GIFT OF

~r

THK

GRAPE CULTURIST

A TREATISE ON THE

CULTIVATION OF THE NATIVE GRAPE

s.

AUTHOR OF THE "SMALL FRUIT CULTURIST," "PROPAGATION OF
PLANTS," "PRACTICAL FORESTRY," ETC., ETC.

HEW, REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITIOH

NEW YORK
GRANGE JUDD COMPANY

1908

,--LLHL

'. / COPYRIGHT, 1894
By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

r-

PREFACE

It is now thirty years since the first edition of this
work was written and offered to the public, with many
misgivings on the part of the author in regard to its recep-
tion and fate. But much to his surprise as well as grat-
ification, it was cordially received, and the demand for
frequent and large editions has continued down to the
present time.

Now my publishers inform me that the original
plates are worn out, by long and continued use, and that
the book must be reset or relegated to that bourn, known
to the trade as "out of print," and where so many of
my worthy contemporaries have found a resting place
during the past three decades of grape culture.

Many changes have occurred in this branch of hor-
ticulture during recent years, and valuable discoveries
made in the way of materials and mode of applying to
prevent the ravages of noxious insects and fungus dis-
eases, all contributing more or less to advance the grape
industry, which has now become one of great importance
to the whole country. An immense number of new
varieties have been produced, and yet some of those that
were popular thirty-five years ago, still hold their own,
and even lead in the markets of all our large viflages and
cities, and this, in my opinion, is a better test of their
intrinsic value than all the encomiums bestowed upon
them from other sources. Some of my earlier critics
accused me of over-praising these varieties and neglecting
those which they thought were more deserving of com-

IV THE GRAPE CCLTUBIST.

mendation ; but all this has become history and no longer
worthy of serious consideration.

My aim in writing this work was to make it an ele-
mentary text-book for the novice in grape culture, and
not a scientific treatise — explaining the natural laws as I
understand them — which govern the development and
fruiting of the vine, believing that when the vineyardist
comprehends these he may the more readily vary his
operations, and yet do no violence to the fundamental
principles of plant growth. To more fully carry out this
idea, the "arm and spur system" of pruning and train-
ing was selected for illustrations, and these are retained,
because it is the culmination and perfection of all sys-
tems, and has been attained through centuries of experi-
ence and numberless experiments in the Old World, and
especially in France, where grape culture has long been
regarded as one of the most important of her national
industries.

It must be admitted, however, to fully carry out this
system of pruning and training, a much greater amount
of labor is required than in many others in vogue, but
this cannot be urged as a fault of the system, but only
an objection where labor is scarce and dear, and grapes
as cheap as they have been with us of late years. But if
the inexperienced vineyardist, and even those somewhat
advanced, will study the principles involved in following
this system to completion they will be all the better pre-
pared for adopting any of the more simple forms of train-
ing given in the succeeding chapters.

The cultivation of our native grapes appears to have
had its inception with a few amateurs like Tench Coxe
of Philadelphia, and John Adlum of Washington, early
in the present century, and from these localities, instead
of extending southward, as might reasonably have been
expected, it spread northward, and as an industry grape
culture has reached its highest development on the banks

PBEFACE.

of our larger rivers, smaller inland lakes, and on the south
shores of the greater ones on our northern border. From
there it has extended westward to the great plains beyond
the Mississippi. It is scarcely probable, however, that
the mild salubrious climate of the elevated regions of the
Middle and Southern States are to remain almost unap-
propriated by vineyardists, and it is not improbable that
in the near future the center of this great industry may
be found several degrees south of its present locality.

Thirty years ago California was an unknown competi-
tor in the fruit markets of the Atlantic States, but the
completion of the then projected railroads across the con-
tinent has opened our doors to her products, and the
mild climate of the State is so well adapted to the culti-
vation of the exotic grape in all its varieties, as well as
other half-hardy fruits, that in her horticulture she is as
much a foreign land as Spain, Southern Italy, and other
semi-tropical countries of Europe. For this reason I do
not refer to any of the grapes cultivated in that part of
the country. In the classification of the American
species of the grape the reader will notice that there has
been a wide departure from the one given in the first
edition of this work, and while botanical nomenclature
and determination depends so largely upon the individual
opinions of botanists, that there is little probability that
they will ever reach an unquestioned conclusion, yet we
may hope that each succeeding generation will strive to
improve upon the labors of its immediate predecessor.

ANDREW S. FULLER,

Ridgewood, N. J., 1894.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GRAPE 3

CHAPTER II.
GROWING FROM SEED 15

CHAPTER III.
PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS 20

CHAPTER IV.

CUTTINGS OF UNRIPE WOOD 36

CHAPTER V.
PROPAGATION HOUSE 40

CHAPTER VI.
CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIR 48

CHAPTER VIL
LAYERING THE VINE 58

CHAPTER VIII.
GRAFTING THE GRAPE 63

CHAPTER IX.
HYBRIDIZING AND CROSSING 74

CHAPTER X.
TRANSPLANTING 81

CHAPTER XI.
SOIL AND SITUATION 89

CHAPTER XII.
STEM APPENDAGES 102

CHAPTER XIII.
PLANTING THK VINE HA

CHAPTER XTV.
GRAPE TRELLISES 120

CHAPTER XV.
TIME TO PRUNE VINES 123

CHAPTER XVL
GARDEN CULTURB ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••«••••••••••••••• 1£6

Till CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVII.
VARIOUS SYSTEMS OP PRUNING AND TRAINING 17fi

CHAPTER XVIII.
MISCELLANEOUS 194

CHAPTER XIX.
INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE 203

CHAPTER XX.
FUNGUS DISEASES 231

CHAPTER XXI.
DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES 239

CHAPTER XXII.

NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN VARIETIES 264

CHAPTER XXIH.
OLD, OBSOLETE AND INFERIOR VARIETIES 268

INTRODUCTION

To even attempt to write the history of the grape,
one would need go back to the prehistoric races of the
Eastern world, who have only left us silent relics of
their handiwork, from which we may gather a misty
idea of their domestic life and intelligence. The earliest
rays of light which have come down to us, on this sub-
ject, are the ancient traditions, and these only take us
back to the time when planting vineyards and grape cul-
ture had already become an important industry. But
since those days the vine has been a constant attendant
of civilization, following it from country to country,
and progressing with it; yet the same species of the
grape that thrives so well over a great portion of the
Eastern Hemisphere has, with few exceptions, like that
of California, entirely failed in this country. While we
may regret that the exotic grape, in its many varieties,
is not adapted to the climate of the Eastern States, yet
we may congratulate ourselves upon having indigenous
species, from which new varieties have been, and are
still being, produced, which will rival, in point of rich-
ness and flavor, any of the foreign ones; and we are
encouraged to hope for further improvements in the
near future.

The cultivation of the vine in this country has had
many obstacles to contend with. The earlier vineyard-
ists, who had been accustomed to the improved grapes
of Europe, could see nothing in the inferior wild grapes
of this country to induce them to attempt their cultiva-

1

2 THE GRAPE CULTURJST.

tion, and for many years all of our vineyards were
planted with the foreign varieties, which, of course,
failed ; but the experiment was often repeated, but with
no better results. Even so late as thirty years ago, and
while writing the first edition of this work, a German
acquaintance was planting fifty acres with foreign varie-
ties on Long Island, insisting that all previous failures
with these vines was due to want of proper pruning and
training, and not, as claimed, to an uncongenial climate ;
but he had no better success than the hundreds of other
enthusiasts who had previously entered the same field,
only to retire with a certain amount of dear-bought
experience. But after nearly, or quite, two centuries of
such unsuccessful attempts to grow the European varie-
ties of the grape in open culture in this country east of
the Kocky Mountains, vineyardists turned their atten-
tion to the improvement of our native species, and the
results are to be seen in the many excellent varieties
now in cultivation. It is only since the foreign varie-
ties have been discarded for the hitherto neglected native
sorts, that grape culture in the East has become an
important and established branch of American industry.

CHAPTER L

BOTA1HCAL CHAKACTEEISTICS OP THB GRAPE.

The opinions of botanists differ widely in regard to
the number of species of the grape indigenous to North
America, and this is not at all strange, with a plant so
disposed to run into varieties. In the earlier works of
the late Professor Asa Gray, — and whose classification
was followed in the first edition of the Grape Culturist,
— he recognized only four species as inhabiting this
country east of the Mississippi valley, and this limitation
prompted me to remark, at that time, "that there are
several native species which are found in certain sections
of the country which are very puzzling, and one is at a
loss as to which of the admitted species they should be
referred." These varieties (or species), though growing
indiscriminately with others, about which there is no
doubt, seem to preserve their identity, and it is very
difficult to decide whether to call them distinct species
or marked varieties of the species enumerated by Dr.
Gray. Practically it may be of little consequence what
view is taken of these unusual forms, for the vineyardist
is mainly interested in them as varieties, and it is of no
particular moment to him whether we have one hundred,
or only one native species, so long as there is a suffi-
cient number to suit all soils and climates. But later,
Dr. Gray and his eminent colleagues revised the list of
native species of the grape, admitting that there were
seven or eight indigenous species in the Eastern States,
and two or more in the Pacific coast regions, only four
of which, however, have given rise to valuable or prom-

8

^ ;«. •. / : i .THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

This statement, in regard to

•"Tou'f* Species );'©Hly* fielding promising cultivated varie-
ties, must rest upon individual opinions as to the origin
or descent of some of the recently produced varieties,
but as it is of no great importance, we may leave it for
future investigators to determine.

In giving a synopsis of the genera and classification
of the grapes of the United States, I shall avail myself
of a monograph prepared for the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, by T. V. Munson, who has gath-
ered together a mass of material heretofore scattered
through the works of various botanists, and arranged it
in a convenient order for study. This grouping of the
species, or varieties, is probably as near correct as the
present state of botanical investigation will permit, but
I shall only give an epitome of his monograph, using
such parts as appear to be of the most value and practi-
cal importance to the vineyardist.

Genus VITIS. — (Tournefort, Linnaeus in part) Grape.

Calyx very short, or small ; the border often obso-
lete, and the tube filled with the fleshy disk, which bears
four or five thick caducous petals (Fig. 1 A greatly
enlarged), cohering at the top, while they sepa-
rate at the base, the corolla usually falling off
without expanding ; five thick glands, or lobes,
of the disk, alternating with the stamens be-
tween them and the base of the ovary ; flowers
FIG. i. in a compound thyrsus, dioecious-polygamous in
all the American species, mostly exhaling a fragrance
like that of mignonette. Tendrils and flower-clusters
opposite the leaves, the former almost always divided, or
forked. Leaves simple, rounded and heart-shaped, often
variously lobed.

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 5

GROUP 1. RIPARLE. (River Grape.)

Vine shrubby or climbing, moderately bark-shedding
in fibrous plates ; young canes cylindrical, or but slightly
angled ; smooth or tomentose ; tendrils rather short and
weak ; leaves small to medium, broadly heart-shaped ;
clusters small, generally compact shouldered; fruit-
stalk very short and thick; berries small to medium,
with bloom vinous and without offensive odor.

Vitis rupestris, Scheele, Southwestern Texas, Ozark-Ridge; Central

Tennessee.
Vitis riparia, Michaux, all Northern States and Canada east of Rocky

Mountains.

Vitis Solonis, Hort. Berol., Northwestern Texas and New Mexico.
Vitis Doaniana, Munson, Northwestern Texas and New Mexico.

GROUP 2. WESTERN SPECIES.

Vine shrubby, as in Vitis Arizonica, or climbing
vigorously, as in F. Californica. Young canes nearly
cylindrical, tomentose, buds small to medium and whit-
ish tomentose in expanding. Leaves long, cordate, or
heart-shaped, small to medium silky tomentose to glab-
rous ; clusters small to medium, mostly compact. Ber-
ries small black, with thin bloom, vinous, and hanging
a long time to the vine. The foliage said to be very
sensitive to mildew, and the fruit to rot. The F. Cal-
ifornica is the tenderest of all our native species, most
abundant in light soils along streams.

Vitis Arizonica, Engelmann, var. glabra, Munson, Western Texas, New

Mexico, Arizona, and Chihuahua, Mexico.
Fitis Girdiana, Munson, all California south of Mojave Desert, rare

north of that.
Vitis Californica, Bentham, Central and Northern California, and

Southern Oregon on Rogue River.

GROUP 3. CORIACE^E.— (Thick Leaved.)

Vine rather slender, climbing, young leaves very
small on end of growing shoots. Young annual canes
white or rusty tomentose, except in F. Champini.
Leaves medium, broadly cordate. Surface slightly

6 THE GRAPE CULTUMST.

rugose, dark green, thick, leathery. Young leaves at
first pale pinkish underside, covered with whitish or
rusty tomentose. Clusters small, loose, simply divided ;
berries medium to very large, without bloom; skin
thick, more or less pungent, but not musky.

Vitis Champini, Hanchon, Southwest Texas.

Vitis candicans, Engelmann, east of one hundredth meridian in Texas.

Vitis coriacea, Shuttle worth, Central and Southern Florida.

GKOUP 4. LABKUSOE. (Fox Grape.)

Vine strong, stocky, climbing vigorously; tip of
young shoots enveloped in rapidly growing and unfold-
ing leaves, and usually of a pinkish color. Young canes
densely tomentose, almost woolly, cylindrical, and as
they become mature are covered with short spinous hairs,
giving to the dark brown striated bark a roughness read-
ily recognized as a specific character. Leaves densely
tomentose while young, becoming rugose above and rusty
woolly beneath ; broadly cordate and lobed, the lobes
separated by deeply rounded sinuses ; clusters medium
to large, compact shouldered ; berries medium to large,
color variable, from nearly white to black, covered with
bloom ; tough pulp, and a strong musky or foxy odor
and taste. Only one species.

Vitis labrusca, Linnaeus, Atlantic States and Tennessee.

GKOUP 5. ^STIVALES. (Summer Grape.)

Vine strong, stocky, climbing; tips of growing
shoots sparsely supplied with leaves ; young wood to-
mentose, or nearly smooth in some, while others have a
spinous pubescence around the joints ; tendrils pale or
reddish brown ; young buds usually reddish or crimson ;
leaves medium to large, with loose cobwebby hairs
beneath, smoothish when old, and dark green above;
berries small to large, with light bloom, mostly astrin-
gent, but sometimes sweet and vinous.

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 7

Vitis Uncecutnii, Buckley. South Texas, var. glauca, Munson. North

Texas to South Missouri.
Vitis bicolor, Leconte. Kentucky to Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois,

New York, and southward.

Vitis cestivalis, Michaux. Tennessee, Georgia, Virginia, and southward.
Vitis Simpsonii, Munson. Florida.

GROUP 6. CORDIFOLI^E. (Frost Grape.)

Vine slender, climbing ; young canes smooth, cylin-
drical, except in monticola, thinly pinkish pubescent in
striate lines along the obscure angles, becoming pale
reddish brown ; leaves heart-shape entire or lobed, blade
smooth and shining on both sides, except along the mid-
ribs and veins ; clusters medium to large, loose, and sel-
dom compound ; berries small, black, shining, without
bloom except in V. monticola.

Vitis cordifolia, Michaux. Iowa to New York, south to Gulf.

Vitis rubra, Michaux. (V. palmata, Englm.) Illinois and southward.

Vitis monticola, Buckley. ( V. Texana, Munson.) Southwest Texas.

GROUP 7. CINERASCENTES. (Winter Grapes.)

Vine slender at first, but becoming a strong grower
and climbing very high. Young canes densely whitish
or rusty, pubescent, or woolly along the angles ; buds
small, sub-triangular, brown, but in expanding dull
pink or rusty crimson; leaves long, cordate, seldom
lobed, but variable in the different species, some with
upper side rugose, dark, dull green, and only pubescent
or whitish woolly beneath, the latter in some of the
Southwestern forms ; clusters large to very large, loose
or compact, compound, with long slender peduncle ;
berries very small, with thin bloom, or shining black,
with a pure vinous taste, intensely acid till very ripe, or
when frosted.

Vitis Virginiana, Munson. Mountain Valleys Southwest Virginia.

Vitis B6rlandieri, Planchon. ( V. monticola, Mil.)

Vitis cinerea, Engelmann. Texas, Indian Territory, Missouri, Illinois,

Tennessee, var. Floridana, Munson, Florida.
Vitis Caribcea, D. C., Eastern Mexico, and West Indies.
Vitis Mlaiicoii, Muason. Sierra Madre Mountains, Western Mexico.

8 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST.

GROUP 8. MUSCADINLE. (Southern Fox Grape.)

Vine slender, canes short-jointed, angled, tendrils
intermittent, buds very small, globose, brown, when
unfolding dull brownish -green ; leaves small, round, or
somewhat cordate, very coarsely toothed with broad
bluntish teeth, thin and smooth on both sides ; clusters
small, loose ; peduncle short ; berries small in Munsoni-
ana, and shining black ; without pulp or musky odor or
taste, but very large and musky in the V. rotundifolia,
or common Scuppernong grape of the Southern States.

Vitis rotundifolia, Michaux. All Southern States east of 100° longitude

and south of 38° latitude.
Vitis Munsoniana, Simpson. Central and South Florida.

According to the preceding classification, we have
twenty-five species of the grape indigenous to North
America, instead of less than half that number, as given
in the older botanical works ; but the later botanists have
had much better opportunities of examining the wild
vines than the earlier investigators, hence their conclu-
sions are all the more deserving of credence ; besides, if
not absolutely perfect, they will do no harm, and may
aid present and future investigators in determining the
true relation of our various species and varieties.

In the following table, from the monograph referred
to on a preceding page, the species and varieties are
arranged in a convenient form for study, with name of
botanist who first described them, where found, etc. :

Genus VITIS, Tournefort (Linnaeus in part").

(Explanation: H.— Hardy north; H. H.— Half-hardy north;
T.— Tender north.]

SECTION l.—Euvitis. Planchon.

Specific

_, number.

Series 1. Riparice.

Vitis rupestris(Schee\e),PL 1

Vitis riparia (Michaux), H. ( V. palmata, Vahl) 2

Vitis Soloiris (Hort. Berol.), H 3

Vitis Doaniana (Munsou), H 4

BOTAKICAL CHARACTERISTICS.

All excellent for hybridizing other species.
Scries 2. Ocddentales.

Vitls Arizonica (Engelmann), H. H., the "CaSon Grape" of

Arizona I

Var. glabra (Munson), H. H

Vitis Girdiana (Munson), T., the Southern California species;
mildews ft

Vitis Californica (Bentham), T., the Northern California species ;

mildews ^

Series 3. Coriacece.

Vitis Champini (Plaiichon), H. H., excellent, Southwest Texas 8

Vitis candicans (Engelmann), H. H., "Mustang Grape" of Texas.. 9

Vitis coriacea (Shuttle worth), T., Florida 10

Series 4. Labruscce.

Vitis labrusca (Linnaeus), H., to which Ives, Concord, etc., belong 11
Series 5. JZstivales.

Vitis vinifera (Linnaeus), T., European and Asiatic grape (a)

Vitis Bourquiniana (Munson), H. H., South European, Herbe-
mont, etc (b)

Vitis Lincecumii (Buckley), H., "Texas Post-Oak Grape," large,

fine ... 12

Var. glauca (Munson), H., Northern Texas and Missouri

Vitis bicolor (Leconte), H., "Blue Grape," "Winter Grape," of
Ohio, Michigan 13

Vitis cestivalis (Michnux), A., Tennessee, Virginia, Georgia, etc. .. 14

Vitis Simpsotiii (Munson), T., Florida 15

Series 6. Cordifolice.

Vitis cordifolia (Michaux), H., "Frost Grape," " 'Possum Grape" . . .16

Vitis rubra (Michaux), (V.palmata, Engelmann), H., Southern Illi-
nois, ornamental 17

Vitis monticola (Buckley), H. H., "Sweet Mountain Grape,"

Southwestern Texas 18

Series 7. Cinerascentcs.

Vitis Virginiana (Munson), H., mountain streams Southwestern
Virgin ia 19

Vitis Berlandieri (Planchon), H. H., from chalky soils of South-
western Texas 20

Vitis cinerea (Engelmann), H., "Sweet Winter Grape," Illinois,

Texas, and eastward 21

Var. FLoridana (Munson), Florida and along the Gulf coast. . .

Vitis Caribcea(De Candolle), T., West Indies and Eastern Mexico. . 22

Vitis Blancoii (Munson), T., Sierra Madre Mountains, Mexico 23

SECTION Il.—Puncticulosis, Munson.
Series 1. Muscadinice

Vitis f^tundifolia (Michaux), H. II., "Muscadine Grape" of the
South 24

Vitis Musoniana (Simpson), H. H., "Bird Grape," ('-Mustang
Grape," Chapman), Southern Florida 25

The European and Asiatic species of the grape have
passed through almost the same vicissitudes as the Amer-
ican species, in the way of re-arranged classifications by

10 THE GBAPE CT/LIURIST.

botanists, but at the present uay all of the many thou-
sand varieties cultivated in European countries, with
the exception of the few introduced from America, are
supposed to have originated from one species, namely,
the Vitis vinifera, and it is not positively known which
one of these two thousand or more varieties is the orig-
inal, although it can be proved that many of them are
not ; it is, therefore, impossible to give a description of
the foreign vine so that it can be recognized by one not
previously acquainted with the general appearance of
the many varieties belonging to it. Language, however
skillfully applied, is often inadequate to describe to
others our own knowledge or impressions. For instance,
we may have a friend whom we wish to describe to
another so that he shall be able to know him among a
thousand ; but unless the one described has some unu-
sual mark to designate him, twenty may be found in the
thousand to answer the description exactly — at least, to
a stranger. So it is with the foreign vine ; to those
who have become acquainted with both it and the native
species, it is an easy task to distinguish one from the
other, no matter how much each may vary ; but to de-
scribe the two so that others may learn the difference is
not so readily done. Foreign varieties have leaves rang-
ing through all the gradations of color known as green
— so have ours ; some approach the red — so do ours ;
many have a very shining surface, and others are downy
or woolly — so are ours. The leaf of the European grape
also presents every conceivable shape, preserving, how-
ever, characteristics enough to be recognizable as belong-
ing to the grape genus. And we have one species, the
Labrusca, the varieties of which will match any of them
in shape. The young wood of many of the foreign van-
eties is covered with a grayish-blue bloom, said by chem-
ists to be wax ; this is sometimes considered a distinctive
mark of the foreign varieties, but our cor di folio is

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. ll

Abundantly furnished with it. We could multiply these
parallel characters indefinitely, but enough has been said
to show how difficult it is to designate the species to
which a particular variety belongs, especially if we have
words only for our guidance. There are, however, cer-
tain characteristics so prominent that they may serve as
a partial guide until some freak of nature admonishes us
to lay them aside. 1st. The skin of our native grape
slips from the pulp, while that of the foreign varieties
adheres to it like the skin of the apple, and those which
have a fleshy pulp allow the seeds to drop from it when
it is broken. The seeds of our native grapes are envel-
oped and held together by the pulp, more or less persist-
ent in different varieties ; but to observe this the fruit
of some of the newer ones must be examined before they
are fully ripe, for at that time the pulp has become so
tender that it is scarcely more than a liquid. The tough
pulp is a prominent characteristic of the Vitis Lalrusca
and its varieties. 2d. The bark of some of the native
grapes, particularly on the one-year-old canes, parts very
readily from the wood ; it is also quite tough, and in
some instances it may be divided into small threads
resembling hemp, while the bark on the young wood of
the foreign vine usually adheres more firmly, and is also
(;iiite brittle. The bark of the native vines, particularly
the northern species, is harder than that of the foreign
one, and the prevailing colors are dark maroon or brown,
varying to light orange. Very few of the cultivated
native varieties have any bloom upon the young wood,
v/hile that of the foreign ones, when grown m the open
dr, usually has a grayish or ashen hue, and is also more
or less supplied with a peculiar blue bloom.

Many other peculiarities might be noticed, but as
we do not recommend foreign varieties for out-door cul-
ture in the Northern States, there is no necessity of pur-
suing this subject further.

12 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

Propagation by Seed. — As the propagation of
the grape from seeds is the only method by which new
varieties can be produced, it is all-important to the wel-
fare and prosperity of grape culture in this country that
it should receive the attention of all friends of progress
in this department of horticulture. Although great
advance has been made in the last few years, and we
now have a few fine table and wine grapes, yet we have
none that are perfect, or but what may be far surpassed,
even if only ordinary skill is applied to the growing of
seedlings.

The seeds should always be gathered from grapes
that are fully ripe, and from the best varieties that can
be obtained. Those varieties which have any prominent
defect, such as slow growth, thin, small leaves, those
that are liable to mildew, vines that are tender, or ripen
their fruit very late, should be avoided, unless they pos-
sess some excellent quality which it would be desirable
to perpetuate, and which can not be found in any other
variety. It must not be expected that good, strong,
healthy seedlings will be grown every year, even from
the very healthiest native variety, as the seeds of the
grape are not fully developed every season, although the
grape itself may appear to be perfect. I mention this,
that those who fail to grow good healthy seedlings on
the first trial, may not be discouraged. The next sea-
son, with no greater care, they may have perfect success.
It must not be expected that all the seedlings, nor any
great portion of them, will produce better fruit than the
parent, for although the vine has a tendency to improve
upon its wild nature — a return, as it were, for the care
and labor bestowed upon it — yet after it has taken a few
steps toward civilization, a large portion of its offspring
shows a disposition to recede to its original state. In
growing a thousand seedlings from a choice improved
variety, if we succeed in getting one even but little bei>
fcer than the parent, we would be well repaid.

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 13

It is this very uncertainty that affords the pleasure
and the rarity of satisfactory results which gives value
to this department of grape culture. Seedling grapes
are from three to ten years in coming into bearing —
usually the wildest and the most inferior varieties will
grow the strongest, and come into bearing first. I have
frequently marked two-year-old seedlings that showed
strong indications of their wild character, for the pur-
pose of ascertaining how near one could judge of the
worthlessness of a seedling by its leaf and growth. Some
of those marked produced fruit when only three years old,
and every one of them was as worthless in fruit as they
were wild in growth, although all were from improved
varieties.

Occasionally a seedling will be grown that will
never produce fruit ; for (see botanical description) our
native varieties are sometimes dioecious, that
is, one vine produces flowers having only
pistils, and another only stamens. Fig. 2
shows a grape flower (somewhat magnified)
after the petals have fallen. The pistil, c,
FIG. 2. is in the center, while the five stamens, B,
surround it. If it should happen to be the former (pis-
tillate), then the flowers may be fertilized from the per-
fect flowers of another vine ; but should it
prove to be one of the latter, with staminate,
or male flowers, then it will produce no fruit.
Although we speak of flowers being staminate,
yet we have never seen, nor have we good au-
thority for believing, that there are any varie- FIG- 3-
ties or species that are entirely wanting in the rudi-
ments of a pistil, though it may be so deformed that its
usefulness is destroyed.

Again, there will occasionally appear seedlings with
both perfect and imperfect flowers on the same vine and
in the same cluster \ such vines are called polygamous.

14 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

These occur more frequently than the dioecious ; and if
imperfect flowers occur, then, of course, we have very
imperfect bunches of fruit, although this may not always
be owing to a deformed stigma, but to an insufficient sup-
ply of pollen, owing to deformed stamens. The Tailor
grape (white) and Oporto (black) are striking illustrations
of perfect and imperfect flowers in the same cluster.
But the imperfections in the flowers of these seem to be
mostly in the stamens, they being very much deformed ;

for when the cap or petals
drop off, the stamens are
bent down, as seen, B, in
Fig. 3 ; not standing erect,
as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 4 represents a fair
sample of the bunches pro-
duced upon a vigorous vine
of the Taylor. Some of
the bunches may contain
more perfect berries than
the one from which this
engraving was made, and
others with not more than
two or three perfect ones.
The small, undeveloped
berries are those that were
FIG- 4- not fertilized. Other vari-

eties of this class show the same phenomenon, and all
that I have examined exhibit more or less the deformed
stamens, as shown in Fig. 3. The Taylor is a pure
native variety, belonging to what appears to be a distinct
species, found growing along the Alleghany range, from
Southern New York to Alabama, and along the banks of
those streams that flow from these mountains. It prob-
ably is also found near the Rocky Mountains, as several
varieties I have received from Nebraska and Kansas
appear to be the same species.

GROWING FROM SEED. 15

Some of the individuals of this group possess excel-
lent qualities, which, when properly developed, and their
defects remedied, will make the most valuable wine
grapes of the country.

CHAPTER II.

GROWING FROM SEED.

Gather the grapes when fully ripe, and either dry
them in the sun or in a dry room, until they appear like
raisins, and keep them in this way until spring, or,
when they are gathered, the seeds may be separated from
the pulp. Put in pots or boxes, mixed with pure sand
or sandy loam, and set away in the cellar, or bury in the
open ground, until spring. Mice are very fond of grapes
and grape seeds, and they should be placed where these
pests can not reach them. No matter whether the seeds
are frozen or not, all that is requisite is, that they shall
not get too dry ; if they are kept cool and moist, their
germinating powers will remain unimpaired.

The soil for a seed bed should be light, moderately
dry, and thoroughly pulverized to at least two feet in
depth. If not naturally very rich, it should be made so
by adding a liberal quantity of old, well-decomposed
manure from the barnyard, and incorporating it well
with the soil. The whole success often depends upon
getting a good, strong, healthy growth the first season.
So soon in the spring as the weather will permit, sow
the seeds in drills about a foot apart, and not too thickly
in the drills — one or two inches apart will do; cover
about three-quarters of an inch deep, and give a liberal
supply of water, if the weather is dry. When the plants
first appear above ground, they should be partially

1C THE GRAPE CULTUKIST.

shaded, to prevent their being burnt off by the sun.
The shading may be dispensed with so soon as the second
or third leaves are formed, at which time small sticks,
say from a quarter to one-half inch in diameter, and two
feet long, should be stuck by the side of each plant ;
every little plant will throw out its tendrils and attach
itself to the sticks, and grow much more rapidly than it
would if such a support were not given. The stakes, if
set thickly together, will afford a partial shade to the
young plants, which is often very beneficial, especially if
the summer should prove very warm. Another method
with which I have succeeded most admirably, is to sow
the grape seeds thinly in the drills with apple seeds;
the apple seedlings coming up with those of the grape,
or usually a little before, afford just sufficient shade
for the young vines ; and as the vine grows, they fasten
themselves to the young trees, which serve in place of
stakes. A still better plan would be to sow the apple
seeds in drills, running east and west, one foot apart,
and the seeds about one inch apart in the drill, after
which sow the grape seeds on the north side of the drill,
but close up to them, say within two inches, at least.
I use apple < or pear seeds, instead of cherry, peach, or
similar kinds, because they produce but very few side
roots the first year, and, consequently, do not interfere
with the growth of the seedling vines. When the plants
have made a few inches of growth, a light mulch of
leaves, hay, or moss may be spread over the entire sur-
face of the bed ; this will keep the roots moist and pre-
vent any sudden check to their growth. If the weather
should prove dry, give an occasional watering — not a
sprinkling, but a good soaking ; once a week will be suf-
ficient. No liquid manure will be needed if the soil was
properly enriched when the bed was made ; but if the
vines do not grow as rapidly as desired, then put a few
shovelfuls of good fresh barnyard manure into a barrel

GROWING FROM SEED. 1?

of water, stir it well, let it settle, and then draw off the
water and apply it to the plants ; or, instead, a solution
of two pounds of guano to a barrel of water may be used
with good effect. If there should be signs of mildew on
the plants, a few handfuls of sulphur, scattered over the
plants and bed, will usually prevent its further progress ;
or spraying with some of the fungicides recommended
under "fungous diseases" will answer equally as well,
or, perhaps, better. Grape seedlings, when well started,
usually grow quite rapidly, often making two to four
feet of wood the first season.

Those who have greenhouses or hotbeds may sow
the seeds in boxes or seed-pans, and place them in these
structures, so that they may receive artificial heat ; but
for growing hardy varieties the open ground is prefer-
able, as it is more natural ; and the sickly seedlings, of
which there are always more or less, will be more likely
to show their feebleness in the open ground, and can be
selected from the vigorous and thrown away, avoiding
further trouble. When the plants have made one sea-
son's growth, and the frost has killed their leaves, they
should be taken up, a portion of the stem cut off, and
the long perpendicular root shortened at least one-half
its length ; then heel them in in some dry, warm place
in the open ground. All small, sickly looking plants
should be thrown away, for they will seldom make good
vines if they fail to make a good growth the first season.
At the approach of very cold weather cover the entire
tops with soil or coarse litter, deep enough to insure
them against being severely frozen; not that freezing
would be sure to kill them, but it would tend to impair
their vitality. In the spring take out the plants and
cut the stems off to within four inches of their roots,
then plant them out in rows four feet apart, and three
or four feet apart in the rows. The ground for their
reception should be made rich and deep, using any old,

18 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

well-decomposed manure that may be at hand, or old
sods or muck ; if the latter is used, a peck of ashes to
the square rod, or half that quantity of lime, may be
added, with good effect. The whole soil should be
worked over at least eighteen inches deep, either with
the plow or spade.

The roots of the vines should be carefully spread
out, so that no two will come in contact ; then sprinkle
the soil among them, covering so that the upper bud on
the four-inch stem will be just above the ground ; this
will give about three inches of soil above the upper tier
of roots, which is sufficient for young plants, and more
than this would be injurious. After the vine is planted
press the soil down with the foot, so that it shall be firm,
but not packed. A good strong stake, say one and a
half inches in diameter, and six to eight feet long, should
now be put down by each plant to tie it to as it grows.
Let but one shoot grow, and pinch off all side branches
as they appear ; keep the vine tied to the stake so that
it shall not get broken off by the wind, and thereby
checked in growth. Keep the ground clear of weeds, and
stir the surface often with the hoe or rake, but never deep
enough to reach the roots. On very loose and porous
soils it is better to mulch the plants ; but if the soil is a
compact loam, or somewhat clayey, then it is better to
hoe often than to mulch, because if you cover up soils
that are naturally compact, they will hold too much
moisture, and sometimes become soured for want of
aeration.

At the end of the season's growth, and just before
the ground freezes, the vines should be pruned, by cut-
ting them back to within eight or ten inches of the
ground ; then bank up the soil about them, or bend
them down, and then cover them ; if covered with straw
or leaves, there is danger of their being destroyed by
mice. All that is now required is to protect them

GROWING FROM SEED. 19

slightly from the sudden changes in winter. The follow-
ing spring remove the covering and give the vines a top-
dressing of manure, and work it in with the hoe during
the summer. The vine should be allowed to make only
a single shoot this (the third) season, and if healthy and
vigorous, it will make a growth of ten to fifteen feet if
not checked ; but if allowed to grow unchecked, it would
necessitate very long and stout stakes, besides the trouble
of keeping them tied. It is best not to allow them to
grow so long, but pinch off the tops when they have
grown five or six feet high, and when they start again
and have grown a foot or more, check them again ; also
pinch off the ends of all the side shoots, or laterals, as
they are termed ; this concentrates the strength of the
vine, and hastens its maturity.

The vines are now three years old, and we may
begin to look for fruit next season, if they have not
already shown it upon some of the strongest. But to
be sure of getting a strong growth next season, we should
prune the vines back to two feet, and allow but two
shoots to grow; and further, they are more likely to
produce fruit from the lower than the upper buds, par-
ticularly if cut back.

This cuUfog back may be deferred until the last of
February, r^'jcss it is desirable to cover the vines again,
which it \z not, unless the climate is so severe that it is
not expeiied tney TV ill ever withstand the winter. In
the vicinity of New York I would not cover seedlings
after the second season.

We have now followed our grape seedlings until
they are four years old ; they should now be kept pruned
pretty short, say to two or three buds of the previous
season's growth, every season until they have fruited,
and then select those that promise well and discard the
others. If cuttings or layers are taken from the seed-
lings, they will often produce fruit before the parent

20 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

plant. For the manner of making these, see chapter on
propagating by layers and cuttings.

CHAPTER III.

PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS.

The mode of propagation of the grape from single
buds, or eyes, is particularly valuable, when it is desired
to increase rare and desirable varieties. It is supposed
to have been first suggested by the Rev. Mr. Mitchell, of
England, in 1777, and has been practiced sufficiently to
establish its true merits — some of which are : 1st. A
greater number of plants can be produced from a given
quantity of wood than by any other mode. 2d. Vines
so propagated contain just enough of the parent vine to
insure the perpetuation of a healthy plant of its kind,
but not enough to transmit disease to it by its decay, as
sometimes occurs when a large amount of the old wood
is used. 3d. As in this mode of propagation so small an
amount of wood is used that it admits of a large number
of cuttings being started in a small space, and as the
buds are nearly always forced into growth by artificial
heat, we may commence much earlier in the season than
when propagating in the open air, thereby giving a
much longer time for increasing, prolonging, and ripen-
ing their growth. This is secured, even if they are
planted out in the open ground, so soon as the plants
become well rooted and the weather sufficiently warm.
4th. But the greatest benefit arising from this mode of
propagating is, that varieties that are very difficult to
increase by other methods, can be multiplied with the
greatest facility by this. In fact, no variety or species
has yet been discovered that can not be grown readily
with artificial heat from single bud cuttings.

PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 21

Vines properly grown from single buds are certainly
equal to those propagated by any other mode ; but if
improperly grown, they are of but little value, and often
entirely worthless.

The buds used for propagating should be large and
well developed, and at no time of their growth should
the plants be allowed to receive a check, either by being
too cold or too hot. "While it may be necessary to keep
up a vigorous growth, it must be borne in mind that the
plants may be forced too rapidly by the use of stimulat-
ing manures, and by subjecting them to too great heat,
the result of which will be soft, spongy, unripened wood
and roots. Sometimes the roots will have small tuberous
appendages at their ends, which is often caused by the
presence of too much stimulating food. When vines
are propagated from single buds, and are kept in pots
during the entire season, the enlargement of the ends of
the roots will usually occur upon all those that grow out
until they reach the sides of the pots. This does not
show disease nor overgrowth, but merely that the roots
are crowded, and that they need more room. But when
these little tubers are found on the small roots all
through the soil, it shows that they have been made
unhealthy by injudicious treatment, or have been at-
tacked by the grape louse (Phylloxera), which will be
described in another chapter.

Mode of Operation. — Cut the wood from the
vines in the fall, after the leaves have fallen, but before
it has been severely frozen, and put away in moist earth
or sand in the cellar, or bury it in the open ground,
where it will be protected from the frost and can be
reached when wanted. The last of February or the first
of March is the usual time, in this latitude, to commence
starting the buds. There is nothing gained by forcing
the buds into growth too early ; better wait until the
season arrives when they naturally begin to swell, as

22 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

they will then grow more readily and make more healthy
plants than if started in the early part of winter. At
this time take out the cuttings and cut them up into
pieces, as represented in Fig. 5 ; put these into water as
they are cut ; this will prevent their becoming dry while
they are being prepared ; and if they are allowed to re-
main in the water for twenty-four to forty-eight hours,
it will do them no harm, but often be of benefit, espe-
cially to the hard- wooded varieties, as it softens the
alburnous matter from which the roots grow, and loos-
ens the outer bark, and thereby allows the roots to push

through it more readily,
there being always more roots
produced from other parts
of the cutting than from
FIG. 5. that part where the cambium

has been exposed by the knife. It is also a benefit to
some varieties that produce roots very tardily, to scrape
off a portion of the outer bark and the remains of the
old leaf-stalk which immediately surround the base of
the bud, so as to partially expose the inner bark.

When a quantity of the buds are prepared they
should be put into moderate-sized pots (six or eight inch
is a convenient size) filled to within about an inch of
the top with pure and moderately coarse sand, firmly
packed. Place the cuttings, with the buds up, about an
inch apart all over the surface, press them down firmly
with the thumb and finger; sift on sufficient sand to
cover the upper point of the bud about a quarter of an
inch deep, then press it all down evenly, using the bot-
tom of another pot for the purpose, after which apply
water enough to just moisten the whole contents of
the pot.

