has been and is still taken as a partial guide by many cultivators in pruning not only the vine, but other fruit-bearing plants, I will give the main points of it as briefly as possible. Ac- cording to this theory, when cold weather first checks the -growth of the vine, it does not entirely stop the absorption of food by the roots ; consequently the vine becomes sur- charged with sap, the liquid portions of which are partially given off by evaporation through the bark and buds, and the more solid portions are deposited throughout the entire length of the vine, so that each bud is equally supplied with its quota of food with which to commence vegetation anew in the spring. Now suppose a portion of the vine is cut away early in the fall, it is evident that that which re- mains has the whole root for its support, and it may receive all the strength that would have been diffused throughout the unpruned vine. The few remaining buds will of course put forth in spring much more vigorously, and send out fruit-bearing wood in greater perfection than it is possible for an unpruned vine to do. I doubt the truth of this theory ; but, according to it, the rule for pruning would be : if the vine is weak, prune early — that is, so SOOH as it sheds its leaves ; but if it is a vigorous grower and a shy bearer, then prune late. That pruning the vine at different periods produces a different result is no doubt true, but it is difficult to determine just how much difference it makes, because no two vines in the vineyard will grow two successive seasons with exactly the same vigor, even if they are pruned at the same time both years. PRUNING AND TRAINING. Having endeavored in the preceding pages to give the necessary details for laying the foundation of successful grape culture, we will now consider the best method of PRUNING AND TRAINING. 125 building up and completing the structure. ~No matter how thoroughly this foundation has been laid, or how congenial are all the surroundings, unless we practice a system of pruning and training that harmonizes with the known laws that govern the growth of the vine, all the care that has been or may be bestowed upon it will not bring bountiful crops, or insure us against a partial if not a total failure. The success of grape culture in this country depends almost entirely upon a general diffusion of practical information relative to pruning and training. There is certainly much depending upon the adaptation of varieties to different localities as well as the mode of culture adopted, but these points seem to be better under- stood than pruning and training, as information relative thereto is easily conveyed through the ordinary mediums for reaching the public. The interest manifested at the present time in grape culture owes its origin in a great measure to the fact that with the introduction of new na- tive varieties of superior merit, the attempt to cultivate foreign varieties in the open air has been discontinued, thereby removing one great cause of failure. Many per- sons who experienced failure from this cause pronounce all attempts at grape culture in this country to be useless. Another class of cultivators, having escaped the foreign grape fever, have caught the native one, and judging from observation only, condemn not only the foreign varieties, but all the modes and systems ever adopted for their culti- vation ; some of these cultivators are now groping their way in the dark, following no system, because they have been unable to find one in which there is nothing foreign. I have digressed from the more practical part of my sub- ject to show how readily some will let their prejudices lead them from one fatal extreme to another. While I rejoice that the time has come when no intelli- gent man in the- Northern States would think of planting a vineyard with foreign varieties, still I am not ready to 126 THE GEAPE CULTUEIST. admit that all the experience of the vineyardists of Europe is of no practical value to us. The same laws that govern the growth of the foreign vine control that of ours, and I have no reason to doubt that some of the best systems of training that have been so long successfully employed in Europe would, with slight modification, be almost as successful here. I know that it has been repeatedly asserted that the American species and varieties of the grape are much stronger and of coarser growth than the foreign ones, consequently they can not be so readily brought under control, or be kept within similar limits, without destroying their usefulness. But my own experience and observation lead me to think that so far as regards growth this is an error, and that naturally the foreign are on the whole as vigorous growers as are our native varieties. When grown under glass they ap- pear to be more so, and whenever they are grown in a favorable situation in the open air, they are not only strong, but often rampant growers. We can not arrive at a cor- rect estimate of what their natural growth would be under favorable circumstances by what we see in the old vine- yards of Europe, where the soil has been under cultivation for centuries, or by observing them in our own country, where they seldom pass the first season without being attacked by disease. It is not necessary for us to follow strictly any of the European systems of culture or training, but by gathering from foreign experience that which is of value to us, and sifting out principles from prejudices, we may arrive at facts which are very important. It is not necessary, nor would it be judicious for us to undertake to dwarf the native vine to that extreme to which it is carried in some parts of Europe, but we should stop midway between it and the wild vines of our forests. I know there are some who are continually pointing to the wild vine as an example of what the cultivated vine should PRUNING AND TRAINING. 127 be, and they tell us that these vines bear fruit and are free from disease. This we are ever ready to admit ; but we are not cultivating the wild vine, but improved varieties, many of which have parted with much of their wild char- acter; and even if they had not, would these sticklers against progression be willing to plant vines with a small seedling parent tree by the side of each for its support, and then wait from ten to thirty years for the vine and tree to grow up together, at the end of that time getting no more in quantity with less in quality than they now compel a cultivated vine of three or four years to give them ? If they are willing to follow nature in every particular, I have not the least doubt that any of the improved varieties will be found to grow and remain healthy without pruning or training. For my own part I take nature as a guide, the only difference being that I interpret her differently from that class of vineyardists who follow no system, arid thereby are ever ready to thwart nature, but never assisting her. There are certain general principles that govern the growth as well as the fruit-producing powers of the vine ; and while all the operations in the vineyard should be sub- servient to them, the details in carrying out the necessary forms may usually be varied without materially affecting the final results. The vine is one of the most tractable of all known fruit- bearing plants, and the easiest to control, although possess- ing apparently such a wild and rambling nature. Its natural growth is upright, its tendrils furnishing am- ple means to assist it in climbing ; and while it remains in an upright position, the larger portion of the forces of the plant are expended in producing a growth of wood and leaves, while fruit is produced but sparingly. This fact we see illustrated in the wild vine, for it is not until it reaches a position where it can spread out horizontally that we find it producing abundant crops. We see the vine in the forest, spreading over and envel- GRAPE CTLTTKBT. Eke a mantle the towering oat or covering the low aider by the waiter side, its- dusters of fruit hanging in the tihade beuaeafilL ; and Inrwia it we learn several fcndainental principles. 1st. That white the Heaves requtire a Mi ex- peisuire to the son, the {hut ripens iuliy without it. 3d. That while the Tine grows upright it produces its moist rigorous growth of wood, but its £rait-pffodueing powers are not fuly developed until it takes a horirantal position. 3d. That fhnit is parodueed most abundantly upon the up- permost branches, and that it makes no difference whether these upper branches aw on the tops of lofty trees or on the humbfle shnobu This proves eoneln^ve^r that it is not, as sojone c-<3iMvatoirs contend, the height that is nerassaij fear the vine to bear we! ; fer the firait that is fifty feet from the earth is no better than when it is at five, other being equal. It only shows that the sap presses to the top and Jorees out finott-bearing that point. I do not mean that the upper buds a one-year-old came win produce fruit, for this they wiffl seldom do, as they are not graMacafy fiuit buds; but if the eame is eortt baek to a wel-develop^d bud, and re- mains pejrpiejnidic-ailbrr or nearer so, then the upper bud is fior HMMre. e^rt^ium to prodnee ioruitt than those below it. Or if the ycwazLg and opnoatje to the first few leaves nhafi ame Snooted ; lasaaiy the first to third leave* fined will have a bunch of fruit opposite; sometimes they When the shoot has ite fifth leaf without avowing aagns of fimt, then none need be esxpeeted, Ibr it is venr seldom that fimit is produced PETTXIXG AKD TKAIXIXG. beyond that point. And as this rale is applicable to afl the varieties and species in cultivation, it renders it an easy matter to regulate the quantity of fruit upon the vine at the annual pruning, by simply leaving a certain number of well-developed buds, estimating each one at so many bunches of fruit. Xot only is the fruit produced near the base of the young canes, but the best buds for producing fruiting canes are found there also ; for as these lower bods are formed early in the season, they become more fully de- veloped than those formed later. Hence the necessity for cutting off the upper portions of every cane in pruning, instead of leaving a part of them at fufl length, and catting others entirely away. The foregoing are the main principles to be observed in pruning and training ; but there are minor points also to be considered, because they are not only important, but are facts that have been proven to be well founded by long and careful experiments. These points win be noticed when I reach that part of the subject where they are par- ticularly applicable. The following system of pruning and training I believe to be one that may be applied to all the different varieties in cultivation with the best results. It harmonizes with the general development of the vine, and does not unneces- sarily dwarf it, but keeps it perfectly under the control of the vineyardist, so that he can develop the fruit-bearing powers, and check the excess in the growth of wood, and so distribute the fruit that no one part of the vine pro- duces more than another. It is not a new system, but its main features, which are the horizontal arms, and pruning the young wood to short spurs, have been in uninterrupted practice for more than a hundred years. The following method of low training is especially rec- ommended for vineyards, particularly where strong winds prevail and render it difficult to grow vines on high trel- lises. Plant the vines in rows, six feet apart, and the vines 6* 130 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. eight feet apart in the row, and let but one cane grow the first season ; keep it tied to the stake, and pinch back the laterals to concentrate the growth into the one cane. The rows may run east and west or north and south; perhaps east and west would be preferable in more northern localities, but the difference in this latitude is scarcely perceptible. If the rows run east and west, the leaves will be mostly on the southern side ; but when north and south, they are about equally disposed on both sides of the trellis. Fig. 40 shows the vine as it should appear at mid-summer ; A is a lateral that has been stopped three times ; B has been stopped twice ; c, but once. This cane is to be cut back tbe next season to within twelve to fifteen inches of the ground, and only the upper two buds are allowed to grow, all others being rubbed off. From these upper two buds two canes are produced, as shown in Fig. 41, each one of which should have the same treat- ment as did the single one of the previous season. The second season the vine will usually pro- duce three bunches of fruit on each cane ; and if it is strong and vigorous, these may be ah1 owed to mature ; but if the vine is not strong, they should be removed Fig. 40. PBUNINO AND TRAINING. 131 on their first appearance. The canes at this age should be from eight to twelve feet long, and at least half an inch in diameter. If much smaller than this, one of them should be cut away, and the other cut back to two buds, and two canes should be grown, as in the previous season. When strong vines are planted, and good culture is given them, they will be ready for training at the end of the second season. The trellis should now be built, if it has not been made before. (For description of trellis, and how it is built, see Chapter XIV.) The two canes of the vines are now short- ened to four feet, bent down in opposite directions, and laid against the lower bar of the trellis to form arms. Select five or six of the buds on the upper side of the arms thus laid down, to be grown into upright canes, making a mark on the trellis bar oppo- site to each. If the vines have grown strong, the buds will be from four to six inches apart, in which case every bud on the upper side may be allowed to remain. From the marks opposite the buds stretch No. 16 galvanized wire to the bar above, fastening each end securely by winding about the bar ^ & or otherwise. Instead of now fastening the vine to the trellis, it is better, but not abso- lutely necessary, to bring the ends down near the ground, and fasten them there with hooked pegs, as seen in Fig. 42. If the ends are fastened to the lower bar in a horizontal position at once, the buds nearest to the base will usually push first, because the short bend in the cane at that point checks the flow of sap and forces it into the buds near 132 THE GKAPE CULTTJEIST. by, while the sap that flows past these buds goes rapidly to the extreme end of the arm, and forces the buds at that point into growth. In such cases the buds between those Fig. 42. at the base and the extreme end will sometimes fail to pro- duce canes. To avoid this we bend the canes as repre- sented ; this graduates the check which is necessarily given to the flow of sap, and each bud stands more nearly the same chance to get its proportion. When the buds have all started, and made a growth of two or three inches, then the arms should be brought up level and fastened to the side of the lower bar. All buds and shoots not wanted for upright canes should be broken off, and so soon as those re- maining are long enough to tie to the upright wires, it should be done. They should not be tied too close, as room enough should be left for them to grow. It will sometimes happen, when the arms are laid down, that in se- lecting buds for the upright canes, the spaces be- tween would be made more nearly equal if an occasional bud on the un- der side was PRUNING AND TRAINING. 133 used for the purpose ; if so, it may be done, and it will do equally well, only it will not appear quite so systematical. Fig. 43 shows a spur produced upon a shoot grown from an under-side bud. Each one of these upright canes will, if permitted, usually produce three or four bunches of fruit, and if the vine is very strong and vigorous, it will not injure it to do so. But unless it is very strong, it is better to cut off a portion and leave only one or two bunches to each cane. It is better not to overload the vine while young, as it will often seriously injure its future growth. When the upright canes have grown to about two feet they should be stopped by pinching off their ends. I usu- ally pinch off the end of the shoot so soon as it has made two leaves beyond the last bunch of fruit, which will be when the cane has from five to eight leaves upon it. But we can not expect to be exact, especially when there is a large number of vines to go over. Besides, one cane may grow more rapidly than another, and will need pinching sooner. Pinching will cause the remaining leaves to ex- pand and become large, thick, and firm, and much better fitted to withstand the atmospheric changes than they would otherwise be. The shoots, after being stopped, will soon start, and after growing a few inches they should be checked again, as we wish to keep them within the limits of the trellis, and not allow them to grow much, if any, above it. All the laterals on the canes should be stopped as though they were on young vines. Fig. 44 represents a vine at the end of the first season after the arms are formed. The first upright cane at the left hand of the center shows the position of the three bunches of fruit. Upon this vine there are twelve upright canes, six upon each side, which are distributed on two arms of about four feet each ; it is not expected that the arms will be of an exact length, but they need not usually vary more than three or four inches. Nor do we expect to have the upright canes exactly the 134 THE GEAPE CULTUEIST. same distance apart, but if care is taken in the beginning in selecting the buds there will be no material difference. No more fruiting canes should be allowed to grow on one < s c , / ! ^ ,: > j t ^ ^ 1 "V ^ i i ^ { \^ | < ^ •A f> 1 , ' . i ^ J ' \ > s v ^ ; ! \ WJ^ P ' ; \ ' ^ j ' /-* ; ) Fig. 44. arm than upon the other, nor should any number of the canes be allowed to grow higher than the others, and thereby appropriate more than their due share of nutriment. Keep the vine equally balanced in fruit, foliage, and wood. The vine referred to above has six upright canes, which, if evenly distributed, would give eight inches space between each, which is abundant for those varieties that have leaves of moderate size. But with those that have very coarse wood and large leaves, the distance betwe.cn the upright canes should be ten or twelve inches. The upright canes are pruned back the first year to two buds ; the small cross lines near the base of the canes, Fig. 44, show where they should be cut. The next year a cane will proceed from each of these buds, and all other shoots which may start from the small buds near the arm should be rubbed off. Or, if the buds should produce two shoots each, as they will sometimes do, only the strongest one should be allowed to grow. The second year the two canes will each produce three or four bunches of fruit, and instead of twelve upright canes PRUNING AND TRAINING. 135 136 THE GKAPE CULTURIST. we now have twenty-four, and allowing three bunches of fruit to each, it gives seventy-two bunches to each vine, and this is not an over-estimate for the product of a vine the fourth year after planting. The canes are to be treated the same, as regards stopping, pinching, laterals, etc., during each year of their growth. Fig. 45 shows a vine at the end of the fourth year, but with only five spurs with two canes on each, making ten bearing canes on each arm. The first two canes at the right hand of the center are repre- sented with the three bunches of fruit f! upon each. The cross lines near the base of the shoots show where the vine is to be pruned at the end of the fourth year. The uppermost of the two canes is cut £ entirely away, and the other is cut back to two buds. Fig. 46 shows this same vine as it ap- pears after being pruned. The vine in sub- sequent years is to be pruned in the same manner. Fig. 47 shows a portion of the arm with the base of the upright shoot or spur, as it is called. The cross line shows where the upper cane is to be cut away. Each year the pruning should be reversed if the position of the lower bud will admit of it. That is, if we cut away the left-hand cane this season, as shown in the last figure, then we should cut away the right-hand cane the next ; in this way the spur will remain nearly upright. But sometimes the lower bud will be on the outside of the shoot which we wish to keep for the fruit spur. Fig. 48 shows a spur with the Fig. 46. PRUNING AND TRAINING. 137 buds in that position ; but we must prune the spur just the same as though it were on the opposite side, and prob- ably the next season the buds on the young shoot will be Fig. 47. Fig. 48. reversed, and we shall be able to bring our fruit spur again into a perpendicular position. The lower bud will seldom be produced two years in succession on the outside, as shown in the above figure. It is desirable that the shoot from the lower bud on the fruit spur should grow strong, as it is from this that we take the two buds for the next season's fruit spur. As this first or lower bud is seldom more than one inch from the base of the shoot, and in many of our best short-jointed varieties not more than a half-inch, it is obvious that we lengthen the spur each year only the distance from the base of the shoot to the first bud on it, be it more or less. The annual increase in diameter of the arm, as well as that of the spur, also lessens somewhat its projection above the arm. Taking the average of some twenty varieties that I have trained on this plan, I find the spurs do not increase in length more than three fourths of an inch each year. At the end of the fourth year the vine is considered as established, and as another vine is at the same distance from it with arms extending each way, of course the space is all occupied, and the vines are to be confined within the limits of eight feet each. The rows being six feet apart, 138 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. we have nine hundred and five vines on an acre ; now seventy-two bunches to the vine (which every vine will bear if it is a productive variet}T, and if it is not it had better be discarded at once, unless it possesses some extra- ordinary quality which makes up for loss in quantity) will give us 65,160 bunches to the acre; the weight of course will vary according to the size of the bunch. Thirty pounds to the vine the fourth year is not an unusual crop for such varieties as the Concord, Hartford Prolific, Catawba, Isabella, etc. But it is not best to let the vines bear too much while young, as the quality of the fruit will not be as good as though a less quantity were taken ; besides, it is very likely to severely check the growth of the vine. Varieties that are not as strong and rapid growers as those named, may be planted nearer together, say six feet apart in the row, and the rows only five feet apart, and it is not necessary that the trellis should be so high by half a foot, at least ; two feet and a half between the bars will be sufficient for many of the shorter jointed varieties. Some- times the vines are planted more than eight feet apart, and only a part of the arm is formed the first year, and the up- right cane nearest the end is laid down the second year, and the arm thus lengthened in this way until the required length is obtained. But having tried both, I much prefer planting the vines so near together that arms can be formed to fill up the space at once. Four feet is about as long as it is safe to lay down a cane at one time and have all the buds start evenly. When the vine becomes old and very strong, the amount of fruit may be increased by pruning, so as to leave three buds upon the spurs, as is shown in Fig. 49 ; this will in- crease the crop one third. But there is danger of losing the lower bud if we increase the number beyond this, as we find that the tendency of the sap is continually to the upper bud ; and when there are several left on the spur, the lower one is apt to be robbed by those above it, and PKUNING AND TRAINING. 