Sand taken from the banks of fresh-water ponds or
running streams is the best for propagating purposes, as
;t is nearly free from impurities. That taken from com=

PROPAGATION uY SINGLE BUDS. £3

mon sand banks often contains oxide of iron and other
foreign matters to an extent that renders useless all
attempts to grow anything in it. When pure sand can-
not be obtained, the other can be made to answer by
exposing it to the action of the air and rains for a few
months, or by washing it thoroughly before using.

After the pots have been filled with cuttings, they
should be placed in a temperature between 40° and 50°,
and allowed to remain from two to three weeks, water-
ing just enough to keep them moist, but not wet. As
roots are formed at a much lower degree of temperature,
and less rapidly than leaves, we are thus enabled to
cause the process of rooting to begin (which is very
essential) before we place them in a position to com-
mence growth; and when this does start, the roots,
being formed, or in process of formation, will then issue
with such rapidity that they will be capable of absorbing
food to supply the new growth as soon as it has con-
sumed that which was laid up in the bud the previous
season.

After removing the pots from their first position,
place them in the frames, which should be partially filled
with sand and located over the flues or hot-water pipes,
plunging them at least one-half their depth in the sand ;
give them bottom heat of 60° for the first few days, then
gradually raise it to 80° ; keep the frames partly open,
and the temperature of the atmosphere in them ten
degrees lower, if possible, than that of the sand under
them, bearing in mind that we wish to excite the roots
to grow before the leaves. When the buds begin to
push, allow the temperature to increase to 90° or 95°,
close the frames and keep the atmosphere moist by fre-
quent waterings; a liberal application once a day will
usually be sufficient. Pure rainwater is best, and should
always be of the temperature of the air in the house, or
nearly so. Cold water would surely check the growth

24 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST.

of the plants. Examine the young growth every day to
see that it does not commence rotting, or damping off,
as it is called ; should there be signs of this, give a little
more air ; but be careful of cold currents from the out-
side, as these are often fatal to the young plants. Also
avoid the direct rays of the sun, either by whitewashing
the glass, or nailing up strips of white muslin or paper
to the rafters of the house.

When the plants have made a growth of two or three
inches, they should be shifted into two-and-one-half to
three-inch pots, putting one plant into each.

Up to this time no material has been used which
contained any appreciable amount of plant food, nor has
it been needed, for the growth of roots and leaves has
been produced from the food stored in the bud and the
wood attached, and what little they may have obtained
from the air, water and sand. The plants are now in
condition to use more substantial nutriment, conse-
quently the soil in which they are to be potted may be
composed of rotted sods, taken from an old pasture,
mixed with one-half its bulk of old, well-decomposed
barnyard manure, or instead of sods use muck, or leaf
mold from the woods. These should be mixed together
at least six months before using; add one-eighth to one-
quarter sand, and turn all over until it is thoroughly
incorporated, then sift it all through a coarse sieve before
using. Having put a quantity of the soil upon the pot-
ting bench, which should be in the propagating house,
and provided a quantity of broken pots or bricks for
drainage, take the pots containing the plants from the
frames, lay them on their side and give them a sudden
jar with the hand, so as to loosen the sand around them ;
then draw out a plant carefully and hold it in one hand,
while with the other you place a small piece of the drain-
age material in the small pot, cover it with soil, then
put in the plant, allowing the roots to spread out natur-

PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 25

ally ; fill in soil around them until the pots are full,
without covering the roots where they join the stem
more than half an inch deep ; press the soil down firmly,
but not so hard as to break the roots. When the plants
are potted, place them again in the frames, give them
water to settle the soil about their roots, and keep the
air somewhat confined for a few days, until they have
become well established in the pots, when a little more
air may be given them. Keep the temperature at 85° to
95° during the day, and 60° to 70° at night. When the
plants have made four to six inches of stem they may be
taken out of the frames and placed in another house,
which, if they are to remain under glass during the sea-
son, should have been made ready for their reception.

Some propagators do not use frames within the
house at all, but depend entirely upon keeping the air
moist and hofc, as well as sufficiently confined, by the
ordinary methods of heating and ventilating the house.
While an experienced propagator will usually succeed in
this way, for those who have not had experience in prop-
agating the frames are much safer, and are enough bet-
ter to pay the extra cost, even for the use of the most
skillful.

When the plants are first potted in the small pots
they will require so much more room than before, that
it will often be found inconvenient to furnish frames
enough to hold them ; in such cases they may be set
upon shelves in the open house, and they will do well in
such a position if care is given in keeping the atmos-
phere within the house moist and warm, as well as in
shading the plants and avoiding direct currents of cold
air from the outside through doors or when ventilating
the house.

To get good, large, and strong plants, they will
require repotting at least three times during the summer.
At each change the pots used should be increased in size

26 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

about two inches. The same compost may be used for
each repotting, and the ball of earth around the roots
should not be broken, neither should the plants be
placed more than a half inch deeper than before. The
proper time for repotting is when the roots have reached
the sides of the pot and become crowded. The fresh
soil put around the roots should be pressed in firmly, to
make it of the same density as the ball of earth contain-
ing them. The plants should always be kept tied to
stakes, and the ends of side shoots pinched off, not
allowing more than two additional leaves to remain on
them at any one time. The plants should also be
allowed plenty of room, so that their leaves may fully
expand, and receive plenty of light and air. If this is
not attended to they will grow tall and slender, and
often fail to ripen their wood ; besides, they will be very
likely to be attacked by mildew. The plants should
receive the direct rays of the sun from the time they are
firmly established in the small pots.

To hasten the ripening of the plants, toward autumn
pinch off the top, and lower the temperature by giving
them more air. A little close observation during the
growth of the plants will enable the propagator to judge
of their wants, and the proper amount of water, heat,
etc., they require. Sometimes it will be necessary to
give them a little liquid manure, but this will seldom be
required if the compost in which they are grown is prop-
erly made and the plants allowed good-sized pots.

The propagation of our hardy varieties from single
bud cuttings in houses is not now practiced as exten-
sively as it was years ago, but it is still employed for
multiplying new and scarce sorts, as well as for foreign
varieties raised for growing in graperies.

Planting in Beds. — To avoid the expense of a suf-
ficient number of pots of the various sizes required for
repotting a large number of plants several times during

PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 27

the season, cheap glass structures, without artificial
heat, may be erected, and the soil in them made rich,
into which the plants may be put directly after they
have become well rooted in the small pots in which they
are placed at the first potting. These beds may be
made with the natural soil in the house, or they may be
made of strong plank frames, deep enough to hold a foot
of soil, and elevated some two feet from the ground ; in
this manner the roots receive more heat than when
planted in the natural soil. The same care will be
required, the same watering, staking, etc., as if they
were in pots. Plants of superior quality may be grown
in this manner, with much less expense and trouble than
attends those that are grown in pots through the season.

Single Buds in Open Air. — This is another and
cheaper mode than the two preceding methods, as the
expense is but trifling after the plants leave the propa-
gating house. But when vines are to be grown in this
manner, they should not be started too early, for the
weather must have become warm and settled before they
can be planted out.

The method is as follows : When the vines have
been repotted into the small pots and are well rooted,
they are turned out and planted in beds previously pre-
pared, in the following manner : First make the soil
rich and deep, and have it thoroughly pulverized and
raked level and smooth ; then lay it off into beds three
feet wide, and the required length ; drive down strong
stakes along the sides, to which nail boards to the height
of two feet or more, then across the top nail a few
strips to keep all firm. Stretch oiled or plain muslin
over the top, for shading the plant when first set out.
When all is ready, take the plants from the house and
turn them out of the pots (being careful not to break
the ball of earth as it is slipped from the pots), and
plant them about a foot apart each way in the beds.

fc8 THE GEAPE CULTURIST.

Now water them, and place the muslin over them when
the sun shines, for at least one week ; by this time they
will have begun to extend their reots into the fresh soil,
and the covering may now be removed ; but the boards
at the sides should remain all summer, as a protection
against wind and severe driving rains. Water the plants
as often as needed ; cover the soil with two or three
inches of mulch ; clean straw, hay or leaves are good,
and perhaps the best for this purpose. Keep the plants
tied to stakes, etc. , as already directed. It is no unusual
thing for plants, grown in this manner, to reach the
height of six feet the first season, and they are usually
more stocky than when grown all the season under glass.

It is best not to start all the plants in the propagat-
ing house at one time, as in that case they will all be
ready to be repotted or planted out at the same time ;
but they should be started at different periods, say a
week or ten days apart, making two or three lots, espe-
cially if there is a large quantity to be grown. Then
the different stages of growth will enable the propagator
to attend to each lot as its growth requires, and at the
proper time. When the plants are set out in the open
ground, as I have described, the material used for shad-
ing the first lot may also be used for the second, and so
on, instead of being compelled to purchase enough to
cover all at one time. The boards for protection are
sometimes omitted, as well as the shading, and in some
protected situations they may not be needed. There is
also a great difference in the texture of the leaves in the
different varieties, some being capable of withstanding
sun and strong currents of wind much better than
others ; yet I believe all will grow enough better to pay
for the expense of protection.

Starting in Hotbeds. — The main object in mak-
ing a hotbed is to produce artificial heat, and to have
this heat continue uniformly for several weeks. For

PROPAGATION BY SIKGLE BUBS. 29

this purpose various materials arc used, such as tan bark,
leaves, hops that have been used by the brewers, etc. ;
in fact, almost any fibrous material may be used, that
will continue to ferment a sufficient time to produce the
amount of heat necessary to cause seeds and cuttings to
grow, and keep the soil and atmosphere within the bed
from twenty to forty degrees above the freezing point,
even if the atmosphere without is far below. Besides
the materials for producing this heat, we must have a
structure called hotbed frames, in which we may control
it when generated. These are made of planks of any
required size, with a sloping top covered with sash.
They may be of any length or breadth, but they are
usually four to six feet wide, and of any convenient
length.

The sashes are made without cross-bars, and of a
length sufficient to cover the frames crosswise. If the
frames are six feet wide, then the sashes may be six feet
long and four feet wide ; but if the frames are but four
feet wide, the sash may be three by four ; these are con-
venient sizes. The size of the glass is immaterial, but
six-by-eight and eight-by-ten are sizes commonly used.
As there are no cross-bars to the sash, each pane of
glass is made to overlap the one below it from one-fourth
to one-half an inch, like the shingles on a house. The
more the glass overlaps, the more liable it is to be broken
by the freezing of the water, which will always accumu-
late, more or less, between the panes. The glass should
be bedded in soft putty, and fastened with glaziers'
points, the sash well painted ; but put no putty upon
the upper side of the glass. If anything is needed to
stop the joints between the edges of the glass and sash,
apply thick paint. If the glass is well bedded in putty,
nothing more than painting the upper side will be
required, and they are far better without the putty than
with it.

30 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

The hotbed may be, as we have said, composed of
various materials, but in any case they should be pre-
pared some time before they are wanted for use. When
leaves are used they should be obtained in the fall, and
placed where they can be turned over several times dur-
ing the winter, and a proper degree of moisture retained ;
and other materials should be treated in the same way.
Hops may often be obtained from the breweries in a
state of fermentation, and then all that is required is to
immediately put them into a proper shape, and place
the frames over them. But such materials are compar-
atively little used, horse manure being equal, if not
superior, to any other for the purpose, especially when a
small quantity of leaves is mixed with it. It is not nec-
essary to describe the mode of preparing hotbeds with
other materials, as the process is similar with each.
The manure should be taken as fresh from the stable as
possible, thrown into heaps to ferment, and worked over
several times ; all large, coarse lumps broken into pieces,
and if it becomes dry, add water to keep it from becom-
ing burnt and musty. This working over is to cause
the fermentation to act upon all parts, and to give it an
even texture throughout. If leaves can be had, they
should be mixed with the manure when it is being
worked over. One-fourth to one-half the quantity may
be of leaves.

If the ground is quite dry upon which the hotbed is
to be made (and such a situation is always preferable to
one that is wet), make an excavation one foot deep and
one foot larger than your hotbed frame ; then spread in
the manure and leaves in a layer about six inches thick,
and beat it down evenly with the fork, then put on
another layer and strike it down in the same way, and
so on until you have at least two feet in depth ; three
feet would be still better. By spreading the manure in
layers, and pressing each down separately, a more uni-

PEOPAGATTON BY SINGLE BUDS. 31

form degree of texture will be obtained, and, conse-
quently, a more even temperature will be had through-
out the bed. Bank up on the outside even with the top
of the frame with the fermenting manure, so as to assist
in keeping out cold air, as well as to prevent the escape
of the heat which is generated within.

Fig. 6 shows a hotbed of four sashes when com-
pleted.

When all is neatly finished, put on the frames, close
the sash, and keep all tight. If it is cold weather, cover
the sash at night, and in cloudy weather also, with straw

FIG. 6.

mats or board shutters, so as to allow as little heat to
escape as possible. So soon as the bed has become warm
and the steam begins to rise, which will usually be in
four to six days, cover the whole surface of the manure
within the frames with fine soil to the depth of four
inches, and so soon as this is warmed through, the bed
is ready for use.

The pots containing the buds — which should have
been prepared several days, or even weeks, previous, and

32 THE GEAPE CULTUB1ST.

have been kept in the cellar or some convenient place
away from the frost — may now be plunged into the soil,
nearly or quite down to the manure. The buds, or cut-
tings as they are called, should be made in the same
manner and potted in the sand, as recommended for the
propagating house.

Our main object now is the same as before ; that is,
by the assistance of bottom heat to excite the roots into
growth before the leaves; therefore, before the leaves'
start, admit as much air as possible without cooling the
soil or causing a too great waste of heat. "Head cool,
but feet warm," is applicable here, for the first week or
two ; but so soon as the buds push above ground, then
the air should be kept more confined, to prevent a too
great evaporation from the leaves as they expand. The
same care in regard to watering should be given as when
grown in the propagating house ; also shade the young
plants in a similar manner. We do not want to exclude
light so much as we do to avoid the direct rays of the
sun, while the leaves are small and the plants are form-
ing roots. Give the plants air by lifting one end of the
sash a few inches whenever the weather is fine, and .the
thermometer goes above 90° or 95°. The atmosphere
should be constantly humid, but do not so saturate the
soil as to cause the plants to rot or mildew ; also avoid
sudden changes from extreme heat to cold, for a change
of 30° to 40° will most surely give a check to the growth,
and this is almost certain to be followed by disease. So
soon as the plants have rooted pot them off into two or
three inch pots, and place them again in the frames.

If the weather has become quite warm, they may be
placed in frames where there is no bottom heat. The
propagator must be his own judge in this matter, only
bear in mind that a heat of 70° to 80° must be main-
tained to insure success ; and if this can be had without
bottom heat, then the latter will not be necessary.

PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 33

The plants may be kept in these pots until they are
well filled with roots, then they may be planted in the
open ground as before directed. Some of the hardy
grapes, such as Concord, Hartford Prolific, etc., have
such a thick and enduring leaf that it is not positively
necessary to erect frames to protect them when first
planted out, yet even these will be benefited by so doing.

When the soil in which the young vines are planted
is thoroughly prepared they will require but little care
during the summer, except to keep down weeds, and
even this will not be needed if they receive a liberal
mulch. But it will sometimes be necessary to water the
vines in locations where drouths occur, and there are
but few sections entirely exempt ; therefore it is expedi-
ent to be always ready for such an event, by saving an
abundant supply of rain water, if possible, and where
this can not be done, let there be casks or cisterns made,
in which well or spring water may be placed to become
warm by the time it may be wanted.

Form of Single-bud Cutting. — Thus far I have
mentioned but one form of making one-eye cuttings, yet
the shape may be varied to suit the fancy of the propa-
gator, so long as a sufficient
amount — but not too much
—wood is left adhering to
the bud. Fig. 7 shows one
FIG. 7. style ; in this the wood is

cut off about three-quarters of an inch above and below
the bud, and the wood on the side opposite the bud is
cut away deep enough to expose the pith the whole
length of the cutting; the cutting is then placed in the
sand, with the bud upon the upper side, pressing it
down horizontally, as it is shown in the cut. The
advantage claimed for cutting away the wood is, that it
exposes to the soil a greater surface of alburnous matter
(or, strictly speaking, the cambium), from which the
roots are produced. 3

34 THE GRAPE CULTUBIST.

If the roots from vine cuttings were dependent upon
the exposed cambium, as with some other plants, then
the superiority claimed might be conceded ; but such is
not the case, as a greater part are produced from around
the base of the bud, or pushed through the bark from
other points on the surface of the cutting.

In Fig. 8 the cutting is made square across, close at
the base, or just under the bud, leaving about an inch

and a half of wood
above it. It is
f _ placed in the pots at

the angle shown, the
dotted lines indica-
ting the surface of the
sand above the bud.
The advantage of
this form, if any, is
PIG- 8< that it exposes the

cambium to the soil at a point where it is to be found in
the greatest abundance, i. e., at or near the base of a bud.
Fig. 9 is another form of making the cutting £0 as
to expose as large an amount of cambium to the soil as
possible ; and further, to have a portion of the cutting
go deeper into the soil than in the other forms, thereby
avoiding suffering for want of moisture, if, by accident
or neglect, the soil in the pot should become dry near
the surface, which would destroy the cutting if made in
the other forms.

The cutting is placed in the pots in a sloping posi-
tion ; the dotted line above the bud represents the sur-
face of the sand. The only objection to this shape is,
that being made thin at the lower end, it is more likely
to become water-soaked and decay than if left with more
substance. It is, however, a good form, and has sor^e
advantages over several of the others. There is not only
a great diversity of opinion in regard to the shape of the

PKOPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS. 35

cutting, but also the best material in which to grow
them. Some successful propagators use leaf-mold from
the woods, others loam, charcoal and loam, burnt clay,
etc., etc., but none of the materials have the least ad-
vantage over pure sand, in which to start the cuttings,
and a majority of propagators, if I do not mistake, use
pure sand in which to place the cuttings until they form
roots. It is not only the safest material for the inexperi-
enced propagator, but it is all that is required by cut-
tings, in the way of soil, until they are in a condition to
absorb food through their roots. Sometimes it is well
to place a little rich soil in the pots — an inch or so below
the cuttings — so that
when the roots reach
that depth they will
find nutriment to
sustain growth ; in
this case the repot-
ting may be deferred
longer than would
be safe without such
a precaution. This
is often done by those
who expect to have FIG- 9-

more work on hand than they can attend to at the
proper time. Circumstances will sometimes occur when
it is not convenient to start the cuttings in pots ; if so,
they may be put into shallow boxes or directly into the
frames, but when this is done, the plank used in mak-
ing the boxes or frames should be new ; if not, they
should be coated on the inside with ordinary water ce-
ment, mixed thin, and laid on with a brush, or covered
with slate. Planks that have been used one season will
usually have begun to decay, and this rotting is often
the source of a fungus that will spread rapidly through
the damp, warm sand, and this is very likely to kill

36 THE GRAPE OULTURIST.

every young root with which it comes in contact. I have
known many a thousand cuttings to be destroyed by
fungi, while the propagator was searching for a cause in
another direction.

Single bud cuttings are sometimes grown in open
air without starting by artificial heat. They should be
made early in March and put away in damp sand or
moss, so that the callus will form by the time the
weather is sufficiently warm to plant out. Then plant
in beds, and cover about an inch deep with soil, and
about another inch of mold over all. Sawdust, tan, or
common moss are excellent materials for this purpose.
In dry weather water the same as if they were under
glass.

CHAPTER IV.

CUTTINGS OF UNRIPE WOOD.

Although the grape vine may be readily propagated
by cuttings taken from the vine while in active growth,
circumstances seldom occur when it is judicious to do
so. Unless more than ordinary care is bestowed upon
the young vines throughout the entire season, they will
not only be feeble, but often so diseased that they never
become strong and healthy, though at first they may
give promise of being so.

During the prevalence of the "grape fever," some
thirty years ago, many thousands of vines were annually
raised from unripe wood, or green cuttings as they are
usually termed, but it is questionable if the purchasers
of such vines would not have been better off, on the
whole, without, than with them.

That good, strong and healthy vines are sometimes
produced from green cuttings, I admit, but also assert

CUTTINGS OF UNKIPE WOOD.

37

that the great majority are worthless. The facility with
which vines may be multiplied in this way is a great
inducement, to those who are disseminating the new
and rare varieties, to use it. It requires no more skill
than propagating from single buds ; all that is requisite
is to have a propagating house (or even a hotbed will do),
where a steady and uniform high degree of heat can be
maintained.

The mode of operation is as follows : Place the
vines from which you desire to propagate in pots, or
plant them in the ground
within the propagating
house, and make the soil
in which they are planted
very rich, so that they
shall not want for food.
When the vines have made
a new growth of a foot or
so, take off the young
shoots, or a portion of
each; do not cut back all
the shoots at one time, as
this might too severely
check the growth of the
vine, but three-quarters of the number may be cut back,
or entirely removed, without doing any injury.

The young shoots that have been selected for cut-
tings should be divided into pieces of two buds each,
cutting them off just below a bud; the leaf adjoining
the lower bud should be removed, but the upper one
must be left entire. Fig. 10 shows the appearance of
the cutting when ready for planting ; a shows the surface
of the soil when placed in the pots. Plant these cuttings
in six or eight inch pots filled with sand, putting several
cuttings in each, but not crowding them ; press the sand
down firmly around the cutting, leaving only the upper

FIG. 10.

38 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

leaf and bud uncovered, and then put the pots within
the frames in the same manner as described for single
eyes. To prevent rapid exhalation from the leaves, the
atmosphere in the frames should be kept a little more
confined than for ripe wood cuttings. Ventilate the
frames but little until roots are produced. Keep the
heat from 80° to 90°, and see that there is plenty of
moisture, but not so much as to rot the cuttings or cause
them to mildew. Ventilation will usually check the mil-
dew, and withholding water prevents rotting.

In from two to four weeks, if successful, the cut-
tings will be sufficiently rooted to be separated and put
into small pots. An occasional examination of the cut-
tings will enable the propagator to determine the proper
time to do this. When the roots are two inches in
length they should be removed from the large pots and
placed in three inch pots, filled with the same rich com-
post recommended for other cuttings, except that the
soil is mixed with sand enough to constitute one-half
its bulk.

After being potted they should be again placed, for
a few days, in the close frames, until they have recov-
ered from the check received in potting. The plants
may now be treated the same as the single-eye cuttings,
except, if you wish to produce good plants, it will be
necessary to keep them under glass the whole season, as
the wood will usually fail to ripen fully in the open air.

When but few plants are to be grown, or there is
no lack of room, they may be started in the following
manner: Take an eight-inch pot and put some broken
pieces of pots or coarse gravel in the bottom for drain-
age, then set a four or five-inch pot within it — the hole
in the bottom of the smaller pot being stopped tight ;
fill the open space between the pots with sand, in \* aich
insert one row of cuttings an inch and a half or two
inches apart, letting the base of each cutting touch the

CUTTINGS OF UNRIPE WOOD. 39

inner pot, which is to be filled with water ; enough of
this will percolate through the pot (if it is of the or-
dinary kind) to keep the sand sufficiently moist. This
is a safe mode, and will often be successful when all
others fail. The pots are to be kept within the frames
until the cuttings are rooted, the same as before. Fig.
11 shows the arrangement of
the pots ;/,/,/ are the cut-
tings ; c, c, sand between the
pots ; d, water in inside pot ;
«, clay with which the hole in
the bottom of the pot is closed ;
#, drainage in the outside pot.

The wood of which the
cuttings are made must not be
too young or too old, but must no. n.

be taken just at the proper time ; that is, when it begins
to show a slight firmness, but is not really hard nor fully
formed. If the growth of wood is very rapid, it is well
to check it by pinching off the end of the shoot a day or
two before it is wanted for use. After one set of cut-
tings has been taken off, another set will soon push out ;
these are to be removed when three or four inches long,
cutting them close up to the main stem, so as to preserve
a portion of the enlarged part at the junction ; also cut
off an inch or so of the small end of the shoots ; these
will usually grow more readily than those taken at first.

The young growing wood from vines in the open air
may be used, but it does not strike root so readily, or
make as good plants as that from vines grown under
glass. All the varieties of the grape may be grown from
green cuttings, but some root more readily than others,
and there will also be a great difference in growth of the
plants, some starting vigorously and continuing so
through the season, while others, under the same treat-
ment, will be but poor, feeble plants at the best.

4C THE GRAPE CULTUEIST.

The propagator should always decide as to the value
of a particular mode of operation by the results. The
object is to make good vines, and it matters little how it
is done, provided the point is gained. Some growers
will produce good healthy vines from both green and
ripe wood, while others fail with either. Therefore, the
best method is that which produces the best vines ; but
this point cannot always be decided by the size or appear-
ance of the vines, for the reason that a general inherent
feebleness is often hidden while the plants are undergo-
ing an unnatural forcing process. My own experience
has led me to think that the surest way to produce vines
of the best enduring qualities, is to use none but the
most fully developed wood ; remembering, however, that
developed does not mean an overgrown, forced produc-
tion, either under glass or in the open air.

CHAPTER V.

PROPAGATING HOUSE.

Propagating hardy vines under glass for general
vineyard purposes is now seldom practiced ; at least, not
to the extent that it was a few years ago, and the greater
part of those used are raised in the open ground, as
described in a succeeding chapter. But in instances
where it may be necessary to rapidly multiply new or
very rare varieties, a well-arranged propagating house will
be found very convenient and useful, and for this reason
I repeat in part what I said on this subject in the earlier
edition of this work. It is not expected, however, that
every one will have the means at command, nor would it
always be expedient, if they had, to go to the expense of
building an extensive propagating house, unless it were

PROPAGATING HOUSE. 41

desirable to produce a large number of vines, and for
several years in succession. The size of the house will
depond entirely upon the number of plants to be grown.
If only a few thousand are to be produced, then only a
small structure will be required; for the best vines, or
the best plants of any kind, are not always produced in
the most expensive houses. Many a careful propagator
annually produces his few thousands of superior plants
with only a small lean-to house, heated with a common
brick furnace and flue, and these, perhaps, cf his own
make. And while this same propagator might tell you
that he would prefer, as a matter of convenience, a prop-
agating house with all the modern improvements, still
he would scarcely admit that the plants produced in his
email, cheap way, were any more liable to disease, or in
any way inferior to those grown in the most elegant and
expensive house.

Fig. 12 gives an interior perspective view of a sec-
tion of a first-class propagating house. It may be made
of almost any length or width that is desired, but
eighteen to twenty-five feet is the usual width for a
span roof.

The sides of the house may be of brick or stone, or
of two thicknesses of plank, one nailed on each side of
good strong posts set firmly in the ground, and the space
between filled with tan-bark or sawdust. The common
cement and gravel wall, such as is used in some parts of
the Country, will answer the purpose as well as any
other, and in many places would be most economical.
The wall should be low, seldom above two and a half
feet, on the top of which put a two-foot sash, which will
make the eaves of the house four and one-half feet from
the ground. Bank up the wall on the outside, and cover
the embankment with sods. The glass should be of the
best quality of plate or sheet. This is preferable to
cheaper kinds. Embed with putty and fasten with gla-

THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

PROPAGATING HOUSE. 43

zier's points, but put no putty on the outside — use noth-
ing but thick, pure white lead paint. The size of glass
is immaterial, but if the best and heaviest is used, then
the panes may be of any size, from 8x10 up to 10x16.
The engraving shows the interior arrangement very
minutely, except the posts which will be necessary for
supporting the roof. The house stands its longest way
north and south ; the southern end is of glass, which
may reach to the ground, or stop at the height of the
frames. At the north end is the furnace room, where
also the potting bench, pots, etc., may be kept. The
best and most economical mode of heating a large house
is by means of steam or hot water. For this purpose
there are several kinds of boilers in market, many of
which are very good.

The hot-water pipes should lie side by side, instead
of one over the other as they are usually placed in ordi-
nary greenhouses. The flow-pipe passes under one of
the side frames, thence through and back under the
middle one, and then under the frame on the opposite
side. The return pipe passes back along by its side,
both lying on iron rests made for the purpose. This
arrangement gives eight pipes the whole length of the
house, besides the elbows and the few feet that it takes
to cross the end. The center frame has four pipes under
it, while the side frames have but two.

The center frame may be used for starting those
varieties that are the most difficult to strike, or the pipes
may only pass under the two outside frames, and the
center one be used for the plants when they are first
placed in the small pots — or the pipes may, pass under
the center frame and return under the outside ones,
without returning, as shown.

If the house is twenty or more feet in width, then
for convenience the center frame should be double the
width of the outside ones, and in that case the four pipes

44 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST.

will be needed under it to keep its temperature equal to
the others. Again, in place of frames through the cen-
ter, a table may take its place, on which to set the plan ts
after they become sufficiently rooted not to need so
much heat or so confined an atmosphere as while young.

The inside frames are only necessary while the cut-
tings are rooting, and for a few days after the first shift,
but they are indispensable when a number of varieties
are to be grown, for the air cannot be kept sufficiently
confined in a large house to insure success with all. To
be sure, there are varieties that will grow from single-
bud cuttings without recourse to frames, but with such
as the Delaware, which seldom shows any roots until the
young shoots appear, it becomes a very difficult matter
to prevent a too rapid evaporation from the young leaves
in the open house. If this takes plac3 of course the
cutting dies, for, until the roots are produced, the young
growth is supported entirely upon the alburnous matter
contained in the cutting.

The frames are ventilated by raising one end of the
sash, as shown. They should be made one foot deep,
and of good, sound plank. The pipes must be entirely
shut in, so that the greatest heat in the house will be
under the frames ; but there should be small doors
placed along the entire length, opening into the passage
ways, which may be opened to let the heat escape into
the house when necessary to raise its temperature, or to
lower that under the frames. The passage ways between
the beds should not be less than two and one-half feet
wide, and three feet is better. The frames should not
be over four feet wide, as it would then be inconvenient
to reach across them. A house eighteen feet wide will
allow of three rows of frames, and two passage ways of
three feet each ; or the outside frames may be but three
feet wide, and the center one, as it can be reached from
both sides, may be six feet.

PROPAGATING HOUSE.

45

4.6 THE GKAPL CULTUBIST.

The places for ventilating the house may also be
arranged to suit the convenience or fancy, but they
should be mainly at the top. The sashes should be
made in two sections — the upper one much shorter than
the lower, and arranged so that it can slide down over
the other, and leave an opening at the peak, as shown.
Or the sash bars may be continuous from sill to peak,
with alternate sections left for hinged ventilation ; in
fact, there is no end to the modern devices for ventila-
tion of houses and their general construction, as may be
found in such modern works as "Greenhouse Construc-
tion," by L. R. Taft, Orange Judd Co., N. Y., which
will, of course, be consulted by those who intend erect-
ing expensive structures of this kind. The short per-
pendicular sashes at the sides of the house may be made
so that they can be opened ; but this will seldom be nec-
essary, for if the upper ones are opened the heat will
pass off rapidly, and sufficient fresh air will find its way
into the house through the small openings, of which
there will always be more or less. There are hundreds
of methods of ventilating glass structures ; the object of
all is the same, hut these I have mentioned are the most
simple and will answer every purpose.

The slope of the roof should be at an angle of from
35 to 45 degrees ; the one shown in the engraving is at
an angle of 35 degrees, or very nearly.

A Single-roofed House. — The single roof, or
lean-to house, is often preferred, by propagators in the
more northern States, as it is less exposed to cold, being
frequently built against a sidehill or some building;
where such a protection is not convenient, then a wall is
built running east and west, or nearly so, and the roof
is placed against this, sloping to the south.

Fig. 13 shows a lean-to house, with interior arrange-
ments similar to that of the span-roofed house. The
furnace and general storeroom is built against the north

PROPAGATING HOUSE. 4?

side, instead of at the end. This not only affords a pro-
tection to the wall, but gives a good -sized room for stor-
ing the compost, sand, etc. Four hot-water pipes pass
the whole length of the house, as shown. The boiler
and furnace are set in the room back of the wall, and
the pipes pass through it into the house. The chimney
may be built in the wall, or be carried up by its side.
When brick or tile are used for flues, then a brick fur-
nace is made in the wall, the greater part of it within
the house; but the door should open outside, so that
when opened the gas from the fire may escape into the
furnace room. The furnace should be placed so low
that the flue may gradually rise from it to the point
where it connects with the chimney, and still not come
too near the bottom of the cutting frames. If the fur-
nace is placed with its top level with the surface of the
ground within the house, and the flue be made to rise
one foot, rather abruptly, as it leaves the furnace, it may
then be carried fifty feet with not more than six inches
rise, and still it will have sufficient draft. If the house
is fifty feet long, the flue should pass under the frames
at the front, and return under those at the back, the
chimney being near the furnace.

The point where it enters the chimney should be at
least eighteen inches above the top of the furnace. Of
course, the more it rises the more rapidly the smoke and
heat will pass. The size of the furnace will depend
upon the size of the house, and also whether coal or
wood is used.

CHAPTER VI.

CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIR.

Success in growing cuttings in the open air is often
dependent upon the proper selection and preparation of
the cutting bed. The soil may be loam, sandy loam, or
fine muck, with an admixture of sand — the latter is one
of the best, provided it is not too wet. Any soil that is
retentive of moisture, but not really wet or sw;impy,
will answer the purpose.

A soil at least eighteen inches deep is one cf the
requisites of a good cutting bed.

If the soil is naturally heavy and compact, a 1 iberal
quantity of sand, charcoal, or fibrous muck should be
applied to lighten it, else it will become too hard and
dry in summer, and the cuttings will suffer in conse-
quence. A rich soil is also indispensable, for it is neces-
sary that the cuttings should make a vigorous growth,
that they may ripen a large portion of their wood and
roots early in the season. This they can not do without
a proper supply of food. But no fresh unfermented
manure should be mixed with the soil, though it may
sometimes be admissible upon the surface after the cut-
tings are planted.

If the soil is not naturally rich a liberal quantity
(say enough to cover the entire surface four to six ir.ches
deep) of old, well-rotted barnyard manure, or a compost
made of manure and sods, muck, leaves, or some similar
materials, may be thoroughly mixed with the soil to the
depth of one foot or more.

The cuttings will usually produce roots from the
lower end first, therefore it is necessary that a portion of

CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIE. 49

the enriching materials should be placed as deep in the
soil as the roots will extend. An application of hard
wood ashes will often be found very beneficial. It is
always best to prepare the cutting bed in the fall, so
that all the materials of which it is composed may
become intermingled by spring.

Time to Make Cuttings. — In this latitude the
fall of the year, soon after the leaves have fallen, is the
best time to take cuttings from the vine, but where the
winters are mild they may remain on the vine until mid-
winter, or even later, without injury.

When taken from the vine, the wood may be cut
into the required length, or, in other words, the cuttings
may be made and put away in moist soil in the cellar, or
buried in some dry place in the open ground, or the
wood may be put away entire, and, if kept moist, the
making of the cuttings deferred until spring.

Selection of Cuttings. — Cuttings should be made
of the past season's growth — that is, shoots that have
been produced during the summer are to be taken for
cuttings in the fall. These are called cuttings of one-
year-old wood. That which is strong and vigorous and
well-ripened is the best, although the very largest does
not always make the best cuttings, nor does it root so
readily as that which is of medium size. All soft,
spongy, and unripened wood should be discarded, as
good plants are produced only from good, healthy wood.

Form of Cutting. — There is as great a variety of
opinion among cultivators in regard to making long cut-
tings as there is respecting the form of those of a single
bud. They are made of various lengths, from four inches
to two feet. I much prefer a short cutting to a long
one. A cutting of six or eight inches in length, when
properly planted, will make as good, if not a better
plant, than one of twice that length. The following is
the method that I practice, believing it to be the best :

50 THE GEAPE CULTUK1ST.

About the last of November or the first of December I
select the wood for cuttings, and with a pair of garden
shears cut it up into lengths of about six
inches, leaving not less than two buds
upon the cutting. If the wood is very
short-jointed, a cutting of this length
will have three or four buds upon it;
if so they are all the better, as roots
usually start from each bud, but are
seldom emitted the first season in cut-
tings grown in the open ground, from
the stem between the buds.

With a sharp knife smooth oft the
wood close up to the base of the lower
bud, and cut off the top end about an
inch above the bud, at an inclination,
as shown in Fig. 14, which gives the
form of a two-bud cutting.

A three-bud cutting is the same,
with an additional bud between the two.

When the cuttings are all prepared,
they should be put away in the ground
where they will not be frozen or become
too wet. I usually set them thickly in
a shallow trench, then cover them up,
leaving the top bud just above the
ground, after which cover all up with
coarse manure to keep out the frost.

So soon as the ground is settled in
spring, fork over the cutting-bed, rake
it level and smooth, then draw a line
across it, place the back of the spade to
the line and throw out the soil, leaving
"FIG. 14. a trench nearly perpendicular at the

side next to the line, and a little deeper than the cut-
ting is long; then set the cuttings upright in this

CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIR.

51

trench, unless they are more than six inches long — if so,
incline them — placing them about three or four inches
apart, and so deep that the upper bud will be one inch
below the surface of the soil. Fig. 15 shows the posi-
tion of cuttings in the trench before being filled. When
the row is filled with cuttings, put in about two inches
of soil, and press it down firmly around the base of the
cutting; then fill up the trench evenly, just covering
the upper bud, but do not bury it too deeply. This will
leave a shallow basin of an inch in depth the whole

FIG. 15.

length of the row — the dotted lines in Fig. 14, above the
upper bud, show the form in which this basin should be
left. The rows of cuttings should be about two feet
apart ; the soil between the rows will be about two inches
higher in the middle than at the rows. The time re-
quired for the cuttings to strike root and push into
growth will vary considerably. If there is much rain
and the weather is warm, then they will start quite
early ; but if the weather is cool they will often remain
comparatively dormant until June, and even later than
this, and then start and make a good growth by fall.
The upper buds should be carefully preserved from
injury, because it is from these that the shoots are usu-
ally produced. When the cuttings have made a growth
of four or five inches, the ground should be leveled so
that the upper buds on the cuttings will be covered an

THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

HOLTON.SC. N.Y.
FI«. 16.

CUTTINGS IK OPEN AIR.

53

inch or more ; then, if two inches of mulch are spread
over the ground between the rows, it will keep it moist
and promote the rooting of the cuttings.

Roots from the lower bud will usually be produced
first, but soon after the base of the shoot is covered, a

FIG. 17.

set of roots will issue from near it, which will assist the
growth.

If the cuttings make a good growth — four to six feet
is not uncommon — they should be tied to stakes, as this
will promote the ripening of the wood. Fig. 16 is a fair

54 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

representation of a two-eye cutting at the end of the
first year. In this sketch the roots and top are neces-
sarily shown much shorter, in proportion to the length
of the cutting, than they were on the plant from which
the drawing was made, and the small rootlets cover all
the roots, while they are here represented on only a part.
When roots have these small appendages attached to
them in abundance they are called fibrous-rooted.

All vines, when grown in congenial soil, will have
more or less fibrous roots, for it is through these that
the plant derives a large portion of its food from the
soil. They are often as minute as those shown in Fig.
16, and they are soon destroyed if exposed to the air.

When cuttings are grown in the above manner they
are readily changed into one-eye cuttings, by severing
the stem just under the upper tier of roots ; this will
give as good a one-eye plant as though it were grown
under glass and from a single eye. Fig. 17 shows the
plant after the lower section of the roots has been
removed.

Growing plants in this way involves a waste of buds,
and, moreover, cuttings are not so certain in the open air
as in the propagating house.