139 more likely to remain dormant than when we prune back to two or three. If the lower bud fails to grow, then we have to depend Fig. 49. upon the first growing one above it for the fruiting cane for next year ; this will add very materially to the length of the main spur, besides injuring the general appearance of the vine. In the above figure the dotted lines .(b) show the position of the young cane that should grow from the lower bud, and a similar cane will be produced from each of the other buds. The cross line at a shows where the old spur, with the two upper shoots, which are now only buds in the engrav- ing, will be cut away at the next year's pruning, and the 140 THE GEAPE CTJLTURIST. three buds now on the cane, 5, will be left. Too much care can not be given to the preservation of these spurs on the arms, for if one is broken off or destroyed by injudi- cious pruning, there is no certainty of replacing it, although buds will sometimes start from the arm near its base, and from this a new spur may be formed ; but it is better to preserve the original spurs than to endeavor to replace them with new ones. Should the spurs ever become so long as to be unsightly or inconvenient, new arms may be readily formed by allow- ing the two center spurs to produce but one cane each, and these may grow four or five feet long ; at the next pruning cut away the old arms and bend down these two canes to form new ones. But if the plan which I have given is strictly followed, the arms need not be renewed oftener than once in fifteen or twenty years. There are several reasons why I believe the foregoing method is one of the best, if not the best system for general vineyard culture. 1st. The horizontal is the best position that can be given to the vine to develop its fruiting powers, — the main object in all the various methods of pruning and training. 2d. The upright bearing canes being equally distributed on the arms, no one portion of the vine has any advantage given it over another, the flow of sap being equal to all parts. 3d. The equal distribution of the fruit- ing canes not only allows a free circulation of air among the leaves, but insures an equal distribution of fruit. 4th. While the vine is restricted within certain limits it is not dwarfed, as some might suppose, for a vine with two arms, four feet long, with ten upright canes on each, mak- ing twenty canes three feet long, has sixty feet of wood to be grown and pruned off each season. This quantity is certainly abundant to give the most vigorous growers suf- ficient expansion to insure a healthy action of root. Some cultivators suppose that because a vine will grow large and occupy considerable space, if allowed sufficient time and PRUNING AND TRAINING. 141 furnished with plenty of nutriment, that it can not remain healthy if it be restrained within moderate limits. But this is a great mistake, and the sooner such ideas are abandoned, the better it will be for the cause. 5th. The vines being trained low, the fruit receives a greater amount of heat than if more elevated, because it gets not only the direct rays of the sun, but also the heat reflected from the earth. This last is quite important in a northern climate, where there is little danger of getting too much heat. 6th. The mode is so simple that the most inexperi- enced may understand it ; and when the vines are once put into shape, the pruning ever after is so nearly the same, there is scarcely any danger of going wrong. Fig. 50 represents a two-tier system of training upon the same principle. It is equally as good as the single tier of arms, but it usually requires one year more to perfect it, and the trellis must be made considerably stronger, as its height offers more resistance to the wind than in the former mode of low training. It has one advantage over the other mode, as a larger number of vines are planted to the acre, producing conse- quently an increase in amount of fruit. It is particularly valuable where land is very expensive, and the greatest amount is desired from a given space. The vines are planted four feet apart in the row, and the rows eight feet apart, which gives 1,361 per acre. When the vines are pruned for forming the arms, every alternate vine is cut back to within one foot of the ground, and the others at the height of four feet ; the upper two buds on each one are allowed to grow, and from these the arms are made. Those that start at one foot from the ground are bent down for arms on the lower bar, and those at four feet are taken for arms on the middle or second bar ; both sets are treated as directed for training a single vine. Sometimes those vines that are left four feet long will not produce canes sufficiently strong the first season to make 142 THE GKAPE CULTURIST. PKUNING AND TRAINING. 143 the arms ; if they do not, then they must be cut back a second time, or until canes are produced that are strong enough for arms. The engraving shows the vine and trellis complete, ex- cept that only one arm is shown on the vines on the upper tier. The posts are eight feet apart, and they may be set opposite to every alternate vine, as shown, or mid-way be- tween every other vine ; it is better to set them between the vines, if the trellis is not built until after they are ready to train, because at that time it will be difficult to set the posts near the vines without disturbing the roots. Each vine has but two arms, and the number of upright fruiting canes should be the same on each arm, the vines being treated in every respect as described for the single tiers. The vine at each end of the trellis will have but one arm, whether it happen to be on the upper or lower tier. The trellis is represented as being seven feet high, the lower bar being one foot from the ground, and the other two three feet apart ; this allows of three feet growth to the upright canes, which is sufficient for the strongest growers ; but there are many varieties that are short jointed, for which two feet will do. And in locations that are low or very level, it is better to place the lower bar eighteen inches or two feet from the ground, so as to insure a better circulation of air among the lower leaves ; besides, in some very fine soils, the fruit on the lower tier will get spattered during heavy rains unless the ground is mulched. But there is no need of ever making the trellis higher than seven feet in a vineyard, and there is much inconvenience attending the tying of the vine on a trellis the top of which can not be reached while standing on the ground. When it is desirable to have the lower arms more than one foot from the ground, and still reserve three feet space for the upright canes, it may be done in this wise : place the lower bar two feet from the ground, the next three 144 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. feet above it — we now have two feet remaining between the middle and upper bar. The upright canes from the upper arms may be allowed to grow one foot or more above the trellis without support, and they will receive no harm therefrom. Where it is de- sirable to economize in every way possible, the trellis may be made only six feet high (provided the lower bar is placed at one foot from the ground), and the bars arranged so that the shoots from the upper tier may be allowed to grow above it. Whenever any of the upright canes show a weakness, the pinching may be deferred until they gain the required strength. If the ends have already been pinched off, then leave two or three of the upper laterals to grow out for a foot or more, and this will cause an extra flow of sap into such canes, and thus we may check one cane and encour- age another. In this manner we can readily control the forces of the vine, directing them to whichever part best suits our purpose. In checking the growth of vigorous vines, especially when young, we will sometimes cause the main buds on the young canes to throw out fruit branches in the latter part of the season, and on these will appear a second crop of fruit. This of course is of no value, because there is not sufficient time for it to ripen, even if the strength of the vine would admit of its doing so. I mention the fact only because some inexperienced persons may be alarmed by seeing a second crop appearing upon the vine in autumn. This second crop is certainly produced from buds that would, under ordinary circumstances, remain dormant un- til another year, but checking the growth has forced them out before the proper time. If every main bud on the young canes is forced into growth, except the two or three lower ones, no harm is done, for these last are all that are needed ; the others we prune off at the end of the season. There is little danger of the lower buds starting, particu- PRUNING AND TRAINING. 145 larly on fruiting canes. I have often severely checked fruiting vines, sometimes stopping the young cnnes at the fourth bud, but even this did not cause the lower two buds to start. And when the canes are not pinched until they have produced their fifth to eighth leaf, as I have recom- mended as the general rule, then there is not the least danger of any of the lower buds pushing prematurely into growth. If the young canes are allowed to grow unchecked, the lower bud upon them will seldom become sufficiently de- veloped to produce a vigorous fruiting cane the succeeding year. That it should be so developed is all important when vines are trained with horizontal arms and spur pruned, and in no way can this be accomplished except by check- ing the cane while growing. To the novice this stopping of the young canes, tying, pinching laterals, removing tendrils, etc., may appear to be a tedious and expensive operation, and sometimes, when vigorous growing varieties are planted in very rich soils, it is so ; but under ordinary circumstances, when the vines become fully established, very little trouble will be experi- enced upon this point. The young canes will have to be stopped about three times during the summer, and at the time of doing this the laterals, if need be, should be pinched and tendrils removed. On old vines the laterals will seldom need stopping more than once, unless they are overdosed with manure. OPPOSITE ARMS. In cutting back the young vines for the purpose of pro- ducing two shoots for arms, it is apparent that the upper two buds will not be exactly opposite, and that one of the arms will be higher than the other. This may be remedied somewhat by bending the short piece of two-year-old wood at the base of the uDDer bud ; but this can not always be 7 146 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. turned at an angle so short that one of the arms will not be a little higher than the other. It is no great matter if it is, but when it is desirable to have the arms appear to start from the same point, the vine may be treated in the following manner. When the vine is strong enough to make arms, it should be bent down into a horizontal position and tied to the bar PRUNING AND TRAINING. 