It is very difficult to make some varieties grow from
cuttings in the open air, while others do so readily.
Some kinds require more moisture than others, and, if
planted in a situation where they will receive an abund-
ant supply throughout the season, they will often pro-
duce as strong plants as the others will in ordinary soil.
It is also sometimes advisable, with those kinds that do
not strike root readily, to plant the cuttings in the fall
in the same manner as we have described for two-eye
cuttings, then cover the bed with straw, or other mate-
rial, so that it shall not freeze. In the spring remove
the covering, leaving enough on the bed to keep it moist.

Where the soil used for the cutting-bed is naturally
dry and porous, any or all the varieties may be planted

CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIE. 55

in the fall, provided they are protected from frost dur-
ing the winter.

That there are certain varieties of
the grape that grow more readily from
cuttings than others, in the open air as
well as under glass, is well known to
every vineyardist. But a variety that
is very difficult to propagate by cut-
tings in the open air in one section of
the country, may grow readily in
another. Climate has much to do in
this matter, and while I do not wish to
convey the idea that there are certain
circumscribed spots where a particular
kind will grow from cuttings when it
will not do so elsewhere, I wish to re-
mark that the same skill that would
produce a good plant of some varieties
in Alabama, might fail to produce one
in New York. Knowing this to be the
fact, we are enabled to account for the
diversity of opinion often expressed by
different cultivators coming from
widely separated sections of the country,
for each speaks of his own experience
or observation in his own particular
locality ; and while each may state the
truth, their stories will not agree, and
one may almost contradict another.

Mallet Cuttings.— The mallet
cutting is usually made by selecting
only the lower portion of the one-year-
old cane, and by cutting through the
two-year-old wood, leaving a small piece
of it attached, so that the whole resem-
bles a small mallet. Fig. 18 shows the FIG-

56 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST.

form of the mallet cutting. Where the one-year canes
have been allowed to produce side, or lateral shoots,
during the summer, these may be used to make mallet
cuttings, the head of the mallet, or butt of the cutting,
being composed of wood of the same age as that of the
handle, or stem. The advantage derived from the pres-
ence of the piece of old wood is not, as is sometimes
stated, because roots are more readily produced from
it, but because there are several latent buds at the point
of junction of the old and young wood ; consequently, a
larger deposit of cambium than where there is but a sin-
gle bud. The piece of old, or large wood, assists in pro-
tecting these buds until roots are produced.

The number of cuttings that can be obtained from
a vine is* necessarily but few, as only one is made from
each cane — unless laterals are used — and it will depend
very much upon the mode of training, whether it will do
to cut away the old wood for this purpose. The cut-
tings should not be made more than ten or twelve inches
long ; they are sometimes made much longer, but it is
unnecessary, as too much wood will often prove injurious.

There are some varieties of grapes, for instance, the
Delaware and Norton's Virginia, that grow much more
readily from mallet cuttings than from the ordinary two
or three-bud cuttings. If the laterals have been allowed
to grow unchecked, and have produced canes of consid-
erable size, they may be used, leaving a piece of the
main cane attached to form the mallet.

The mallet cutting is, perhaps, the most ancient
form of cutting. The Romans made their cuttings in
this manner, and they were called malleolus, from the
Latin malleus; hence our word mallet. The French
vineyardists, in some instances, still adhere to this form
of cutting, and with them they are called crosetts.

There are some vineyardists in this country who, to
extend their vineyards, depend almost entirely upon the

CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIE. 57

few cuttings of this form which they are able to get from
their vines, and there is no doubt but that excellent
vines may be grown from such cuttings ; but it is equally
true that other portions of the vine will, with proper
care (though not always quite as readily), make vines
equally as good.

It matters little what form of cutting is adopted,
nor does any particular portion of the wood possess any
superiority over another, provided it is thoroughly ripe
and healthy. The requisites are : To keep its vitality
unimpaired from the time it is taken from the vine until
it is planted, then give the cuttings a position where
they will secure plenty of heat and moisture, with a full
supply of nutriment to sustain them when they begin
growth.

The Callus on Cuttings. — A callus is that pecu-
liar excrescence which is usually four d on that portion
of a cutting where the wood has beer> exposed by sever-
ing from the plant. The formation of the callus pre-
cedes that of roots, and is generally taken as a sign that
roots are about to be produced. But it must not be sup-
posed, because the cuttings have made the first move,
that the second will as readily follow ; because there are
hundreds of plants, the cuttings of which, packed in
damp moss in a warm room, will become well callused
over, and still it is an extremely difficult matter to make
the roots grow after removal.

Many inexperienced propagators seem to think that
if they can only get the callus to form, and a few roots
to start, the cutting is a sure thing, but it may fail later.

CHAPTER VII.

LAYERING THE VINE.

The propagation of the vine by layers is one of the
most certain and convenient methods in use ; and while
the number of plants to be obtained from a given quan-
tity of wood is not so great as in the other methods, yet
the size of a one-year-old plant produced by layering will
far exceed that produced in any other way.

A layer is a cutting which is left attached to the
parent plant, and derives nourishment therefrom until
it has produced new roots of its own. Much discussion
has taken place upon this subject among cultivators of
the grape, some asserting that in the first stages of the
growth of the layered plant it was entirely dependent
upon the parent for its food; consequently, the roots
that are produced later in the season from the layer
itself do not fully ripen, and are of but little value to
the young plant when separated from the parent. For
more than two thousand years layers have been recom-
mended and condemned by different authors, and all
have some plausibility in their arguments. But the
facts are, that, when properly grown, layers make as
vigorous and healthy plants as are produced in any other
manner.

When vines are to be grown expressly for layers,
they should be planted six or eight feet apart, in very
rich soil, as the object will be to get a large growth of
wood without regard to fruit.

The vines, when planted, should be cut down to the
ground, or within a few inches of it, and only one cane

58

LAYERING THE VltfE. 59

be allowed to grow the first season, and this must be
kept tied to a stake. In the fall or winter this should
be cut back to within three or four buds of the last sea-
son's growth ; this number of buds is left to guard
against accident, but only two are to be allowed to grow.

The next spring the two buds that push the strong-
est are to be allowed to grow, and should be kept tied to
the stake as before. If the vine this, the second season,
grows strong, and makes a growth of from six to ten
feet, it will do to commence layering it the next spring,
at which time it will be in its third season after plant-
ing. But if it should not produce a strong growth,
then one cane should be cut entirely away, and the
other to three or four buds, allowing but two to grow, as
before, and defer the layering until the fourth year.
For there is nothing gained by taking layers from a vine
until it is strong enough to make good plants. But so
soon as the vine has made two strong canes of from six
to ten feet long, whether it be the second or third year,
it may be layered. Of course, vines may be layered
earlier, or as soon as they have made canes one or two
feet long, but the plants produced will be small and fee-
ble, and not what would be considered first-class plants.

How to Layer the Vine. — If the wood that is to
be cut off is wanted for cuttings, then the vine may be
pruned in the fall ; if not, defer the pruning until the
last of February or the first of March. Select the largest
cane for the layer ; if it be ten feet long it should be cut
back to six or seven feet, but if not so long then cut it
back still more ; then cut the other cane down to within
three or four buds of its base. After the buds begin to
swell in the spring (or even if they have grown an inch
or two it is no matter), layer the cane in the following
manner : Dig a trench from four to six inches deep, six
inches wide, and of a sufficient length to receive the
cane ; now bend it down and fasten it in the trench by

60

THE GRAPE CULTUBIST.

hooked pegs, or by laying a stone or two upon it. The
bottom of the trench should be level and the vine laid
flat in the bottom, and not turned up at the end as is
sometimes recommended. The cane may be bent side-
ways, in a circular form, and it will be a benefit to it, as
it will cause the buds to push more evenly than if laid
straight, but that portion in the trench should still be
as nearly level as possible.

Now let the vine remain until the shoots have grown
from three to four inches, them select those that are
wanted and break off all others ; those that are allowed
to remain should be as evenly distributed as possible
through the entire length of the layer.

Four to six are all that should be allowed to grow
on a cane six or seven feet long. If allowed ^to grow,
every bud will make a plant, but not
a good one ; the less number, the bet-
ter they will be. Fig. 19 shows the
layer in the trench after the superflu-
ous shoots are removed, also the roots
as they will appear later in the season ;

FIG. 19.

B, c, the young shoots starting from the buds on the
main stem. The first roots push from near the buds, as

LAYERING THw VTlJtfE. 61

with cuttings, but afterward they will start from between
the buds.

When it has been decided what shoots shall be
allowed to remain, then good stout stakes should be put
down by the side of each ; and so soon as the shoots are
from six to ten inches high, they should be tied up.
And at this time a little soil should be drawn into the
trench ; enough to cover the vine an inch deep will be
sufficient. In a week or ten days an inch or two more
may be put on, and so on at intervals of a few days, or
at each hoeing, until the whole trench is filled up. If
it is filled while the shoots are very young, it will cause
the part below ground to rot. Each of the young canes
should be kept tied to the stakes, and if a particular one
takes the lead and appropriates too much of the sap to
itself, it should be checked by pinching off the top.

The canes nearest the parent vine, and the one at
the extreme end of the layer, will usually grow much
more rapidly than those between ; if so, they should be
checked before they have gone so far as to weaken the
other plants.

Hoe the ground often during the summer, or cover
it with a mulch to keep down the weeds. The cane that
was cut down to three or four buds should be allowed to
produce two or three shoots ; these are to be tied to the
stakes shown in the engraving. Next season the same
operation may be repeated, and if the vine has grown
vei;y strong, two canes may be layered instead of one.
After layers have been taken from the vines two or three
seasons in succession, it is best to let them pass over one
season without taking any layers from them, for if lay-
ered every season they will soon become exhausted.
Any vine that has a young shoot which can be made to
reach the ground may be layered, but it is not advisable
to take layers from vines that are planted for fruiting.

When only one vine is wanted from a plant, then a
branch may be bent down into a short trench in the

62 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

spring or fall, and covered up at the time, leaving only
the end above ground. In this way a very strong vine
will be produced the first season.

The layers may be separated from the parent vine
at the end of the first season or the spring following. In
taking them off cut them loose from the stakes, then
lift them, using a fork instead of a spade, and proceed
to cut them apart. First cut the layer close up to the
parent vine, and then cut off that portion that was above
ground and has no roots ; the next cut should be between
the first and second upright shoot near the first, and so
on to the end, leaving those roots on each plant below it
or toward the parent vine. I am thus particular in
showing how the vine should be separated, because I
have seen layers so separated that the roots left on them
were nearer the top end of the layer than the shoot was,
and the sap would have to reverse its course and descend
the layered cane to reach the new vine. It will do so
sometimes, but not readily. Where vines have been cut
down quite low, or from any cause several canes have
started from the main stem near the ground, these
may all be utilized the following season for layers, and
if quality is preferred to quantity, then each cane may
be bent down in the form of a bow, into a short and
shallow trench, and only a foot or more of it covered
with soil, thereby securing only one strong layer from a
single cane instead of several, as shown in Fig. 19.
Many other methods are practiced, in making layers, but
I think those described are the best.

There is one, however, which has lately come into
use, that deserves a passing notice. It is that of making
layers of the green wood in summer. . An occasional
good vine may be made in this manner, but, upon the
whole, the practice is not only injurious to the original
vine, but the plants produced in this manner are gener-
ally feeble, as neither roots nor wood are fully matured by
the time they have to be separated from the parent vine.

CHAPTER VIII.

GRAFTING THE GRAPE.

The propagation of the grape vine by grafting is
probably as old as its cultivation, and many of the modes
practiced at the present time are accurately described in
most of the ancient works on gardening and agriculture.
But with all the information which we have derived
from both ancient and modern authors, it still seems to
be generally considered a rather difficult, if not uncer-
tain method of propagation. On account of the peculiar
structure of the wood of the vine, a lasting union is sel-
dom obtained when grafted above ground, and is far
from being certain even when grafted below the surface
by the ordinary method. When we compare the benefits
to be derived from grafting the vine with grafting the
pear, apple, etc., it appears to be of little value, because
the vine may be readily grown from cuttings of almost
any portion of the wood, while the latter produce roots
from cuttings only sparingly, even with the greatest care
and under the most favorable circumstances, but they
may be propagated very easily by grafting and budding.
Thus it appears that nature has provided a way for the
rapid multiplication of every species and variety of
plants, but she has left it to man to discover the way
i'.nd means. There are circumstances constantly occur-
ring, under which it would be quite desirable to graft
the vine ; for instance, when we have a new and valuable
variety which we wish to multiply as rapidly as possible ;
to do this we must produce wood for the purpose, and it'
we can produce wood more rapidly by grafting than by

63

64 THE GRAPE CCJLTUBIST.

any other means at command, then it becomes very
important to know how to perform the operation success-
fully. There are usually, in every garden where grapes
are grown, inferior varieties which it is desirable to
exchange for better, and if we employ grafting as a
method of propagation, then these otherwise worthless
vines may become valuable as stocks on which to graft
better kinds ; and if, by the use of these, we can make
every bud to produce a shoot of from five to twenty feet
in a single season, of larger and better wood than we can
by any other means, and that, too, without the aid of
any artificial heat, it becomes very important to know
how to do it. Sometimes it would be desirable to change
a whole vineyard from an inferior variety to a new and
superior one, and if the operation is judiciously per-
formed, it can be successfully done, as has been exten-
sively practiced of late years in France, where they have
used the strong growing, phylloxera-resisting American
species as stocks upon which to graft the more suscep-
tible but better wine grapes of Europe, and the time may
not be very far distant when this will have to be prac-
ticed in California, where the exotic varieties are culti-
vated almost exclusively.

Everyone who has ever read the European works on
grape culture, and especially those of France, must have
noticed how much space is devoted to this subject of
grafting, and it would not be at all difficult to gather
enough material to fill a half dozen large volumes on this
mode of propagating the vine. But when all these
voluminous essays are condensed to practical limits, the
difference consists mainly in the diversity of opinions of
their authors in regard to the time and mode of perform-
ing the operation ; and the success of the operator, with
one and all, probably depends more upon his skill in
manipulation than in anything else.

In grafting the grape, as with other ligneous plants,
the operator may vary the process by cutting the stock

GRAFTING THE GRAP£. 65

high or low, square across or at various angles, also
make the cleft in it long or short, deep or shallow, also
vary the length of the cion, leaving upon it one, two or
more buds ; but so long as he keeps within certain limits
he will succeed in proportion to the amount of skill
brought to bear upon the operation. In the earlier
works published on grape culture in this country, as,
for instance, those of Adlum, Dufour and Loubat, the
descriptions given of grafting the vine were mostly cop-
ied from the French authors, and these, in turn, fol-
lowed earlier writers, especially Columella, a celebrated
Eoman agriculturist, who flourished in the first century
of the Christian Era. But Columella refers to still more
ancient authors, but claims that a great improvement
has been made in grafting vines in his day, and especially
in the implements used in the work, and this is about
all that we can honestly claim in the way of progress in
grafting the grape ; for while our knives, chisels, saws
and augurs are probably made after more artistic mod-
els, it is doubtful if they are better in material or tem-
per than those in use two thousand years ago.

In mild climates, like those of Southern Europe,
California and our Southern States, grafting vines may
be done all through the winter months, and if the cions
are carefully inserted they will usually become united to
the stock by the time the sap begins to flow in spring.
This idea of early grafting is a very ancient one, and the
first time I had occasion I put it into practice. But our
climate here in the North is too severe to risk the cions
to exposure during the winter, and to avoid this I
adopted the following mode of protection, my first exper-
iment extending to only fifteen vines, but every cion
united and made a most vigorous growth the following
season :

In the fall after the leaves have fallen, and any time
before the ground is frozen, say in October, November
5

60 THE GEAPE CULTUEIST.

or December, varying according to latitude, dig away
the soil from around the stock (which may be of any
size, from one-half inch to two inches in diameter) to
the depth of four to six inches, or on a level with the
surface ; then cut it oif, and split in the ordinary man-
ner for cleft grafting ; make the graft of one eye with
about four inches of wood, and insert it in the stock,
being careful to have the inner bark of the stock and
graft meet, then tie in the graft by
winding around the stock some
bass-bark or strong twine enough to
hold it firmly in place. Fig. 20
shows the graft inserted and ready
for tying. Next, throw in soil
enough to fill up around the graft,
leaving the bud just above the sur-
face ; then put a flower-pot (a box
will answer the purpose) inverted
over the graft, as seen in Fig. 21 ;
then bank up, d, d, around the
flower-pot to the top, but not over
it ; now put on some straw, e, say
six inches deep, and cover the earth,
/, over all. In this manner the
graft is perfectly protected against
the frost, and it has all winter to
perfect a union with the stock, and
by spring it is ready to grow. It
FIG- 20- should not be uncovered until the

cold, freezing weather is over. It is necessary that a
box or flower-pot should be placed immediately over the
graft, so that when it is uncovered in spring the graft
will not be disturbed by digging down to uncover it ;
and it also protects the graft from being injured by
water running down it and getting in between the graft
and the stock. I have sometimes used grafting wax for

GRAFTING THE GRAPE.

6?

covering the junction between the stock and graft, but
having succeeded just as well wiLhout, I abandoned its
use ; besides, I have sometimes noticed that the wax
injured the graft when it came in contact with it.
Grafting clay may be employed with safety, but I do not
consider it necessary to use anything but the bass-matt,
and then put in the soil. The twine or bass-strings will
usually become so weakened during the winter that they
will give away when the stock commences to grow.
One-year-old wood should be used for grafts, and only

FIG. 21.

that which is firm and well-ripened. If the wood is very
short-jointed, the grafts may be of two buds instead of
one, but usually one is sufficient.

Grafts inserted in the fall in this manner will make
almost as strong a growth as the original vine would
have done if it had not been grafted ; besides, the opera-
tion can be performed at a season when there is usually
not so much business as in spring, and it requires no
more skill in its performance than other modes of graft-
ing. It can also be performed at any time during the
winter, provided the ground is not frozen. But I pre-

68 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

for early in fall, as in that case there is more time for
the union to take place ; besides, the sap in the roots of
the vine remains longer in the fluid state in the fall than
in the top, as may be seen by examining the roots after
the leaves have fallen, and when no sap is observable in
the branches. This is owing to the fact that roots, in a
great measure, are out of reach of the frost, which has
checked the flow of sap in that portion of the vine above
ground. All the roots of the vine are seldom in a per-
fectly dormant state, consequently the sap is always ready
to flow upward into the branches whenever they are not
frozen. The vine, as well as nearly all woody plants,
continues to expand its buds during the winter months.
And if there were no such action as this, then there
would be no production of new fibers and callosities,
which every practical horticulturist must have observed
as taking place, especially upon the roots of trees and
plants that have been transplanted in the fall. These
facts led me to try the grafting of the grape early in the
fall, and the results have been all that I could wish ; for
when the grafts have been properly inserted I have found
them in the spring, without an exception, to be firmly
united to the stock.

Within a few years following the appearance of this
mode of fall grafting of the grape in the Grape Culturist,
I received many reports, and from various sources, some
condemnatory, while others recommended it, which was
not unexpected, because similar results usually follow
any of the many forms of grafting in use and at differ-
ent seasons. If the grape is to be grafted for the pur-
pose of securing continued benefit from a healthy, strong
root, as, for instance, when employing "phylloxera-re-
sisting stocks," then the cions should always be inserted
slightly, if at all, below the surface of the ground ; for
if placed deeper new roots are likely to be emitted from
the cion, and when this occurs the original stock roots

GRAFTING THE GRAPE.

69

are likely to fail to produce the desired results. It is
natural for the sap to flow through the most direct and
convenient channel, and this would eventually be the
new surface roots emitted from the cion. Of course, it
is no more difficult to bank earth around the newly set
cion than to dig it away and graft below the surface ;
consequently, the grafter may vary the operation accord-
in? with the object he has in view.

FIG. 22.

When there is a scarcity of stocks for grafting, an
old vine may be layered, as shown in Fig. 19, and instead
of taking up the layers the young canes may be grafted
in the fall, inserting the graft as near the layered cane
or roots as practicable. And when the grafts have made
one season's growth they may be taken up and separated,
or be again layered and several vines produced from
each. But plants produced in this way will, when re-

70 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

planted, throw out new roots from the cion above the
point of junction with the stock, and in a year or two
the original root will usually die, and the plant will be
no better than one raised from a cutting or layer. But
in grafting the one-year-old canes the cleft or wedge-
graft should not be used unless the canes have grown
very strong, and are, at least, five-eighths of an inch in
diameter ; but instead of it, splice-graft them as follows :
Select one-year-old wood for the grafts, as near the same
diameter of the stock as possible ; cut the stock obliquely
upward and the cion downward, with a corresponding
inclination, t;o that the two shall fit nicely together, care
being taken that the bark on one side, at least, of the
graft and stock shall meet exactly. Fig. 22 shows the
manner in which they are united. Bind them snugly
together, and proceed to cover, etc., as with the cleft-
graft. But if more convenient, the small stock and
cion may each be split, to form a tongue on each, and
these fitted together as in the ordinary splice-graft used
on small pear and apple stocks. It does not make much
difference how the stock and cion are joined, provided
they are so united that the sap can flow readily up
through the cells of the wood. One-year-old well rooted
cuttings may be employed as stocks, where it is desirable
to multiply weak-growing varieties, or those which do
not strike root readily from ripe wood cuttings. The
ci'ons may be inserted, as shown in Fig. 22, or as in
Fig. 23.

Sometimes it is desirable to graft a whole vineyard,
and if the vines are young and healthy it is perfectly
practicable to do so ; but if the vines are, as is often the
case, old, stunted and diseased, it is better to dig them
up and plant new ones. Because, if very large and old
vines are cut down and grafted, a large portion of their
roots is very likely to die in consequence of the severe
check they receive by having all the top removed ; and

GKAFTING THE QKAPE.

FIG. 23.

72 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST.

these dead and decaying roots will have a tendency to
convey disease to the whole plant.

The time generally selected for grafting the vine is
early in spring, before the vine starts, or after it has
started and made a growth of a few inches, both o±
which I have found highly objectionable ; for if grafted
early, the operation must be performed several weeks
before the vine starts, so as to allow the graft sufficient
time to form a union with the stock before the latter
starts, or else the excessive flow of sap will drown the
graft. This early grafting is very difficult in a northern
latitude, where the ground thaws out only a very few
days before the sap begins to flow. But many practical
and successful vineyardists graft their vines in late
spring, or after the vines have made a growth of a few
inches ; but the wood used for the cions is cut in win-
ter and stored in a cold and moist place until wanted.
These dormant cions are inserted in the crown of the
stock at or just below the surface of the ground, all of
which only goes to show that success in grafting the
vine depends as much upon the skill of the man who
performs the operation as in the manner and time of
doing it.

Inarching Vines. — This method of grafting differs
only from the former in the manner of manipulation.
It is not often practiced wii^ vines, but maybe when-
ever desirable, as. for instance, when other methods
have failed. The vine to be multiplied by this process
should be either planted out, near the vine to be used as
a stock, or grown in a pot, and plunged in the ground
near it when ready to perform the operation, which con-
sists in cutting the bark and a thin slice of wood from
the two canes to be united, and then bring the face of
the two wounds together and bind firmly with bass or
common twine. The inarching may be done in summer
while the vines are growing, or when both are dormant

GRAFTING THE GEAPE. 73

in early spring. At the close or tnt; season, or as soon
as the two vines have become united, or grown together,
the inarched vine may be severed just below the point of
union, and the stock treated as usual with the ordinary
splice or cleft-grafted vines.

Herbaceous Grafting. — This term is applied to
the various methods of grafting vines while they are in a
green, or growing condition, but it is seldom practiced
in the vineyard or open air. Vines grown under glass
in a close, warm and moist atmosphere may be grafted
quite successfully by this mode, but in the open it is
quite different, and I doubt very much if ft can be prac-
ticed with any degree of success, although a few cions
may occasionally be made to grow if kept shaded and
freely sprinkled with water.

Grafting Machines. — The French vineyardists
seem to have a fondness for inventing machines for
grafting the grape and other ligneous plants, besides
various forms of gauges, chisqls, knives and other imple-
ments. Most of these machines are for inside work, and
of no special value for facilitating grafting in the vine-
yard. The best thing of the kind that I have seen and
tried is the "Wagner" saw and knife, an American
invention which has been on sale for some fifteen or
more years. It consists of two small saw blades set in a
handle, these being used to saw a cleft in the severed
stock of about the right width to receive the cion.
Another part of the machine is made with two thin knife
blades affixed to a lever, and with these the cion is cut
or shaved to the requisite size to fit the cleft made with
the saw in the stock. It is quite an ingenious contriv-
ance, and practical withal, but I prefer a good sharp
knife, chisel and wedge, to this or any other grafting ma-
chine that I have, as yet, used or seen described.

CHAPTER IX.

HYBRIDIZING AND CROSSING.

These are operations that should demand the atten-
tion of every one who undertakes to produce new varie-
ties; for when artificially performed, improvements are
more certain than if we depend wholly upon the natural
variations occurring in vines grown from seeds, which
have not been influenced by artificial fertilizing.

Many of our best varieties of grapes, as well as other
fruits, owe their superiority, in a great measure, to the
careful manner in which the flowers of the parent plant
were fertilized.

The two words, hybridizing and crossing, are used
indiscriminately by many writers in this country, who
follow the European custom of calling every plant that
shows a mixture of two varieties a hybrid. This is an
error which we should avoid, for although the mode of
operation in producing them is, in both instances, pre-
cisely the same, the results are entirely different.

A hybrid grape, properly speaking, is a mixture of
two distinct species, not of two varieties of the same spe-
cies. For instance, if we should take a Concord grape,
which belongs to the Vitis labrusca species, and the
common frost grape (Vitis cordifolia), and by fertilizing
the one with the other, produce a plant with the charac-
teristics of both parents, we should then have a proper
hybrid. But if we should fertilize the Isabella with the
Concord, we would have a cross between two varieties of
the same species. Hybridizing, then, is the mixing of
two species, and crossing, or cross-breeding (as it is
termed), is the mixing of two varieties.

74

HYBKIDIZING AND CROSSING. 75

True hybrids are generally forced productions, but
cross fertilizing is constantly going on naturally among
nearly all cultivated plants.

During the last few y?ars many new varieties of
grapes have been brought to notice that are claimed to
be true hybrids, and; doubtless, many of them are ; but
it is to be regretted, for the cause of science, that nearly
all of these are, in part, a mixture of the varieties of
Vitis labrusca, or its direct offspring ; for of all the
known native species, this is the most variable, produc-
ing, of itself, without being fertilized by other species or
varieties, almost every conceivable shape, color and qual-
ity of fruit, as well as a great variety in leaf, stem and
growth.

I think that I may safely assert that until some
other varieties and species have been operated upon than
those heretofore employed, but little reliance can be
placed upon the assertions that are constantly being
made about this or that grape being a true hybrid.

We know that plants in a state of nature generally
perpetuate their kinds and varieties with great uni-
formity. Yet a slight change is sometimes observed,
and it has been upon these variations that pomologists
and florists have mainly depended, as the starting-point
from which they produce their innumerable varieties.

The effect produced, by change of soil and climate,
upon plants, when removed from their native habitats,
has long been observed, and their variations turned to
valuable account. Although these changes have been
slow, yet by their careful selection and preservation we are
indebted for most of the valuable fruits and flowers now
in cultivation.

When plants are removed from one country to
another, and become acclimated, the effects of this change
will sometimes show itself in the seedlings grown from
them, in a distinct and wonderful manner, so much so

76 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

that some are inclined to think that it is the result of
accidental hybridization. These phenomena lead many
to believe that they have a hybrid variety, when it is
only a variation produced by natural causes.

If we have a number of fruits which reproduce
themselves without variation, it is not positive proof that
they are distinct species. But it only goes to show that
the natural forces of the plants are perfectly balanced.

We see this principle fully illustrated in the differ-
ent breeds of cattle, sheep, etc, which are descendants of
an original species, but are now divided into breeds, as
they are termed, each of which perpetuates its distinctive
features, unless some disturbing cause is allowed to
interfere with their natural characteristics.

The case is very similar with plants ; for we often
possess varieties that have all their functions so fixed
and balanced that they reproduce themselves from seed,
generation after generation, if not disturbed by being
brought into close contact with other and different varie-
ties of the same species, or by a too great change of soil,
culture or climate. But when there has been a disturb-
ance of these forces, either by hybridizing or cultivation,
and the functions of generation have been disarranged,
then variation begins, and it becomes difficult to decide
whether hybridizing may or may not have produced this
change.

Suppose we fertilize the Concord grape with the
Sweet Water, and the result is a white variety ; would
the simple fact of its being white be a proof that hybrid-
izing had been accomplished ? No, not at all ; for there
have been plenty of white varieties raised from the sesd
of the Concord, without its being brought in contact
with any white kind. I have, myself, raised many white
varieties of the grape, from both red and white parent-
age, without any attempt having 'been made at cross
fertilizing, the change in color being due to the natural
variation, or the effect of cultivation.

HYBRIDIZING AND CROSSING. 77

To convince ns that hybridization has actually taken
place, we need to see more than one of the prominent
characteristics of both parents mixed in the offspring.

Again, if the offspring should appear to be only a
reproduction of the mother plant without variation, it
would not prove that the hybridizing process had not
been effectual. But it would only show that there was
a predominant power in the mother plant to reproduce
itself, and the influence which the artificial fertilizing
had produced was entirely hidden in the present genera-
tion of seedlings, but in the next generation it might
show itself distinctly.

A good test to determine whether a plant is a true
hybrid, or a mixture of two species, is to plant a quan-
tity of its seeds ; a portion of the seedlings thus produced
will be pretty sure to show more prominently than others
some of the characteristics of one or the other of the
parents; or, in other words, the mixture will again
separate, and a part will return each to its original
progenitor.

There are, at the present time, a very large number
Ox varieties in cultivation, claimed to be, and probably
some are, true hybrids, either between native species, or
between some of these and the foreign ( Vitis vinifera)
varieties, but those which show the least signs of hy-
bridity, like the Eogers' Hybrids, have thus far proved
to be the most valuable, and while this may be rather
discouraging to some of our hybridists, still there is a
chance that further trials may yield better results.

The world cares but little how a thing is produced,
or where it is from, but is only interested in the results.
Our greatest danger, as cultivators, lies in the fact that
partial success will often direct our thoughts into a
region of false theories, from which it is difficult to
extricate ourselves without unlearning all that which we
have previously learned.

78 THE GBAPE CULTURIST.

In all our efforts at hybridizing, attention should be
given to the adaptation of the plants to the circumstances
under which they are to be grown.

If it is our object to produce a plant for this lati-
tude, we should avoid, if possible, crossing with a variety
that ripens late, or is otherwise unsuitable. The aim,
in all our operations, should be to develop those quali-
ties that are most valuable, and discourage those that
are not; for these inter-crossings will often produce an
individual variety more valuable to us than either of the
parents. Again, we may cross two superior varieties,
and the result will be a kind that is very inferior. But
it is this very uncertainty that makes the operation so
fascinating. If we could know exactly what the results
of our labor would be, it would be robbed of half its
charms.

Mode of Operation. — That we may proceed un-
derstandingly, let us examine the blossoms of the grape.
But in the accompanying illustrations the flowers are
shown much enlarged. Fig. 24 shows a flower
as it is expanding ; A shows the five petals coher-
ing together, as they are lifted up and cast off by
the stamens ; the petals do not open, as in the
rose, lily, and most other flowers, but drop off
without expanding. Fig. 25 shows the flower FIG* 24-
after the petals are gone ; the five stamens are now sur-
rounding the center of the flower ; the little knobs at
their summits (B) are called anthers, which
produce a fine dust, called pollen — this is
the fertilizing material which we wish to
control. Soon after the flowers open, or the
falling of the petals, this pollen is carried
FIG. 25. by the air or insects to the stigma (c), which
is the terminal point of the pistil, placed in the center of
the flower. The surface of the stigma is covered with a
viscid substance, to which the pollen adheres; and so

HYBRIDIZING AND CROSSING. 79

soon as the pollen lodges there it penetrates the stigma,
and passes down through the pistil to the ovules, or un-
developed seeds. Now this operation goes on without
the assistance of man, in all perfect flowering varieties
of grapes ; but when we wish to cross or hybridize a
variety, we fertilize its stigma with the pollen from
another plant, and prevent the pollen of the flower fer-
tilizing its own stigma. To do this, so soon
as the flowers open we cut off the anthers with
a small pair of scissors, leaving the flower, as
seen in Fig. 26 (D, stamens with the anthers
removed) ; then take the pollen from another
no. 26. variety, and dust it over the stigma. This
last operation is performed with a fine camel's-hair
pencil. Suppose we wish to produce a cross between the
Eaton and the Delaware, which would certainly be very
desirable, as the former is very large but not remarkably
good, while the latter is small but most excellent ; and
suppose we choose the Eaton for the fruiting parent.
Now, it is very desirable that they should come into
bloom at nearly the same time ; but if they do not, it is
positively necessary that the one to be fertilized should
be the last to bloom ; for the pollen can be kept good
for a few days by cutting off the anthers when in a
proper condition, putting them in fUe, soft paper, plac-
ing the whole in a bottle, and corking it up until
wanted. When the plant, the pistil of which is to be
fertilized, comes into flower, it can not be retarded, and
the operation must be performed as the blossoms open —
although the period of blossoming may be hastened or
retarded if the vine is operated upon early in the season
for that purpose. When the Eaton shows signs of flow-
ering we should watch it closely, and so soon as a flower
drops its petals the anthers should be immediately cut
away, and some pollen from the Delaware applied to the
stigma. Operate upon every one that is sufficiently

80 THE GRAPE CTJLTURIST.

advanced to admit of it, and then inclose the entire
bunch in a gauze bag, to prevent insects from bringing
pollen from other flowers, which they often do, and
thereby interfere with our operations.

If a portion of the flowers were operated upon, say
at ten o'clock A. M., by three or four in the afternoon
another set will be open, at which time they should be
fertilized in the same manner, and more pollen should
also be applied to those operated upon in the forenoon,
as they may not have absorbed that first applied.

The flowers do not open all at one time, neither is
the stigma always fertilized by the first application of
pollen ; but it should be repeated a number of times
during several days. When the fertilization has been
complete, the miniature grapes commence swelling, and
their growth proceeds rapidly.

The gauze covering should be removed so soon as
all the flowers on the bunch show that they have been
fertilized. Mark the bunch, and take care that no worm
or insect injures it during its growth.

It is best to thin out the flowers before they open ;
cut away at least one-half the number, as it will be more
convenient to operate upon those left. Besides, the ber-
ries will have more room to grow, and will be larger and
mature better than if all were left on.

When the fruit is ripe, gather it, and proceed the
same as recommended for seedlings, in the preceding
chapter, being very careful not to make your seed bed
where other grape seeds may have been scattered. Many
a new grape owes its origin to seeds that were sown acci-
dentally, and which grew instead of the ones that were
planted purposely. In fact, a very large proportion of
the varieties in cultivation are really accidental seedlings,
although the introducers and discoverers may have
claimed to have raised them from carefully hybridized
flowers. In gardens where grapes are grown and eaten

TRANSPLANTING. 81

the seeds are widely scattered, and often grow, producing
plants in great numbers. To be positive about results
requires more than ordinary care and vigilance on the
part of those who conduct experiments, in the produc-
tion of new varieties, whether of grapes or other fruits.

CHAPTER X.

TRANSPLANTING.

Vines, whether grown from cuttings in the open
ground or under glass, will often require one season of
nursery culture before being planted in the vineyard.
In such cases they should be transplanted from the cut-
ting-bed, or, if grown in pots, they should be taken out,
the earth shaken from the roots, the tops and roots
shortened, and then planted in the nursery. This rule
does not apply to well-grown layers, nor to extra large
one-year-old cuttings, but only to such vines as are usu-
ally produced in nurseries. The benefits derived from
transplanting young vines should not be overlooked.
Vines, for instance, that are grown in pots, generally
have a mass of roots that are crooked and distorted by
being confined in a small space, and which need to be
separated, their ends cut off, and sometimes a portion of
them taken out entirely, and then planted where they
can have special care, such as mulching, watering, etc.,
or they will make but little progress. It is much more
convenient to do this when planted in a nursery than
when scattered over a vineyard. Of course, when refer-
ring to the transplanting of vines raised in pots, ifc is not
to be supposed that they are disturbed while growing,
but only when ripened off in the autumn by cold and
frost.

6

82 THE GKAPE CULTUEIST.

A largo portion of the vines that are produced from
cuttings in the open air will have but few roots, and
sometimes these will be nearly destitute of small branch-
ing ones; but if they are taken up and have their roots
shortened, and are planted again, they will throw out a
number of roots from each of the original ones. The
Eame remarks apply to one-bud cuttings in open air.

But the most important result derived from the
nursery culture is, that the vine becomes sufficiently
strong the second year to allow it to be placed at the
proper depth when planted in the vineyard. This can-
not be done with small one-year-old plants without det-
riment to their future growth. To be sure, they can be
planted in the bottom of a shallow trench, which may
be left open and not filled up until they have made a
strong growth ; but this will require extra care in culti-
vating ; besides, in most soils these trenches would have
to be cleaned out after every heavy shower. Vines may
be left in the cutting-bed until they are two years old ;
some cultivators do so, but they do not make so good
plants as when transplanted. Sometimes they are left
there for several years, or until they are wanted for
planting or selling ; but such plants are of little value
after the second year, as the roots are usually so long
that it is impracticable to take them up entire, and they
are cut off, leaving all the fibrous roots in the ground,
and the remaining roots are so old that they possess but
little power to produce new fibers. Had they been trans-
planted they would have been furnished with an abund-
ance of fibrous ones. For these and other reasons I
believe it is better to transplant the one-year-old vines
from the cutting-beds or pots to the nursery, preparatory
to their final planting in the vineyard. The soil for the
nursery should be in the highest state of cultivation,
containing all the manurial ingredients necessary for the
growth of the vine, in addition to being deep and thor-

TRANSPLANTING. 83

oughly pulverized. It is expected that while the young
vines are in the nursery, not only will their roots be
improved, but their general character will be so devel-
oped, that a proper selection can be made when they are
transplanted into the vineyard, so that plants of equal
vigor may be planted in the same row, and every vine
upon the trellis may be in an equal state of forwardness,
so that each step in the system of training may be applied
to all the vines at the same time. This is of the utmost
importance, if anything like neatness and uniformity is
to be obtained in the vineyard. But it is difficult to
secure this if one-year-old vines are planted, as at that
time their real vigor or weakness cannot be readily
determined.

To prepare the vines properly for the vineyard, they
should be carefully taken up in the fall of the first sea-
son, and "heeled-in" in a cool cellar or in some dry
place in the open air. They should remain in this situa-
tion until spring, when the ground has become suffi-
ciently dry to work easily; but the earlier they can be
planted, provided the ground is in suitable condition,
the better. When taken out for planting, the roots
should be shortened at least one-third, and, if very long
— say two feet or more — then they may be cut back one-
half, as it will not only be more convenient to plant
them if shortened, but the plants will be benefited.

The plants should be kept under cover while being
trimmed, and the roots kept moist and out of the wind,
which would soon destroy the small fibers and injure the
large ones. The trench in which the vines are to be
planted should be dug before the vines are taken into
the field.

Draw a line across the plot of ground to be planted,
and dig out the soil, as shown in Fig. 27 ; this is eight-
een inches wide, and twelve inches on one side and five
or six on the other, the bottom being slightly oval ; the

84 THE GKAPE CULTURIST.

soil is thrown all upon one side. When a number of
trenches are ready, bring out the vines and plant them
in the following manner : Place the vine in the trench
upon the shallow side, and spread out the roots toward
the opposite side ; then throw on soil enough to hold
them in place, and cover them ; then put in another vine
in the same way, setting them so far apart that the roots
will not crowd ; twelve to eighteen inches will usually
be sufficient.