147 of the trellis, all the laterals being stopped except the one at the angle near the bar. Fig. 51 shows two vines upon a two-tier trellis; A, A, are the two laterals that have been allowed to grow un- checked. The bending of the growing canes will check the flow of sap in them, while the laterals, A, A, will grow very rapidly. If the vines are vigorous and the canes are bent down in midsummer, the laterals will often grow sufficiently strong by fall to make the arms. If they do so, cut them off at four feet and tie them to the bars, the same as the main canes. The two arms will then appear to have started from the same bud. But if the lateral does not grow sufficiently strong to be used for an arm, it should be cut entirely away at the time of the annual pruning. The main cane on the lower bar should be cut off where it crosses the vine next to it, and the cane on the upper bar at a point directly above the main trunk of the lower vine. Fig. 52 shows the vine on the upper bar when pruned, in case the lateral failed to make an arm, except- ing that when it is done it is devoid of leaves. If we fail to get an arm from the lateral the first season, we may allow the main cane to remain in its position, and per- mit 'so many buds to grow from it as we desire for the up- right fruiting canes ; but the bud which is at the base of the lateral, A, we will allow to grow up until long enough to make the arm in place of that which we failed to get from the lateral. At the end of the second season we bend this down and form an arm precisely as would have been done with the lateral ; and the vine will appear the same, except that one of the arms is one year older than the other, and of course it is considerably larger. To remedy this difference in appearance, the upright canes on the two- year-old arm should be cut back to one bud instead of two, as would have been done if both arms had been perfected tne first year, allowing only single upright canes on both 14:8 THE GRAPE CDLTTJEIST. arms this season. The cane that is bent down the first season will usually produce fruit the second ; but it is best not to let it produce more than one bunch upon each up- right cane, unless it is very strong. The object should always be to subdue the vine but not to weaken it, and if it is necessary to commence training it the first season after planting, it should be done ; and it is far less trouble to get control of the vine while young, and there i» less PRUNING AND TRAINING. 140 danger of injuring it than if we wait until it has spread its roots and branches far and wide before we undertake to confine it within certain contracted limits. This fact should be borne in mind, that the expansion and multiplication of roots depend as much upon the ex- tent and number of branches that are allowed to grow, as the growth of the branches does upon that of the roots. Therefore to control the whole plant we have only to control the top, and this is done chiefly by checking the branches while growing, for if the vine is allowed to per- fect its canes, it wiU certainly perfect a corresponding num- ber of roots, each of which is capable of absorbing a cer- tain quantity of nutriment, and sending it upward into the branches ; and every year that the vine is allowed to grow unchecked, so much more does it increase the difficulty of bringing it under control. OBLIQUE ARMS. In many parts of the country the grape vine is not suffi- ciently hardy to withstand the cold of winter without pro- tection, and there are very few locations in the Northern States where this would not be beneficial to many of the varieties now in cultivation. Even if the vine itself is not materially injured, the fruit buds are often so weakened by cold that they fail to produce as much or as good fruit as they otherwise would. With the systems of training that I have given and others frequently adopted, it is not only inconvenient to protect the vines, but it would also be very expensive. There is no method of protection that is so cheap or practical as that of laying down the vines and covering them with earth ; but to do this they must be trained in such a manner that they may be bent down with- out breaking the main stem or otherwise injuring them. When trained with the two arms, they can not be laid down without bending the main stem over to one side. 150 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST. which would be diffi- cult to do, particu- larly after the vine has become large. The vine may be trained with one arm, and this could be laid down more conveniently than when there were two ; but still it can not be laid flat with- out bending the main stem, or straighten- ing the angle which is formed in making the horizontal arm. To surmount all the difficulties met with in the common modes of training, and still continue upon the arm and re- newal system, I have adopted what I call, for the want of a bet- ter name, the oblique system. The vines are planted three feet apart in the row, and the rows six feet apart ; this allows 2,074 vines to the acre. The vines are planted in the same PRUNING AND TRAINING. 151 way as for other modes of training, and but one cane allowed to grow the first year. In the fall the vines are cut off to about four feet, and laid down and covered with earth — four or five inches deep is usually sufficient. The next spring remove the earth and straighten up the vine. Build the trellis in the same manner as described for low- trained vines with two arms ; that is, four feet high and three feet between the bars. Fig. 53 shows the system in its progressive stages. The vine on the left shows the one strong cane at full length ; the next vine after it has been pruned, and with the single upright bearing canes ; the third vine as it appears complete at the end of the third year ; the fourth vine (d) shows the same pruned and laid down ready for covering. If good strong vines are planted, the system can be brought to completion in the third season ; but strong and vigorous canes must be obtained in all cases before com- mencing the training. The vines are trained at an angle of forty-five degrees, and the bearing canes being perpen- dicular, they consequently make the same angle with the vine that the vine does with the ground. This is the highest or greatest angle to which vines can be carried without giving the upper shoots on the arms so much the advantage over the lower ones that there will be no certainty of the lower ones pushing into growth with- out bending or otherwise distorting the canes. We will suppose that at the end of the first season we have a vine as shown at the left of the engraving. It is then laid into position as seen ; we then cut it off" at the point where it crosses the perpendicular wire, leaving it an inch or two beyond it, so that it can be securely tied. The cane when cut off will be about four and one half feet long. It may now be laid down by the side of the trellis and cov- ered with earth. In the spring take up the vine and tie it to the trellis ; and to be sure of getting the correct angle, let the point where the cane crosses the lower bar and the 152 THE GEAPE CULTURIST. point where it is tied to the upright wire be both equal distances from the base of the wire. The vine should be made as straight as possible, so that the sap shall not be checked in its flow. If it is not disposed to be straight, a lath should be nailed on, reaching at the proper angle from the lower to the upper bar, and the vine tied to it. When the buds start, select five or six for the upright canes, the same as when the arms are trained horizontally. The first upright may start a few inches below the lower bar, as shown in the engraving, or the bar may be placed at six inches above the ground, provided the soil about the base of the vine is kept covered with mulch to keep the fruit clean. Each of the uprights will produce fruit, but unless the vine is very strong, a portion of it should be re- moved. The flow of sap will sometimes cause the upper shoots to grow a little faster than the lower ones ; if so, pinch off the ends so soon as the fifth leaf is formed on them, and leave the lower canes until they have eight or nine leaves. The growth of the canes will usually be very regular when the vines are laid in straight, and at the angle named. At the end of the second year the bearing canes should be pruned to two buds ; the cross lines at #, Fig. 53, show the point where to cut off. As the vines are to be protected, there is no necessity for leaving an extra bud to be cut off in spring, as recom- mended for unprotected vines. In locations where it is necessary to protect vines, the warm weather usually comes on so rapidly after it commences, that it would not do to prune the vines after they are uncovered. The next season two canes are produced from the two buds, and in the fall the cane which starts from the upper bud of the two is removed, cutting through the spur as pre- viously shown, and the other cane cut back to two buds ; the cross line at c, Fig. 53, shows the point at which it should be removed. Upon the right hand of the figure, PRUNING AND TRAINING. 158 and over the vine that is laid down, the trellis is shown as it appears with all the perpendicular wires. The trellis, as here shown, is only two feet between the bars and its whole height only three feet, the upright canes on the upper portion of the arm being allowed to grow above the up- per bar. This they may be allowed to do when it is desira- ble to practice the strictest economy. Fig. 54 shows a space of twelve feet as occupied with four vines trained with oblique arms ; only two posts are repre- sented, but it is best to place the posts not more than eight feet apart. When a row of vines trained on this system is pruned and laid down, the vines will overlap each other a little; but the end of one may be laid by the side of the trunk of the next, and. so on throughout. In lay- 154 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. ing them down, one person should hold down the vine while another covers it, and as the vine has to be bent only one half the distance that it would be trained upright, there is no difficulty in laying it down quite flat. ~No straw or any similar material should be used in covering the vines, as it only furnishes a harbor for mice. If the soil is so wet and heavy that there is danger of injury to the buds, a little sand should be put on next to the vine before the earth is put on. The buds will not be injured in any ordinary dry soil, provided the vines are not covered until the ground becomes cool, and are not allowed to remain in the ground too late in spring. A PLAN FOR POOR SOILS. There are many light sandy and gravelly soils wherein the grape will not grow vigorously without the application of a large amount of fertilizing materials, and it is often the case that the cost of such materials would put grape cul- ture out of the reach of persons in moderate circumstances, as well as make it an unprofitable investment for any one who should undertake to grow them under any of the sys- tems in practice at the present time. Having stated on a preceding page that the expansion and amount of root may be restricted by controlling the top, it must be apparent that by increasing the quantity of root we can add to the growth of the branches. The following system is founded upon this well-known principle, and it is recommended only for light, poor soils ; because, if practiced even upon moderately rich soils, an over-luxuriance would almost cer- tainly be the result. When this occurs, the richest and best flavored fruit is never obtained. The plan is as fol- lows : plant the vines four and one half feet apart in the rows, and the rows six feet apart, and if the soil is very poor, add to it at the time of planting a few shovelfuls of PRUNING AND TRAINING. 