One person may plant, while another fills up the
trench. When one trench is filled, proceed in the same
way with another, always being careful to have each
trench dug descending the same way, so that the vines
will be uniformly on either the right or left side of the

FIG. 27.

trench. Then when the vines are to be taken up in the
fall, it will only be necessary to examine one vine, to
ascertain on which side the greater part of its roots is to
be found ; and the workmen can then proceed systemat-
ically, for they will know just where to dig, and thus be
able to avoid injuring the roots. The rows of vines
should be four feet apart, which gives plenty of room to
work between them during the season. When the vines
are planted and the ground about them leveled off
evenly, they should be cut down close to the ground,
and a good strong stake six or seven feet long be put by
each. That portion of the stem which is left generally
has more than one bud upon it, each of which may push
into growth, but usually only the upper bud will start ;

85

but if more than on 3 should grow, the strongest only
should be allowed to zernain, and when this has grown a
few inches it shou?l be tied to the stake. This tying
will have to be attended to at least once a week through-
out a grsa-1'jr portion of the season. The laterals also
must be pir ched !xick as often as they start, leaving one

FIG. 28.

leaf the first time, two the next, and so on ; but usually
two stoppings will be all that is necessary.

As the stopping, or pinching off, the ends of the lat-
erals constitutes a greater part of what is termed summer
pruning, and as I shall have occasion to refer to it fre-
quently in the following pages, the reader should fully
understand what is meant by laterals, and their mode of
treatment, as it is nearly the same upon vines in all
stages of their growth.

86 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

Fig. 28, E, represents a portion of a vine in summer,
Now, while this vine is growing, it produces young
branches from a bud near the axils of the leaves ; that is,
from that point where the leaves join the main stem ; /
shows one of these young branches, which is called a lat-
eral ; at the point where this lateral unites with the
main stem there is also a bud. Now if this lateral were
broken out entirely it might injure this bud, or cause it
to push into growth ; or if the lateral is allowed to grow
unchecked, the strength of the vine is divided into so
many branches that none of them will become strong or
well ripened. To prevent this, and retain as many
leaves for the elaboration of the sap as is necessary for
the full development of the plant, we pinch off, with the
forefinger and thumb, the end of the lateral at «, when
it has made two or three leaves, taking off all but one
leaf. If the vine is growing rapidly, the lateral will
start again and produce a young shoot from the base of
this leaf, and when it has grown a few inches it should
be pinched off at #, leaving one more leaf ; c shows where
it would be stopped the third time, should it be neces-
sary ; d shows a lateral as it appears when first starting.
This checking the growth of the laterals not only con-
centrates the strength of the plant into the main cane,
but it prevents the formation of a large number of small,
thin leaves, which are of no benefit to the plant, and
are, of themselves, so feeble that they cannot resist dis-
ease like large and strong ones, consequently they are
often attacked while others escape.

While I am fully aware of the fact that to raise
vines in this way is rather expensive, and would scarcely
yield a profit to the propagator, in these times of sharp
competition and low prices, but I practiced it for many
years with the best results ; but vines at that time sold
for about five times their present price. I still claim
that it is the proper way of managing young vines,

TRANSPLANTING. 87

Although it may not be a profitable one under all
circumstances.

The usual system is to transplant the one-year-old
vines into nursery rows, cutting off the young cane to
within one or two buds of its base, and then allow the
vines to grow the following season without staking or
other care beyond that of keeping them from being
smothered by weeds. Good strong vines are, without
doubt, produced in this way, and it is, perhaps, the only
one by which the propagator can expect to secure a mod-
erate compensation for his labor.

When vines have grown one season in the nursery
they ought to be large enough to be transplanted into
the vineyard ; but if not, then they should be cut down
to within one or two buds of the last season's growth,
and but one cane allowed to grow, as in the year before.

If, at the end of the second season in the nursery,
the vines have not made a growth of from four to six
feet, then we may rest assured that there is something
radically wrong, either in the soil or the vines, and they
should be dug up and either discarded altogether, or
trimmed root and top, planted again in another situa-
tion, and treated the same as one-year-old plants. But
if the vines have made a vigorous growth, then they are
ready for the vineyard, and in much better condition for
the purpose than they will be at a future time. Vines
older than three years are seldom so valuable for trans-
planting as those younger.

When the vines have arrived at the proper size for
vineyard planting, and so soon as the leaves have fallen
in the autumn, they should be carefully taken up by
means of the garden fork. Kaise the roots as nearly
entire as possible, for if any are to be shortened or to be
cut entirely away it is better to have all before the eye,
so that a selection can be made, than to do it with the
spade and wholly by Juince. When the vines are taken

88 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

up they may be immediately planted in the vineyard,
provided all the circumstances connected therewith are
favorable ; if not, they should be put away in the ground,
where they will remain safely during the winter. This
latter operation is called heeling-in.

Heeling-in. — The usual method of heeling-in
plants, or laying in by the heel (roots), is as follows :
Having selected a dry and protected situation, a trench
is made in the soil a foot or more deep, and wide enough
to receive the roots of the plants, and of any required
length, the soil being thrown out upon one side. The
plants are then set thickly together in the trench, with
the tops in a sloping direction, and against the bank of
soil thrown out of the trench ; another trench is made

FlG. 29.

parallel to the first, and the soil taken from it is thrown
into the first, covering the roots, and carefully filling in
all the interstices between them. Press down the soil
and smooth off the surface, so that water shall not lodge
thereon. When one trench is finished, set the plants in
the next, and proceed as before. When all is completed,
dig a shallow trench around the whole, so as to carry of
the water and keep the situation dry.

Fig. 29 shows the form of the trenches with the
embankment against which the vines are placed. But.
the trenches are shown at a considerable distance apart ;
this, of course, is not as it would be in fact, because the

SOIL AND SITUATION. 89

first trench is filled up in making the second, so that the
trenches are actually joined together side by side, and
the vines in the two rows need not be more than a foot
apart. The entire vine may be covered, if desirable, to
protect the top from being injured by cold (the dotted
line over both trenches, in Fig. 29, shows the form of
the embankment when the whole top is covered), or the
vines may be cut back before they are heeled-in ; but in
either case, if the whole vine is covered, it is best not to
do it too early in the fall, nor let the earth remain on
too long in the spring. It is also best to assort the vines
before cutting off the tops, because we can better judge
of the condition of the roots by the appearance of the
tops than we can after they are removed. The roots
may be abundant and large, yet if they are not well
ripened they are of but little value, and it is not always
an easy matter to determine their condition when coated
with soil, as they usually are when first taken from the
ground.

CHAPTER XI.

SOIL AND SITUATION.

When we take into consideration the wide extent of
territory in which the grape is found growing, either in
its wild or cultivated state, on both the Eastern and
Western continents, we may well ponder over the oft-
repeated assertion, that the vine does not succeed over
the whole extent of any country, but only in certain cir-
cumscribed localities ; and while we may admit its truth,
we fail to comprehend the reasons why certain soils or
sections of a country should be more congenial to the
vine than others. Yet the fact that success does attend
its cultivation in particular locations, while it entirely

90 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

fails in others, is patent to every casual observer.
Whether these failures are attributable to the injudicious
selection of varieties, or to the mode of culture, is not
always easy to determine. That the climate of both the
Northern and Southern States, as well as that portion of
the United States lying west of the Rocky Mountains, is
congenial to the vine, is abundantly proved by the
numerous varieties found growing wild over this vast
region of country. No doubt there are particular varie-
ties which are better suited to one section than to another,
and that the same situation and exposure that would be
most suitable for a vineyard at the South, might be the
worst that could be selected for the North.

A situation protected from the cold north winds, so
as to insure sufficient heat to mature the fruit, is always
desirable in a cold climate ; but in a hot one the heat
may be so great as to exhaust the powers of the vine by
a too rapid evaporation from its leaves, and it conse-
quently fails.

Nearly all the writers on grape culture recommend
the declivities of hills and mountains inclining to the
south as the best exposure for a vineyard ; and the next
m order are the southeast, east, southwest, but never a
north or a full western exposure. Virgil said, "Nor let
thy vineyard bend toward the sun when setting," and
these words are as applicable at the present time as they
were two thousand years ago.

A full southern exposure is, no doubt, preferable in
the Northern States, and if the land descends to the
south, so much the better ; but if very steep, it will cost
more to prepare and keep in order than if it is level.
While I admit that a sidehill is a very desirable location
for a vineyard, I am quite certain that there are many
situations equally good that are perfectly level, or
nearly so.

I have often observed that the success of a vineyard-
ist was attributed to his soil and situation, but never to

SOIL AND SITUATION. 91

the skill of the cultivator or to the varieties grown, and
this, no matter whether his soil was light or heavy, or
the situation low or elevated. Still, we know that soil
and situation have often much influence upon the growth
and quality of the fruit; for the instances of such an
effect being produced are too common in Europe, at
least, to allow us to deny its truth.

In selecting a situation for a vineyard, all the sur-
roundings should be closely observed and taken into
account. If the land has no protection from the north
and northwest, see what the facilities are for supplying
one either by walls or a belt of trees. [If trees are to
be used, evergreens are best, and often the small trees
may be had in the woods near by — we now refer to the
Northern States.] See that the land is sufficiently ele-
vated, thirty to forty feet, at least, above streams or
ponds of water; for, if near the level of small bodies of
water, the situation will very likely be subject to early
and late frosts.

Large bodies of water are not so injurious as small ;
in fact, they are usually beneficial, as they absorb heat
in such quantities during summer, and give it off slowly
in the fall; this affects the surrounding country very
materially, by preventing early frosts. In spring, the
water being cold, it keeps the atmosphere cool for quite
a distance from the shore, and thereby prevents vegeta-
tion starting so early as it otherwise would. This is
probably one of the reasons why the cultivation of the
grape has been so largely extended, of late years, along
the banks of the Hudson, and around the smaller inland
lakes of Central New York, and on the southern shores
of Lake Ontario and Erie.

When the soil is sandy or gravelly, it will require an
application of some organic material, either in the form
of barnyard manure, muck or leaf-mold. The latter two
can often be readily obtained, where the former, in any

92 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

considerable quantity, would be out of the question, or
would be so expensive that it would very much lessen, if
not entirely absorb, the profits of the vineyard. There
are thousands of acres of sandy or gravelly lands in the
Eastern States, that would make the very best vineyards
in the country, simply by applying the enriching mate-
rials that are to be found in abundance in their immedi-
ate vicinity.

Strange to say, these lands are now considered almost
worthless, because barnyard, 6r commercial manures (as
they are called), can not be had sufficiently cheap to
make them profitable for cultivation. While a sandy
soil may not naturally produce the most luxuriant
growth, it is certain that it produces fruit of the richest
quality. Such soils are moderately favorable to the
growth of the vine, are easily worked, and do not retain
an excess of moisture, as they are thoroughly under-
drained by nature.

Volcanic, granitic and limestone soils are all excel-
lent for vines, and as these are usually strong and rich
they need but little more than a slight change in their
mechanical condition, which is readily accomplished by
plowing or trenching. And here let me remark, that
very often the mechanical texture of the soil has more to
do with success or failure, than do the ingredients it
contains.

A moderately loose and friable soil, whether it be
loam, sand, gravel, or the debris of rocky hillsides, espe-
cially if of a calcareous nature, are to be chosen, in pref-
erence to clay or muck. These latter may be somewhat
reclaimed and made available by underdraining, trench-
ing, etc. , yet in a majority of cases they prove unsatis-
factory in the end.

The soils in many portions of the Western States,
and in some portions of the others, that have but re-
cently been brought under cultivation, need no addition
of fertilizing materials.

SOIL AND SITUATION. 93

New soils are to be preferred to those that have long
been in cultivation ; for it is extremely difficult to supply
artificially to worn-out soils the lucking materials, in a
form so perfectly adapted to the wants of plants, as that
which they originally possessed. I am well aware that
some agricultural chemists have endeavored to impress
upon the minds of cultivators the importance of analyz-
ing the soil, in order to ascertain what particular ingre-
dients it may need, or what it may possess in too great
an abundance to produce any particular crop or plant in
perfection. And while I admit that chemists may some-
times determine when there is an excess of any particu-
lar constituent (which practical men will often do by
merely looking at it), I have yet to learn that analytical
chemists can tell how little of any particular ingredient
is needed for any particular crop. An acre contains
43,560 square feet of surface, and if we call the soil a
foot deep (and there are few plants that do not penetrate
deeper than this), then there will be that number of
cubic feet. A cube foot of ordinary soil will weigh from.
75 to 100 pounds — we will call it 80 pounds — this gives
3,484,800 as the weight of an acre of soil one foot deep.
There are circumstances of frequent occurrence when a
farmer, by adding 100 pounds of some particular mate-
rial to an acre of grain, will increase the crop twenty-five
per cent. And certainly it is not reasonable to suppose,
nor do I think that any theorist will maintain, that it is
among the possibilities of chemical science to detect even
a trace of 100 pounds of a substance in 3,484,800, yet
plants will detect it.

I make these remarks because I have seen men,
when looking for a situation on which to plant a vine-
yard, who were very particular to have the soil analyzed
by some celebrated chemist before they would purchase
or plant. I do not wish to depreciate the science of
agricultural chemistry, for it has been one of the power-

94 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

fill auxiliaries in the advancement of agriculture, but I
would warn those who implicitly rely on all the theories
advanced, that they may ask too much of it, and thereby
be led astray.

Preparing the Soil. — The manner of preparing
the ground for a vineyard depends entirely upon the
kind of Boil, and its natural condition. If it is heavy
and compact, the first step will be to underdrain it,
either with stone drains or tile.

The number of drains required, and the depth to
which they should be laid, will also depend somewhat
upon the nature of the soil and the amount of water to
be carried off. If the land has springs in it, then the
drains should be placed so as to cut them off near their
source, and prevent, as much as possible, the excess of
water from spreading.

But soils containing springs, except they be grav-
elly, should be avoided, as they are, perhaps, the most
unsuitable that could be selected. There are also many
soils that are called dry that should be underdrained,
especially if they are inclined to heavy loam or clay ; not
so much to carry off the water, but to aerate the soil —
that is, allow the air to penetrate and circulate through
it ; for air always carries with it more or less heat and
moisture, and if the mechanical texture of the soil is
such as to readily admit air, then it will be more likely
to be in a condition to transmit moisture rapidly, but
not to hold a superabundance.

Drains are usually placed from twenty to forty feet
apart, and three to four feet deep, according to soils,
situation, and the crop to be grown on the land. For
vines the drains should be placed deeper than for ordi-
nary farm crops, else the roots will soon penetrate to
and fill them. To describe the different kinds of mate-
rials used in draining lands, as well as the manner of
laying, cost, etc., would occupy too much of our space,

SOIL A.ND SITUATION. 95

and we must refer those of our readers who wish to plant
a vineyard upon soils that require draining, to those
works that treat particularly on this subject.

When vines are to be planted upon steep hillsides or
upon stony soils, the only thorough method of preparing
the soil is by trenching. This is done by digging across
the field to be planted a trench two feet wide and two
feet deep — some recommend three feet or more ; but if
it is full two feet it will generally be deep enough, and
deeper than nine out of ten do actually trench when
they say three feet. After the soil has been thrown out
upon one side of the trench, a parallel strip of soil, of
the same width of the trench, is thrown into it, and by
this means the soil is inverted, the top, or surface soil,
being placed at the bottom, and in this way one trench
is dug to fill up another, until the whole field is trenched
over. The soil taken from the first trench will, conse-
quently, remain on the surface above the level of the
surrounding soil, and there is no soil to fill the trench
last made. It is usual, on level ground, to take the soil
that was dug out from the first trench and put it in the
last ; but to do this is often inconvenient, and I have
yet to see a piece of land, of any considerable size, with-
out a spot somewhere upon it where the soil thrown out
of the first trench would not improve it by filling it up ;
and if the trenching is finished off upon the higher por-
tion of the field, the trench last made may be filled up
from the adjoining soil without injuring its looks. It
does not matter where we begin to trench, whether in
the middle or at one side of the field.

This inverting the soil, as described, is the simplest
method of trenching, and is as efficient as any, provided
the subsoil is not of a character so inferior that it will
not be rendered suited to the growth of plants by being
exposed a few months to the atmosphere. The subsoils
of light sandy soils are often richer than the surface, as

90 THE GRAPE CULTUBIST.

a great portion of the enriching materials that have been
applied to the surface has been carried down by the
rains, to the subsoil below. But the natural richness of
the subsoil when thrown upon the surface should seldom
be depended upon, but manure must be added, and
thoroughly incorporated with it before planting.

There are many circumstances in which the soil may
be inverted to the depth of two feet with benefit — such
as sandy or light loamy soils, or where manure can be
liberally applied, and a year be given for the ameliora-
tion of the condition of the subsoil before planting.
Where these circumstances do not exist, it is best not to
throw the subsoil on top, but to mix it with the surface-
soil at the time of trenching.

To do this thoroughly and conveniently, the work-
men should stand in the trench, and keep an open space
at the bottom on which to stand. Then, by digging
down the bank and throwing it over against the opposite
side, break up the lumps at the same time ; the soil may
not only be thoroughly pulverized, but the surface-soil
and subsoil will become thoroughly intermingled.

A five-tined spading-fork is the best implement for
trenching, unless the soil is very hard and stony ; in such
cases the spade and pick must be used.

Although trenching is indispensable upon very hard
and stony soils and upon steep sidehills, on level situa-
tions or those with only a moderate inclination (and
they are always preferable) the plow may take the place
of the spade, and it will very much lessen the expense of
preparation. If the soil is stirred to the depth of from
fifteen to twenty inches, which it may be by using a sub-
soil plow, it will be as deep as is really necessary to
insure a good and healthy growth of vine.

I no not believe that it is desirable to encourage the
roots to penetrate to a great depth, especially in a north-
ern climate, for when the roots penetrate deeply they do

SOIL AND SITUATION. 97

not come into full action until late in the season, and
they also continue to act late in the autumn, thus pre-
venting the early ripening of the wood.

If the soil is not naturally rich, spread the manure
upon the surface before plowing, then turn it under with
the surface-plow, and let the subsoil plow follow in the
same furrow, breaking up the subsoil. After the ground
has been all plowed over in this way, then cross-plow it
in the same manner ; this will insure a thorough break-
ing up of the soil and mixing of the manure with it.
When the land has been both plowed and cross-plowed,
if it is then gone over with the cultivator it will still
benefit it very much, as it will break to pieces the lumps
which will be left unbroken after even the most thorough
plowing.

We should always endeavor to make thorough work
in the preparation of the soil before planting the vine,
for it is not an ordinary crop that we are to plant, nor
one that necessitates a seed-time to each harvest, but it
is one that requires but one planting in a lifetime, yet it,
will reward us with many harvests.

There are very few soils that a person of good judg-
ment will select that will need any further preparation
than that which can be done with the plow, with the
addition, perhaps, of underdraining. Manures, of
course, must be applied where the soil is not rich
enough without them.

Manures and their Application. — The quantity
of manure required by an acre, to fit it to produce a
strong and healthy growth of vine, cannot be known
until the fact has been ascertained by actual experiment
upon each individual piece of land, and the vineyardist
only can be the judge in the matter. But it is always
best to be on the safe side and put on enough, because
the vine will soon exhaust the surplus, if any; while if
too little is given, a complete failure may be the result
7

98 THE GEAPE CULTURIST.

As vines seldom starve to death the first season, although
their growth may be small and weak, if supplied with a
sufficient quantity of the proper fertilizers the second
year, they may not only live, but finally become strong
and productive, at a loss to the cultivator of a year's
growth, the penalty for his ignorance or negligence.

In all sandy, gravelly, and light loam soils there i is
usually a want of organic materials, and that want must
be supplied by applying muck, leaves, leaf-mold from
the woods, sods, or barnyard manure, or it may be sup-
plied by growing clover or some other similar crop and
turning it under while green. When muck or leaves
are used, it is best to compost them with barnyard
manure. This may be done by spreading the materials
over the barnyard a foot deep, and then spread the
manure over it and let the cattle tread it in ; and when
the manure has accumulated to the depth of six inches,
spread on another foot, and so until it is three or four
feet deep; then it should all be forked over and mixed
together. If the whole is under cover it is better ; but
it is not very essential, unless manure is very scarce and
valuable. The muck absorbs all the liquid portions of
the manure and prevents waste, and a compost of three-
fourths muck or of the other materials named, and one-
fourth barnyard manure, is more valuable for a light
soil than if the whole amount were barnyard manure.

When it is not convenient to make the compost
heap in the barnyard it may be made anywhere in the
fields, by first laying down a foot in depth of any of
those materials, and then drawing out the manure and
spreading it over the surface, putting on alternate layers
until a sufficient quantity is obtained. The compost
heap should be kept level on the top, or a little inclined
toward the center, so that it shall receive the water that
falls upon it. This will cause it to decompose more rap*
idly than if the water did not penetrate it.

SOIL AND SITUATION. 99

The compost should be frequently turned over, so
that it may become fine before it is wanted for use. It
will seldom be fit to use in less than six months, and it
is better to let it remain one year. Ashes may be applied
to the compost at anytime, with benefit; also ground
bones, charcoal, horn shavings, offal from the butchers,
refuse from rope walks, woolen and cotton factories, etc. ;
in short, almost any such materials may be mixed in ;
they are all good, but not positively necessary, nor worth
while spending any great amount of money or time to
obtain. Lime and ashes are both very beneficial to light
soils, but they may be applied alone, and upon the sur-
face of the soil after the vines are planted. Lime, espe-
cially, should be applied in this manner, as it descends
rapidly into the soil and needs no mixing with it ; be-
sides, when applied upon the surface it will often assist
in the destruction of the larvae of insects, in tiie decom-
position of vegetable matter, etc. Shell lime is consid-
ered the best, but the difference is so slight that it will
not pay to transport it any great distance if stone lime
can be had near at hand.

The compost should be spread upon the soil and
plowed in, as has been described, before the vines are
planted.

The quantity may vary from fifty to five hundred
two-horse wagonloads per acre, but it is not judicious
to put on too much at first, as it will cause a rampant
growth ; it is not desirable to produce such, as it will be
troublesome to keep it in check when we come to train
the vine. It is better to apply sufficient to give the
vines a good start and apply more in after years as
needed.

There are sections of the country where there are
sandy and gravelly soils that are well suited for vine-
yards, but barnyard manure can not he obtained. If
either muck, mud from streams, or leaf-mold can be

100 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

had, they may be used without the barnyard manure,
but they should be placed in heaps where they can be
forked over occasionally, so that they will become sweet-
ened, as it is termed, before using ; and it is well to mix
a quantity of lime or ashes with them, to assist the
decomposition. A bushel of salt to every ten or fifteen
loads may also be added with benefit.

Soils that are more compact, such as are called
heavy loam, or approaching a clay, do not need so much
of the organic materials as those called light soils, as
most of them contain more or less of them ; but they
require thorough pulverizing ; after which, if a good
dressing of well-rotted barnyard manure is added, little
more is needed before planting the vine. Any soil that
will produce a first-rate crop of corn or potatoes is rich
enough for vines. A few shovelfuls of manure, or two
or three quarts of bonedust may be mixed with the soil
when the vine is planted, especially if the vine is not
one of the strong growing varieties. And it may not be
out of place to mention here that there is a great differ-
ence in the growth of varieties, and the soil should be
prepared with reference to this fact. Some kinds would
entirely fail upon soils which would be rich enough for
others. If we should make the soil rich enough to pro-
duce a strong growth on a feeble growing variety, and
then plant it with a strong growing one, there would
not only be a waste of materials and labor, but the ram-
pant growth produced would be an abomination to the
vineyardist when he came to train his vines ; for he not
only endeavors to train them, but to control their growth.

Special Manures. — There are many kinds of ma-
nures known as " special," some of which are, no doubt,
valuable ; but where those materials which have been
mentioned can be obtained, there will be no necessity
of looking after the specially concentrated manures.
Guano, poudrette, superphosphate of lime, etc., may

SOIL AND SITUATION.

101

occasionally be used with benefit, t'o give the yine a start
when first planted, but it is doubtful whether it would
be judicious or economical to depend entirely upon any
of them to carry it through a succession of years. I
have found fine ground bones to be a safe and not very
expensive stimulant for the vine. I sometimes use one
to two quarts to each vine when planting, mixing it
with the soil immediately about the roots.

After a vineyard is planted, manuring must not be
neglected; for the vine needs not only to be supplied
with food at the start, but it will want feeding contin-
ually, if it continues to grow and bear fruit. How often
it will need a supply the vineyardist must be the judge.
All that is required is to keep up a healthy growth.
Too much manure may increase the size of the fruit, but
it will injure its quality. The manure may always be
applied upon the surface, and worked in with the culti-
vator or hoe, but the plow should never be admitted into
a vineyard, as it will cause more injury than benefit.

Frequent and regular top-dressings of manure are
better than large applications at long intervals. Rank
unfermented manures should not be used for this pur-
pose, as they will often injure the flavor of the fruit ;
besides, they will more or less affect the health of the
leaves

Upon very open and porous soils a mulching of
leaves, straw, tan-bark, or similar materials will be very
beneficial, but upon more compact soils it is better to
keep the surface of the soil open by frequently stirring
it with the hoe or cultivator, so that it will the more
readily admit the air, and with it heat and moisture.
When such soils become surcharged with water, as they
frequently do during long rains, they will give off much
of the surplus moisture if the surface is kept open and
uncovered ; but when they are covered with a mulch
they retain too much near the surface, and the soil will

102 THE GRAPE CULTUETST.

become soured, and the surface roots be destroyed in
consequence. With all the care that may be bestowed
upon the vine in regard to soils, manures, etc., much
will still depend upon the system of pruning and train-
ing adopted.

CHAPTER XII.

STEM APPENDAGES.

There are various appendages to the stem of the
vine, such as spines, hairs, etc., which are of service to
the botanist, as they assist him in determining the differ-
ent species, varieties, etc. ; but those that are of the
most interest to the practical vineyardist are the later-
als, leaves, tendrils and buds.

The mode of treating laterals has been given in a
preceding chapter, in which it was shown how they may
become injurious or beneficial to the vine, according to
the will of the vineyardist. Leaves are the most con-
spicuous appendage of the vine, and they are of the
greatest importance, as it can not exist without them.
They are sometimes called the lungs of plants, and many
beautiful theories have been brought forward in accord-
ance with the similitude. Their chief office appears to
be to assimilate materials which are taken up by the
roots, and to do this it is necessary that their surface
should be exposed to light. The greater surface of
leaves that a vine exposes to the sun. the greater power
will it have to take up liquids from the soil, and with
them those constituents which go to make up the whole
structure of the vine.

This being the fact, it can readily be seen how, by
diminishing the number of leaves, we check growth, or

STEM APPENDAGES. 103

vice versa. But it should be borne in mind that simply
taking off a portion of leaves will not always actually
diminish the strength of the vine ; for instance, if they
are much crowded, one portion may shade the other, and
all may be small, feeble, and of little use. If a part of
these are removed, those remaining expand, and one
leaf may become of more importance to the vine than a
dozen when crowded.

This is why we pinch off, thin out, etc. ; for the
results of these operations show that, when under culti-
vation, vines will produce a larger number of leaves than
are necessary to secure the proper development and
health of the plant.

Although the general appearance and structure of
vine leaves are very similar, yet there is a great differ-
ence in the relative power of leaves of different varieties
to withstand the various changes of climate, disease,
etc. ; and it is of the utmost importance that their full
development should be attained in all cases, so that they
shall not be affected by the ordinary changes of the tem-
perature during the period of growth.

Forms of Leaves. — To mention even a hundredth
part of the various forms of vine leaves would occupy
too much of our space. But I have given the following
illustrations for the purpose of showing the different
characteristics of the leaves of some of the different spe-
cies, and at the same time convey a better idea of the
meaning of some of the terms commonly employed in
describing the leaves of the different kinds, than could
be done without engravings.

- The leaves are necessarily shown much smaller than
the natural size, but in doing so I have endeavored to
preserve their most prominent features. In making the
selections for the engravings from my sketch-book, I
intended merely to choose those which were quite dis-
tinct ; but since they were engraved I have found that,

104

THE GRAPE CULTURTST.

although inadvertently, I have selected those that are
natives of as widely separated portions of the globe as I
could have possibly wished, had I aimed at doing so.
The leaf has two distinct portions — the expanded part,
or Uade, and the leaf-stalk, or petiole. The petiole is
attached to the base of the blade, and the opposite point
is the apex. The general outline of grape leaves is inoro

FIG. 30. THE OPORTO.

or less heart-shaped. The Oporto (Fig. 30) is round,
heart-shaped; the Nebraska (Fig. 31) acuminate, or
pointed-heart-shaped ; while the Scuppernong (Fig. 32)
is scarcely heart-shaped at all, but nearly orbicular.
The edges of the leaves are variously notched, and these
markings, as well as the general shape, are of importance

STEM APPENDAGES. 105

in distinguishing species and varieties. It will be seen,
by comparing the different figures of grape leaves, that
the notches differ not only in shape, but in depth.
These divisions upon the margin, when small, and shaped

FIG. 31. THE NEBRASKA.

like those in the leaf of the Oporto, are called teech,
such leaves are said to be dentated, or toothed ; here the
leaf is finely dentate, while in the Scuppernong (Fig. 32)
they are coarsely dentate, and in the Yeddo (Fig. 33)
crenate, or scolloped- toothed.

106

THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

The leaf of the Nebraska grape (Fig. 31) is cut-
toothed, the divisions being irregular and sharp. When
the divisions are larger they are called lobes. In the
Texas Post Oak grape leaf (Fig. 34), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, are
lobes, and the leaf is said to be five-lobed. The Yeddo
leaf is three-lobed, and the Nebraska and Oporto arc

FIG. 32. THE SCUPPERNONG.

obscurely three-lobed. In the Post Oak grape leaf the
lobes 1 and 5 overlap the leaf-stalk, and these portions
which do this are called alae, or wings; some of the
other lobes in this leaf overlap, but no distinctive name
is applied to them. The spaces between the lobes, as
well as the depression at the base of the leaf where the

STEM A.PPENDAGES.

107

petiole is attached, are called sinuses, and the shape and
depth of these afford distinguishing characters. These
are the principal terms used in describing the shape of
grape leaves, and the strikingly different forms can be
described so that they may be recognized ; but it is often
the case that the difference in foliage in distinct varie-

FIG. 33. THE YEDDO.

ties is so slight that, although it is readily perceived by
a practiced eye, it is not possible to express these dis-
tinctions in words.

There are also many other marks that aid us in dis-
tinguishing the different varieties — perhaps the most

108

THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

variable of these is color, as the leaves of scarcely any
two varieties possess the same shade of green, although
it is the predominant color in all.

The Scuppernong leaf is a light green, and smooth
on both sides, and shining on the upper ; while the Post

FIG. 34. THE POST OAK.

Oak grape leaf is a dark, dull green on the upper side,
and rusty-woolly on the under side. The petiole and
veins of some leaves are red, others dark brown, and in
others the red color pervades, more or less, the whole

STEM APPENDAGES.

1C9

leaf. When the leaves are smooth they are called gla-
brous, and if not, they are called pubescent — woolly, or
hairy, according to the degree of roughness. When the
leaves are merely smooth they are called glabrous, but if
they have a polished surface, then they are called shin-
ing. When the leaves are covered with a whitish bloom,

FIG. 35, PORTION OP VINE WITH TENDRHi.

or waxy substance that readily rubs off, they are called
glaucous.

There is also a great difference in the texture of
leaves ; some are very thick and tough, while others are
brittle. But the thinness or thickness of the leaf does
not indicate the strength, for some that are quite thin
are very strong and enduring.

Other characteristics of vine leaves might be men-
tioned, but enough have already been given to show that

110 THE GBAPE CULTUBIST.

there is a sufficient number to enable a close observer to
distinguish the different varieties, however closely they
may be related.

Tendrils. — Tendrils are but a tortuous elongation
of the woody fiber of the stem, and they preserve their
vitality but one season.

They are always situated directly opposite to a leaf,
and remain connected permanently to the stem until
they decay ; while the leaf is united only temporarily,
and drops off at the end of the season. In the wild vine
the tendril serves an important purpose, in assisting it
to climb ; in the cultivated vine, it being artificially sup-
ported, tendrils are no longer needed, and may be, in
part, cut off while young, as they are not only useless,
but will, if allowed to remain, often cause the vine to
become entangled, and produce confusion where order is
necessary. Fig. 35— / shows a portion of a vine with
tendril (A) attached, the end of the tendril in two divis-
ions, one considerably shorter than the other ; both of
these possess much interest when, instead of being ten-
drils, they are bunches of fruit.

The first three or four tendrils produced in spring
upon bearing vines are but the peduncles, or flower-
stalks, of the thyrse of flowers, which eventually becomes
a bunch of grapes. But if the elements requisite to sup-
port the flowers and fruit are not supplied, or by acci-
dent the proper amount of light and heat is excluded,
then these peduncles will become tendrils. Therefore a
tendril may be said to be a barren peduncle, and a bunch
of fruit a productive tendril, for they may become either
under favorable circumstances. The divisions of the
tendril referred to above show a peculiar characteristic
in the formation of the bunch of fruit, which is seen in
most of our native, as well as in many of the European
varieties of grapes. The longer division becomes the
main body of the bunch, and the shorter becomes what

STEM APPENDAGES.

Ill

FIG. 3G. BUNCH WITH SHOULDER.

112 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

is termed the shoulder. Fig. 36 shows a bunch of
grapes, as produced from a divided productive tendril.
This form of bunch might be appropriately called the
natural form, and certainly it seems to carry with it
more of the general idea of a bunch of grapes than many
of the other forms which are occasionally seen.

Sometimes a bunch is divided into several small
clusters, which partly or entirely surround the main
body ; when this occurs they are called clustered bunches
instead of shouldered. But as the bunches of fruit are
more or less variable in the same kind of grape, it is not
expected, in describing a variety, that more than their
general character can be given.

Buds. — Buds are embryo plants, for they contain
all the elements necessary to insure or secure, when
removed from the parent, a distinctive, individual exist-
ence. They contain the rudiments of leaves and stem
in a miniature form, and growth is but the development
of these individual parts.

The principal buds of the vine are situated at the
axils of the leaves only, and are never found upon any
other part of the stem. They are naturally single — that
is, produce but one shoot ; but vines, when under culti-
vation, often show a disposition to produce a number of
shoots from a bud ; or, in other words, the buds divide
indefinitely, and each division is capable of producing a
distinct cane. Fig. 35 — e and c show a double bud;
such examples are often seen upon trained vines, and
nearly every bud, upon vines that have been checked
during growth, will show the double bud, both of which
will often produce a shoot, but seldom of uniform
strength. If a shoot that has started from a bud is
broken off, others will immediately start from near its
base. These are said to grow from accessory buds.
They are sometimes incorrectly called adventitious ; but
adventitious buds do not exist upon the stem of the
vine, as they do upon most other woody plants.

STEM APPENDAGES. 113

The word adventitious is from adventive, implying
accidental, and not, necessarily, pre-existing in form ;
and as I am not aware of any instances where buds have
teen produced, by art or nature, upon the stem of the
^vine, except at the point where buds originally existed,
we may conclude that they are accessory buds. Buds
will sometimes be produced from the lateral roots of the
vine at the point of separation, especially if they are of
considerable size; these are, strictly speaking, adventi-
tious. Although several shoots may be forced to grow
from what is apparently a single bud, yet it is seldom
judicious to do so, for if the bud produces but one shoot,
it will be much more vigorous than if the strength of
the plant is divided among several. It is a matter of
considerable moment to the vineyardist that all the main
buds be fully developed, and especially those that are
required for producing fruit and bearing canes, as it is
only from such buds that the largest and best fruit is
produced. Keeping this fact in view, every precaution
should be taken to preserve the vitality, as well as the
full development, of the buds.

Nature has provided a protection to the buds, by
Covering them with bud-scales, which ordinarily serve
to protect them against the sudden changes of the atmos-
phere while they are dormant ; but in some sections of
the country this protection is insufficient, and their
vitality is either entirely destroyed, or very much injured.
In such localities an artificial protection must be fur-
nished. The method of applying such a protection will
be given in another chapter.

CHAPTER XIII.

PLANTING THE VINE.

There seems to be as great a diversity of opinion
among vineyardists in regard to the best time to plant,
as there is upon the various details connected with plant-
ing. My own rule is to plant vines in the fall, when-
ever circumstances will permit me to do so ; but if it is
not convenient to plant at that time, then I do the next
best thing — that is, plant them so soon in the spring as
the soil is in a condition to permit of it. I prefer plant-
ing in the fall, because the soil becomes settled about
their roots, and all wounds made upon them in the
process of transplanting will, in a grent measure, become
healed, and very often new roots will issr.e before the
ground would permit of the vines being planted in the
spring. Thus they become all ready to commence groAV-
ing as soon as the frost is out of the ground.

The buds will commence swelling at the first ap-
proach of warm weather, and they are then very brittle
and liable to be broken off.

I think, as a general thing, vines planted in the
fall will make at least one- third more growth the first
season than when planted in spring. In very cold local-
ities, or in soils that are naturally tenacious and heavy,
spring planting is, perhaps, preferable to fall. But it
should be a maxim with the vineyardist, " never put off
until another season that which may be safely done in
the present."

The condition of the soil must, in part, govern us
in this operation, for it will not do to plant the vines

114

PLANTING THE VINE. 115

when the soil is soaked with water ; for in that condition
it can not be readily divided so as to be made to inter-
mingle with the roots. Nor will it do to plant when
the soil is parched and dry ; but it should be in that
moist and friable condition which allows it to be easily
worked.

Root Pruning. — However carefully vines are taken
up from, the nursery, the ends of a greater portion of
the roots will be broken off. These should be cut
smoothly before planting. It is also beneficial to shorten
the roots considerably, especially if they are long and
destitute of branching fibers. Two. feet is long enough
to leave any root upon a two or three-year-old vine ;
longer ones should be cut off, not only to render them
more convenient for planting, but to incite the main
roots to throw out new ones from their ends, as well us
from their sides. The soil will thereby become filled
with feeding roots, instead of a few long naked ones,
that have no power of absorbing food except through
the small fibers which exist only at their extreme ends.
The soil within the radius occupied by these long roots
is useless, so far as furnishing nutriment is concerned,
because they are not capable of absorbing it. It will
often be necessary to shorten the roots to less than two
feet, and it is best to cut off a portion of the ends, no
matter what their length may be. For it is not the
length or number of roots that determines the quality of
the vine, but their condition. If long, soft, spongy and
unripened wood and roots are left upon the vine, they
are of but little benefit to it, at best, and they will often
die, and in their decay communicate disease to the other
and more healthy portions of the plant. This is partic-
ularly the case with layers — their roots being produced
late in the season, they are seldom ripened to their full
length ; hence the necessity for severely shortening their
roots. And here, I believe, is the chief cause of so

116 THE GRAPE CULTtJBIST.

much discussion upon the value of layered plants.
Those who obtain properly grown layers and cut back
the roots to at least one-half their length before planting,
pronounce them to be equal to plants grown in any other
way. But those who have pursued the opposite, and
planted them with their roots entire, often fail to pro-
duce healthy or vigorous plants, and therefore condemn
them.

Vines will sometimes have so great a number of
roots that when transplanted the number of buds left
upon the stem is insufficient to call them into action,
and they perish, in consequence; for roots will not
remain entirely inactive for any considerable time during
the growing season without suffering. If the roots are
so crowded that they can not be distinctly separated and
a clear space be allowed for each when placed in the
ground, then a portion should be entirely removed.

If the texture of the soil is such as to make it con-
genial to the growth of the roots, and permit them to
permeate it without hindrance, their course will be more
inclined to the horizontal than the perpendicular, and
certainly the former position is more desirable than the
latter. For when the roots spread out horizontally, they
remain near enough to the surface to receive the full
benefit of all top-dressings of manure which may be ap-
plied to the vineyard. They are also more accessible to
heat, air and moisture, than when they penetrate deeply.
And while it is desirable to encourage the spreading of
the roots in every direction, so as to occupy every por-
tion of the soil, and have them near enough to the sur-
face to receive all the benefit possible from such a posi-
tion, yet we should not place them too near the surface
at the time of planting, nor endeavor to keep them there.
For unless the roots are covered deep enough to prevent
their being affected by sudden atmospheric changes,
the vine will surely suffer. Roots that are near the sur-

PLANTING THE VINE. 117

face appear to be more sensitive than those which are
deeper, and they are the first to start in the spring, and
the first to be checked by cold in the autumn, or by long
drouths in summer. The depth to which roots should
be covered depends somewhat upon circumstances. In
light soils they should be covered deeper than upon
heavy, because the air has a more ready access to a
porous soil than it has in one that is tenacious ; and
while it is necessary that air should reach the roots, it is
not judicious to allow it to penetrate too freely, because
roots require a partially confined atmosphere, and not
one that has any apparent circulation. There is one
class of cultivators who advocate deep planting, and
they place the roots from twelve to twenty-four inches
deep ; another class follow the other extreme, and but
little more than cover the roots with earth, and then
depend upon mulching for the requisite protection ; and
although both of these extremists offer many plausible
arguments in support of their different theories, yet a
middle course, I am confident, is the safest and best.

How to Plant. — When a number of vines are to
be planted, it is best to dig the holes before the vines
are taken into the field, and when they are taken from
the place where they have been heeled-in, their roots
should be kept in a box or basket filled with damp moss,
or protected in some such manner from the air and sun.
The vines should also be pruned before they are taken
into the field. Prune the roots, as has already been
directed, and cut off the stem to about eighteen inches.
The holes to receive the vines should be dug in a circu-
lar form, and from six to ten inches deep upon the out-
side, and four to six inches in the center ; then set a
good strong stake in the center of the hole ; for unless
the stake is placed in position before the vine is planted,
there is great danger of injuring some of the roots of the
vine in driving it down by its side after it is in position.

118 THE GEAPE CULTUBIST.

Now set the vine in the center of the hole close by the
stake, spread out the roots in every direction, and throw
on a little soil as you proceed, to hold them in position.
When all the roots are properly distributed, then fill up
the holes, pressing down the soil with the foot — the
weight of a man will not be too much pressure to give
the soil over the roots. It requires two men to work to
advantage in planting, one to place the vine in position
and spread out the root, and another to put in the earth.
Fig. 37 shows the form of the hole, with the stake and
vine in position, ready to be filled up. The roots should

FIG '37.

always descend a little from the stem to their farthest
point, and in pressing down the soil upon them, it should
be given the same pressure, as near as may be, along
their whole length. If the vines are planted in the fall,
then a small mound of earth should be made around the
stem, so as to protect two or three buds above those that
would be covered if the ground were made level. But
when the vines are planted in the spring, the hole need
not be filled quite full, but a shallow basin may be left
about the stem so that the rains shall more readily reach
the roots. This basin around the vine may be filled

PLANTING THE VINE. 119

when the vine gets well started into growth. When the
buds begin to push into growth, select the strongest and
rub the others off ; a bud near the ground is preferable
to one that is a foot above, and this is one reason why
the vines should be cut off quite short when planted, as
it makes the lower buds more sure to push. After the
one bud or shoot has been selected, the old stem above
it may be cut off to within two inches of the young
shoot. As the young cane grows, keep it tied to the
stake, but do not tie it so tightly as to interfere with its
expansion as it grows. Keep the laterals stopped, ac-
cording to the directions already given. Stir the soil
about the plants, the oftener the better, and keep down
all weeds.

Bass is an excellent material for tying the vines, as
it is not liable to injure the tender shoots ; besides, it
usually costs less than common twine.

When any particular vine, or a number of them, do
not grow as rapidly as desired, they should receive some
extra stimulant, either liquid mnaure from the barnyard,
or a solution of some of the concentrated manures in
water, giving enough to completely saturate the soil to
their roots. When it is not convenient to apply stimu-
lants in a liquid form, ;i barrow load of compost may be
spread upon the surface about the vine. We should
endeavor to produce a uniform growth, so that all the
vines in each row, at least, shall be as nearly of the same
size as possible.

The vines, at the end of the first season, will usually
be large enough to be pruned for training, but many of
the more feeble growing varieties will require another
year, and they should be cut back in the fall or winter
to two or three buds, only one of which should be allowed
•,o grow, as in the first year.

CHAPTER XIV.

GEAPE TRELLISES.

The usual manner of making grape trellises is with
wire running horizontally, and this answers very well
wifch all the various systems of training, except in thn
arm and upright hearing canes and spur pruning, which
is described in the succeeding chapter. For the ami
and spur pruning I much prefer a trellis built as shown
in Fig. 38, consisting of two horizontal bars and perpen •
dicular wire. Everybody who has made trellises in the
ordinary manner is aware of the difficulty of keeping the
wires straight, even if the posts to which they are fas-
tened are not more than eight feet apart, as the wires
will contract and expand at every change of temperature,
being loose on hot days and tight on cold ones. Besides,
much larger wires must be used, if put on horizontally,
to support the fruit and the vine. But the most serious
objection that I have found is, that the wires, unless
very near together, are not where they are most needed
when the young upright bearing shoots first start, for
they must be tied to something to support them whe?
only a few inches long, or they are very liable to b?
broken off by heavy, driving rains. If the wires are eight
inches apart (which is nearer than the usual custom to
place them), the young shoot must be at least twelve to
fifteen inches long before the strength of the vine wiU
admit of its being tied to the horizontal wire ; besides,
when tied, the strings will allow the shoot to slip length-
wise of the wire, and often it will crowd, or become
entangled with its neighbors, To tie the vine verj

GRAPE TRELLISES.

121

tight to the wire would cause it to become girdled as it
expanded in growth.

These are but a few of the difficulties which I have
had to overcome in using the common grape trellis
with horizontal wires or bars, and to avoid these difficul-
ties I have adopted a trellis with horizontal bars and
perpendicular wires, shown in the following illustration.
It is built in the following manner: Select posts of
good, hard, durable wood, of from four to six inches in
diameter, and six and a half feet long ; set them in the
ground two and a half feet deep, and in a line with the

FIG. 38.

vines, and eight feet apart — that is, if the vines are
that distance apart; a post should be placed between
each two vines at equal distance from each. When the
posts are set, nail on strips two and a half to three inches
wide, and one inch thick, one strip, or bar, being placed
one foot from the ground, and the other at the top of
the posts. Then take No. 16 galvanized iron wire and
put it on perpendicularly, twisting it around the lower
and upper bar, each wire being placed just where the
upright bearing shoots are to grow. It is well not to
put on the wires until the vines are ready for training,
and then lay down the arms by the side of the lower bar,

122 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

and make a mark on it where each wire is to be put,
before fastening the arm ; then remove the arms to one
side while putting on the wire. If a wire should not be
in the exact place where it is wanted, it can be easily
moved to the right or left, provided it is only twisted
around the bars. The distance between these upright
wires will differ according to the variety of vine, as the
distance between the buds varies very materially in dif-
ferent varieties, but usually from eight to twelve inches
will be the proper distance, sometimes wiring at every
bud, and with others only at every alternate one.

It will readily be seen that in this mode of making a
trellis, when the young shoots start they can be tied at
any time when necessary ; and there is no need, nor is it
judicious, to tie them tight to the wire ; they should be

8 10 12 14 16 ^t a^ ^eas* one *ncn fr°m ^, the two

111 H II H s^°°^s being tied to the one wire. The
!i| cost of wire is less than when large hori-
I zontal wires are used. The arms should
I be fastened to the lower bar, either by
I strips of leather tacked on or by tarred
11 HI 11 II twine tied around the arm and lower bar.
FIG. 39. It is impossible for me to give anything
like a correct estimate of the cost of building a grape
trellis after this plan, because the different materials used
in its construction are very variable in price ; besides, that
which would constitute the greater part of the expense
in one section of the country, might be the least of it in
another. Galvanized iron wire should always be used in
preference to any other. It costs from three to five
cents per pound more than the common annealed wire,
but its lasting qualities are so much greater that it fully
compensates for the additional expense.

This form of trellis may also be used for other modes
of training, such as the fan system, bow system, etc.,
provided the vines are to be trained low on the trellis.

TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 123

Fig. 39 shows the relative sizes of such as are commonly
used for trellises. Nos. 14 and 16 are large enough for
the perpendicular wires on such trellises as I have de-
scribed ; 8 and 10 are the sizes used when put on hori-
zontally. The number of pounds of wire required for a
given length of trellis may be readily ascertained by cal-
culating the number of feet required, and then dividing
the amount by the number of feet in a pound, which is
as follows :

No. 8. 13 feet to the pound. I No. 14. 64 feet to the pound.
No. 10. 20 " " " No. 16. 102 '

No. 12. 33 «• " «*

CHAPTER XV.

TIME TO PRUNE VINES.

The time for pruning vines will vary with the local-
ity in which they are grown ; but, as a general rule, it
may be commenced as soon as the vine has shed its
leaves in the autumn ; and if the wood is to be used for
propagation, it is certainly better if taken from the vines
before it has been severely frozen. But in pruning in
the autumn or winter, the vines should not be cut back
to the bud or buds that are wanted for fruit, but leave
one or two extra ones above them, and then go over the
vines a few weeks before they start in the spring, and
cut off these extra buds. This second pruning I usually
do the last of February or the first of March, always
pruning before the cold weather is entirely past ; for if
delayed until the sap begins to flow rapidly, it will issuft
from the wounds in such excessive quantities as to mate-
rially injure the vine. If the vines are pruned in the
autumn down to the buds which are wanted for produc-
ing fruiting canes, the uppermost buds are very likely to

124 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST.

be winter killed. Even where the winters are not severe
it is best to leave one extra bud, because the sap will
usually recede from the part which has been cut, and
the end will become somewhat dried, if not injured by
cold.

Where vines are laid down and protected in winter,
then the pruning may be completed at once, as no sec-
ond pruning will be necessary, the covering given to the
vines protecting them both from the effects of the cold
and dryness. Some vineyardists do not prune at all
until the latter part of winter or early spring, in which
case no extra buds should be left. There is a theory in
regard to time of pruning which is of very ancient date,
and as it has been, and is still, taken as a partial guide
by many cultivators, in pruning, not only the vine, but
other fruit-bearing plants, I will give the main points of
it as briefly as possible. According to this theory, when
cold weather first checks the growth of the vine it doea
not entirely stop the absorption of food by the roots ;
consequently the vine becomes surcharged with sap, the
liquid portions of which are partially given off by evap-
oration through the bark and buds, and the more solid
portions are deposited throughout the entire length of
the vine, so that each bud is equally supplied with its
quota of food with which to commence vegetation anew
in the spring. Now suppose a portion of the vine is cut
away early in the fall, it is evident that that which
remains has the whole root for its support, and it may
receive all the strength that would have been diffused
throughout the unpruned vine. The few remaining
buds will, of course, put forth in spring much more vig-
orously, and send out fruit-bearing wood in greater per-
fection than it is possible for an unpruned vine to do.

I doubt the truth of this theory ; but, according to
it, the rule for pruning would be : If the vine is weak,
prune early — that is, so soon as it sheds its leaves ; but

TIME TO PRUXE V1KES.

if it is a vigorous grower and a shy bearer, then prune
late. That pruning the vine at different periods pro-
duces a different result is no doubt true, but it is diffi-
cult to determine just how much difference it makes,
because no two vines in the vineyard will grow two suc-
cessive seasons with exactly the same vigor, even if they
are pruned at the same time both years.

Pruning and Training. — Having endeavored, in
the preceding pages, to give the necessary details for
laying the foundation of successful grape culture, we
will now consider the best method of building up and
completing the structure. No matter how thoroughly
this foundation has been laid, or how congenial are all
the surroundings, unless we practice a system of pruning
and training that harmonizes with the known laws that
govern the growth of the vine, all the care that has been
or may be bestowed upon it will not bring bountiful
crops, or insure us against a partial, if not a total fail-
ure. The success of grape culture in this country de-
pends almost entirely upon a general diffusion of practi-
cal information relative to pruning and training.

There is certainly much depending upon the adapta-
tion of varieties to different localities, as well as the
mode of culture adopted ; but these points seem to be
better understood than pruning and training, as infor-
mation relative thereto is easily conveyed through the
ordinary mediums for reaching the public. The interest
manifested at the present time in grape culture owes its
origin, in a great measure, to the fact that with the
introduction of new native varieties of superior merit,
the attempt to cultivate foreign varieties in the open air
has been discontinued, thereby removing one great cause
of failure. Many persons who experienced failure from
this cause pronounce all attempts at grape culture in
this country to be useless. Another class of cultivators,
having escaped the foreign grape fever, have caught the

126 THE GEAPE CULTUHIST.

native one, and, judging from observation only, condemn
not only the foreign varieties, bufc all the modes and
systems ever adopted for their cultivation ; some of these
cultivators are now groping their way in the dark, fol-
lowing no system, because they have been unable to find
one in which there is nothing foreign. I have digressed
from the more practical part of my subject, to show how
readily some will let their prejudices lead them from one
fatal extreme to another.

While I rejoice that the time has come when nu
intelligent man in the Northern States would think of
planting a vineyard with foreign varieties, still I am not
ready to admit that all the experience of the vineyardists
of Europe is of no practical value to us.

The same laws that govern the growth of the foreign
vine control that of ours, and I have no reason to doubt
that some of the best systems of training that have been
so long successfully employed in Europe would, with
slight modification, be almost as successful here. I
know that it has been repeatedly asserted that the Amer-
ican species and varieties of the grape are much stronger
and of coarser growth than the foreign ones, conse-
quently they cannot be so readily brought under contro1,
or be kept within similar limits, without destroying their
usefulness. But my own experience and observation
lead me to think that, so far as regards growth, this is
an error, and that, naturally, the foreign are, on the
whole, as vigorous growers as are our native varieties.
When grown under glass they appear to be more so, and
whenever they are grown in a favorable situation in the
open air they are not only strong, but often rampanf,
growers. We can not arrive at a correct estimate of
what their natural growth would be, under favorable
circumstances, by what we see in the old vineyards of
Europe, where the soil has been under cultivation for
centuries, or by observing them in our own country,

TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 127

where they seldom pass the first season without being
attacked by disease.

It is not necessary for us to follow strictly any of
the European systems of culture or training, but by
gathering from foreign experience that which is of value
to us, and sifting out principles from prejudices, we
may arrive at facts which are very important.

It is not necessary, nor would it be judicious, for us
to undertake to dwarf the native vine to that extreme to
which it is carried in some parts of Europe, but we may
stop midway between it and the wild vines of our forests.
I know there are some who are continually pointing to
the wild vine as an example of what the cultivated vine
should be, and they tell us that these vines bear fruit
and are free from disease. This we are ever ready to
admit ; but we are not cultivating the wild vine, but
improved varieties, many of which have parted with
much of their wild character ; and even if they had not,
would these sticklers against progression be willing to
plant vines, with a small seedling parent tree by the side
of each for its support, and then wait from ten to thirty
years for the vine and tree to grow up together, at the
end of that time getting no more in quantit}T, with less
in quality, than they now compel a cultivated vine of
three or four years to give them ? If they are willing to
follow nature in every particular, I have not the least
doubt that any of the improved varieties will be found
to grow and remain healthy without pruning or training.
For my own part, I take nature as a guide ; the only
difference being that I interpret her differently from
that class of vineyardists who follow no system, and
thereby are ever ready to thwart nature, but never
assisting her.

There are certain general principles that govern the
growth, as well as the fruit-producing powers, of the
vine ; and while all the operations in the vineyard should

128 THE GEAPE CULTURIST.

be subservient to them, the details in carrying out the
necessary forms may usually be varied without materially
affecting the final results.

The vine is one of the most tractable of all known
fruit-bearing plants, and the easiest to control, although
possessing apparently such a wild and rambling nature.

Its natural growth is upright, its tendrils furnish-
ing ample means to assist it in climbing ; and while it
remains in an upright position, the larger portion of the
forces of the plant are expended in producing a growth
of wood and leaves, while fruit is produced but sparingly.

This fact we see illustrated in the wild vine ; for it
is not until it reaches a position where it can spread out
horizontally, that we find it producing abundant crops.

We see the vine in the forest, spreading over and
enveloping like a mantle the towering oak, or covering
the low alder by the water side, its clusters of fruit hang-
ing in the shade beneath ; and from it we learn several
fundamental principles. 1st. That while the leaves
require a full exposure to the sun, the fruit ripens fully
without it. 2d. That while the vine grows upright it
produces its most vigorous growth of wood, but its fruit-
producing powers are not fully developed until it takes a
horizontal position. 3d. That fruit is produced most
abundantly upon the uppermost branches, and that it
makes no difference whether these upper branches are
on the tops of lofty trees or on the humble shrub. This
proves conclusively that it is not, as some cultivators
contend, the height that is necessary for the vine to
bear well ; for the fruit that is fifty feet from the earth
is no better than when it is at five, other circumstances
being equal. It only shows that the sap naturally presses
to the top and forces out fruit-bearing branches at that
point. I do not mean that the upper buds upon a one-
year-old cane will produce fruit, for this they will sel-
dom do, as they are not generally fruit buds ; but if the

TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 129

cane is cut back to a well-developed bud, and remains
perpendicular, or nearly so, then the upper bud is far
more certain to produce fruit than those below it. Or
if the young canes are bent (either by art or by their
own weight, as we see them in their wild state) so as to
check the flow of sap, and place the fully developed buds
in a higher position than those at the end, then they
will push out and produce bearing canes. Therefore,
the vine is said to bear its fruit at the top, as a rule, but
it does not strictly refer to the uppermost buds. 4th.
The fruit is produced upon the young growing canes,
and opposite to the first few leaves that are formed;
usually the first to third leaves formed will have a bunch
of fruit opposite; sometimes they will extend to five
bunches. When the shoot has produced its fifth leaf
without showing signs of fruit, then none need be
expected, for it is very seldom that fruit is produced
beyond that point. And as this rule is applicable to all
the varieties and species in cultivation, it renders it an
easy matter to regulate the quantity of fruit upon the
vine at the annual pruning, by simply leaving a certain
number of well-developed buds, estimating each one at
so many bunches of fruit. Not only is the fruit pro-
duced near the base of the young canes, but the best
buds for producing fruiting canes are found there also ;
for as these lower buds are formed early in the season,
they become more fully developed than those formed
later. Hence the necessity for cutting off the upper por-
tions of every cane in pruning, instead of leaving a part
of them at full length, and cutting others entirely away.
This, however, applies only to canes that are checked
in summer by pinching off the extreme ends, for when a
cane is allowed to grow six to ten feet, or a greater
length, the lower buds are very likely to be overgrown,
or smothered, and it becomes necessary to select buds
for fruiting higher up on them ; or, in other words, we
9

130 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

must prune them longer than those which have been
summer pruned.

The foregoing are the main principles to be observed
in pruning and training; but there are minor points
also to be considered, because they are not only import-
ant, but are facts that have been proven to be well
founded by long and careful experiments. These points
will be noticed when I reach that part of the subject
where they are particularly applicable.

The following system of pruning an.d training was
selected when writing the first edition of this work,
because it was old, well established and perfectly practi-
cable, and it seems to harmonize with the general devel-
opment of the vine, and does not unnecessarily dwarf it,
but keeps it perfectly under the control of the vineyard-
ist, so that he can develop the fruit-bearing powers and
check the excess in the growth of wood, and so distrib-
ute the fruit that no one part of the vine produces more
than another. It is not a new system, but its main
features, wnich are the horizontal arms, and pruning
the young wood to short spurs, have been in uninter-
rupted use in French vineyards for at least one hundred
and fifty years.

It is true that some of my critics have called it a
"fancy system," and even accused me of drawing wholly
upon imagination for illustrations, although the larger
part of these were made from living vines then growing
in my grounds on Long Island. Grape culture has
changed somewhat during the past thirty years, and it
is quite probable that the vineyardist of to-day cannot
afford to give as much time and labor to the training of
his vines, with grapes at from three to six cents per
pound, as when they would readily sell at three or four
times this price. But the value of the product does not
affect the principles of vine growth, and when the nov-
ice, or even experienced vineyardist, understands these

TIME TO PRUNE VINES.

131

well enough to train vines on the "arm and spur sys-
tem," as shown and described in this chapter, he will
have no difficulty in adopting and
employing those given in succeed-
ing ones. It is certainly the
most artistic and scientific of all
the systems heretofore introduced
or invented, and it demonstrates
the susceptibility of the vine to
respond to the influence and
guidance of the mechanical skill
of the vineyardist. The follow-
ing method of low training is
especially recommended for vine-
yards, particularly where strong
winds prevail and render it dif-
ficult to grow vines on high trel-
lises. Plant the vines in rows,
six feet apart, and the vines eight
feet apart in the row, and let but
one cane grow the first season ;
keep it tied to the stake, and
pinch back the laterals, to con-
centrate the growth into the one
cane. The rows may run east
and west, or north and south ;
perhaps east and west would be
preferable in more northern lo-
calities, but the difference in this
latitude is scarcely perceptible.
If the rows run east and west,
the leaves will be mostly on the
southern side; but when north
and south, they are about equally
disposed on both sides of the
trellis. Fig. 40 shows the vine
as it should appear at midsum- FIG. 40.

132

THE GRAPE CULTUKIST.

mer ; A is a lateral that has been stopped three times ; B
has been stopped twice ; c but once. This cane is to be
cut back the next season to within twelve
to fifteen 'inches of the ground, and only
the upper two buds are allowed to grow, all
others being rubbed off. From these upper
two buds two canes are produced, as shown
in Fig. 41, each one of which should have
the same treatment as did the single one of
f b the previous season. The second season

the vine will usually produce three bunches
*-v i of fruit on each cane ; and if it is strong
> and vigorous, these may be allowed to ma-

ture ; but if the vine is not strong, they
should be removed on their first appear-
ance. The canes, at this age, should be
from eight to twelve feet long, and at least
half an inch in diameter. If much smaller
than this, one of them should be cut away,
and the other cut back to two buds, and
two canes should be grown, as in the pre-
vious season. When strong vines are
planted, and good culture is given them,
they will be ready for training at the end
of the second season. The trellis should
now be built, if it has not been made before.
(For description of trellis, and how it is
built, see Chapter XIV.) The two canes
of the vines are now shortened to four feet,
bent down in opposite directions, and laid
against the lower bar of the trellis to form
arms. Select five or six of the buds on the
upper side of the arms thus laid down, to
be grown into upright canes, making a
mark on the trellis bar opposite to each.
FIG. 41. If the vines have grown strong, the buds

TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 133

will be from six to eight inches apart, in which case
every bud on the upper side may be allowed to remain.
From the marks opposite the buds stretch No. 16 gal-
vanized wire to the bar above, fastening each end se-
curely by winding about the bar or otherwise. Instead
of now fastening the vine to the trellis, it is better, but
not absolutely necessary, to bring the ends down near
the ground, and fasten them there with hooked pegs, as
seen in Fig. 42. If the ends are fastened to the lower
bar in a horizontal position at once, the buds nearest to
the base will usually push first, because the short bend in
the cane at that point checks the flow of sap and forces
it into the buds near by, while the sap that flows past
these buds goes rapidly to the extreme end of the arm,

FIG. 42.

and forces the buds at that point into growth. In such
cases the buds between those at the base and the extreme
end will sometimes fail to produce canes. To avoid this
we bend the canes as represented ; this graduates the
check which is necessarily given to the flow of sap, and
each bud stands more nearly the same chance to get its
proportion. When the buds have all started, and made
a growth of two or three inches, then the arms should
be brought up level and fastened to the side of the lower
bar. All buds and shoots not wanted for upright canes
should be broken off, and so soon as those remaining are
long enough to tie to the upright wires, it should be
done. They should not be tied too close, as room enough
should b* left for them to grow. It will sometimes hap-
pen, when the arms are laid down, that in selecting buds

134 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

for the upright canes, the spaces between would be made
more nearly equal if an occasional bud on the under side
was used for the purpose ; if so, it may be done, and it
will do equally well, only it will not appear quite so sys-
tematical. Fig. 43 shows a spur produced upon a shoot
grown from an under-side bud.

Each one of these upright canes will, if permitted,
usually produce three or four bunches of fruit, and if
the vine is very strong and vig-
orous, it will not injure it to do
so. But unless it is very strong,
it is better to cut off a portion
and leave only one or two
bunches to each cane. It is bet-
ter not to overload the vine while
young, as it will often seriously
injure its future growth. When
the upright canes have grown
to about two feet, they should
be stopped by pinching off their
ends. I usually pinch off the
end of the shoot so soon as it
has made two leaves beyond the
last bunch of
fruit, which
will be when
the cane has
from five to
eight leavec
upon it. But
FIG- 43- we cannot ex-

pect to be exact, especially when there is a large number
of vines to go over. Besides, one cane may grow more
rapidly than another, and will need pinching sooner.
Pinching will cause the remaining leaves to expand and
become large, thick and firm, and much better fitted to

TIME TO PRUNE VINES.

135

withstand the atmospheric changes than they would
otherwise be. The shoots, after being stopped, will soon
start, and after growing a few inches they should be
checked again, as we wish to keep them within the limits
of the trellis, and not allow them to grow much, if any,
above it. All the laterals on the canes should be stopped,
as though they were on young vines. Fig. 44 represents
a vine at the end of the first season, after the arms are
formed. The first upright cane at the left hand of the
center shows the position of the three bunches of fruit.
Upon this vine there are twelve upright canes, six upon

FIO. 44.

each side, which are distributed on two arms of about
four feet each ; it is not expected that the arms will be
of an exact length, but they need not usually vary more
than three or four inches. Nor do we expect to have
the upright canes exactly the same distance apart ; but
if care is taken in the beginning in selecting the buds,
there will be no material difference. No more fruiting
canes should be allowed to grow on one arm than upon
the other, nor should any number of the cajaes be allowed
to grow higher than the others, and thereby appropriate
more than their due share of nutriment. Keep the vine

136

THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

TIME TO PKUNE VINES. 137

equally balanced in fruit, foliage and wood. The vine
referred to above has six upright canes, which, if evenly
distributed, would give eight inches space between each,
which is abundant for those varieties that have leaves of
moderate size. But with those that have very coarse
wood and large leaves, the distance between the upright
canes should be ten or twelve inches.

The upright canes are pruned back the first year to
two buds ; the small cross lines near the base of the
canes, Fig. 44, show where they should be cut. The
next year a cane will proceed from each of these buds,
and all other shoots which may start from the small
buds near the arm should be rubbed off. Or, if the
buds should produce two shoots each, as they will some-
times do, only the strongest one should be allowed to
grow.

The second year the two canes will each produce
three or four bunches of fruit, and instead of twelve
upright canes we now have twenty-four, and allowing
three bunches of fruit to each, it gives seventy-two
bunches to each vine, and this is not an over-estimate
for the product of a vine the fourth year after planting.
The canes are to be treated the same, as regards stop-
ping, pinching, laterals, etc., during each year of their
growth.

Fig. 45 shows a vine at the end of the fourth year,
but with only five spurs, with two canes on each, making
ten bearing canes on each arm. The first two canes at
the right hand of the center are represented with the
three bunches of fruit upon each. The cross lines near
the base of the shoots show where the vine is to be
pruned ut the end of the fourth year. The uppermost
of the two canes is cut entirely away, and the other is
cut back to two buds.

Fig. 46 shows this same vine as it appears after
being pruned. The vine, in subsequent years, is to be

138

THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

pruned in the same manner. Fig. 47 shows a portion of
the arm, with the hase of the upright shoot, or spur, as
it is called. The cross line shows
where the upper cane is to be cut
away. Each year the pruning should
be reversed, if the position of the
lower bud will admit of it. That is,
if we cut away the left-hand cane this
season, as shown in the last figure,
then we should cut away the right-
hand cane the next ; in this way the
spur will remain nearly upright.
But sometimes the lower bud will be
on the outside of the shoot which we
wish to keep for the fruit spur. Fig.
48 shows a spur with the buds in that
position ; but we must prune the
spur just the same as though it were
on the opposite side, and probably
the next season the buds on the young
shoot will be reversed, and we shall
be able to bring our fruit spur again
into a perpendicular position. The
lower bud will seldom be produced
two years in succession on the out-
side, as shown in Fig. 48. It is desir-
able that the shoot from the lower
bud on the fruit spur should grow
strong, as it is from this that we take
the two buds for the next season's
fruit spur. As this first, or lower
bud, is seldom more than one inch
from the base of the shoot, and in
many of our best short- jointed varie-
ties not more than a half-inch, it is
obvious that we lengthen the spur

TIME TO PRUNE VINES.

139

each year only the distance from the base of the shoot
to the first bud on it, be it more or less. The annual
increase in diameter of the arm, as well as that of the
spur, also lessens somewhat its projection above the arm.
Taking the average of some twenty varieties that I have
trained on this plan, I find the spurs do not increase in
length more than three-fourths of an inch each year.
At the end of the fourth year the vine is considered as
established, and as another vine is at the same distance
from it with arms extending each way, of course the
space is all occupied, and the vines are to be confined
within the limits of eight feet each. The rows being

FIG. 47.

FIG. 48.

six feet apart, we have nine hundred and five vines on
an acre; now seventy-two bunches to the vine (which
every vine will bear if it is a productive variety, and if
it is not it had better be discarded nt once, unless it
possesses some extraordinary quality which makes up for
loss in quantity) will give us 65,160 bunches to the acre ;
the weight, of course, will vary according to the size of
the bunch. But it is not best to let the vines bear too
much while young, as the quality of the fruit will not
be as good as though a less quantity were taken ; besides,
it is very likely to severely check the growth of the vine.
Varieties that are not strong and rapid growers
may .be planted nearer together, say six feet apart in the

140 THE GRAPE CULTUK1ST.

row, and the rows only five feet apart, and it is not nec-
essary that the trellis should be so high by half a foot,
at least ; two feet and a half between the bars will be
sufficient for many of the shorter jointed varieties.
Sometimes the vines are planted more than eight feet
apart, and only a part of the arm is formed the first
year, and the upright cane nearest the end is laid down
the second year, and the arm thus lengthened in this

FIG. 49.

way until the required length is obtained. But having
tried both, I much prefer planting the yines so near
together that arms can be formed to fill up the space at
once. Four feet is about as long as it is safe to lay down
a cane at one time, and have all the hMs start evenly.

TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 141

"When the vine becomes old and very strong, the
amount of fruit may be increased by pruning, so as to
leave three buds upon the spurs, as is shown in Fig. 49 ;
this will increase the crop one-third. But there is dan-
ger of losing the lower bud if we increase the number
beyond this, as we find that the tendency of the sap is
continually to the upper bud ; and when there are sev-
eral left on the spur, the lower one is apt to be robbed
by those above it, and more likely to remain dormant
than when we prune back to two or three.

If the lower bud fails to grow, then we have to
depend upon the first growing one above it for the fruit-
ing cane for next year ; this will add very materially to
the length of the main spur, besides injuring the general
appearance of the vine. In the above figure the dotted
lines (b) show the position of the young cane that should
grow from the lower bud, and a similar cane will be pro-
duced from each of the other buds.

The cross line at a shows where the old spur, with
the two upper shoots, which are now only buds in the
engraving, will be cut away at the next year's pruning,
and the three buds now on the cane, #, will be left. Too
much care cannot be given to the preservation of these
spurs on the arms, for if one is broken off or destroyed
by injudicious pruning, there is no certainty of replacing
it, although buds will sometimes start from the arm
near its base, and from this a new spur may be formed ;
but it is better to preserve the original spurs than to
endeavor to replace them with new ones.

Should the spurs ever become so long as to be un-
sightly or inconvenient, new arms may be readily formed
by allowing the two center spurs to produce but one cane
each, and these may grow four or five feet long ; at the
next pruning cut away the old arms, and bend down
these two canes to form new ones. But if the plan
which I have given is strictly followed, the arms need

142 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

not be renewed of tener than once in fifteen or twenty
years.

There are several reasons why I believe the foregoing
method is one of the best systems for training vines.
1st. The horizontal is the best position that can be given
to the vine to develop its fruiting powers, — the main
object in all the various methods of priming and train-
ing. 3d. The upright bearing caned being equally dis-
tributed on the arms, no one portion of the vine has any
advantage given it over another, the flow of sap being
equal to all parts. 3d. The equal distribution of the
fruiting canes not only allows a free circulation of air
among the leaves, but insures an equal distribution of
fruit. 4th. While the vine is restricted within certain
limits, it is not dwarfed, as some might suppose ; for a
vine with two arms four feet long, with ten upright
canes on each, making twenty canes three feet long, has
sixty feet of wood to be grown and pruned off each sea-
son. This quantity is certainly abundant to give the
'most vigorous growers sufficient expansion to insure a
healthy action of root. Some cultivators suppose that
because a vine will grow large and occupy considerable
'space, if allowed sufficient time and furnished with
plenty of nutriment, that it cannot remain healthy if it
be restrained within moderate limits. But this is a
great mistake, and the sooner such ideas are abandoned,
the better it will be for the cause. 5th. The vines being
trained low, the fruit receives a greater amount of heat
than if more elevated, because it gets not only the direct
rays of the sun, but also the heat reflected from the
earth. This last is quite important in a northern cli-
mate, where there is little danger of getting too much
heat. 6th. The mode is so simple that the most inex-
perienced may understand it ; and when the vines are
once put into shape, the pruning ever after is so nearly
the same there is scarcely any danger of going wrong.

TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 143

Fig. 50 represents a two-tier system of training upon
the same principle. It is equally as good as the single
tier of arms, but it usually requires one year more to
perfect it, and the trellis must be made considerably
stronger, as its height offers more resistance to the wind
than in the former mode of low training.

It has one advantage over the other mode, as a larger
number of vines are planted to the acre, producing, con-
sequently, an increase in amount of fruit. It is particu-
larly valuable where land is very expensive and labor
cheap, and the greatest amount is desired from a given
space. The vines are planted four feet apart in the row,
and the rows eight feet apart, which gives 1,361 per
acre.

When the vines are pruned for forming the arms,
every alternate vine is cut back to within one or two
feet of the ground, and the others at the height of four
or five feet ; the upper two buds on each one are allowed
to grow, and from these the arms are made. Those that
start nearest the ground are bent down for arms on the
lower bar, and those at four or five feet are taken for
arms on the middle or second bar ; both sets are treated
as directed for training a single vine. Sometimes those
vines that are left four feet long will not produce canes
sufficiently strong the first season to make the arms; it
they do not, then they must be cut back a second time,
or until canes are produced that are strong enough for
arms.

The engraving shows the vine and trellis complete,
except that only one arm is shown on the vines on the
upper tier. The posts are eight feet apart, and they
may be set opposite to every alternate vine, as shown, or
midway between every other vine ; it is better to set
them between the vines, if the trellis is not built until
after they are ready to train, because at that time it will
be difficult to set the posts near the vines without dis-
turbing the roots.

144

THE GRAPE CTJLTTJRIST.

TUT

TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 145

Each vine has but two arms, and the number of
upright fruiting canes should be the same on each arm,
the vines being treated, in every respect, as described for
the single tiers. The vine at each end of the trellis will
have but one arm, whether it happens to be on the upper
or lower tier.

The trellis is represented as being seven feet high,
the lower bar being one foot from the ground, and the
other two three feet apart ; this allows of three feet
growth to the upright canes, which is sufficient for the
strongest growers ; but there are many varieties that are
short jointed, for which two feet will do. And in loca-
tions that are low or very level, it is better to place the
lower bar eighteen inches or two feet from the ground,
so as to insure a better circulation of air among the
lower leaves ; besides, in some very fine soils, the fruit
on the lower tier will get spattered during heavy rains,
unless the ground is mulched. But there is no need of
ever making the trellis higher than seven feet in a vine-
yard, and there is much inconvenience attending the
tying of the vine on a trellis, the top of which cannot be
reached while standing on the ground.

When it is desirable to have the lower arms more
than one foot from the ground, and still reserve three
feet space for the upright canes, it may be done in this
wise : Place the lower bar two feet from the ground,
the next three feet above it — we now have two feet
remaining between the middle and upper bars.

The upright canes from the upper arms may be
allowed to grow one foot or more above the trellis with-
out support, and they will receive no harm therefrom.
Where it is desirable to economize in every way possible,
the trellis may be made only six feet high (provided the
lower bar is placed at one foot from the ground), and
the bars arranged so that the shoots from the upper tier
may be allowed to grow above it.
10

146 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST.

Whenever any of the upright canes show a weakness,
the pinching may be deferred until they gain the required
strength. If the ends have already been pinched off,
then leave two or three of the upper laterals to grow out
for a foot or more, and this will cause an extra flow of
sap into such canes, and thus we may check one cane
and encourage another. In this manner we can readily
control the forces of the vine, directing them to which-
ever part best suits our purpose.

In checking the growth of vigorous vines, especially
when young, we will sometimes cause the main buds on
the young canes to throw out fruit branches in the latter
part of the season, and on these will appear a second
crop of fruit. This, of course, is of no value, because
there is not sufficient time for it to ripen, even if the
strength of the vine would admit of its doing so. I men-
tion the fact only because some inexperienced persons
may be alarmed by seeing a second crop appearing upon
the vine in autumn. This second crop is certainly pro-
duced from buds that would, under ordinary circum-
stances, remain dormant until another year, but check-
ing the growth has forced them out before the proper
time. If every main bud on the young canes is forced
into growth except the two or three lower ones, no harm
is done, for these last are all that are needed ; the others
we prune off at the end of the season. There is little
danger of the lower buds starting, particularly on fruit-
ing canes. I have often severely checked fruiting vines,
sometimes stopping the young canes at the fourth bud,
but even this did not cause the lower two buds to start.
And when the canes are not pinched until they have
produced their fifth to eighth leaf, as I have recom-
mended as the general rule, then there is not the least
danger of any of the lower buds pushing prematurely
into growth.

If the young canes are allowed to grow unchecked,
the lower bud upon them will seldom become sufficiently

TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 14?

developed to produce a vigorous fruiting cane the suc-
ceeding year. That it should be so developed is all-im-
portant when vines are trained with horizontal arms and
spur pruned, and in no way can this be accomplished
except by checking the cane while growing.

To ihe novice this stopping of the young canes,
tying, pinching laterals, removing tendrils, etc., may
appear to be a tedious and expensive operation, and
sometimes, when vigorous growing varieties are planted
in very rich soils, it is so ; but under ordinary circum-
stances, when the vines become fully established, very
little trouble will be experienced upon this point.

The young canes will have to be stopped about three
times during the summer, and at the time of doing this
the laterals, if need be, should be pinched, and tendrils
removed. On old vines the laterals will seldom need
stopping more than once, unless they are overdosed with
manure.

Opposite Arms. — In cutting back the young vines
for the purpose of producing two shoots for arms, it is
apparent that the upper two buds will not be exactly
opposite, and that one of the arms will be higher than
the other. This may be remedied somewhat by bending
the short piece of two-year-old wood at the base of the
upper bud ; but this cannot always be turned at an angle
so short that one of the arms will not be a little higher
than the other. It is no great matter if it is, but when
it is desirable to have the arms appear to start from the
same point, the vine may be treated in the following
manner :

When the vine is strong enough to make arms it
should be bent down into a horizontal position, and tied
to the bar of the trellis, all the laterals being stopped
except the one at the angle near the bar.

Fig. 51 shows two vines upon a two- tier trellis ; A, A,
are the two laterals that have been allowed to srrow

148

THE GRAPE CULTUKIST.

unchecked. The bending of the growing canes will
check the flow of sap in them, 'while the laterals, A, A,
will grow very rapidly.