155 156 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. manure and two quarts of bone dust, mixing it with the soil as it is put around the roots. Let but one cane grow, and keep tied to a stake. The first point to be gained is to get one cane six to ten feet long, and if not obtained the first season, cut back and try again. So soon as we have obtained the strong cane, it should be cut back to four feet and then layered. This operation should be performed in the spring in the follow- ing manner : dig a trench five or six inches deep, running from vine to vine, bend down the vines and fasten them in the bottom, and leave them uncovered. There should be a space of a few inches between the end of each vine when layered and the next one in the row ; and if planted four and a half feet apart, and the cane left only four feet, a space of six inches will be left. When the young shoots have made a growth of an inch or two, select from four to six for upright canes, and rub the others off. Put a stake to each, and so soon as it is long enough, tie it up. When the young canes are one foot high, an inch or two of soil may be put in around them, and some more compost or bone dust be mixed with it. The trench may be filled up gradually until it is full. Fig. 55 shows the position of the vines ; on the left hand is shown the vine with the one cane ; the next vine to the right is the same laid in the trench, with the young shoots a few inches long ; the third shows the vine in the fall, with its canes at full length, and the trench filled. The small lines crossing the canes show where they are to be pruned in the full, that is, two buds above where they are pruned at the regular annual pruning. The next season the upper two buds on these canes should be allowed to grow, and the others removed ; at the end of the season the vine will appear as shown in Fig. 56, which represents the same on a larger scale, and for want of space but five of the canes are shown. These canes are now treated the same as though the arm PRUNING AND TRAINING. 157 158 THE GEAPE CULTURIST. were above ground and fastened to the lower bar, instead of being a foot and a half below it. The vine is spur- pruned, but the spurs are eighteen inches long at the com- mencement. By referring again to Fig. 56, in the second vine from the left hand, b shows where the one cane is to be cut away, and a where the other is pruned to two buds. The first vine at the left is shown as it is supposed to appear at the next year, or after it has been twice pruned. It was cut off at #, and the two canes were pro- duced from the two "buds left. Now the left-hand cane is cut away at a, and the right-hand cane pruned off at the line just above the lower bar, leaving the buds (e, d) to produce two more arms. The vines are pruned the same each year as though they were short spurs upon horizontal arms. If six canes are left on such a vine at first, it will be necessary, after two or three years, to cut out every other one, for they will require more room as they increase in size. But the amount of fruit need not be lessened, for instead of two canes from each vine, they may be allowed to carry four, or the number may be increased to six or eight, but each one of these, in pruning, should be cut back to two buds. When it is desirable to increase the number of canes, it is only necessary to prune each one to two buds, instead of removing one of them entire, as is usually done in pruning to two buds. The increased strength which is given to the vine treated in this manner is very considerable, because roots issue from every portion of it that is buried, and each spur is not only furnished with roots at its base, but it also has the assistance- of the original roots. Vines that are natu- rally but feeble growers at best, will grow strong and vig- orous when layered as I have described. It is also very easy to protect vines when grown in this manner, especially if the spurs are kept within a foot of the ground. Let the rows run east and west, then nail a board of sufficient PKUSING AND TRAINING. 150 width to come above the spurs on the north side of the trellis, and at the approach of cold weather put another on the south side, and the space between may be filled with tan-bark, sawdust, sand, or soil, or the narrow space along the top may be covered with any old strips of sacks or similar material. The most that is usually needed is to keep the vine from frequent freezing and thawing. The amount of fruit obtained per acre is about the same as with the system of low training with two arms, but it requires double the number of vines in the beginning. The same style of trellis is used as for the other systems, and the same amount of pinching of the fruiting canes and stopping of the laterals is required. The four systems that have been described are the same in principle, only the details are varied to suit different circumstances, and these details may be varied indefinitely, so long as we do not undermine the foundation upon which the structure is built. 160 THE GKAPE CULTUKIST, CHAPTER XVI. GAEDEN CULTUKB. THE greatest obstacles in the way of cultivating the grape in gardens, particularly in cities and villages, are, the want of circulation of air and the excess of shade, or both. Still, with these difficulties there are some advan- tages : protection from cold in winter, and greater heat in summer, which cause the fruit to ripen early, so that upon the whole there is about the same chance of success in city gardens as in the open country. There are few gardens either in city or country where there may not be found a sunny spot sufficiently large to accommodate a few vines. It is often the case in cities that the only spot that the sun reaches in the whole garden is covered with a brick or stone walk. When this is the case, it does not prevent the planting of the vine, as the walk may be taken up, the soil beneath it made deep and rich, the vine planted, and the walk re-laid, leaving the top of the vine coming out at one side. Or the vine may be planted on the side of the walk, and kept trained to a stake until it has produced one long stout cane. Then take up the walk between it and the building or wall on which we desire to train it, remove the poor soil and substitute that which is rich, for two feet wide and the same in depth, and lay down the vine in this, bring up the cane on the other side and replace the walk. This is a much better plan than to place the roots near or against the foundation of a building, because in such a position they usually receive too much heat in summer and are too wet in winter. The roots of the vine will grow as readily under a pave- GARDEN CULTURE. 161 merit as anywhere, provided the soil is not too wet ; the surface of the soil being covered, it seldom becomes dry, and the pavement absorbs a great amount of heat, which passes through it to the soil, furnishing sufficient to keep up a healthy action of the roots. The most important thing in preparing a place for a vine is to secure proper drainage, because where there is much shade the soil is usually very wet ; and to avoid injury to the roots from excess of moisture, deep trenching or drainage is indis- pensable. It may not always be necessary to dig very deep at the exact point where the vine is to be planted ; in fact, this would more often be injurious than otherwise. But let the deepest digging be at some distance from it, so that the water as it descends may be carried away from the vine, instead of being drawn under it. One of the most common errors committed in tree as well as vine planting, is that of digging deep holes at the point where the plant is to be set, and then filling them up with loose soil, and in this place the roots. These holes only serve to drain the surrounding soil, receiving mois- ture instead of repelling it. This would certainly be bene- ficial in very porous dry soils, but in wet ones it is injurious. If the ground can not all be trenched, let the holes be made large, and at the point where the vine is to be set, not more than eighteen inches deep, and at the outside two feet deep ; this will cause the water to settle away from the vine. When the soil is very heavy, it is best to dig a trench and set the vine at one end, letting the bottom of the trench descend from the vine to the farthest point ; any old rubbish, such as brick, stone, bone, etc., may be placed in the bottom of the trench to secure a better drainage. When a number of vines are to be planted, a long, wide, and deep trench should be made and filled with good soil ; this will make what is usually termed a border. Four feet wide and two feet deep will answer every purpose, unless the method of training to be adopted requires the vines to 162 THE GRAPK CTJLTTJEIST. be planted very near together ; if so, then it may be neces- sary to make the border six or eight feet wide. When the border is first made, it should be a few inches above the level of the surrounding surface-soil, as it will usually settle, and frequently require a considerable addi- tion of soil to prevent it being too low. If the border was made only level with the surface of the garden, when it settled it would carry the vines down with it, and when filled up, the roots of the vines would be buried too deep. When an outlet can be secured, either into some hollow or sewer, it is well to lay a drain along the bottom at one side of the border. This drain may be made of tile, brick, or stone, and should descend at least one foot in a hundred to secure the rapid passage of the water. Drains made of stone should be covered with sods, straw, wood shavings, or some similar materials, before the trench is filled, as these will prevent the fine soil entering and fill- ing it up. In Avet and heavy soils it is a great point gained to secure a thorough and permanent drainage. The materials used in making the border may be the same as are used in the vineyard, but as they are not always to be had, others may be used, avoiding always all fresh unfermented manures. If old manures can not be had, make the border entirely of soil, and if clayey, add sand ; use ground bones and charcoal to put around the roots when first planted, and then apply the fresh manure to the surface, forking it in after it has become rotted. A little lime, plaster, or ashes may be added to the border, but not in any great quantity, as there is more danger of applying too much of such materials than too little. There is usually an abundance of materials about a city or village that may be used for manure, but most of them should be used with caution, as it is difficult to determine what in- jurious ingredients they may contain. It is much the safest way to use stable manure, when it can be had, or in place of it, ground bones, poudrette, etc., adding sods, GARDEN CULTURE. 163 leaves, or charcoal, as much to lighten the soil and make it more friable, as for their fertilizing qualities. One of the most pernicious practices in cities is, the con- tinual drenching of the grape borders with slops from the house j this has become common from the well-known fact that they often contain a large amount of manurial ingre- dients. But the large amount of water accompanying them usually renders them more injurious than beneficial. An occasional application of this kind may be of service, if the borders are well drained ; but a better way of sav- ing such materials is to dig a hole or make a cistern in some out-of-the-way place, then add charcoal or dry muck sufficient to absorb the moisture, and when the place be- comes filled, take out the manure, add a little plaster, and then it is ready for use. In this manner it becomes deodor- ized and is really an excellent manure for the vine. There is one other point upon which a word of caution may not be amiss, namely, not to apply top-dressings of strong manures in summer, for this will usually cause the vines to produce a late growth, which it is always desirable to avoid. The best time to apply a top-dressing is in the fall, as it then serves to protect the roots during the win- ter, and the fertilizing materials are carried down by the rains, and ready for use when the vine starts in the spring, and a steady uniform growth is insured. It is not advisa- ble to grow any plants except the vines in the border ; but where there is a scarcity of room, a few bulbous rooted or annual plants may be grown. If they are of the latter kind, it is best that they should be trailing plants, such as ver- benas, portulacca, etc., as these spread over the soil and operate in a measure as a mulch ; still, they absorb more moisture from the soil than their shade assists in retaining. No deep-rooted perennial plant should be planted near the vine. Neither should large shrubs or trees be placed where they will continually shade the ground, for the roots of the vine as well as the branches require warmth. 164 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. * POSITION OF BORDER. The position of the border will depend somewhat upon that of the garden; but any exposure except a direct northern one will do, and even this will answer provided the place is not in the shade more than half the day. The best position, however, is upon the south side of a building, or high fence, or wall. An eastern or western exposure will answer every purpose, because the heat and light are far more intense in such positions than in the open vine- yard. TRAINING THE VINES. When the vines are grown in large open gardens, where there is plenty of room, the same general system of train- ing may be followed that has been given for the vineyard. The two-tier system, as shown on page 142, is preferable for garden culture to any of the others, except in more northern sections of the country ; then the oblique arm is the best. Circumstances, however, will often occur, when it will be necessary to deviate somewhat from any of the plans given, to better suit the particular location in which we are obliged to plant. These variations may be innumera- ble ; still, if no fundamental principle is interfered with, success is just as certain as though the plans laid down were strictly followed. For instance, we havQ endeavored to show that vines are more productive and yield better fruit when trained horizontally than perpendicularly ; but it will make very little difference whether the arms are three feet long or thirty, provided they are not extended too far in any one season. Neither does it matter whether the arms start from one foot above the ground or at ten, so far as principle is con- cerned ; but when it is desirable to produce arms at a great GAKDEN CULTURE. 165 height, we must do it gradually, and not endeavor to ac- complish it in one season. In the vineyard, the best pos- sible position for the arms may be one foot from the ground, while in a garden surrounded by high walls, ten feet might be far better than any point below it. It is therefore impossible to give a plan that will suit every position ; but the horizontal arm should be the main point aimed at, whether it be long or short, high or low. The vines may also be trained with only one arm instead of two. F.g 57. Fig. 57 shows a vine with one arm having only five spurs, but it may be extended by bending down the right- hand upright cane, and in this manner the arm may be lengthened as required. The season previous to extending the arm, the end cane should be allowed to grow four or five feet long, instead of stopping it at the usual height, so as to have a strong cane to lay down. Three to four feet is about as much as should be added to the arm in one season, for if a cane of more than four feet is laid down, some of the buds will often fail to grow. The vine may be planted, if need be, several feet from where we wish to train it, and the arm be allowed to ex- tend that distance without producing upright canes, as it 166 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. will make no difference in the result whether the sap flows through one or ten feet before it reaches the leaves. FOUR TIERS OF ARMS. Sometimes it is desirable to fill a certain space which is higher than would be occupied by two tiers of arms ; if so, plant the vines only two feet apart instead of four, and form four tiers in the same way as we formed the two tiers. Or two tiers of arms may be formed from one vine, although it will take a year or two longer than it would to plant more vines, and only take two arms from each one. Fig. 58 is a very correct representation of an old Hart- ford Prolific vine, with two tiers of arms from the same vine. The arms are eight feet long, so that the vine covers a space sixteen feet long and only six feet high. There are ten spurs upon each arm, making forty in all, giving eighty upright bearing canes, and it is allowed to bear from two hundred and fifty to three hundred bunches annually. Last season it produced two hundred and fifty-six bunches. I have introduced this vine here for two purposes : first, to show how an old vine that has been grown without any system of training may be brought into a good form ; and second, that I may more thoroughly impress upon the mind of the reader the importance of training vines with hori- zontal arms, for the purpose of improving the quality of fruit as weh1 as controlling the growth of the vine. Hav- ing an old Hartford Prolific vine in my garden, the fruit of which could usually be shaken off so soon as ripe, I thought I would try and see if the arm and spur system would have any effect upon it, and in any degree remedy this defect. It is now as shown in the engraving, and the fruit has not only improved in size and flavor, but it adheres so well to the stem, that I have kept it for two months after pick- ing, and still the berries would not fall from the bunch if GARDEN CULTURE. 167 168 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. handled carefully. It is now five years since the vine was trained in this manner, and the fruit seems to improve in- stead of deteriorating. I do not attribute the improvement in the fruit entirely to the horizontal arms, but only in part, for without doubt the spur-pruning and the close pinching of the young shoots assist very much in the development of the fruit. The method used to obtain these arms was as follows : The season before I attempted to train it, I cut the whole vine back to within about three feet of the ground, and let it produce new shoots from whatever part they happened to come. It being an old untrained vine, as I have stated, it produced several very strong young canes, and I cut away all but four ; the two upper ones started about three feet from the ground, these I cut off to four feet and laid them down horizontally ; they reached to A, A. One of the two lower canes sprung from the old stem about one foot from the ground, and just where it was wanted for the lower arm, but there was no young cane opposite to form the other. There was, however, one that came out from near the roots, and this was used for the other lower arm by twisting it around behind the old stem, and bringing it down opposite the first arm ; the two arms were then cut off at A, A. The lower arms are trained on the same level, although one of them starts a foot or more below the other. This makes no difference except in appearance, as it does not matter whether the arms start from buds nearly oppo- site or not ; all that is requisite is to bring them to nearly the same height before they are allowed to produce leaves or fruit. The next season the two end canes were allowed to grow long enough to lay down and extend the arms to their full length. In selecting the buds for upright canes I reserved some of those on the under side of the arm ; the canes from these bear fruit just as well as those from the upper side. I would not recommend this mode of training for vine- GARDEN CULTTJKE. 169 yard or garden, except in cases like the above, where it is desirable to bring an old strong vine into the arm system. Vines that have been trained with only two arms may, after they become old, be allowed to produce an extra tier, but the sap will usually flow with greater force into the upper arms, and necessitate the checking of the canes on them sooner than on the lower ones. To produce a second tier of arms upon a vine having only one tier, the bearing cane nearest the center is allowed to remain at the time of the annual pruning, and the end cut off at the point where it is desirable to have the arms start. The next season the upper two buds on it are allowed to grow for the arms, and the following season they are laid down for a second tier. DOUBLE STEM. A few years since I had some vines growing in a border on the south side of a wall. They started so early that most of the young shoots were cut off by a late frost ; con- sequently the buds which I had selected for arms were destroyed. The vines being young, new shoots started 8 1TO THE GRAPE CULTURIST. from below the ground. I cat away all the old stem, and selected two of the strongest shoots that came up, and cut off the others. These two shoots were kept tied to a stake during the season, the laterals pinched, etc. The next spring the two canes were laid down for arms ; those for the upper tier were twisted around each other, and then laid down and fastened to the middle bar. Fig. 59 shows one of these vines at the present time. Accidents will often happen in vineyards as well as in gar- dens, rendering it necessary to have recourse to some such plan to restore lost arms without loss of time. This is per- fectly practicable, and the final result will be as satisfactory as though there had been no interference with the plan laid down at the beginning. Many other variations from the usual course of proceeding might be given, but I have mentioned enough to show that a general principle may be taken as a guide in grape culture, and still be varied to suit the different circumstances attending it. TRELLISES IN GARDENS. The same form of trellis described for the vineyard may be used in the garden, varying it in length, height, etc., to suit the position in which it is placed, as well as to meet the wants of any particular vine. The trellis is indispensa- ble, as the vines should never be fastened directly on the side of a building or fence, but should be at least six inches from them ; a foot is still better, as this allows a free cir- culation of air behind the vine, and prevents, in a great measure, the burning of the leaves, which usually occurs when vines are laid against the boards or wall. Besides, the surface on which the vine is trained will soon become defaced by the constant rubbing of the leaves against it, while the accumulation of dust and moisture will cause the rapid decay of the boards ; and even a stone or brick wall will be injured more or less by having vines trained against GARDEN CULTURE. in it. If the trellis is suspended by iron or wooden brackets, no apparent injury will be done to the surface behind it. TRAINING TO STAKES. There is seldom a garden so small but there is room for at least one grape vine, though it is often the case that there is a place for a vine but no room for a trellis ; when this occurs, the vines may be trained to a stake, or a number of them ; and when so trained they may be planted among shrub- bery, in flower beds, or upon the lawn. There is nothing that will add more to the beauty of the garden, or produce a better effect than vines, planted in groups or scat- tered here and there, as is usual with orna- mental shrubs and plants. The vines in such situations should always be kept low and never permitted to produce long and naked stems which would become unsightly and mar the beauty of the garden when they be- come old. Prepare the soil as for vines in other situations, and grow but one cane the first season ; then prune it down to eighteen or twenty-four inches from the ground ; the next season