If the vines are vigorous and the canes are bent
down in midsummer, the laterals will often grow suffi-
ciently strong by fall to make the arms. If they do so,
cut them off at four feet and tie them to the bars, the

TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 149

same as the main canes. The two arms will then appear
to have started from the same bud. But if the lateral
does not grow sufficiently strong to be used for an arm,
it should be cut entirely away at the time of the annual
pruning.

The main cane on the lower bar should be cut off
where it crosses the vine next to it, and the cane on the
upper bar at a point directly above the main trunk of
the lower vine. If we fail to get an arm from the lateral
the first season, we may allow the main cane to remain
in its position, and permit so many buds to grow from
it as we desire for the upright fruiting canes ; but the
bud which is at the base of the lateral, A, we will allow
to grow up until long enough to make the arm, in place
of that which we failed to get from the lateral. At the
end of the second season we bend this down, and form
an arm precisely as would have been done with the lat-
eral ; and the vine will appear the same, except that one
of the arms is one year older than the other, and of
course it is considerably larger. To remedy this differ-
ence in appearance, the upright canes on the two-year-
old arm should be cut back to one bud, instead of two,
as would have been done if both arms had been perfected
the first year, allowing only single upright canes on both
arms this season. The cane that is bent down the first
season will usually produce fruit the second ; but it is
best not to let it produce more than one bunch upon each
upright cane, unless it is very strong. The object
should always be to subdue the vine, but not to weaken
it, and if it is necessary to commence training it the first
season after planting, it should be done ; and it is far
less trouble to get control of the vine while young, and
there is less danger of injuring it than if we wait until
it has spread its roots and branches far and wide before
we undertake to confine it within certain contracted
limits.

150 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

This fact should be borne in mind, that the expan-
sion and multiplication of roots depends as much upon
the extent and number of branches that are allowed to
grow, as the growth of the branches does upon that of
the roots.

Therefore to control the whole plant we have only
to control the top, and this is done chiefly by checking
the branches while growing, for if the vine is allowed to
perfect its canes, it will certainly perfect a correspond-
ing number of roots, each of which is capable of absorb-
ing a certain quantity of nutriment, and sending it up-
ward into the branches ; and every year that the vine is
allowed to grow unchecked, so much more does it in-
crease the difficulty of bringing it under control.

Oblique Arms. — In many parts of the country
the grape vine is not sufficiently hardy to withstand the
cold of winter without protection, and there are very
few locations in the Northern States where this would
not be beneficial to many of the varieties now in cultiva-
tion. Even if the vine itself is not materially injured,
the fruit buds are often so weakened by cold that they
fail to produce as much or as good fruit as they other-
wise would. With the systems of training that I have
given, and others frequently adopted, it is not only
inconvenient to protect the vines, but it would also be
very expensive. There is no method of protection that
is so cheap or practical as that of laying down the vines
and covering them with earth ; but to do this they must
be trained in such a manner that they may be bent
down without breaking the main stem, or otherwise
injuring them.

When trained with the two arms they cannot be
laid down without bending the main stem over to one
side, which would be difficult to do, particularly after
the vine has become large. The vine may be trained
with one arm, and this could be laid down more conven-

TIME TO PBUNE VINES.

151

iently than when there were two ; but still it cannot be
laid flat without
bending the main
stem, or straight-
ening the angle
which is formed
in making the hor-
izontal arm. To
surmount all the
difficulties met
with in the com-
mon modes of
training, and still
continue upon the
arm and renewal
system, I have
adopted what I
call, for the want ^
of a better name, P
the oblique sys- P
tern. The vines
are planted three
feet apart in the
row, and the rows
six feet apart ; this
allows 2,074 vines
to the acre. The
vines are planted
in the same way as
for other modes of
training, and but
one cane allowed
to grow the first
year. In the fall
the vines are cut
off to about four

152 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST.

feet, and laid down and covered with earth — four or five
inches deep is usually sufficient. The next spring re-
move the earth and straighten up the vine. Build the
trellis in the same manner as described for low trained
vines with two arms ; that is, four feet high and three
feet between the bars. Fig. 52 shows the system in its
progressive stages. The vine on the left shows the one
strong cane at full length ; the next vine after it has
been pruned, and wi^i the single upright bearing canes ;
the third vine as it appears complete at the end of the
third year ; the fourth vine (d) shows the same, pruned
and laid down ready for covering.

If good strong vines are planted, the system can be
brought to completion in the third season ; but strong
and vigorous canes must be obtained, in all cases, before
commencing the training. The vines are trained at an
angle of forty-five degrees, and the bearing canes being
perpendicular, they consequently make the same angle
with the vine that the vine does with the ground.

This is the highest, or greatest angle, to which vines
can be carried without giving the upper shoots on the
arms so much the advantage over the lower ones that
there will be no certainty of the lower ones pushing into
growth without bending, or otherwise distorting, the
canes.

We will suppose that, at the end of the first season,
we have a vine as shown at the left of the engraving. It
is then laid into position, as seen ; we then cut it off at
the point where it crosses the perpendicular wire, leaving
it an inch or two beyond it, so that it can be securely
tied. The cane, when cut off, will be about four and
one-half feet long. It may now be laid down by the side
of the trellis and covered with earth. In the spring
take up the vine and tie it to the trellis ; and to be sure
of getting the correct angle, let the point where the cane
crosses the lower bar and the point where it is tied to

TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 153

the upright wire be both equal distances from the base
of the wire. The vine should be made as straight as
possible, so that the sap shall not be checked in its flow.
If it is not disposed to be straight, a lath should be nailed
on, reaching at the proper angle from the lower to the
upper bar, and the vine tied to it. When the buds start,
select five or six for the upright canes, the same as when
the arms are trained horizontally.

The first upright may start a few inches below the
lower bar, as shown in the engraving, or the bar may be
placed at six inches above the ground, provided the soil
about the base of the vine is kept covered with mulch
to keep the fruit clean. Each of the uprights will pro-
duce fruit, but unless the vine is very strong, a portion
of it should be removed.

The flow of sap will sometimes cause the upper
shoots to grow a little faster than the lower ones ; if so,
pinch oif the ends so soon as the fifth leaf is formed on
them, and leave the lower canes until they have eight or
nine leaves. The growth of the canes will usually be
very regular when the vines are laid in straight, and at
the angle named. At the end of the second year the
bearing canes should be pruned to two buds ; the cross
lines at £, Fig. 52, show the point where to cut off.

As the vines are to be protected, there is no neces-
sity for leaving an extra bud to be cut off in spring, as
recommended for unprotected vines. In locations where
it is necessary to protect vines, the warm weather usually
comes on so rapidly after it commences, that it would
not do to prune the vines after they are uncovered.

The next season two canes are produced from the
two buds, and in the fall the cane which starts from the
upper bud of the two is removed, cutting through the
spur, as previously shown, and the other cane cut back
to two buds ; the cross line at c, Fig. 53, shows the point
at which it should be removed. Upon the right hand

154

THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

of the figure, and over the vine that is laid down, the
trellis is shown as it appears with all the perpendic-
ular wires. The trellis, as here shown, is only two

feet between the
bars, and its whole
height only three
feet, the upright
canes on the upper
portion of the arm
being allowed to
grow above the up-
per bar. This they
may be allowed to
do when it is desir-
able to practice the
strictest economy.
Fig. 53 shows a
space of twelve feet,
g as occupied with
^ four vines trained
S with oblique arms ;
only two posts are
represented, but it
is best to place the
posts not more than
eight feet apart.
When a row of
vines trained on
this system is
pruned and laid
down, the vines
will overlap each
other a little; but
the end of one may
be laid by the side
of the trunk of the

TIME TO PRUNE VINES. 155

next, and so on throughout. In laying them down, one
person should hold down the vine while another covers
it, and as the vine has to be bent only one-half the dis-
tance that it would to be trained upright, there is no
difficulty in laying it down quite flat. No straw or any
similar material should be used in covering the vines, as
it only furnishes a harbor for mice.

If the soil is so wet and heavy that there is danger
of injury to the buds, a little sand should be put on next
to the vine before the earth is put on. The buds will
not be injured in any ordinary dry soil, provided the
vines are not covered until the ground becomes cool, and
are not allowed to remain in the ground too late in
spring.

The three systems that have been described are the
same in principle, only the details are varied to suit dif-
ferent circumstances, and these details may be varied
indefinitely, so long as we do not undermine the founda-
tion upon which the structure is built.

Wherever a variety is grown that is naturally unpro-
ductive, or one that produces so small a bunch or berry
that it does not exhaust the vine in the same proportion
that the larger varieties do, then one of the canes may
be pruned a little longer, say four to six buds, it being
at the same time bent over at an angle, so that the lower
bud will be forced to produce a strong cane for another
year. These modifications, to suit different varieties
and circumstances, will suggest themselves to the vine-
yardist, if he will think as he works. It is impossible
to point out every phase which the different cases will
assume, particularly when there are so many varieties
under cultivation, each of which has its own peculiarity
of growth.

CHAPTER XVI.

GARDEN" CULTURE.

The greatest obstacles in the way of cultivating the
grape in gardens, particularly in cities and villages, are,
the want of circulation of air, and the excess of shade,
or both. Still, with these difficulties there are some
advantages ; protection from cold in winter, and greater
heat in summer, which cause the fruit to ripen early, so
that, upon the whole, there is about the same chance of
success in city gardens as in the open country.

There are few gardens, either in city or country,
where there may not be found a sunny spot sufficiently
large to accommodate a few vines. It is often the case,
in cities, that the only spot that the sun reaches in the
whole garden is covered with a brick or stone walk.
When this is the case it does not prevent the planting of
the vine, as the walk may be taken up, the soil beneath
it made deep and rich, the vine planted, and the walk
re-laid, leaving the top of the vine coming out at one
side. Or the vine may be planted on the side of the
walk, and kept trained to a stake until it has produced
one long stout cane. Then take up the walk between it
and the building, or wall, on which we desire to train it,
remove the poor soil and substitute that which is
rich, for two feet wide and the same in depth, and
lay down the vine in this, bring up the cane on the
other side, and replace the walk.

This is a much better plan than to place the roots
near or against the foundation of a building, because in
such a position they usually receive too much heat in
summer and are too wet in winter.

156

GARDEN CULTUKE. 157

The roots of the vine will grow almost as readily
under a pavement as anywhere, provided the soil is not
too wet ; the surface of the soil being covered, it seldom
becomes dry, arid the pavement absorbs a great amount
of heat, which passes through it to the soil, furnishing
sufficient to keep up a healthy action of the roots. The
most important thing, in preparing a place for a vine, is
to secure proper drainage, because where there is much
shade the soil is usually very wet ; and to avoid injury
to the roots from excess of moisture, deep trenching or
drainage is indispensable. It may not always be neces-
sary to dig very deep at the exact point where the vine
is to be planted; in fact, this would more often be
injurious than otherwise. But let the deepest digging
be at some distance from it, so that the water, as it
descends, may be carried away from the vine, instead of
being drawn under it.

One of the most common errors committed in tree,
as well as vine planting, is that of digging deep holes at
the point where the plant is to be set, and then filling
them up with loose soil, and in this place the roots.
These holes only serve to drain the surrounding soil,
receiving moisture instead of repelling it. This would
certainly be beneficial in very porous, dry soils, but in
wet ones it is injurious. If the ground can not all be
trenched, let the holes be made large, and at the point
where the vine is to be set, not more than eighteen
inches deep, and, at the outside, two feet deep ; this will
cause the water to settle away from the vine. When the
soil is very heavy, it is best to dig a trench and set the
vine at one end, letting the bottom of the trench descend
from the vine to the farthest point ; any old rubbish,
such as brick, stone, bone, etc., may be placed in the
bottom of the trench to secure a better drainage. When
a number of vines are to be planted, a long, wide, and
deep trench should be made and filled with good soil ;

158 THE GEAPE CULTURIST.

this will make what is usually termed a border. Four
feet wide and two feet deep will answer every purpose,
unless the method of training to be adopted requires the
vines to be planted very near together ; if so, then it
may be necessary to make the border six or eight feet
wide.

When the border is first made it should be a few
inches above the level of the surrounding surface-soil, as
it will usually settle, and frequently require a consider-
able addition of soil to prevent it being too low. If the
border were made only level with the surface of the gar-
den, when it settled it would carry the vines down with
it, and when filled up, the roots of the vines would be
buried too deep. When an outlet can be secured, either
into some hollow or sewer, it is well to lay a drain along
the bottom at one side of the border. This drain may
be made of tile, brick or stone, and should descend, at
least, one foot in a hundred, to secure the rapid passage
of the water.

Drains made of stone should be covered with sods,
straw, wood shavings, or some similar materials, before
the trench is filled, as these will prevent the fine soil
entering and filling it up. In wet and heavy soils it is a
great point gained to secure a thorough and permanent
drainage.

The materials used in making the border may be
the same as are used in the vineyard, but as they are not
always to be had, others may be used, avoiding always
all fresh, unfermented manures. If old manures cannot
be had, make the border entirely of soil, and if clayey,
add sand ; use ground bones and charcoal to put around
the roots when first planted, and then apply the fresh
manure to the surface, forking it in after it has become
rotted. A little lime, plaster or ashes may be added to
the border, but not in any great quantity, as there is
more danger of applying too much of such materials

GARDEN CULTURE. 159

than too little. There is usually an abundance of mate-
rials about a> city or village that may be used for manure,
but most of them should be used with caution, as it is
difficult to determine what injurious ingredients they
may contain. It is much the safest way to use stable
manure, when it can be had, or, in place of it, ground
bones, poudrette, etc., adding sods, leaves, or charcoal,
as much to lighten the soil and make it more friable, as
for their fertilizing qualities.

One of the most pernicious practices in cities is the
continual drenching of the grape borders with slops from
the house; this has become common from the well-
known fact that they often contain a large amount of
manurial ingredients. But the large amount of water
accompanying them usually renders them more injurious
than beneficial. An occasional application of this kind
may be of service, if the borders are well drained ; but a
better way of saving such materials is to dig a hole or
make a cistern in some out-of-the-way place ; then add
charcoal or dry muck sufficient to absorb the moisture,
and when the place becomes filled, take out the manure,
add a little plaster, and then it is ready for use. In this
manner it becomes deodorized, and is really an excellent
manure for the vine.

There is one other point upon which a word of cau-
tion may not be amiss, namely, not to apply top-dress-
ings of strong manures in summer, for this will usually
cause the vines to produce a late growth, which it is
always desirable to avoid. The best time to apply a top-
dressing is in the fall, as it then serves to protect the
roots during the winter, and the fertilizing materials are
carried down by the rains, and are ready for use when the
vine starts in the spring, and a steady, uniform growth
is insured. It is not advisable to grow any plants except
the vines in the border ; but where there is a scarcity of
room, a few bulbous-rooted or annual plants may b?

160 THE GRAPE CULTU11IST.

grown. If they are of the latter kind, it is best that
they should be trailing plants, such as verbenas, portu-
laca, etc., as these spread over the soil and operate, in
a measure, as a mulch ; still, they absorb more moisture
from the soil than their shade assists in retaining. No
deep-rooted perennial plant should be planted near the
vine. Neither should large shrubs or trees be placed
where they will continually shade the ground, for the
roots of the vine, as well as the branches, require warmth.

Position of Border. — The position of the border
will depend somewhat upon that of the garden ; but any
exposure except a direct northern one will do, and even
this will answer, provided the place is not in the shade
more than half the day. The best position, however, is
upon the south side of a building, or high fence, or wall.
An eastern or western exposure will answer every pur-
pose, because the heat and light are far more intense in
such positions than in the open vineyard.

Training the Vines. — When the vines are grown
in large open gardens, where there is plenty of room,
the same general system of training may be followed
that has been given for the vineyard. The two-tier sys-
tem, as shown in Fig. 50, is preferable for garden cul-
ture to any of the others, except in more northern sec-
tions of the country ; then the oblique arm is the best.

Circumstances, however, will often occur, when it
will be necessary to deviate somewhat from any of the
plans given, to better suit the particular location in
which we are obliged to plant. These variations may be
innumerable; still, if no fundamental principle is inter-
fered with, success is just as certain as though the plans
laid down were strictly followed. For instance, we have
endeavored to show that vines are more productive and
yield better fruit when trained horizontally than perpen-
dicularly ; but it will make very little difference whether
the arms are three feet long, or thirty, provided they
are not extended too far in any one season.

GARDEX CULTURE.

161

Neither does it matter whether the arms start from
one foot above the ground, or at ten, so far as principle
is concerned ; but when it is desirable to produce arms
at a great height, we must do it gradually, and not
endeavor to accomplish it in one season. In the vine-
yard, the best possible position for the arms may be one
foot from the ground, while in a garden surrounded by
high walls, ten feet might be far better than any point
below it.

It is, therefore, impossible to give a plan that will
suit every position ; but the horizontal arm should be

FIG. 54.

the main point aimed at, whether it be long or short,
high or low. The vines may also be trained with only
one arm instead of two.

Fig. 54 shows a vine with one arm having only five
spurs, but it may be extended by bending down the
right-hand upright cane, and in this manner the arm
may be lengthened as required. The season previous to
extending the arm the end cane should be allowed to
grow four or five feet long, instead of stopping it at the
usual height, so as to have a strong cane to lay down.
Three to four feet is about as much as should be added
11

162 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST.

to the arm in one season, for if a cane of more than four
feet is laid down, some of the buds will often fail to grow.
The vine may be planted, if need be, several feet from
where we wish to train it, and the arm be allowed to
extend that distance without producing upright canes,
as it will make no difference in the result whether the
sap flows through one or ten feet before it reaches the
leaves.

Four Tiers of Arms. — Sometimes it is desirable
to fill a certain space which is higher than would be
occupied by two tiers of arms ; if so, plant the vines
only two feet apart, instead of four, and form four tiers
in the same way as we formed the two tiers. Or twjo
tiers of arms may be formed from one vine, although it
will take a year or two longer than it would to plant
more vines, and only take two arms from each one.

Fig. 55 is a very correct representation of an old
Hartford Prolific vine, with two tiers of arms from the
same vine. The arms are eight feet long, so that the
vine covers a space sixteen feet long and only six feet
high. There are ten spurs upon each arm, making forty
in all, giving eighty upright bearing canes, and it is
allowed to bear from two hundred and fifty to three
hundred bunches annually. One season it produced
two hundred and fifty-six bunches.

I have introduced this vine here for two purposes :
First, to show how an old vine that has been grown
without any system of training may be brought into a
good form ; and second, that I may more thoroughly
impress upon the mind of the reader the importance of
training vines with horizontal arms, for the purpose of
improving the quality of fruit as well as controlling the
growth of the vine. Having an old Hartford Prolific
vine in my garden, the fruit of which could usually be
shaken off so soon as ripe, I thought I would try and see
if the arm and spur system would have any effect upon
it, and in any degree remedy this defect.

GARDEN CULTURE.

163

164 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST.

It was, until destroyed, as shown in the engraving,
and the fruit not only improved in size and flavor, but
it adhered so well to the stem, that I have kept it for
two months after picking, and still the berries would
not fall from the bunch if handled carefully. I do not
attribute the improvement in the fruit entirely to the
horizontal arms, but only in part ; for, without doubt,
the spur pruning and the close pinching of the young
shoots assist very much in the development of the fruit.
The method used to obtain these arms was as follows :

The season before I attempted to train it I cut the
whole vine back to within about three feet of the ground,
and let it produce new shoots from whatever part they
happened to come. It being an old, untrained vine, as
I have stated, it produced several very strong young
canes, and I cut away all but four ; the two upper ones
started about three feet from the ground ; these I cut
off to four feet, and laid them down horizontally ; they
reached to A, A. One of the two lower canes sprung
from the old stem, about one foot from the ground, and
just where it was wanted for the lower arm, but there
was no young cane opposite to form the other. There
was, however, one that came out from near the roots,
and this was used for the other lower arm, by twisting it
around behind the old stem, and bringing it down oppo-
site the first arm ; the two arms were then cut off at A, A.
The lower arms were trained on the same level, although
one of them came out a foot or more below the other.
This makes no difference, except in appearance, as it
does not matter whether the arms start from buds nearly
opposite or not ; all that is requisite is to bring them to
nearly the same height before they are allowed to pro-
duce leaves or fruit. The next season the two end canes
were allowed to grow long enough to lay down and
extend the arms to their full length. In selecting the
buds for upright canes, I reserved some of those on the

GARDEN CULTURE.

165

under side of the arm ; the canes from these bear fruit
just as well as those from the upper side.

I would not recommend this mode of training for
vineyard or garden, except in cases like the above, where
it is desirable to bring an old, strong vine into the arm
system, and the owner has plenty of time, and desires to
exercise his skill in bringing the vine into such a form.
Vines that have been trained with only two arms may,
after they become old, be allowed to produce an extra
tier, but the sap will usually flow with greater force into

FIG. 56.

the upper arms, and necessitate the checking of the
canes on them sooner than on the lower ones. To pro-
duce a second tier of arms upon a vine having only one
tier, the bearing cane nearest the center is allowed to
remain at the time of the annual pruning,, and the end
cut off at the point where it is desirable to have the arms
start. The next season the upper two buds on it are
allowed to grow for the arms, and the following season
they are laid down for a second tier.

166 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

Double Stem. — A few years since I had some vines
growing in a border on the south side of a wall. They
started so early that most of the young shoots were cut
off by a late frost ; consequently the buds which I hud
selected for arms were destroyed. The vines being
young, new shoots started from below the ground. I
cut away all the old stem, and selected two of the strong-
est shoots that came up, and cut off the others. These
two shoots were kept tied to a stake during the season,
the laterals pinched, etc. The next spring the two
canes were laid down for arms ; those for the upper tier
were twisted around each other, and then laid down and
fastened to the middle bar.

Fig. 56 shows one of these vines when it became
well established. Accidents will often happen in vine-
yards, as well as in gardens, rendering it necessary to
have recourse to some such plan to restore lost arms
without loss of time. This is perfectly practicable, and
the final result will be as satisfactory as though there
had been no interference with the plan laid down at the
beginning. Many other variations from the usual course
of proceeding might be giv7en, but I have mentioned
enough to show that a general principle may be taken as
a guide in grape culture, and still be varied to suit the
different circumstances attending it.

Trellises in Gardens. — The same form of trellis
described for vineyards may be used in the garden, vary-
ing it in length, height, etc., to suit the position in
which it is placed, as well as to meet the wants of any
particular vine. A trellis is indispensable, as the vines
should never be fastened directly on the side of a build-
ing or fence, but should be, at least, six inches from
them ; a foot is still better, as this allows a free circula-
tion, of air behind the vine, and prevents, in a great
measure, the burning of the leaves, which usually occurs
when vines are laid against the boards or wall. Besides,

GARDEN CULTURE.

167

V

the surface on which the vine is trained will soon become
defaced by the constant rubbing of the leaves against it,
while the accumulation of dust and moist-
ure will cause the rapid decay of the
boards ; and even a stone or brick wall will
be injured more or less by having vines
trained against it. If the trellis is sus-
pended by iron or wooden brackets, no ap-
parent injury will be done to the surface
behind it.

Training to Stakes. — There is sel-
dom a garden so small but there is room
for, at least, one grape vine, though it is
often the case that there is a place for a
vine but no room for a trellis ; when this
occurs, the vine may be trained to a stake,
or a number of them ; and when so trained
they may be planted among shrubbery, in
flower beds, or upon the lawn. There is
nothing that will add more to the beauty
of the garden, or produce a better effect,
than vines planted in groups or scattered
here and there, as is usual with ornamental
shrubs and plants. The vines, in such sit-
uations, should always be kept low, and
never permitted to produce long and naked
stems, which would become unsightly and
mar the beauty of the garden when they /
become old. Prepare the soil as for vines ^
in other situations, and grow but one cane
the first season ; then prune it down to
eighteen or twenty-four inches from the
ground ; the next season allow but two
canes to grow ; pinch off the tops of these
when they have grown five or six feet, so
that they shall not only ripen their wood,

FIG. 57.

168 THE GEAPE CULTUEIST.

but become more stocky. Fig. 57 shows the vine with
two canes at the end of the second season. If the vine

was large and vigorous when
planted, it will usually pro-
duce fruit the second season ;
if so, pinch off the top of each
cane when it has grown about
two feet ; this will assist the
development of the lower
leaves, which are so important
to the proper development of
the fruit. When they have
started and grown a foot or
two more, stop them again ,
they will usually need check-
ing several times during the
season. The canes should be
neatly tied to a stake, and the
laterals may be allowed to
grow a foot or more before
being checked, as they assist
in hiding the stake, and their
own weight causes them to
slightly droop, giving a more
pleasing effect than when all
are kept tied close ; for wh^n
vines are grown in a flower
garden we endeavor to com-
bine the ornamental and use-
ful. The third year the vine
with two canes should be cut
back to two buds each. From
these buds we produce four
FIG. 56. shoots, each of which will

usually bear three to five bunches of fruit, so that we
have from twelve to twenty bunches on the vine. Fig,

GABDEN CULTURE.

169

170 THE GKAPE CULTUKIST.

58 shows the vine with four canes, as it will be at the
end of the third season. The vine may now be pruned
in the same manner as before ; that is, each cane is cut
down to two buds, and eight canes be allowed to grow
the fourth year ; or two may be cut entirely away, and
leave but two buds on the others. If eight canes are
produced they will require one additional stake or a trel-
lis, so that they may be spread out and give a better
opportunity for growth. Fig. 59 shows the vine with
eight canes, as it appears when trained on a trellis.

FIG. 60.

This vine may be again pruned in the same manner, and
twelve or sixteen canes allowed to grow; and this is
essentially the same system practiced in some of the
vineyards at the present time, and it answers very well
if a portion of the canes are cut away each year, so that
they will not become too much crowded.

The system, when carried to the extent of thirty to
forty canes, becomes quite complicated, and it is difficult
to distribute the fruit so widely and evenly as when the
vine is trained with arms. But when the vines are

•;-

GARDEN CULTURE. 171

grown iii small gardens, four or six canes are as many
as should be allowed on those trained to stakes.

There is no difficulty in keeping the vines within a
small space, and with the main stem only a foot or two
high. All that is necessary is to keep the young growth
checked during the summer, and when, pruning the vine
leave only those buds which are required to produce
fruiting canes.

I test all the new varieties in this way, never going
to the expense of erecting trellises for them until they
have proved themselves worthy of it. The vines will

remain just as healthy when grown in this manner as
when allowed to spread over a space of fifty or one hun-
dred feet. I am well aware that theorists assert that the
vine must have room to expand and extend its branches
as it grows old ; but one fact is worth any number of
theories, and there are thousands of vines in Europe
that are from fifty to one hundred years old, the main
stems of which are not two feet high. These vines are
pruned back to the stump every year, and yet they live
and bear fruit of the best quality. We have no such

172 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

Tines in this country, nor is there any necessity for eve/1
having any, because there are better plans in use ; but
t^Lere is no reason why our indigenous varieties may not
be dwarfed as well as the European kinds. Fig. 60
shows one of the old vines of Europe. This vine repre-
sents what is termed "head pruning;" the vine being
pruned in close to the stump every year, and the acces-
sory buds are mainly depended upon for producing the
bearing canes.

Fig. 61 shows another form, which is called "buck
pruning." The head is allowed to divide into several
parts, thereby allowing it to produce more fruit than
upon those that are pruned to one head. This is an old
Hungarian mode, and it is still practiced in many parts
of Europe.

If the reader will refer to Figs. 44, 45 and 50 he can
see, at a glance, the improvements which have been
made in the form of training the vine, from the days of
the ancient Romans down to the present time. And it
will be readily seen that they are all founded upon the
same principle, the only difference being that the top of
the vine is extended more in one than in the other.
They are all pruned on the renewal system — that is, all
the young shoots are cut back every year.

Within the range of these four plans and their vari-
ations are comprised all the successful systems that have
ever been invented. The head pruning is practiced
upon the poorest of soils, and the buck pruning on soils
that are only moderately rich, and the other two upon
rich soils, and with the strongest growing varieties.

There is, however, a system of training in use in
Lombardy that differs from any of those given ; but it
should not be called an artificial system, because the
vines are allowed to grow upon trees, as they would in
their wild state, no particular method of training or
pruning being adopted. The vines bear as well as they

GARDEN CULTURE. 173

would in their wild state, but the process is a slow and
tedious one at best.

Girdling the Vine. — This operation, though often
producing remarkable results, is still of questionable
utility. That it causes the fruit to grow much beyond
its natural size is certain, but the quality is never im-
proved, and usually very much injured. The practical
results of such an operation seem to be, to cause the
fruit to assume the appearance of ripeness much earlier
than it would otherwise, and become so much increased
in size as often to take the prizes at horticultural shows,
where the judges are often influenced by appearance
instead of quality. Many a dropsical cluster of grapes
has been awarded a premium over the rich, well-ripened
cluster of the same variety, merely because it had a fine
appearance. But some of our leading horticultural soci-
eties now notify exhibitors that grapes from girdled
vines will not be allowed on the exhibitors' tables.

The girdling may be done at any time in the spring
after the vine starts, up to the time the fruit is fully
grown. But unless it is done several weeks before the
fruit commences to ripen, it will have but little effect.
The best time to perform the operation is just before, or
soon after, the fruit is set. The mode of operation is as
follows : Cut away a ring of the bark, from one-fourth
to one-half inch wide, clear to the true wood. It may
be performed on old wood, or upon the young canes
when they have made a foot or two of growth, but the
last year's wood is preferable, and it should be done only
on that which you intend to prune away.

The incision is always made below the bunch which
it is desired to affect. The bunches above the incision
become much larger than those below it ; this is said to
be caused by the obstruction of the downward flow of
the sap to the roots.

The practice of girdling the vine for the purpose of
affecting the fruit is supposed to have been invented

174

THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

about 1745, by Col. Buchatt, of Metz, in France. For
this he was awarded a premium by the Agricultural
Society of France. It was claimed that the invention
would be of great value in hastening the maturity of the
grape, as well as improving the quality ; but it is doubt-
ful if either of these results has been obtained in its
practice.

Removing the Leaves. — There are many persons,
in cities especially, who are in the habit of removing a

portion of the leaves from their
grapevines just before the fruit
begins to ripen, for the pur-
pose, as they say, of hastening
it. This is, perhaps, one of
the most absurd ideas that
could be possibly entertained,
as the grape ripens better in
the shade than when exposed
to the sun ; besides, the ripen-
ing process is conducted almost
entirely by the leaves, the
grape being one of those fruits
that must be ripened on the
vine or not at all ; and if it is
picked before ripe, the process
is immediately stopped, there
being no further improvement
in flavor. If the leaves near the fruit are taken off,
ripening is not only checked, but often entirely stopped.
The fruit that is exposed to the direct rays of the
sun after the leaves have been taken away may change
its color, but it seldom ripens. It is not only necessary
that there should be good healthy leaves on the fruiting
cane, but they should be near the fruit. Every one who
has seen grapes upon the vine must have observed that
there is always a leaf opposite to every bunch of fruit;

FIG. 62.

GARDEN CULTUEE. 175

that this leaf is of great importance to that particular
bunch is certain. In Fig. 62 the connection between
the two is shown ; a is a portion of the stem of a bunch
of fruit ; c is the leaf-stalk ; the pith is shown in the
center, being the broad, dark line running lengthwise of
tlie cane ; this occupies more than one-third of its diam-
eter, but is divided at d by wood which unites the two
sides of the stem. Now whether the sap crosses directly
through the young cane from leaf to fruit, or around
the pith, is not positively known, but that there is a con-
nection between them by which the fruit is benefited,
can be readily demonstrated by removing the leaf early
in the season. When this is done the fruit is not so per-
fect as when it remains.

This imperfection is not altogether owing to the
loss of shade which the leaf afforded, because if the
game amount of shade is given the fruit artificially, it is
still more or less affected. If the lateral (b) remains
with a leaf or two upon it, the injury to the fruit is not
so marked, because its leaves perform, in part, the func-
tions of the one removed. One great object, in pinching
off the end of the growing canes, is to cause the leaves
to grow larger, thicker, and better able to assist in per-
fecting the fruit ; therefore, the main leaves on the stem
should never be removed, and especially let those that
are near or opposite the fruit be carefully preserved.

CHAPTER XVII.

VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING.

In giving a synopsis of some of the most prominent
modes of training the vine, I shall not attempt to describe
them at length, nor go into the minute details which
may be necessary in the perfection of any of these sys-
tems, but only aim to show the general principles in-
volved. It may also be well to emphasize this reference
to principles which govern and control the growth of
the vine, for they are not only fundamental, but univer-
sal, and we must submit to them whether we would or
no, or whether our vineyards are located in Europe,
Asia, Australia or America. Of course, we may modify
practice, and prune long or short, high or low, give the
fruit much or little shade, corresponding with the nat-
ural habit of the varieties under cultivation, as well as
the exigencies of climate and soil, provided we keep
within certain limits and do no violence to principles
involved in the growth and production of fruit on plants
under domestication. That error will often accompany
truth, and creep in among the most simple plans, as
well as among those that are intricate, is quite certain ;
and when, at last, the error is discovered, we wonder
that it could have remained so long hidden under so
slight a covering.

If we examine the various systems of training of the
vine that have been in use for the last two thousand
years, we cannot fail to see that very little real progress
has been made, for all of those which have continued in
use for any length of time appear to have been founded

176

SYSTEMS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING. 177

upon what we of the present time call the renewal sys-
tem— that is, the young canes are cut back every year,
and from buds on these are produced, not only fruiting
canes, but other buds, from which fruiting canes will
again be produced ; and thus two things are kept in
view, fruit this year, and fruit buds for the next, and
both in close proximity. By this method the vine pro-
duces an annual crop, never resting longer than nature
designed it should ; as nature seems to have appointed
a period for rest and for labor for all the members, of
both the animal and vegetable kingdom. But with this
known fact, so apparent to the observing mind, there
seems to have been men so anxious to assist nature, that
they overstepped her laws and endeavored to give her a
longer period of rest at one time, and more work at
another than she required, and in this way the alternate
renewal system of training the vine was invented.
Although this system of training may be, in some of its
various modifications, quite successful, the principle
upon which the whole structure rests is an erroneous
one, and if the same is transferred to the animal king-
dom, we might claim that the best way to treat a horse
would be to allow him to remain in perfect idleness one
year, and then work him up to his utmost strength the
succeeding one. It is true that a kind of half alternate
renewal system has long been practiced in some of the
various forms of training the vine, as, for instance, the
arms, or larger bearing canes are renewed every alternate
year, or at longer periods, but there is no year of rest in
these, for after the vine has reached maturity it is ex-
pected to produce an annual crop of fruit.

In the first edition of this work I gave considerable
space to a description of a system of training the vine,
introduced by the late William Bright, of Philadelphia,
to which he gave the name of Single Stem Dwarf, Ee-
newal System. In this system the inventor attempted
13

178

THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

to renew the whole vine instead of a part of it ; but a
few years later Mr. Bright admitted that the system
wound itself up at the end of the third season, as I had
predicted ; consequently nothing more need be said
about it here.

Another of these imaginary and impossible alternate
renewal systems of training is shown in Fig. 63. In
this it is proposed to renew the upright canes growing

FIG. 63.

from horizontal arms, and in the same way that Mr.
Bright proposed to renew the canes from the main stem
near the roots. In brief, it is proposed to start eight or
more upright canes from the two arms, and at the next
season's pruning cut down every alternate cane at A, leav-
ing the other canes, B, for producing fruit from the
lateral new shoots, supposing the bunches would be pro-
duced as shown at C. But, unfortunately for the sys-

SYSTEMS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING.

179

tern, at the next pruning there would be no huds from
which to produce new bearing wood at the base of the
cane, C, and the vine would become an almost worthless
stump. I should not have thought it worth while to
again refer to this old and unscientific mode of training
vines, had I not noticed several similar ones recently
described in essays on grape culture, reminding me that
ideas, however absurd, often attain a great age.

In one very large work published only last year
(1893), I find an illustration of what is called a "Re-
newal System," but in the vine represented the annual
canes spring from two arms, as I have shown in Fig. 44,

nr

FIG. (54.

Jpn a preceding page ; but only alternate canes are shown
In bearing fruit in this new renewal system. There is,
however, no explanation of the why or wherefore of such
a system of training, in the book to which I refer, and I
can only account for the alternate fruiting canes, except
upon the supposition that the inventor thought it was
better to allow five canes to bear the entire crop, than to
distribute evenly among nine. But the difficulty with
all such systems is, that the vine is thrown out of bal-
ance, and the sap is drawn into the barren canes, to the
detriment of those producing fruit. A similar unequal
distribution of the sap will occur where one cane is left

I

180 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

with ten buds when pruned, and another with but one,
for the ten will have the advantage, although those
unacquainted with the growth of vines might suppose
the results would be quite the opposite.

There are various other systems of training in which
the alternate renewal is the main feature, *r is a part ;
but it must be apparent to every one who has ever stud-
ied or practiced vine growing, that the less alternate
renewal there is in any system the better. It seems to
be very difficult to eradicate the idea that one portion of
the vine requires a partial rest, while another part is,
perhaps, performing more than its due proportion of
work, and thereby throwing its forces out of balance.

Fig. 64 shows a vine trained with horizontal arms,
but with alternate single and double fruiting canes ; this
is almost the alternate renewal, though at the first glance
it would be taken to be a strictly renewal system. The
cross lines near the base of the upright canes will show
where they are to be pruned to keep up this plan. On
the double spur one of the canes is to be cut entirely
away, and the other to one bud, and the single cane is
cut off at two buds, and where there are now two canes,
next year there will be but one ; and the single cane of
this season will produce two canes the next, thus alter-
nating each year. This plan seems to be a very plausible
one ; but when we come to try it, we find that the spurs
with two buds are inclined to grow more rapidly than
those with only one, for the simple reason that the sap
is drawn to that point with two-fold greater power than
to the single bud. If all were pruned to one bud, then
the sap would be drawn to all alike ; and the same would
be the case if all were pruned to any other number, from
one upward. A hint upon such points as these will, I
think, be sufficient, for it is a very easy matter to try
pruning a few vines upon both plans before fully adopt-
ing either.

SYSTEMS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING. 181

Munson's Alternate Renewal System. — Prof.
T. V. Munson, in giving his system of training the grape
to the public, through the pages of the American Agri-
culturist, in 1890, page 265, says: "To obtain best
results, American vines generally require 'alternate re-
newal' of bearing wood and few long bearing arms."
Then follows a description of the system, which begins
with the building of the trellis, probably because it is
the only new and distinctive feature, consisting mainly
in the setting of two posts in the same hole, and these
every thirty- two feet in the line of the rows of vines.
These two posts, instead of being placed in an upright
position, are set flaring outward at the top, so that they
will be about two feet apart when fixed in place. Now
along these two posts No. 11 galvanized wires are
stretched, and both at the same height (four feet) from

FIG. 65. THREE-YEAR-OLD VINE.

the ground, these two wires forming a kind of open,
flat platform, or trellis, on which the vines are allowed
to spread out over and rest when they reach a bearing
age, as shown in Fig. 65. The vines are planted eight
feet apart along the line of the trellis, and the first sea-
son the young canes are led up to the vines on strings
provided for the purpose. When this young cane has
reached the wire the head is pinched off, and two of the
terminal buds are allowed to push out and form lateral
canes for arms. The next season these side shoots are
pruned back to near the point where they first touched
the wire, or we may presume even lower if of weak

182 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

growth, although Professor Munson is silent on this
point. We gather, however, from his illustration of the
system, that eventually two arms are trained on each
wire, as shown, and then one-half of these bearing arms
is cut away annually, to he replaced by new ones formed
by laying down strong canes of the preceding season's
growth, as practiced in the old German bow system,
explained elsewhere. But as Professor Munson says
nothing about thinning out canes, rubbing off surplus
buds, summer pinching or pruning, we presume nothing
of the kind is practiced, leaving the bearing and barren
canes to go through the season in a great tangle on the
two-foot-wide platform overhead. This system would
not be a bad one, provided the same rules of pruning,
thinning and pinching of the young canes are adopted,
as practiced in all others of like form and character. As
might be expected, the originator advances various rea-
sons why he thinks it superior to all others in use; but
there is only one which strikes me as peculiar, and de-
serving of special notice, and it is No. 3, in the list of
his baker's dozen, to wit: "The sap required to make
new wood for bearing is not carried through wood bear-
ing a crop, as in the spur system, but a complete alter-
nate renewal is effected, thus keeping the plant in per-
fect balance and meeting the natural requirements of
the vine."

This is a most extraordinary claim, for if cutting
away one or two entire bearing arms on a vine, and leav-
ing the same number with numerous fruiting buds, will
insure a. "perfect balance," then, I must confess, some-
thing new has been discovered in the physiological prin-
ciples which govern the growth of the vine. Then,
again, any form of alternate renewal which starts above
the main cane is not "complete," because this main
stem, or stock, is just as truly bearing wood as an arm,
whether it be long or short ; for, at most, the arm is

SYSTEMS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING. 183

only an extension of the head, or upper part of the vine,
and all the sap from the roots flows through this old
wood. If all the arms, whether their number be few or
many, are pruned to equal lengths, and the buds re-
duced to an equal number on each, we might claim
something like a "perfect balance," provided that all
the buds were at the top of the vine and on the same
level. This is the true principle upon which all success-
ful systems of training and pruning of the vine have
been founded, in all ages and countries where the grape
is known to flourish. It makes but little difference, in
practice, whether we prune our vines down to a stump
two feet high, and keep them there for one or one hun-
dred years, as so long practiced in Europe, in what is
called the "buck pruning/' or train them up on trees or
the rafters of a grapery, on the "long rod system," or
lay down the canes and form permanent arms, as in the
"Thomery system," one and all will produce equally as
good results ; the only difference consists in the adapta-
tion to locations, soils, climates, and the convenience of
the cultivator.

In early life I was somewhat inclined to believe that
our indigenous native specie? of the grape might rebel
against the restricted growth to which the varieties of
the European species have £0 long been subjected, and
to test the matter practically, I selected a few vines of
our most rampant growing native varieties, with which
to make experiments. The first of these was a Clinton,
which all my teachers and later associates declared would
not submit to close pruning. However, I selected a
strong vine, and the first season cut the main stem down
to about four feet from the ground, and then tied it to a
strong stake. Every year since it has been "buck
pruned," not more than one or two buds at the base of
the long canes being left to produce fruit and new canes.
It has never failed to produce an excellent crop of fruit

184 THE GRAPE CULTTJRIST.

annually, and now, in its thirty-fourth year, it is as vig-
orous as ever, with every appearance of remaining so for
a hundred years, provided it is pruned in the same way
and given moderately good care.

A few years later I planted a row of Concords and
Hartford Prolifics, setting the vines four feet apart ID

FIG. 66.

the row, driving a strong stake by the side of each, to
support the main stem. These vines have been closely
buck pruned from the very first year (1870), but I fail
to see that there is any diminution in vigor, health, pro-
ductiveness, or in the size and quality of their fruit.

SYSTEMS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING. 185

Of course, thinning out of superfluous canes and buds
has always been attended to, but beyond this the vines
have been allowed to ramble freely, forming a rather
intricate network of bearing canes direct from an old
stump, through which the sap seems to flow just as
freely as it does through the younger wood above, or as
it will through an arm of the same age.

Single Arm System. — This mode of training the
vine appears to be of German origin, and is founded on
Professor Munson's idea that the extension of the head,
or arm of a vine, should be renewed every alternate year,
as shown in Fig. 66. In this system the vines are set
about four feet apart, and are trained in the same man-
ner as in the two arm system, until the time of forming
the arms; then only one cane is laid down, and the
others cut to three buds. When the buds push, four ta
six are selected upon the arms for upright canes, and the
others rubbed off. The three buds left upon the other
cane, or head of the vine, are allowed to grow, and if
the vine is a strong one, all the buds will produce fruit,
as shown in the illustration.

The bearing canes on the arms are stopped at the
usual height, while those on the main spur, or stem, are
allowed to grow on above the others, in order to secure
a good, strong, and long one to lay down for an arm the
next season ; but, unfortunately, this does not work
well in practice, because the sap will flow into these
upright canes growing directly over the main stem far
more freely than into those on the arms, and this diver-
sion of the sap usually occurs just at the time the fruit
on the arm needs it most.

If all the upright bearing canes are stopped at the
same height, the forces of the vine are evenly distributed,
no one or more of the canes having an advantage ; but
this would simply reduce the system to one of permanent
arm and spur, and there would be no reasonable excuse

186 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST.

for renewing the arm annually or in alternate years,
except to test the theory of old wood resisting the free
flow of sap through it, as claimed by Professor Munson.
Reversing the Arms. — There is an old German
plan of laying down the arms, which is quite the reverse
of those we have shown. Instead of the right-hand cane
being laid down to the right, it is bent over to the left,
and the left one is bent to the right, as shown in Fig. 67,
the object being to check the flow of sap, and cause the
buds to break more evenly than if the canes were laid
down without reversing them. It does have this effect
upon the canes, and there is no particular objection to
it, although the same results are secured when the arms
are curved down in the manner shown in Fig. 42. It
has been claimed, by those who advocate this mode of

FIG. 67.

forming the arms, that the check given the vine by thus
bending it, continues after the first year; this, however,
is very doubtful ; because, in the growth of the vine,
new cells are formed in the concentric layers of the
wood, which allow a free passage of the sap through
them, whether the vine is grown on a straight line or on
a curved one.

German Bow System. — This system is usually
referred to as the " German bow system," probably be-
cause it was first used in this country by some of the
German vineyardists of Ohio, but it is as much French
as German, although, as described in some of the French
works on grape culture, two stakes are used instead of

SYSTEMS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING.

187

one, and the bow is brought down to an almost hori-
zontal position, forming an elongated bow-like arm.

The vines are started the same as with other sys-
tems, until we have obtained two strong canes; then
one is cut down to two or three buds, and the other to
eight or twelve, according to the strength of the vine.
Fig. 68 shows the new cane, as pruned. The longest

FIG. 68.

FIG. 69.

cane is then bent, and forms what is called the bow.
Sometimes the end is brought around and tied to the
stake, and at others it is only bent in a half circle and
tied where it crosses the stake, as shown in Fig. 69.
Two stakes are sometimes used, so as to better support
the bow when it is covered with fruit and foliage. The
fruit is mainly produced on the bow, and the young

188 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

bearing shoots are stopped two or three leaves beyond
the last bunch of fruit. The two buds left on the spur
are allowed to grow and form canes, one of which is
taken for the bow next season. The cane which forms

the bow is cut away
after it has borne one
season. The cross line
at its base shows where
it is to be cut. Fig. 70
shows the vine as it ap-
pears with fruit. The
same plan is pursued
every year; one of the
two canes is cut at a
sufficient length to form
the bow, and the other
cut back to two or three
buds. When the vine
becomes old and strong,
two bows are formed
instead of one. The ob-
jections to this system,
are, that when trained on
stakes the bearing shoots
have no support, and
they swing about, and
the fruit is more or less
damaged by rubbing
against the leaves
and vine ; when
no. TO. trellises are substi-

tuted for stakes, this difficulty is removed. Still, the
same objection remains which exists in the single arm
svstem — that is, one portion of the vine is severely
checked, while another is allowed to grow freely. The
circulation of the sap in the bow becomes less rapid as

SYSTEMS OF PKUHLNG AJ*D TRAINING.

189

the upright canes advance, and the fruit upon it is only
partially supplied with nutriment at the time when it is
most needed. Where wine is the object, the bow system
may answer very well, as the fruit is probably hastened
in maturity by the severe check that is given to the flow
of sap.

Fig. 71 shows a bow system, as given by Eubens.
It is merely a multiplication of bows upon the same

FIG. 71.

FIG. 72.

vine. Three or four canes are grown, two of which ai<%
left at considerable length, and by twisting them about
'tfie stake, shoots are produced which are bent down and
form the bows. It is merely a fancy system, and shows
what can be done with the vine ; but it is really of no
practical use.

190 THE GKAPE CULTUKIST.

Fig. 72 shows a system of serpentine training taken
from Kubens' work. This plan is a very good one for
garden culture, as the vines are trained to stakes and
pruned low. The stakes are set eight inches to a foot
apart, and the upper ends brought together and fastened,
as shown. The vines are first grown with one cane, the
next season two, and the next with four ; hut instead ot
cutting them down to the two buds, they are cut off at
from two to four feet, and the cane twisted around the
stakes ; this checks the upward flow of sap, and causea
all the buds to push on the whole length of the cane.
The next season four more canes are selected from

FIG. 73.

among the new ones (always choosing those that are
strong and from near the ground), and the old canes
are cub away above those selected. The new ones are
shortened, and twisted around the stakes, as those of
the previous season.

Husmann's Bow System. — Mr. Husmann, in
his work, Grapes and Wine, advocates a bow system
similar to the one we have shown in Fig. 71, but he
trains the vines on trellises instead of stakes. This is
certainly an improvement, because the vines can be kept
more steady, and the fruit will not be so liable to injury
by the wind. Fig. 73 shows two vines trained with a

SYSTEMS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING. 191

single bow, as recommended by Mr. Husmann. The
vine on the left hand is shown as it appears when pruned
in spring. The right-hand figure gives the same vine in
the autumn after the leaves have fallen. A is the bear-
ing cane, or bow, which is to be cut entirely away, at
the point shown by the line crossing it near the base.
The left-hand cane is cut off at C, and the cane B is
shortened to ten or fifteen buds, and bent over to the
right, to form the bow for the next season. This system
is a very good one for the more rampant growers, partic-
ularly those which are naturally unproductive, or pro-
duce only small bunches. If the variety trained in this

FIG. 74.

manner produces very large bunches, it must be evident
that the young bearing canes will require considerable
care ; for, if not tied firmly to the trellis, they will be
broken off by the wind. It is far from being a neat or
systematic mode, but will answer, where wine-making
is the object, and the appearance of the fruit not
important.

The Fan System. — This is a very old and com-
mon mode of training vines on wire trellises, and, I may
add, a most excellent one for the vineyard, and especially
where labor is dear and grapes are cheap. It does not

192

THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

require any great amount of experience or skill in prun-
ing, but the vineyardist and his assistants must know
something of the nature of the plants, in order to deter-
mine how much or little bearing wood to leave at the
time of the annual pruning. The young canes of the
season should be spread out and tied to the trellis during
the summer, somewhat in the form of the ribs in a fan,
this affording a uniform exposure of the foliage to the
sun and air. The laterals may be pinched back, or
entirely removed, and the strongest canes checked by
pinching, as in other systems, thereby equalizing and
distributing the sap among the bearing canes.

At the time of pruning, the vineyardist can see, at
a glance, how each cane should be cut, as they are all
spread out before him, and not in a tangle, as they are

FIG. 75.

certain to be in some of the systems in vogue. He can
prune long or short, according to the strength of the
plant, or of the individual canes, and if the vines, at
first, have been pruned too low, he can gradually change
the form by leaving one or two of the central canes
longer than the others, as shown in Fig. 74. This sys-
tem is specially adapted to the smaller varieties, which
are raised exclusively for wine-making, because it will
enable the vineyardists to obtain a fair crop of fruit from
some that are naturally unproductive.

The Kniffin System. — Of this system perhaps
more has been said and written than any other, of late

SYSTEMS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING.

193

years, and it is claimed to be largely in use in the Hud-
son River grape-growing regions. The vines are planted
and trained during the first two or three years as in all
other of the well-known systems, but as they reach the
two horizontal wires on the trellis an arm is laid down
and trained to each, thus giving a two story and a four
arm vine, as shown in Fig. 75. From these arms the
young growth and bearing canes are allowed to hang
down and ramble about at will, as shown in Fig. 76,

FIG. 76.

instead of being tied up, as advised in the spur and arm
system. The lower wire is placed three and a half feet
from the ground, and the top one five and a half or six
feet. The annual pruning, when the vines become well
established, consists in cutting back all the canes of the
preceding season's growth, except those nearest the main
stem, employing these for renewing the two or four
arms ; but these arms are to contain four or five buds
each, according to their size and strength.

Summer pinching and rubbing out of superfluous
buds is recommended, especially when large and fine
bunches are desired for market. Upon the whole, this
system is a kind of half-renewal, half-arm, or, to use a
common phrase, a hit or miss mode of pruning and
13

194 THE GEAPE CULTURIST.

training, in which the vines are not subjected to any
definite rule or form.

That good grapes in abundance are, and can be,
produced on vines manipulated in this way, there is no
doubt, but the same may be said of hundreds of other
systems of training in vogue, all of which show that the
prape vine responds nobly to fair treatment, and even
to total neglect, as when growing in its native habitats.

CHAPTER XVIII.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Thinning the Fruit. — There are very few varieties
of grapes, cultivated in the open air, that require the
thinning out of the fruit to enable them to ripen. Most
of the native varieties have bunches sufficiently open
and loose to allow the air to circulate freely among the
berries and aid them in ripening. If a portion of the
berries are removed, those remaining will certainly grow
much larger than if all were allowed to mature. There
are some varieties that have naturally very compact
bunches, so much so that all of the berries will seldom
ripen unless a portion of them is removed. With such
as these it is best to cut out a part of the berries so soon
^ they are fully formed. This thinning should be done
with a pair of sharp-pointed scissors, cutting out from
(toe-fourth to one-half the berries, taking them from
iifferent parts of the bunch, so that when it is fully
grown it will be uniform, and the berries will not be any
more crowded upon one part than another.

It would scarcely be practicable to thin out the ber-
ries of all the bunches in a vineyard, and no one would

MISCELLANEOUS. 195

think of cultivating extensively a variety that required
it ; still, there are varieties which are highly recom-
mended by some persons, that will seldom mature more
than half the fruit that sets. The bunches of these
should be thinned. These varieties often possess valuable
qualities, and if persons have time to give them the
requisite care, really excellent fruit may be obtained.

The compactness of the bunch is often variable with
the same variety in different localities ; in one the berries
may be very much crowded, and in another compara-
tively loose. In the former case the berries will not only
be much smaller, but they will often burst open, espe-
cially if they have a very thin skin.

Those varieties that produce very compact bunches
are always benefited (in appearance, at least) by thinning
the berries, and those who are growing such with the
expectation of making show bunches, should not neglect
this operation. Sometimes it may be beneficial to re-
move whole bunches, but when the vines are properly
pruned and trained, this will seldom be necessary.

Bagging the Fruit. — Enclosing the growing
bunches of grapes in thin manilla paper bags, as a pre-
ventive of mildew and black rot, as well as attacks of
bees, wasps and other insects, has been largely practiced,
of late years, with excellent results. Before applying
the bag two or three small holes should be made in the
bottom, to allow any water getting in at the top to drain
out. The bags should be large enough to allow the full
development of the fruit, and applied early in the sea-
son, or as soon as the berries are set on the bunch. The
use of such a protection will seldom be required to pre-
vent fungus diseases, in vineyards where spraying is
practiced, but may he useful in saving the fruit from
the attacks of bees and insects, especially where perfect
and well developed table grapes are desired.

The first vineyardist to employ paper bags, in this
country, as a protective appliance, and of whom I have

196 THE GRAPE CtJLTURIST.

any authentic account, was Mr. Alphonse Loubat, of
Brooklyn, N. Y., who, early in the present century, had
a vineyard of foreign grapes growing on land now cov-
ered with blocks of buildings in the said city. Mr. Lou-
bat published a small work in French and English, under
the title of the "Vinedressers' Guide," in 1827. Some
thirty odd years later an old resident of Brooklyn, who
had been a frequent visitor to Loubat's vineyard, in-
formed me that paper bags were extensively employed to
prevent mildew, and the owner of the vineyard seemed
to be very proud of the discovery, that by such simple
means very perfect fruit could be secured.

Gathering the Fruit. — Grapes are usually gath-
ered long before they are really ripe. Sometimes this is
done for the purpose of getting them into market early ;
in other cases it may be because they appear to be ripe,
when, in fact, the ripening process has only commenced.
Nearly all varieties change their color fifteen to twenty
days before they are fully matured ; and as the grape is
one of those fruits that must ripen before being gath-
ered, or not at all, it must be apparent that too much
care is not likely to be given upon this point.

It is natural to be impatient for the harvest, partic-
ularly when we have waited so long, and watched with
so much care and anxiety for the ripening of our fruit ;
still, a little haste may be more fatal than considerable
delay ; for grapes that are over-ripe keep much better
than those that are not fully ripe. The stem of the
bunch will usually turn brown and become somewhat
shriveled when the fruit is fully matured.

Always gather the grapes in fair weather, and wait
until the dew has dried off before commencing in the
morning. Cut off the clusters with a knife or shears,
and handle them with care, so that the bloom shall not
be rubbed off nor any of the berries broken.

If any portion of the crop is not ripe, leave it on the
vines and gather it separately, after the best has been

MISCELLANEOUS. 197

secured, provided it is worth the trouble. If there be
any unripe or diseased berries in the bunch they should
be taken out at the time of gathering.

Preserving the Fruit. — To many persons the
preservation of fruit in its natural condition is second
only in importance to that of producing it. If we can,
by any simple means, keep our grapes fresh two or three
months, it not only prolongs the period of enjoyment of
a luxury, but, if it be desired to sell the fruit, the price
will be found to increase as the season advances, beyond
the usual marketing period, the earliest and latest in
market always commanding the highest prices, although
not always the most ready sale.

There is no reason why the tables of those who de-
sire grapes should not be supplied with them for four or
five months in the year. Every variety of grapes will
not keep well, any more than every sort of apples or
pears ; still, a majority of the grapes now grown will
keep several months, with ordinary care.

The process of preserving is very simple, and requires
more common sense than science. The requisites are :
1st, The fruit should be thoroughly ripe, should not be
bruised or broken, but carefully handled while gathering
and packing. The fruit may be put away on shelves, or
packed in small boxes ; the latter method is probably
the best, as it is more liable to become shriveled when
left in an open room than when confined in a smaller
space. Boxes that will hold from twenty to thirty
pounds are of convenient size, and the fruit will retain
its flavor much better with twenty pounds in a box than
when there are only five pounds. The boxes should be
made so that they can be shut tight ; if there should be
need of ventilation, it can be given by opening the box,
but constant ventilation of them is only another name
for continual evaporation, which would cause the fruit
to shrivel, and thus destroy its value.

198 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

A cool and steady temperature should be maintained,
and if it could be kept between 35° and 40° there would
be but very little trouble in keeping the fruit, even if
but little care were given to the packing. Very few per-
sons have a room or cellar that can be kept so cool as
40° ; consequently more care is necessary in gathering,
packing, etc.

A warm, damp atmosphere is very injurious, as it
will soon cause the grapes to rot ; but the presence of
considerable moisture will do no harm, provided the
temperature is low ; but, unfortunately, very few per-
sons, except fruit growers who have erected cold storage
rooms or cellars expressly for such purposes, have any
place but a common cellar in which to keep their grapes,
and, as a result, they soon wither and are worthless.
Our native grapes, as a whole, are not good keepers;
their porous skin, a little thin juice, and much tough
pulp around the seeds, is not the best form of fruit to be
preserved for any considerable time after gathering, but
with what is called cold storage, or where the tempera-
ture can be kept down to near the freezing point, some
of the tough skin varieties may be preserved in fair con-
dition for two or three months, but rarely longer. The
more meaty fleshed foreign varieties, like the Malaga
grape, is sent to this country in immense quantities ;
although very inferior in quality, it is of large size, and
has a hard, plum-like flesh, which will resist rough
handling and remain sound and firm for months in cool
weather. The more delicate the fruit, the less valuable
for keeping or sending long distances to market ; and
this is not only true with grapes, but with nearly all the
larger fruits and many vegetables.

Sawdust is often used in packing the Malaga grapes
which are so common in our markets ; but the flavor of
the grapes is always injured more or less by it, giving
them a strong, woody taste. Cork-dust is far better than

MISCELLANEOUS. 199

common sawdust; but it cannot be obtained, except
near cork manufactories, and perhaps not then to any
amount. If any such material is to be used, there is
none better or more easily procured than chaif of rye,
wheat or oats. Eice chaff would probably be still better.

When the grapes are gathered, bring them into a
cool room and spread them out upon a table or shelves,
and let them remain there for a few days, until all sur-
plus moisture has passed off ; then pack them away in
the boxes, as follows : Spread a thick sheet of paper on
the bottom, then lay on a layer of bunches, placing them
close together ; then another sheet of paper, and so on
until the box is full. Boxes deep enough to hold four
or five layers are better than deeper ones. When the
boxes are filled, put them away in a cool place, and
where they can be examined occasionally, and the de-
cayed berries be taken out from time to time as they
appear. If the place is cool and the fruit sound and
ripe, they will keep three or four months without further
care. But if the grapes are to be marketed within a few
days, then they may be immediately packed into the
common five and ten pound "free fruit" baskets, and
the bunches laid in as close and as snugly as possible.
If the vineyardist has a cold storage room in which to
place the baskets as they are packed, they may be kept a
week or two before shipping, but it is not well to send
off baskets packed for any considerable time without
careful inspection, because those who sell such fruits on
commission dislike to receive complaints from their cus-
tomers about bad packing and poor condition of the arti-
cles passing through their hands. It is rare that an
inferior article of any kind commands remunerative
prices in any market, and vineyardists have to be con-
stantly on the alert to prevent loss from bad packing
and rough handling of their grapes.

Wine Making. — For my own part, I could never
understand why wine making had anything more to do

200 THE GBAPE CULTURIST.

with grape culture than whisky or starch making had to
do with corn growing, or cider making and the produc-
tion of apple jack should necessarily be recognized as a
part of pomology. Two hundred years ago, when John
Evelyn wrote his "Pomona," it would not have been
thought complete without those wonderful chapters on
"The Making and Ordering of Cyder !" The man who
writes a book on apple and pear culture, at the present
time, would hardly think it in his line to tell how to
make perry and cider, nor would it be expected of him.
I shall therefore depart from the general rule, and for
two reasons : 1st. I believe that wine and brandy mak-
ing do not necessarily belong to grape culture. 2. I
should not be able to give any information from actual
experience ; and I believe the reader will agree with me
that in horticulture, at least, none have a right to be-
come teachers until they have, themselves, been scholars.

There are plenty of men in our country who know
how to make wine, and from them we should get correct
information upon the subject, provided they can be per-
suaded to give it, and none others should be heeded. It
is not every one who attempts to make wine, that accom-
plishes it ; for every vineyardist does not know how to
make wine, any more than every wine maker knows how
to grow grapes.

My main object, in writing this book, was to aid
those who might desire to raise grapes for home use or
market, and at that time, — now thirty years since, —
good table grapes were very scarce everywhere in this
country, and very few persons who planted vines in their
gardens, or elsewhere, had any clear ideas of how they
should be pruned or trained; and very much of this
ignorance still remains, even with the immense amount
of information published on the subject during the past
two or three decades. But professional vineyardists have
increased in numbers immensely during these years, and

MISCELLANEOUS.

201

their labors have, upon the whole, been crowned with
success, and we need no better proof of it than the
abundance of excellent grapes to be seen every autumn
in the markets of all cities and villages, from the Atlan-
tic to the Pacific oceans. Good dessert grapes have, of
late years, become so cheap and plentiful, that even the
poor of our great cities may now freely indulge in fruits

FIG. 77.

FIG. 78.

which a few years since was only to be obtained as lux-
uries, and by the rich and weli-to-do people.

Whenever and wherever there is a surplus of good
table grapes, the wine, vinegar and brandy maker may
come in and help to dispose of it ; but the production of
such liquids and liquors is not, necessarily, an adjunct
of grape culture.

Implements for the Vineyard. — The imple-
ments required in the vineyard are in no way different

202 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

from those employed by gardeners generally, such as
plows, hoes, spades and spading forks, and most essen-
tial of all is a good, sharp pruning, or pocket knife and
pruning shears.

Those who have a large number of vines to prune
know the importance of having a good implement with
which to do it. With a first-rate pair of shears a man
can prune many more vines in a day than he can with a
knife ; besides, there is less danger of breaking off those
buds which it is desirable to retain. In pruning fruit
trees the pruning knife is preferable, because we usually
wish to make a smooth cut, so that the wound will heal
over ; not so with the vine, as the cut is generally made
between the buds, and the wound is not expected to
heal ; the stump above the bud dies back to it, and if
this is cut away it is only for looks — nothing more.
Therefore, in pruning vines it is not requisite to leave a
very smooth surface to the wounds, though to have an
instrument that will cut smooth and easy is very desirable.

There are any number of styles of pruning shears —
German, French, English and American. Some are
good, but more that are good for nothing. But every
vineyardist will usually have his personal preference in
such matters, but the two forms of pruning shears shown
in Figs. 77 and 78 are both of American manufacture
and have long been in common use.

CHAPTER XIX.

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE.

In its natural wild state the grape appears to be
about as free from insect enemies as any other fruit-bear-
ing plant ; but it has a few, and these have been allowed
to increase upon vines under cultivation, until they are
becoming quite formidable, and in some parts of the
country their ravages have been so great, of late years,
as to materially lessen the product of many vineyards.

The rapid increase of noxious insects is, without
doubt, owing, in a great measure, to the destruction of
tliose birds that li.ve mostly upon them. If we destroy
or drive away the natural enemies of the insects, then
\vc must take upon ourselves the office of destroyer, and
work with perseverance and vigilance, or see all our
efforts to produce fruit in abundance of no avail. That
noxious insects tire rapidly increasing throughout the
country must be apparent to every one who has given
the subject attention. Insects that, a few years since,
were unknown in tho Western States, are now found
there in abundance, having been introduced, not only
from the Eastern States, but imported from European
countries with seeds, fruits, etc.

It matters but little where these hosts of insects
come from, the fact that they exist, with few idlers
among them, is enough to set every one of us to work to
check their progress in every way possible. To proceed
on our work of destruction understand! ngly, we should
first know our enemies ; for some insects that are found
on the grape vine do not injure it, like the common Lady

203

204 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

Beetle, but assist us in destroying those that are injuri-
ous ; therefore, an indiscriminate slaughter, in many
cases, would be very injudicious. There are many nos-
trums offered, at the present time, which are said to be
insect remedies, and, doubtless, a few of them are really
what they purport to be, as some are easily destroyed by
very simple means, but there is no universal remedy, the
application of which is at all practicable. A material
that would act as a poison upon one might serve as a
food for another, while it would be very difficult to find
anything so powerful that it would kill all kinds of
insects, and, at the same time, not injure the plants
upon which they were found.

It should also be borne in mind that all the different
orders and families of insects are not constructed exactly
on the same plan, and do not obtain their food nor
attack plants in the same way. For instance, the beetles
(Coleopterd) have mandibles, or jaws, with which they
bite, crush, or, as it may be said, chew their food ; and
when these pests attack plants they cut holes in, or con-
sume the leaves and stems, and their grubs (larvae) do
the same ; consequently, by dusting or spraying the
plants with poisons, such as Paris Green, London Pur-
ple, or even less virulent insecticides, a few particles
taken in with their food causes death. With the Lepid-
optera, butterflies and moths, no solid food is consumed
by the perfect winged insect, although they may sip a
small amount of liquids occasionally ; but when in the
caterpillar stage they are usually very voracious, having
strong mandibles, like the larger beetles, or Coleoptera,
and may be destroyed with similar preparations or poi-
sons ; but many of the species are so large that they are
readily gathered by hand.

The Hemiptera, or true bugs, are not furnished
with strong mandibles, or jaws, but in place of these
they have a proboscis-like organ, with which they punc-

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 205

ture the succulent parts of the plant and suck its juices,
causing it to wither and die. We cannot poison these
insects by scattering or spraying mineral or other poison-
ous substances over the foliage and stems of the plants,
simply because the bugs do not eat either leaves or
stems ; but we can kill them by applying thin liquids,
gases, or the fumes of various substances direct to their
bodies, thereby causing suffocation. Among the most
pernicious pests of this order which attack the vine are
the aphides, or plant lice, widely known as aphis, which
attack and suck the juices of the young leaves and shoots
in spring and summer. In the same order we have the
thrips, the mealy-bug, cottony-scale, and various other
kinds of sap-sucking bugs.

Among the Hymenoptera, such as bees, wasps, saw-
flies and ants, there are comparatively few that are inju-
rious to the vines, although the wasps and honey bees
often destroy an immense quantity of fruit, and the
sweeter and better the grape the more likely they are to
be attacked by bees and wasps.

I am well aware of the fact that to accuse the honey
bee of destroying grapes is treading upon dangerous
ground, for apiarians insist that the bees are never the
first transgressors, but only follow the wasps, who cut the
skin of the berries and let in the "busy bee" to enjoy
the feast ; but I fail to see why the bees should be held
innocent of robbing, simply because some other insect
has opened the door to a valuable repository. Neither
will this exonerate the owners of bees ; for in neighbor-
hoods where a number or many hives are kept, they do
sometimes destroy more fruit in a week than the wasps
do in the entire season. The claim made, by bee-keepers,
that the honey bee cannot puncture or make a hole in
the skin of grapes and other fruits with their mouth
parts, which are so well developed for gathering the
sweets of plants, and which are strong enough to uncap

206 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

honey cells sealed with dry, hard wax, is scarcely tena-
ble ; and even if their mandibles were not strong enough
to puncture a thin-skinned grape, their front feet, or
tarsi are, and these insects are certainly wise enough to
use the implements with which nature has provided
them for securing food. The truth of the matter, it
seems to me, is that the domesticated honey bee is an
insect of peculiar moods and tastes, and while we may
not be able to account for certain erratic and seemingly
inconsistent acts, still it is well known that they will
attack fruits with an almost insatiable voracity, and per-
haps the very next season could not be induced to touch
it. Having been a beekeeper for a number of years,
with neighbors who keep a large number of hives, I have
not been without abundant opportunities for observing
the habits of these valuable and, in the main, very useful
insects, but there is no denying the fact that they will
sometimes get into moods which are far from being
agreeable or harmless to their owners and others.

In the following list of noxious insects infesting
vineyards I shall only attempt to name a few of the most
common and best known. But every vineyardist should
make himself acquainted with the various insects infest-
ing the vine, and thereby be enabled to more successfully
check their ravages.

There are now many excellent works published on
economic entomology, and all within the reach of those
who may desire information on this subject. In addi-
tion to, at least, a half dozen standard practical works
on entomology which have been published within the
past few years, there are several excellent periodicals
devoted to the same, besides the annual reports of a
number of State Entomologists, and those of the Divis-
ion of Entomology of the U. S Department of Agricul-
ture. There have also been published and distributed
many special entomological bulletins and monographs,

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 207

by the various State Experiment Stations. All of these
sources of information on entomological subjects have,
with one or two exceptions, been introduced and estab-
lished since the first edition of this work appeared,
hence the less need of an elaborate dissertation on the
insect pests of the grape.

Rose Chafer, or Rose Beetle (Macrodactylus
subspinosus). — This beetle measures seven-twentieths of
an inch in length. Its body is slender, tapers before
and behind, and is entirely covered with very short and
close ashon-yellow down ; the thorax is long and narrow,
angularly widened in the middle of each side ; the legs
are slender, and of a pale red color ; the joints of the
feet are tipped with black, and very long. This is one
of the most common and destructive insects known to
infest the grape in this country. In some seasons it
makes its appearance in such vast numbers that it is
impossible to stay its ravages. It does not seem to be
at all fastidious in regard to its food, as it feeds indis-
criminately upon nearly all kinds of plants. It prefers,
however, the flowers of plants to their leaves, and it
usually makes its appearance in the spring, about the
time the grape comes into bloom. It eats the flower
with avidity, and when it appears in large numbers they
make short work of the entire crop.

There are a number of remedies recommended for
the Rose Chafer, but I know of none better or more
effectual than that of catching them by hand and killing
them. They can be caught very rapidly by taking a
large cup, or basin, with a little water in it, and a tea-
spoonful of kerosene, and holding it under the insect ;
giving the cluster of flowers a slight jar, the beetles will
immediately let go their hold and fall into the dish.
When a quantity have been caught, throw them into the
fire or pour hot water upon them. I have followed this
simple plan for several years, and though I have not

208 THE GRAPE CULTUBIST.

been able to annihilate them, their numbers have not
increased.

If a whole neighborhood would band together, each
destroying all to be found upon his own place, there
would be a prospect of soon exterminating this most
destructive enemy of the grape. There is no other way
of destroying them than to attack the insect itself,
because the female deposits its eggs in the ground, where
they cannot be reached by any ordinary means.

To collect the beetles from the flowers of the grape
is often rather difficult, and the better way is to employ
decoy plants, and entice them away from the vines. For
this purpose I have made use of several species of the
Spircea, but the best two for this purpose are the sorbus-
leaved (S. sorbifolia) and the Goat's Beard (S. Aruncus).
Both of these species bloom in spring with the grapes,
and continue in flower for several weeks. The first is a
vigorous-growing, hardy shrub from Siberia, producing
numerous long upright spikes of white flowers, which
are special favorites of the rose beetle, and if around
they are sure to be found on this plant, feeding upon its
flowers, from which they can be readily shaken into any
vessel used in collecting such pests.

The Groat's Beard spiraea is a hardy, indigenous her-
baceous plant, forming large clumps, which may be
divided for the purpose of propagation. The flower
stems grow three to five feet high, and the flowers are of
a tawny white color and produced in many slender
spikes, disposed in a long compound panicle. When the
rose beetles gather on these flowers we have only to bend
over the spikes and shake the pests into the collecting
pan. These plants are abundant and cheap, and I have
used them as decoys for the rose beetles for many years
with excellent results.

Blue Flea Beetle (Graptodera chalybea). This
is a very small jumping beetle, usually of a steel blue or

IKSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 209

greenish blue color above ; the underside is a dark green,
and the antennae and feet are dull black. It is only about
three-twentieths of an inch in length, but when abund-
ant it soon cuts the leaves full of holes and does consid-
erable damage.

Usually two broods appear in a season ; the first in
April or May, according to latitude, and the second in
July and August. Dusting the vines
with soot, or strong hard wood ashes
will usually drive them away, if it does
not kill them. Arsenical poisons may
also be applied, if more simple insecti-
cides do not answer.

Spotted Pelidnota (Pelidnota
punctata). This beetle is occasionally FIG. 79.

found upon the grape vine in the months of July and
August. "It is of an oblong, oval shape, and about an
inch long. The wing-covers are tile-colored, or dull,
brownish yellow, with three distinct
black dots on each, Fig. 79 ; the
thorax is darker and slightly bronzed,
with a black dot on each side; the
body beneath and the legs are of a
deep, bronzed, green color. The Pel-
idnota is of such a large size that,
should its numbers ever become great,
it would be very destructive. I have
never found more than half a dozen
upon any one vine, and these were easily picked off and
killed.

Goldsmith Beetle (Cotalpa lanigera). — This
beetle is found mostly upon trees, such as the pear, oak,
hickory, but most abundant on the poplars ; but having,
in several instances, found it feeding upon the leaves of
the grapevine, I have inserted an illustration (Fig. 80)
and a description, so that the attention of the vineyard-
14

210 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

ist might be called to it in case its numbers should
become so great as to render its destruction necessary.
It is about nine-tenths of an inch in length, broad, oval
in shape, of a lemon color above, glittering like bur-
nished gold on the top of the head and thorax ; the
under side of the body is copper colored, and thickly
covered with whitish wool ; and the legs are brownish
yellow, or brassy, shaded with green. They appear in
this vicinity in June. There are also four other native
species of the Cotalpas, but all inhabit the far Western
States except the one described.

Grapevine Fidia (Fidiaviticidd). — This is a small
chestnut-brown beetle covered with a grayish pubescence.
It is about three-eighths of an inch in length, with a
narrow thorax and small head ; but when abundant it
will soon cut vine leaves into shreds, and seriously check
the growth of the plants. This insect has the habit of
dropping to the ground when disturbed ; consequently
not easily caught, except by chickens, who seem to be
very fond of them, and for this reason fowls should be
allowed to have the run of vineyards where these pests
occur. These beetles may, however, be poisoned by
dusting the leaves with arsenical insecticides, or with
Persian insect powder.

The Grape Curculio, or Weevil (Craponius
incBqualis). — This is an indigenous pest which has prob-
ably bred in the wild grapes for many ages past, and
now occasionally attacks the cultivated varieties. My
first acquaintance with it began in 1869, when a corres-
pondent residing in Canada sent me a number of infested
berries, but later I learned that it was quite abundant in
Ohio, Illinois, and several other Western States. It is a
minute little pest, scarcely more than one-eighth of an
inch long ; of a black color with a grayish tint, and it is
about as broad as long. The females deposit their eggs
on the young berries during June and July, in our

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 211

Northern States, and the young grubs feed upon the
pulp, causing the grapes to turn brown, as though struck
with disease. The grubs are of a whitish color, and
about one-fourth of an inch long when fully grown.
These grubs leave the fruit the last of July and bury
themselves in the ground, here changing to pupae within
a small, smooth, earthy cell, and in September the
beetles issue and probably hibernate in this stage during
the following winter months. I am unable to suggest
any better way to destroy these pests than to gather and
burn the infested fruit.

Grape-cane Curculio (Ampeloglypter Sesostris).
— This is even smaller than the grape weevil, with a
longer snout and a much nar-
rower body ; the prothorax of
a brown color, and elytra (wing
covers) black and slightly
punctured. This little pest
does not attack the berries,
but it does the young, tender
shoots and canes, causing galls
upon them, the larvae, or grubs,
living within these swellings.
The remedy is to cut off the
gall-bearing canes and burn
them as soon as discovered.
There are a large number of
insects which infest both the
wild and cultivated grape, FIG- 81-

producing galls on either the leaves or growing canes,
but the remedy is the same for all, i. e., gather and burn
the galls before mature or the insects have escaped.

Grape-root Borer (Prionus laticollis). — There
are, at least, a half dozen species of the Prionidce, the
larvae of which are occasionally found bwing in the roots
and sterns of large and old grapevines. In the Eastern

THE GBAPE CULTURIST.

and Middle States the Broad-necked Prionus (P. laticol'
Us) is the most abundant, while in the Western the
Tile-horned Prionus (P. imbricornis) is the most fre-
quently reported as attacking vines. In California, and
eastward to New Mexico, the Prionus Californicus is
most plentiful. These beetles are all large, and a female
of average size of the Broad-necked Prionus is shown in
Fig. 81. Their larvae are also large, varying from two
to three inches in length, and some times fully a half
inch in diameter. They are really
giants among the borers, but fortu-
nately they prefer forest trees and
shrubs to grapevines, and only oc-
casionally breed in the latter.
The only remedy is to destroy the
beetles ; for the vine usually dies
before the presence of the borer is
discovered.

Caterpillars. — Caterpillars
are the larvae of butterflies or
moths. These insects have four
stages of existence : The egg,
caterpillar, pupa, or chrysalis,
and the perfect insect. Of these
it is the caterpillar alone which is
troublesome ; they feed upon the
FIG- 82- leaves of plants and are often very

destructive, especially in city gardens. In certain groups
the caterpillar becomes, in its winged state, a butterfly,
and in others a moth. The former fly by day, and the
latter mostly by night, or toward evening only. They
are also distinguished by peculiarities of structure not
necessary to mention here. The numerous species are
recognized by the entomologist by their form, color,
structure of legs and antennae, and numerous other char-
acteristics which enable him to classify them into genera
and families.