allow but two canes to grow ; pinch off the tops of these when they have grown five or six feet, so that they shall not only ripen their wood but become more stocky. Fig. 60 shows the vine with two canes at the end of the second season. If the vine was large and vigorous when planted it will usually produce fruit the second sea- son ; if so, pinch off the top of each cane when it has grown about two feet ; this will Fig. eo. f 172 THE GKAPE CULTURIST. assist the development of the lower leaves, which are so important to the proper development of the fruit. When they have started and grown a foot or two more, stop them again ; they will usually need checking several times during the season. The canes should be neatly tied to a stake, and the laterals may be allowed to grow a foot or more before being checked, as they assist in hiding the stake, and their own weight causes them to slightly droop, giving a more pleasing effect than when all is kept tied close ; for when vines are grown in a flower garden we endeavor to com- bine the ornamental and use- ful. The third year the vine with two canes should be cut back to two buds each. From these buds we produce four shoots, each of which will usu- ally bear three to five bunches of fruit, so that we have from twelve to twenty bunches on the vine. Fig. 61 shows the vine with four canes as it will be at the end of the third season. The vine may now be pruned in the same manner as before ; that is, each cane is cut down to two buds, and eight canes be allowed to grow the fourth year ; or two may be cut en- FiT 61 tirely away and leave but two GARDEN CULTURE, 173 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. buds on the others. If eight canes are produced, they will require one additional stake or a trellis, so that they may be spread out and give a better opportunity for growth. Fig. 62 shows the vine with eight canes as it appears when trained on a trellis. This vine may be again pruned in the same manner, and twelve or sixteen canes allowed to grow ; and this is essentially the same system practiced in some of the vineyards at the present time, and it answers very well if a portion of the canes are cut away each year, so that they will not become too much crowded. The system when carried to the extent of thirty to forty canes becomes quite complicated, and it is difficult to dis- tribute the fruit so widely and evenly as when the vine is trained with arms. But when the vines are grown in small gardens, four or six canes are as many as should be allowed on those trained to stakes. There is no difficulty in keeping the vines within a small space, and with the main stem only a foot or two high. All that is necessary is to keep the young growth checked during the summer, and when pruning the vine, leave only those buds which are required to produce fruiting canes. I test all the new varieties in this way, never going to the expense of erecting trellises for them until they have proved themselves worthy of it. The vines will remain just as healthy when grown in this manner as when allowed to spread over a space of fifty or one hundred feet. I am well aware that theorists assert that the vine must have room to expand and extend its branches as it grows old ; but one fact is worth any number of theories, and there are thousands of vines in Europe that are from fifty to one hundred years old, the main stems of which are not two feet high. These vines are pruned back to the stump every year, and yet they live and bear fruit of the best quality. We have no such vines in this country, nor is there any necessity for ever having any, because there are better plans in use ; but there is no reason why our indigenous GARDEN CULTURE. 175 varieties may not be dwarfed as well as the European kinds. Fig. 63 shows one of the old vines of Europe. This vine represents what is termed " head-pruning ;" the Fig. 63. vine being pruned in close to the stump every year, and the accessory buds are mainly depended upon for produc- ing the bearing canes. Fig. 64. Fig. 64 shows another form, which is called " buck prun- ing." The head is allowed to divide into several parts, 176 THE GEAPE CULTURIST. thereby allowing it to produce more fruit than upon those that are pruned to one head. This is an old Hungarian mode, and it is still practiced in many parts of Europe. If the reader will refer to Figs. 63, 64, 62, and 45, he can gee at a glance the improvements which have been made in the form of training the vine from the days of the ancient Romans down to the present time. And it will be readily seen that they are all founded upon the same principle, the only difference being that the top of the vine is extended more in one than in the other. They are all pruned on the renewal system — that is, all the young shoots are cut back every year. Within the range of these four plans and their variations are comprised all the successful systems that have ever been invented. The head pruning is practiced upon the poorest of soils, and the buck pruning on soils that are only moderately rich, and the other two upon rich soils, and with the strongest growing varieties. There is, however, a system of training in use in Lom- bardy that differs from any of those given ; but it should not be called an artificial system, because the vines are al- lowed to grow upon trees, as they would in their wild state, no particular method of training or pruning being adopted. The vines bear as well as they would in their wild state, but the process is a slow and tedious one at best. GIRDLING THE VINE. If the reader will turn back to Fig. 62 he will see that one of the canes is shown as girdled (A) ; also the part of the same that has been girdled is shown at the left and be- low the figure. This operation, though often producing remarkable results, is still of questionable utility. That it causes the fruit to grow much beyond its natural size is certain, but the quality is never improved, and usually very much injured. The practical results of such GARDEN CULTURE. 177 an operation seem to be, to cause the fruit to assume the appearance of ripeness much earlier than it would other- wise, and become so much increased in size as often to take the prizes at horticultural shows, where the judges are often influenced by appearance instead of quality. Many a dropsical cluster of grapes has been awarded a premium over the rich well-ripened cluster of the same va- riety, merely because it had a fine appearance. The girdling may be done at any time in the spring after the vine starts, up to the time the fruit is fully grown. But unless it is done several weeks before the fruit com- mences to ripen, it will have but little effect. The best time to perform the operation is just before or soon after the fruit is set. The mode of operation is as follows : cut away a ring of the bark, from one fourth to one half inch wide, clear to the true wood. It may be performed on old wood, or upon the young canes when they have made a foot or two of growth, but the last year's wood is prefera- ble, and it should be done only on that which you intend to prune away. The incision is always made below the bunch which it is desired to affect. The bunches above the incision become much larger than those below it ; this is said to be caused by the obstruction of the downward flow of the sap to the roots. The practice of girdling the vine for the purpose of af- fecting the fruit is supposed to have been invented about 1745, by Col. Buchatt, of Metz, in France. For this he was awarded a premium by the Agricultural Society of France. It was claimed that the invention would be of great value in hastening the maturity of the grape, as well as improving the quality ; but it is doubtful if either of these results has been obtained in its practice. 178 THE GRAPE CULTURIST. REMOVING THE LEAVES. There are many persons, in cities especially, who are in the habit of removing a portion of the leaves from their grape vines just before the fruit begins to ripen, for the purpose, as they say, of hastening it. This is perhaps one of the most absurd ideas that could be possibly entertained, as the grape ripens better in the shade than when exposed to the sun ; besides, the ripening process is conducted al- most entirely by the leaves, the grape being one of those fruits that must be ripened on the vine or not at all ; and if it is picked before ripe, the process is immediately stop- ped, there being no further improvement in flavor. If the leaves near the fruit are taken off, ripening is not only checked, but often entirely stopped. The fruit that is exposed to the direct rays of the sun after the leaves have been taken away, may change its color, but it seldom ripens. It is not only necessary that ^ there should be good healthy leaves on the fruiting cane, but they should be near the fruit. Every one who has seen grapes upon the vine must have observed that there is al- ways a leaf opposite to every bunch of fruit ; that this leaf is of great importance to that par- ticular bunch is certain. In Fig. 65 the connection between the two is shown ; a is a portion of the stem of a bunch of fruit ; c is the leaf-stalk; the pith is shown in the center, being the broad dark line running length- wise of the cane ; this occupies - 65 more than one third of its di- GARDEN CULTUKE. 179 ameter, but is divided at d by wood which unites the two sides of the stem. Now whether the sap crosses directly through the young cane from leaf to fruit, or around the pith, is not positively known, but that there is a connection between them by which the fruit is benefited, can be readily demonstrated by removing the leaf early in the season. When this is done, the fruit is not so perfect as when it remains. This imperfection is not altogether owing to the loss of shade which the" leaf afforded, because if the same amount of shade is given the fruit artificially, it is still more or less affected. If the lateral (b) remains with a leaf or two upon it, the injury to the fruit is not so marked, because its leaves perform, in part, the functions of the one removed.* One great object in pinching off the end of the growing canes is to cause the leaves to grow larger, thicker, and better able to assist in perfecting the fruit ; therefore the main leaves on the btem should never be removed, and es- pecially let those that are near or opposite the fruit be carefully preserved. 180 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. CHAPTEE XVII. MISCELLANEOUS. THINNING THE FRUIT. — There are very few varieties of grapes, cultivated in the open air, that require the thinning out of the fruit to enable them to ripen. Most of the na- tive varieties have bunches sufficiently open and loose to allow the air to circulate freely among the berries and aid 'them in ripening. If a portion of the berries are removed, those remaining will certainly grow much larger than if all were allowed to mature. There are some varieties that have naturally very compact bunches, so much so that all of the berries will seldom ripen unless a portion of them are removed. With such as these it is best to cut out a part of the berries so soon as they are fully formed. This thinning should be done with a pair of sharp-pointed scis- sors, cutting out from one fourth to one half the berries, taking them from different parts of the bunch, so that when it is fully grown it will be uniform, and the berries will not be any more crowded upon one part than another. It would scarcely be practicable to thin out the berries of ah1 the bunches in a vineyard, and no one would think of cultivating extensively a variety that required it; still, there are varieties which are highly recommended by some persons, that will seldom mature more than half the fruit that sets. The bunches of these should be thinned. These varieties often possess valuable qualities, and if persons have time to give them the requisite care, really excellent fruit may be obtained. There is scarcely a bet- ter or more beautiful grape than the Herbemont, when it is grown in a warm, protected situation and its fruit prop- MISCELLANEOUS. 181 erly thinned, and there is none more worthless if an op- posite course is pursued. The compactness of the bunch is often variable with the same variety in different localities ; in one the berries may be very much crowded, arid in another comparatively loose. In the former case the berries will not only be much small- er, but they will often burst open, especially if they have a very thin skin. Those varieties that produce very compact bunches are always benefited (in appearance at least) by thinning the berries, and those who are growing such with the expect- ation of making show bunches, should not neglect this operation. Sometimes it may be beneficial to remove whole bunches, but when the vines are properly pruned and trained, this will seldom be necessary. GATHERING THE FRUIT. Grapes are usually gathered long before they are really ripe. Sometimes this is done for the purpose of getting them into market early ; in other cases it may be because they appear to be ripe, when, in fact, the ripening process has only commenced. Nearly all varieties change their color fifteen to twenty days before they are fully matured ; and as the grape is one of those fruits that must ripen be- fore being gathered, or not at all, it must be apparent that too much care is not likely to be given upon this point. It is natural to be impatient for the harvest, particularly when we have waited so long, and watched with so much care and anxiety for the ripening of our fruit; still, a little haste maybe more fatal than considerable delay ; for grapes that are over-ripe keep much better than those that are not fully ripe. The stern of the bunch will usually turn brown and become somewhat shriveled when the fruit is fully matured. 182 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST. Always gather the grapes in fair weather, and wait until the dew has dried off before commencing in the morning. Cut off the clusters with a knife or shears, and handle them with care, so that the bloom shall not be rubbed off nor any of the berries broken. If any portion of the crop is not ripe, leave it on the vines and gather it separately, after the best has been se- cured, provided it is worth the trouble. If there be any unripe or diseased berries in the bunch they should be taken out at the time of gathering. PRESERVING THE FRUIT. To many persons the preservation of fruit in its natural condition is second only in importance to that of producing it. If we can, by any simple means, keep our grapes fresh two or three months, it not only prolongs the period of enjoyment of a luxury, but if it be desired to sell the fruit, the price will be found to increase as the season advances, beyond the usual marketing period, the earliest and latest in market always commanding the highest prices, although not always the most ready sale. There is no reason why the tables of those who desire grapes should not be supplied with them for four or five months in the year. Every variety of grapes will not keep well, any more than every sort of apples or pears ; still, a majority of the grapes now grown will keep several months with ordinary care. The process of preserving is very simple, and requires more common sense than science. The requisites are : 1st. The fruit should be thoroughly ripe, should not be bruised or broken, but carefully handled while gathering and pack- ing. The fruit may be put away on shelves, or packed in small boxes ; the latter method is probably the best, as it is more liable to become shriveled when left in an open room than when confined in a smaller space. Boxes that MISCELLANEOUS. 183 will hold from twenty to thirty pounds are of convenient size, and the fruit will retain its flavor much better with twenty pounds in a box than when there are only five pounds. The boxes should be made so that they can be shut tight ; if there should be need of ventilation, it can be given by opening the box, but constant ventilation of them is only another name for continual evaporation, which would cause the fruit to shrivel and thus destroy its value. A cool and steady temperature should be maintained, and if it could be kept between 35° and 40° there would be but very little trouble in keeping the fruit, even if but little care were given to the packing. Very few persons have a room or cellar that can be kept so cool as 40° ; con- sequently more care is necessary in gathering, packing, etc. A warm, damp atmosphere is very injurious, as it will soon cause the grapes to rot ; but the presence of consid- erable moisture will do no harm, provided the temperature is low. There are various materials used in packing grapes, many of which are good, while others are positively injurious. Saw-dust is used in packing the Malaga grapes which are so common in our markets ; but the flavor of the grapes is always injured more or less by it, giving them a strong woody taste. Cork-dust is far better than common saw- dust ; but it can not be obtained except near cork manu- factories, and perhaps not then to any amount. If any such material is to be used, there is none better or more easily procured than chaiF of rye, wheat, or oats Rice chaff would probably be still better. When the grapes are gathered, bring them into a cool room and spread them out upon a table or shelves, and let them remain there for a few days until ah1 surplus moisture has passed off; then pack them away in the boxes, as fol- lows : spread a thick sheet of paper on the bottom, then lay on a layer of bunches, placing them close together ; then another sheet of paper, and so on until the box is full. 184 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST. Boxes deep enough to hold four or five layers are better than deeper ones. When the boxes are filled, put them away in a cool place, and where they can be examined occasionally, and the decayed berries be taken out from time to time as they appear. If the place is cool and the fruit sound and ripe, they will keep three or four months without further care. WINE MAKING. The making of wine is supposed by many to be neces- sarily connected with grape culture. So general has been this belief that nearly every book upon this subject has its chapter upon wine making, whether the author knew any- thing about the subject or not. For my own part, I could never understand why wine making had anything more to do with grape culture than whisky or starch making had to do with corn growing, or cider making and the produc- tion of apple jack should necessarily be recognized as a part of pomology. Two hundred years ago, when John Evelyn wrote his " Pomona," it would not have been thought com- plete without those wonderful chapters on " The Making and Ordering of Cyder !" The man who writes a book on apple and pear culture, at the present time, would hardly think it in his line to teh1 how to make perry and cider, nor would it be expected of him. I shall therefore depart from the general rule, and for two reasons : 1st. I believe that wine and brandy making do not necessarily belong to grape culture. 2d. I should not be able to give any information from actual experience ; and I believe the reader will agree with me that in horticulture, at least, none have a right to become teachers until they have them- selves been scholars. There are plenty of men in our country who know how to make wine, and from them we should get correct infor- mation upon the subject, provided they can be persuaded MISCELLANEOUS. 185 to give it, and none others should be heeded. It is not every one who attempts to make wine that accomplishes it ; for every vineyardist does not know how to make wine any more than every wine maker knows how to grow grapes. Let us first supply the country with good table grapes ; then, if there should be a surplus, we can call on the wine, vinegar, and brandy maker for information and assistance in disposing of it to advantage. PRUNING SHEARS. Those who have a large number of vines to prune know the importance of having a good implement with which to do it. With a first-rate pair of shears a man can prune many more vines in a day than he can with a knife ; besides, there is less danger of breaking off those buds which it is desirable to retain. In pruning fruit trees the priming- knife is preferable, because we usually wish to make a smooth cut, so that the wound will heal over ; not so with the vine, as the cut is generally made between the buds, and the wound is not expected to heal ; the stump above the bud dies back to it, and if this is cut away it is only for looks — nothing more. Therefore in pruning vines it is not requisite to leave a very smooth surface to the wounds, though to have an instrument that will cut smooth and easy is very desirable. There are any number of styles of pruning shears — Ger- man, French, English, and American. Some are good, but more that are good for nothing. The best shears that I have ever used (and they are not a few) are those made in this country. I am not aware that they have any particu- lar name, but " J. Wiss, Newark, N. J.," is stamped on the blade, and I presume that to be the name of the manu- facturer. Fig. 66 shows the shape of these shears. The springs are of brass or of some similar composition which ISO THE GRAPE GULTURIBT. seems not to be affected by cold, as I have frequently user! them when the thermometer was at zero. Hteel springs 1 have found were very liable to break in frosty weather. rig. There is a catch at the ends of the handles to fasten them together, so that they rruiy be carried safely in the pocket. In the engraving the catch is shown as open, but it may be turned in against the spring, so as to be out of the way when the shears are in use. There are several sizes of these shears, and the price formerly was from $1 00 to $1 60 ; at present they are a trifle higher. I presume they can be had at most of the seed stores in New York. CHAPTER XVIII. THJCSS are few '/four cultivated fruit* that are Je** liable tobei0fe«t«dbyiniN^»tbai»thegra)/e; it ha* ltd mfljfof, however, which, if allowed to increa*e, would *oon become quite formidable, In *ome part* of the wintry in*eet ravage* have been *o great that it ha* materially checked the cultivation of the vine, Hie rapid increa*e of i n*ect* i*, without doubt, owing in a great meanure to the destruction of those bird* that lire moftly upon them* If we destroy or drive away the fiatt^- ral enemies of the in*eet«, then we mu*t take UJX/TI our- *elre* tbe oflj/^ of de*troyer, and work with j^r*everane» and vigilance, or *ee all our enVt* to produce fruit in abttndaoee of no avail. That noxiou* in*eet,* are raf/idly ioereaniog throughout t>ie rx/untry muni be apparent to every one who ha* given the ftut/jeet attentiofi* that ten year* »in/;e were unknown in the We*tern are now found there in ai/undanix;, having l>eeri intro- duced, not only from the Kantern Htate*, but imported from Eoropean eouAtrie* with *ee^l«, fruit*, etc* It inattU^* but little where these ho*t* of inject* corn^ from, tbe la^t that tliey exint, with few idlem «m//ng them, li enon^i to *et every one of w to work to eheek tlieir pro^re** in every way po**ibJe, To proeeed on our work of de*tmetkm under*tan/lingly, we *h//uld fir»t know otir enemie*, for *ome in*ect« Uiat are found on the grape ri»e do not injure it, but a**i*t u* in /leHroying tbo*e that are injurious, therefore an i/idixOTntmate *laughterf in ma^y ea«e*, would be very injudiciou*. There are many no*- tntm* offered at the pre*em time which are *aid t// he in- •e