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 213

The Grapevine Plume (Pterophorus perisceli-
dactylus, Fitch). — Although this is one of the smallest
of the moths infesting the grape, it is, at the same time,
one of the most troublesome and destructive. Just
about the time the bearing canes of the vine begin to
show embryo flower clusters, the leaves around these are
found drawn together and fastened with fine silken
threads, and upon opening these folded leaves will be
found one or two small, greenish-white hairy caterpil-
lars, as art a, Fig. 82, and d, the little moth. These cat-
erpillars, if undisturbed, soon destroy the embryo clus-
ters of flowers and prevent the production of fruit.
These pests are so
securely enclosed
within the folded
leaves that they can-
not be reached with
ordinary insecti-
cides, and the only
way of destroying
them is to examine
the vines daily and
pick out the cater- FIG- 83-

pillars by hand. This grapevine plume remains for only
a very short time in spring, the caterpillars soon leaving
the vines ; but while they are on it they can do a great
amount of damage, but no more than the following :

The Grape-leaf Folder (Desmia maculalis). — In
Fig. 83 a male and female moth, with one of the cater-
pillars half enclosed in a folded leaf, is shown, all three
copied from the "American Entomologist," Vol. II, 1869.
Dr. Kiley, in describing this insect, says that the moth
is a very pretty thing, expanding, on an average, almost
an inch, with length of body about one third of an inch.
The color is black, with an opalescent reflection, and the
under surface differs only from the upper in being less

214 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST.

bright; all the wings are bordered with white. The
front wings of both sexes are each furnished with two
white spots, but while in the male there is but one large
spot on the hind wings, in the female this spot is invari-
ably more or less constricted in the middle, especially
above, and is often entirely divided into two distinct
spots, as shown in the right-hand, or female moth in
Fig. 83. These moths, when disturbed, are very active,
and soon wriggle out of the leaf and drop to the ground.
Crushing with finger and thumb is the only way I have
ever found to destroy them, and although I have fought
these pests for years, they are still very plentiful in my
grounds.

The Yellow Bear (Spilosoma Virginica). — This
is also known as the salt marsh caterpillar, because it
breeds in the salt marshes ; and towards autumn, when
nearly full grown, it migrates to the uplands, invading

FIG. 84.

gardens and vineyards, overrunning and stripping the
vines of their leaves. It is only near the seacoast that
these caterpillars are very numerous and destructive.
The moth is white, with a small discal dot on the fore
wings, and two black dots on the hind wings, one on the
middle and another near the inner angle. The caterpil-
lar, when full grown, is about two inches long, and cov-
ered with long yellowish hair, Fig. 84, hence one of its
common names. Hand picking is the best and surest
way of getting rid of this pest, and as they are so large
they are not at all difficult to collect while feeding.

Sphingidse, or Sphinx Moths. — Among the
sphinges we have some of the most voracious of all the

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE.

215

caterpillars. They are literally gluttons, as they never
seem to stop eating from the time they are hatched until
they pass into the chrysalis state. They are very de-

FIG. 85.

structive in a nursery of young vines, as a single cater-
pillar, when nearly grown, will, in twenty-four hours,
eat every leaf on a one-stem vine of three or four feet

216

TIIE GRAPE CULTUKIST.

high. The name pliilampelus (lover of the vine) is very
appropriate, and was given to one group of these moths
by the late Dr. Harris. There is a large number of
native species, all with similar habits. They may be
poisoned by dusting the leaves with insecticides, but the
better way is to pick them from the plants and crush
them with the foot, or otherwise. The following are
some of the most common and destructive of these
SpMngidcB.

The Satellite Sphinx (Philampelus Satellitia,
Linn). — The moth is of the size shown in Fig. 85, and

FIG. 86.

is of a light olive gray, variegated with dark olive green.
The smooth, naked caterpillars, when first hatched, are
of a green color, with a tinge of pink along the sides,
with a long, straight pink horn at the tail. This horn
soon begins to shorten, and by the third moult it entirely
disappears, leaving only a small, eye-like spot on the last
segment of the body . The color of these caterpillars is
somewhat variable, but usually greenish or velvety
brown, with lighter markings along the sides, as shown
in Fig. 86. When these caterpillars have attained their
full size and are about to transform, they descend to the

ground and into it a few
inches, where they shed
their skin and change to
a chrysalis of a deep
FIG. ST. chestnut brown color, and

of the form shown in Fig. 87. These chrysalides are
often plowed up while working in the vineyard late in
fall or early spring.

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE.

217

218

THE GKAPE CULTURIST.

There are several other species of these sphinges
which are occasionally found on the vines ; among the
most common I may name the Hog caterpillar (Chcero-
compa pampinatrix), and the Achemon Sphinx (Philam-
pelus achemon), and the Abbot Sphinx ( Thyreus Abbotii) ;
the latter, however, attacks the Virginia Creeper (Am-
pelopsis quinquefolia) , in preference to the cultivated
grape. All the caterpillars of the sphinx-moths are so
large that they are readily seen by
the time they begin to do much
damage to the leaves, and should
then be picked off and killed.

The Cecropia Moth (Pla-
tysamia Cecropia). — This is our
largest native moth, the larvae of
which feeds on the grapevine ; but,
fortunately, it prefers the currant,
gooseberry and other shrubs, to the
grape, but attacks the latter when
more agreeable food is not abundant.
These moths have a spread of wing
from five to six inches, Fig. 88, and
their general color is of a dusky
brown, with hinder margins clay-
colored ; near the middle of each of
the wings there is an opaque, kidney-
shaped dull red spot, having a white
center and a narrow black edging ;
and beyond the spot a wavy, dull
red band, bordered internally with
white ; the fore wings, next to the shoulders, are dull
red, with a curved white band ; and near the tips of the
same is an eye-like black spot, within a bluish-white
crescent. The caterpillar, when young, is of a deep yel-
low color, with rows of minute black warts on its back.
When it comes to full size, late in summer, it measures

FIG. 89.

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GKAPE. 219

three inches or more in length, and is then of a light
green color. The two warts on the second and third
rings are of a coral red color, the others yellow, beset
with black bristles. When the caterpillars leave the
plants uponwhich they have been feeding they do not
descend to the ground, like those of the sphinx inoths,
but retire to some secluded cane of the vine, or nearby
shrub, and there spin a cocoon, fastened longitudinally
to it, as shown in Fig. 89. When the leaves have fallen
from the plants in autumn these large cocoons become
quite conspicuous and may be readily gathered and
burned, or otherwise destroyed.

BLUE CATEKPILLAES OF THE VINE.

There are three or four different species of caterpil-
lars infesting grapevines known under this general
name, which have a close
resemblance to each
other, and are rather dif-
ficult to distinguish, ex-
cept by entomologists,
who have studied them
very carefully. The par-
ent moths, however, are FIG. oo.
very different ; but these, unfortunately, are seldom seen
by the practical vineyardist, whose interest in such mat-
ters is not usually awakened until he finds the caterpil-
lars stripping the leaves from his vines. The largest of
the blue caterpillars is the larvae of

The Beautiful Wood Nymph (Eudryas grata
Fabr). — This species is more or less common in all parts
of the country, and, although called "wood nymph," it
often attacks vines growing in city gardens. The moth
is of the size shown in Fig. 90 ; the color of the markings
on the fore wings are rusty brown and olive green ; the
hind wings nankeen yellow, broadly marked with pale

220 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

brown on the hind border. The caterpillars are about
an inch and a half long when fully grown, and of a
bluish color, transversely banded with deep orange across
the middle of each ring, the band being dotted with
black, with head and feet orange ; the top of the eleventh
ring somewhat bulging, and the fore part of the body
hunched up when the caterpillar is at rest. The cater-
pillars begin to appear about the
middle of July, and others are
hatched afterwards, and as late as
FIG. 91. tne middle of August. They eat

all parts of the leaves, even to the midrib and stalks.
When not eating they generally rest upon the underside
of the leaves, stretched out as shown in Fig. 91.

A closely allied species to the last is known as the
Pearl Wood Nymph (Eudryas unio, Hubner). The cat-
erpillars of the two species are almost identical, while
the moths are quite distinct ; for in the latter the brown
markings on the wings are neither as large nor as dark
in color, while the inner edge of the border of the front
wings is wavy, instead of a smooth curved line. Both
species of moths rest during the day on the under side
of the leaves of the plants upon which
they feed, and are only active during
the early evening and night. Another
species of these blue caterpillars be-
longing to the same family, but to a FIG. 92.
different genus, is the larvse of The Eight Spotted For-
ester (Alypia octomaculata, Fabr). The moths are about
the same size of the E. grata, but the wings are black,
with eight spots, two on each wing ; those on the fore
wings being yellowish, those on the hind wings white.

The American Procris (Procris Americana,
Boisd). — This is a small moth of a blue-black color, with
a saffron -colored collar and a notched tuft on the extrem-
ity of the body. The wings, which are very narrow,

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 221

expand nearly one inch, Fig. 92. The caterpillars are
gregarious ; that is, considerable numbers of them live
and feed together, collected side by side on the same
leaf, and only dispersed when they are about to make
their cocoons. They are of a yellow color, with a trans-
verse row of black, velvety tufts on each ring, and a
few conspicuous hairs on each extremity of the body.
They are hatched from eggs which are laid in clusters
of twenty or more together, on the lower sides of the
leaves of the grapevine and Virginia creeper ; and they
come to their growth from the middle to the end of
August. They then measure six-tenths, or rather more
than one-half of an inch in length. Their feet are six-
teen in number and rather short, and their motions are
sluggish. When touched they curl their bodies sidewise
and fall to the ground ; or, more rarely, hang suspended
from the leaves by a silken thread. When young, they
eat only portions of the surface of the leaf ; but as they
grow older they devour all but the stalk and principal
veins, and passing from leaf to leaf thus strip whole
branches of their foliage.

This pest is more numerous in the Middle, than in
the extreme Northern States, and I have always found
it more abundant on vines growing in city yards than in
vineyards. As the caterpillar feeds entirely upon the
upper surface of the leaves, it can be readily destroyed
by dusting the leaves with lime, when wet with dew, or
the leaves may be cut off with the insects upon them
and thrown into the fire.

Thrips, Aphis and Vine Scales. — These are all
minute insects, and live by sucking the juice, or sap,
from the leaves, succulent shoots and half-mature canes.

The insect commonly known as Thrip, or Leaf-
hopper (Erythroneura vitis), is a very active little pest,
jumping many times its own length when disturbed. It
usually congregates in large numbers on the under side

222 THE GRAPE CTJLTURIST.

of the leaves, puncturing and sucking the sap. They
may be destroyed by dusting the under side of the leaves
with Persian insect powder, or spraying with kerosene
emulsion. The common green fly, or aphis, is a well
known pest, readily destroyed by fumigating the plants
with tobacco, or drenching them with strong tobacco
water. Kerosene emulsion may also be used for the
same purpose, but whatever insecticide is employed,
repeated application will be required to keep any and all
species of the aphidcB in subjection.

The larvae of a small spotted insect called the Lady
Bird, or Lady Bug, feeds upon the aphis, devouring vast
numbers of them. The Lady Bird is the gardeners'
friend, and they should never be killed if it can be
avoided. These little beetles are usually red or orange
yellow, with small black spots ; some kinds have only
two spots, others have as many as nine. They are very
common, and many has been the crime that has been
laid to them, of which they were entirely innocent.

The Red Spider (Tetranychus telarius) is one of
the smallest insects that infest the vine. It is so very
minute that it appears as only a small red speck, and
can scarcely be seen by the naked eye. It usually con-
fines itself to the under side of the leaf of vines in the
house, though it will sometimes make its appearance on
vines in small gardens and do considerable damage, espe-
cially during long and severe drouths.

They spin a fine web over the under surface of the
leaf as a kind of nest, or protection ; here they live in
large numbers, and by puncturing the leaves for food,
cause it to turn to a sickly yellow color. The upper
surface will show small light-colored spots soon after the
spider commences its attacks on the under side.

A continued warm and moist atmosphere is death to
the red spider ; but while we are destroying them, the
aphis would be enjoying a most congenial atmosphere,

IKSECT EXEMIE3 OJ? THE GRAPE.

consequently we must resort to other means than mere
atmospheric changes to destroy any of these pests. Sul-
phur is the best remedy with which I am acquainted,
and the one upon which gardeners mainly depend. It
may be dusted over the plants, or be scattered on the
soil beneath them. When used in the house, the usual
method is to place it on the return flue, or pipes, being
careful not to place the sulphur where it will become so
hot as to take fire, for in that case the fumes will destroy
the plants as well as spiders. There is but little danger
of its taking fire if placed on the return flue, as the heat
will usually be just sufficient to slowly melt the sulphur,
and cause it to give off its fumes slowly.

Sometimes the sulphur is mixed with soft soap and
water, and a little clay added to make the composition
of the consistency of thick paint ; this is then applied to
the pipes and flues, when the sulphur is slowly evapo-
rated and continues giving off its fumes for a long time.
The constant fume of sulphur is not needed in a house ;
besides, it is very disagreeable.

The Vine Scale is occasionally met, but it is not
common. To the unassisted eye it appears to be noth-
ing more than a small scale, without the least appear-
ance of life. The scale is the shell, or covering, of a
very minute insect that pierces the bark of the young
shoots and sucks its juices. Kerosene emulsion will
destroy these pests, or a strong solution of potash — say
one pound to four or five gallons of water — or an appli-
cation of pure soft soap.

It is well, to wash the stems of all vines in gardens
with potash water every winter, as it will destroy
insects that make their nests in the crevices of the bark.
That portion of the solution that falls upon the ground
is not wasted, because it furnishes the vine with potash,
which is one of the most valuable ingredients of all
manures.

THE GRAPE CULTUKIST.

There are various species of scale pests which
occasionally appear upon stunted and neglected vines,
but they rarely attack those given good cultivation.
Vines grown under glass, either for fruiting or propaga-
tion, are sometimes infested with what is called the
Mealy-bug (Dactylopius adonidum), but this and kindred
species are readily destroyed by spraying the plants with
kerosene emulsion. The original formula for making
the emulsion is, "kerosene, two gallons ; common yellow
bar soap, one-half pound ; water, one gallon." Shave
up the soap and throw it into the water, and place over
a fire to heat, and when the soap is all dissolved pour
into a larger vessel, and add the kerosene to the hot soap
suds. Immediately churn the mixture by means of a
force pump, or large hand syringe, for five or ten min-
utes. The emulsion, as churned, forms a thin cream,
which thickens on cooling. Dilute before applying to
the plants, with cold water, one gallon of the emulsion
to nine of water, or the three gallons with twenty-seven
of water, making, in all, thirty gallons when ready for
use. The emulsion should be applied with a garden
syringe and through a fine rose or spraying nozzle, or
any of the modern spraying force pumps may be used
for the purpose. When the emulsion is to be applied to
miscellaneous plants in a greenhouse I have found that
one gallon of kerosene to one-half pound of the soap,
and the usual amount of water, was strong enough to
kill aphis and mealy bugs, and less likely to injure the
foliage than when made of full strength.

Quite recently another of these mealy bugs, or scale
insects, has been discovered infesting grapevines, espe-
cially those growing in village and city gardens. I
refer to the Cottony Maple Scale (Pulvinaria innumer-
abilis, Rathvon). For many years this pest was supposed
to attack only the Osage Orange and the Western White,
or Soft Maple (Acer dasycarpum). As this species of

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE.

225

maple is a much more rapid growing tree than either
the common Red Maple (A. rubrum), or the Sugar
Maple (A. saccharinum), it long since became very pop-
ular as a street shade tree in many of our Eastern cities
and villages, and it is now thought that this Maple Cot-
tony Scale was introduced with it from the Western
States. But it does not matter how the pest was intro-
duced, it is enough to know that it is here, and in un-
numbered millions, not only on the .two species of soft
maples, but, to a limited extent, on the
sugar maples ; and from these it swarms
and passes to grapevines, American and
Japan ivies, and various other vines and
shrubs. The many thousands of soft
maples planted in the streets and parks of
some of our Eastern cities are, at this
time, a reeking mass of these filthy insects
and their excretions.

These insects appear on the trees and
vines in the form of oblong brown scales,
Fig. 93, varying in length from one-fifth
to one- third of an inch. Under and
around these scales there is a white, fluffy,
cottony mass, which, in May and June, is
filled with minute eggs, and to the num-
ber of from six hundred to one thousand.
During June and July these eggs hatch
and the young lice spread in various direc-
tions, but soon settle down on the underside of the
leaves, and insert their beaks and begin to pump out
the sap for food. At this time these lice secrete a sweet-
ish liquid, which soon coats the upper sides of the leaves
upon which it falls ; much of it, however, falls to the
ground, coating the grass, weeds or sidewalks under-
neath, catching and holding any dust that may be flying
about at the time. These nectar-like excretions also
15

FIG. 93.

226 THE GBAPE CULTUKIST.

attract flies, bees, wasps and similar insects. Later in
the season the lice pass from the leaves to the branches
of the trees, usually locating on the underside, where
they will be slightly sheltered from storms. On grape-
vines they usually cluster near the lateral twigs on the
large annual canes, but sometimes on the older stems.

Kerosene emulsion will destroy these Cottony Scales,
and the best time to apply it is in the fall, soon after the
fruit is gathered, and repeat the application in spring,
just before the vines begin to grow. All the wood
pruned from infested vines should be burned, and not
used for propagation.

The Grape-Leaf Louse (Phylloxera Vastatrix).—
Long before the first edition of this work appeared the
cultivators of our native varieties of the grape had occa-
sionally noticed small galls on the leaves, but most fre-
quently on those of the Clinton. These galls, however,
attracted very little attention, probably because they did
not seem to seriously interfere with the growth of the
plants ; besides, they were not constant ; some seasons
being very abundant, then again almost, or quite, disap-
pearing. It was not until the year 1856 that we find
any published reference to these galls, and this appeared
in the first annual report of the late Dr. Asa Fitch, the
State entomologist of New York. Dr. Fitch merely
refers (p. 158) to the "grape-leaf louse," to which he
gave the name of Pemphigus vitifolice, and says "that
it inhabits galls upon the margin of the leaves." " They
are of a red, or pale yellow color, and their surface is
somewhat uneven and woolly. They are met with the
fore part of June, having only the wingless females
enclosed within them."

He again refers to this insect in his third report,
but in such a brief and vague manner that it is evident
that he really knew very little of the habits of a pest
which was soon to destroy many thousands of acres of
the old and long established vineyards of Europe.

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 227

The introduction of several new and promising varie-
ties of the native grapes, notably the Delaware, Diana,
lona and Concord, during the decade between 1850-60,
gave a new and somewhat surprising impetus to grape
culture in this country, and the demand for vines be-
came so great that, for a time, many of the nurserymen
made the propagation of the newer varieties a specialty,
both in the open ground as well as under glass, while
many other persons who had not previously been in the
business entered it, with more or less enthusiasm, and,
in some instances, erecting extensive ranges of houses
for the sole purpose of rapidly propagating all the newer,
as well as older varieties which were in demand. Among
the largest and most noted establishments of this kind,
that of the late Dr. 0. W. Grant, of lona Island, near
Peekskill, N. Y. , became the most famous, and remained
so for several years.

About 1859 it was noticed that the young vines were
somewhat defective in their roots, and galls, from the
size of a pinhead, and up to that of small peas, were
more or less numerous on the fibers of those raised in the
houses, and, later, the same kind of galls on vines
planted in the open ground on the Island. During the
season of 1860-61, and later, these root-galls became so
abundant that a system of combing was practiced, to
remove them before the vines were sent out to customers.
I have, myself, seen heaps containing several bushels
each, of these galls, that had been combed from the roots
of pot-grown plants as they were being prepared for sale.
Neither Dr. Grant nor any of his assistants knew what
caused these galls on the roots, but it was supposed, at
the time, they were due to either over-stimulation and
a forced growth, or to some defect in the soil. It is
quite probable that these gails were to be seen on vines
in other establishments where vines were propagated
under glass, but I had no occasion, at the time, to make

228 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

any extended investigation in this direction ; conse-
quently, cannot speak from personal knowledge on this
point. A few years later we began to hear of the out-
break of a serious disease in the vineyards of France,
and for a time it was supposed to be a fungus, causing a
rotting, orpourridis, as it was designated by the French
vineyardists. In the spring of 1868, Prof. J. E. Plan-
chon, of Montpelier, announced that the malady was
caused by the puncture of a minute insect of the plant-
louse family of Apliididce, and bearing a close resem-
blance to the gall-louse so often seen on the leaves of the
Clinton and a few other varieties of the grape in this
country. Later in the same year Prof. Planchon had so
carefully and thoroughly studied this pest that he was
enabled to fully describe it in its various stages, and then
he gave it the name which it now bears, viz., Phylloxera
vastatrix. But Prof. Planchon was not aware, at the
time, that the insect he was investigating, and which
was ravaging the vineyards of France, was the same pest
that lived in the galls on the leaves and roots of vines
here, and the credit of discovering the identity of the
two is due to Dr. C. V. Riley, then State entomologist
of Missouri, and later chief of the Division of Entomol-
ogy, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Dr. Eiley's investigations of this pest have been ex-
ceedingly thorough, and extending over many years,
leaving, as it would seem, very little more to be learned
in regard to its habits and history. The literature of
the subject has become so extensive that it would require
a dozen good sized volumes to give even an epitome of
what has been published in this country, to say nothing
of the voluminous reports of specialists which have ap-
peared in France and other European countries ; conse-
quently, want of space compels me to refer only to some
of the more prominent characteristics of this insect.

As is now well known, there are two distinct forms,
or types, which are very constant; one, the gallacola,

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 229

lives in galls on the leaves ; the other, called radicicola,
on the swellings, or galls of the roots. In and about
these root-galls winged and wingless lice of both sexes,
also the eggs and larvae, are to be found, on infested
vines during the summer and autumn months; in fact,
these pests appear to reach their most perfect stage
among the roots. Those inhabiting the leaf -galls, being
females only, and, like other species of the Apliidce,
increase by parthenogenetic maternity for several gener-
ations in succession ; that is, every egg laid by the
mother louse brings forth a fertile female, and this pro-
cess continues until all the leaves on the vines are de-
stroyed, or the cool weather checks growth ; the late, or
last generation of lice seek the roots, where they hiber-
nate, either in the egg or larvae stage.

During the rapid and forced propagation of the Amer-
ican varieties of the grape, which began about 1858, and
continued during the following ten years, the Phylloxera
was widely distributed and flourished on nearly all slow-
growing and enfeebled vines. In 1865 I planted a spec-
imen vineyard of some two hundred varieties, and a
large number came from lona Island, and some from
other establishments where propagating under glass was
practiced, and, as a result, the Phylloxera was intro-
duced and appeared to thrive on all the hybrids and
most of the varieties not adapted to my soil and climate.
When Prof. Planchon came to this country to investi-
gate the Phylloxera, in 1872, under the auspices of the
French government, he spent a day in examining the
vines in my grounds, and, as I had concluded to destroy
my specimen vineyard, I allowed him to dig up as many
vines as he wished to examine, and, I will say, we found
root-galls in great abundance. The following year I
dug up and burned every one of the two hundred varie-
ties and set a new plantation, using only healthy plants.

I have employed no remedies or preventives, and
now, after twenty years, can say that no pure native

230 THE GKAPE CULTUR1ST.

variety has been seriously injured since by this pest.
The Phylloxera, being a native insect, it is not at all
likely to ever become a serious pest in our eastern vine-
yards, because the indigenous species are capable of re-
sisting its attacks unless they are enfeebled by forced
propagation, neglect of cultivation, or planting in uncon-
genial soils and climates. It is, however, a destructive
pest to all foreign varieties, and many hybrids, as the
vineyardists of Europe have learned, to their cost. It
is now believed, and it is probably true, that this insect
has been the principal cause of the failure of all the vine-
yards planted with European varieties in the eastern
States during the last century, and in the early years of
the present one. Mildew and black rot, and other fun-
gus diseases, may have, also, been enemies ; but, what-
ever the cause, it is well known that the foreign varie-
ties do not thrive anywhere in the United States east of
the Rocky Mountains. In California, however, they
have been cultivated with great success, and for many
years ; but the Phylloxera has appeared in the vineyards
of that favored region, and what the results will be time
alone must determine.

In the way of remedies there is little to be said, be-
cause there are none that have, as yet, proved effectual
under all conditions. In France the employment of the
most vigorous of the American species for stocks upon
which to graft the foreign varieties, has been extensively
practiced, with excellent results ; but this comes more
in the line of preventives than a destroyer of the pest,
and, in my opinion, the vineyardists of the Atlantic
States have only to plant clean, healthy vines of the
well known native resistant varieties, and then give them
good cultivation and judicious pruning, to escape any
serious loss from the attacks of the grape Phylloxera.
Of course care will ever be required in the selection of
congenial soils and locations for vineyards, because, if

FUNGUS DISEASES. 231

the vines become weak and feeble from any cause, they
are sure to be attacked by parasites of some kind, for it
seems to be a universal law of nature, in both the animal
and vegetable kingdom, that nothing possessing life lives
very long after it loses the power of resisting its natural
enemies.

CHAPTER XX.

FUNGUS DISEASES.

Until quite recently very little was known of the na-
ture or habits of the fungus diseases of the grape, beyond
the bare fact that they were frequently very destructive
in all parts of the country east of the Rocky Mountains.
Collectively they were enemies which the vineyardist
sought to control, but with very unsatisfactory results.
In some instances dusting the vines with lime, sulphur,
or both combined, seemed to check these diseases : then,
again, all remedies failed. Many of the earlier vineyards
of Ohio, and throughout the Mississippi valley, as well
as those in the east and south, were abandoned, owing
to the prevalence and destructiveness of the diseases
known under the names of mildew and black rot. But
the planting of new vineyards continued, the inexperi-
enced, as well as experienced vineyardist trusting to luck,
or skill, for obtaining remunerative crops of fruit. That
many were successful is evident, from the constantly
increasing amount of fine grapes received in all of the
larger cities and villages, besides the many hundreds of
tons annually used in making wine. But successful as
grape culture, as an industry, has become, there are
still many failures, owing to the prevalence of fungus
diseases.

232

THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

To investigate these thoroughly and discover remedies
could scarcely be expected of individuals, and, happily,
it was not necessary, for the problem has been fully and

satisfactorily solved
for us in France,
where there is no ces-
sation of experiment-
al work in field and
vineyard, and all con-
ducted under the aus-
;-' pices of the govern-
ment and various
schools of agriculture.
Ever since the reme-
dies for fungus dis-
eases of the grape
were given to the pub-
lic— some half dozen
or more years since —
the reports of the
Department of Ag-
riculture at Washing-
ton, and the bulletins
of the State Experi-
mental Stations, have
teemed with advice to
vineyardists, and
fruit growers in gen-
eral, all recommend-
ing the French fungi-
cides as the best as
yet discovered. Want
of space will prevent
me from giving more
than a very brief de-
FIG. 94. scription of the most

FUNGUS DISEASES. 233

destructive fungi attacking the grape in this country,
and in doing that 1 shall avail myself of an excellent
report on "Fungus Diseases of the Grape, and Their
Treatment," by B. T. Galloway, chief of the division of
Vegetable Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

"There are but four fungus diseases of the grape in
this country which occasion sufficient damage to warrant
our attention, and they are (1), The grape Peronospora,
or downy mildew ; (2), powdery mildew ; (3), black rot ;
and (4), anthracnose."

Grape Peronospora, or Downy Mildew, Brown
Rot and Gray Rot. — The fungus causing these diseases
is known to botanists as Peronospora viticola. It
attacks the leaves, young wood, flowers and fruit. On
the leaves it usually manifests itself first in the form of
greenish yellow, or brownish spots on the upper surface,
while on the lower side corresponding parts are covered
with a white, frost-like growth. As the disease pro-
gresses the frost-like patches may disappear, leaving
only the brown leaf, which soon dries up and falls off.
Young wood and flowers are affected in the same way,
and the young berries, if attacked, usually cease growing
and appear as shown in Fig. 94. This form of the dis-
ease is known as the downy mildew, and in some sections
it causes the only serious damage. On the fruit the
fungus occurs in two forms, causing what is known as
brown, or gray rot. The former disease, as a rule, does
not make its appearance until the berries are nearly
grown. At this time a brownish-purple spot will appear
on one side of the berry, and in a short time the whole
fruit is involved, turning brown, and ultimately becomes
soft and wrinkled. In gray rot the fruit is covered with
the same frost-like growth seen on the leaves. The ber-
ries are literally plastered together with the fungus.

Powdery Mildew ( Uncinula spiralis). — This usu-
ally appears about midsummer, attacking the leaves,

234 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST.

young wood and berries. Occasionally, however, it
appears earlier in the season, and in such cases is often
very destructive to the plants. It forms on the various
parts attacked, a powdery, mealy growth, this being
very marked on the leaves, where it is usually more
abundant upon the upper surface. The berries attacked
often crack, exposing the seed in a very peculiar manner.
Upon close examination of any part of the vine affected
with powdery mildew, fine delicate threads, which make
up the vegetative portions of the fungus, may be seen.
This, in itself, is enough to distinguish the disease from
downy mildew, the only malady for which it is likely to
be mistaken.

Black Rot (Laestadia Bidwellii). — This is such an
old, widespread, and well known disease, that it is
scarcely necessary to describe it. But there may be some
vineyardists who do not know that the fungus usually
appears first on the leaves and young shoots, in the form
of reddish brown, or black spots, and some two or three
weeks later it attacks the berries, and the first indica-
tions of its presence on these are one or more brown, or
blackish spots on the skin. The fruit soon turns brown,
then black, and finally becomes hard and ceases to grow,
and withers upon the stalks. Fig. 95.

Anthracnose (SpJiaceloma am,pelinum), is caused
by this microscopic fungus, and, like the downy mildew
and black rot, it attacks the leaves, young tender shoots,
and the immature berries. The leaves, when first
attacked, show minute blackish-brown spots, which are
surrounded with slightly raised darker colored margins.
On the shoots the disease appears very much as it does
on the leaves, but as it progresses the spots become
darker at the center, and often run together, forming
elongated patches, which gradually eat their way into
the wood.

Anthracnose on the fruit is usually called bird's-eye
rot, and first appears as a blackish or brown circular

FUNGUS DISEASES.

FIG. 95.

236 THE GEAPE CULTURIST.

spot surrounded by a narrow dark rim. As the spots
increase in size the color undergoes various changes;
sometimes there is a zone of vermillion surrounding a
grayish center. The berries may shrivel up, or be
developed unequally, the affected side being somewhat
flattened.

Remedies and their Preparation. — There are four
fungicides which extended experiments have shown to
be efficacious in checking and destroying the fungus dis-
eases described. These are (1), a simple solution of
copper sulphate ; (2), the Bordeaux mixture ; (3), the
ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate; and (4), eau
celeste. There may be other fungicides equally as good,
but the preceding have been thoroughly tested and rec-
ommended by those who have used them the most
extensively.

Simple Solution of Copper Sulphate. — This is
prepared by simply dissolving one pound of the copper
sulphate in twenty-five gallons of water.

Bordeaux Mixture. — The formula now in general
use is that containing six pounds of copper sulphate and
four pounds of lime and twenty-two gallons of water.
The sulphate should be dissolved by throwing it into
about a half barrel of water, stirring it occasionally to
hasten the operation. In another vessel slake the lime
with sufficient water to make a thin whitewash, and then
pour this into the barrel containing the sulphate, strain-
ing it through an old sack to remove sticks and undis-
solved pieces of lime. Fill up to make the twenty-two
gallons, and the solution is ready for use. Of course, a
larger or smaller quantity may be made at one time, pre-
serving the proportions of the ingredients very nearly,
although slight variations will scarcely be noticed in the
results. If the mixture should spot the leaves, then
reduce the proportion of the sulphate.

Ammoniacal Solution of Copper Carbonate. —
In an ordinary water pail dissolve five ounces of copper

FUKGUS DISEASES. 237

carbonate in three pints of spirits of ammonia having a
strength of 26°. If the three pints of ammonia are not
sufficient to completely dissolve the copper, add as much
more as required. When fully dissolved pour the solu-
tion into a barrel and fill up with water.

Eau Celeste. — Dissolve two pounds of copper sul-
phate in eight gallons of water, and when thoroughly
dissolved add three pints of spirits of ammonia, and
dilute to fifty gallons. Where the vines have thin
leaves this solution will sometimes burn or spot the foli-
age, and a modified formula is preferable, viz. : Dis-
solve four pounds of the copper sulphate in ten or twelve
gallons of water. Add three pints of ammonia, and
dilute to fifty gallons, then add five pounds of common
washing soda. Stir or allow to stand until the soda is
dissolved, and the solution is ready for use.

These remedies are not given because it is supposed
that they will be required in all localities, for there are
many in which none of the fungus diseases have, as yet,
been sufficiently destructive to cause any serious loss,
but whenever required, it is well to know that remedies
are at hand and may be applied at a cost of not more
than two or three cents per vine. There are also some
varieties far more susceptible to the attacks of the mi-
croscopic fungi than others, and in case they are worth
preserving, the fungicides should be applied ; but, as a
rule, I do not think vineyardists will care to cultivate
varieties which require constant dosing to keep them in
a moderately healthy condition, at least, not with the
present price of grapes in our markets.

Application of Remedies. — For the downy mildew
and gray rot, either of the solutions described will answer
very well ; but the ammoniacal copper carbonate is usu-
ally preferred, because the cheapest, and less liable to
injure the foliage. The first application should be made
about the time the fruit is well set on the vines, and

238 THE GRAPE CULTUEIST.

then repeat the spraying every two weeks until the fruit
begins to color. The eau celeste is said to be preferred
by the vineyardists of Ohio, for the downy mildew, and
in some other northern localities, but in the Middle and
Southern States it appears to injure the foliage more than
the simple carbonate copper solution. For powdery
mildew alone ammoniacal copper carbonate solution is
recommended, but almost any of the copper solutions
will answer. Unfortunately, however, the powdery mil-
dew seldom exists alone, and for this reason it is better
to apply the Bordeaux mixture or eau celeste at once,
and destroy the various species of fungi which may be
present on the vines.

In treating the vines for black rot, the first applica-
tion of fungicides should be made early in spring, before
the buds begin to swell, and with the simple solution of
copper sulphate. Then, when the leaves are about half
grown, apply Bordeaux mixture, and, a few weeks
later, spray with ammoniacal carbonate solution. But
the treatment is greatly varied, some vineyardists prefer-
ring one fungicide, while others depend entirely upon the
simple solution of copper, or use this and the Bordeaux
mixture alternately. For anthracnose the Bordeaux
mixture is most extensively used, and appears to give
the best results.

Method of Applying Remedies. — The application
of all the various fungicides should be in the form of a
fine spray, in order to reach every part of the vine. By
such means a very small quantity of the solution is made
to wet a very large surface, and without drenching the
vines. This is now quite practicable with almost any of
the modern spraying pumps, of which there are many
forms and sizes to be obtained of dealers in agricultural
and horticultural implements, and in almost eyery city
and village in the country. If the amateur with a few
vines does not care to purchase an expensive appa-

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 239

ratus, he can do good work with one of the common
brass syringes such as florists often use in their green-
houses, for applying kerosene emulsion and other liquid
insecticides.

CHAPTER XXI.

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES.

Of the one hundred and thirty varieties named and
briefly described in the first edition of this work (1864),
scarcely more than a dozen can be admitted into the
present list of varieties worthy of cultivation. Nearly
all of the others have either become obsolete, or merely
retained, in some of the larger collections of native
grapes. But new varieties have been raised in immense
numbers, of late years, and it would not now be at all
difficult to double my former list, and then not exhaust
the names of highly extolled favorites to be found in
nurserymen's catalogues, and of those who make the
propagation of the grape a specialty. The ephemeral
life of a large proportion of the older sorts warns me not
to place too much confidence in the new ; and yet it
must be admitted that the cultivators of this fruit have
learned much by observation and experience during the
past three decades ; consequently, they are better able to
judge of the real merits of the new and untried varieties
than ever before. That this experience is producing
excellent results is quite apparent, in the improved flavor
of some of the newer varieties disseminated within the
past few years, by those who make a specialty of raising
seedlings ; for they have learned that cultivators are
seeking something better than those which they have
previously possessed, and if such cannot be had it would
be folly to attempt to make a change. Some few of the

240 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

old favorites, like the Concord, Catawba and Delaware,
hold their own, and even lead in the market, however
closely pressed they may be by more recent productions.

Rogers' Hybrids, which at one time gave promise of
being valuable acquisitions, have lost ground rapidly,
and of the twenty or more of those first introduced and
disseminated under numbers, and later by name, not
more than a half dozen remain in general cultivation,
and of these few are ever seen in market. Just why
these grapes were pushed aside it might be difficult to
determine, for there are really some good and valuable
varieties among them, and these show very little, if any,
of the foreign blood which it was claimed they possessed.

A few years later another and very distinct lot of
hybrids were introduced by Mr. J. H. Ricketts, of New-
burgh, N. Y., whose skill as a hybridizer of the grape has
probably never been surpassed in this or any other
country. But, unfortunately, he selected poor material
for the foundation of the structure he hoped to build ;
for the foreign blood ( Vitis vinifera), when intermingled
with that of our native species, has always proved to be
an enfeebling element in this climate, and very few vari-
eties of such a mixed parentage have ever become pop-
ular with vineyardists. Perhaps, with the free use of
the recently approved fungicides, some of these hybrids
may become worthy of more extended cultivation, and it
might be well, for those who have the means and incli-
nation, to give them a fair trial under such conditions.

Many other hybridists are in the field, and some of
their productions are, to say the least, promising, but it
is well for the practical vineyardist to keep in mind the
fact that a variety may succeed in one locality, and not
in another, and for this reason we are rarely enabled to
determine its value from a single vine, or even a half
dozen, growing in the grounds of the originator, or those
of some friend who is coddling the plants because they

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 241

arc new, rare, and believed to be very precious. It is
only when varieties enter into general cultivation, or
over an extended region of country, that we can begin
to form some idea of their commercial value, and no
matter what our individual tastes may be, we must cater
to that of the general public if we expect to get a fair
return for our labor in the vineyard. Of course, I am
not disposed to inveigh against the special favorites of
the vineyardist, nor of the amateur with only a vine or
two in his garden, for these usually afford the cultivator
the most pleasure and yield fruit far superior to that
grown for market. A smooth, agreeable flavor, even if
it is not rich, will better suit the masses than a rich
fruit with peculiar flavor, for these will only suit people
with peculiar individual tastes.

A grape that possesses but very little sugar and very
little acid may be agreeable, but not rich ; for a fruit, to
be of the best quality, must contain both sugar and
acids in abundance, along with the other ingredients
that are found in all good grapes. The Isabella, which
so long held the foremost place in the markets of the
Eastern States, is one of those feeble flavored, agreeable
varieties, and the Concord, which, during the past two
or three decades has taken its place, belongs to the same
group and species, and, while it is far from being either
rich or delicious, it is passably good and agreeable to
those who have not been accustomed to anything better.
The fruits that are most readily accepted by the great
majority of consumers are those which do not possess
any very pronounced distinctive flavor, although it must
be admitted that long continued familiarity and use has,
in many instances, tended to lead people to tolerate, and
even acquire a taste for, rank and distinctive flavors in
both food and luxuries.

There has been, and there is still, much discussion
as to what constitutes best quality in a grape, and so
16

242

THE GEAPE CULTURIST.

long as we allow some particular characteristic to be our
guide, instead of the whole, we shall never settle the
question. One person admires a large grape, while
another cares nothing about size, but wants sweetness ;
while still another accepts acidity as less cloying than
too much of the saccharine ; but these are only matters
of taste, and do not affect quality ; for quality in a grape
is essentially a compound, while taste is simple.

Some of the requisites of a grape of first quality,
and belonging to our indigenous species are : 1st. A

FIG. 96.

FIG. 97.

FIG. 98.

FIG. 99.

FIG. 100.

FIG. 101.

large amount of sugar. 2d. A large amount of acid.
3d. A brittle, tender pulp ; if it is nearly a liquid so
much the better. 4th. No strong distinctive flavor.
5th. Large and moderately compact bunch. 6th. Large
berry. 7th. Small seeds. 8th. Berries adhering firmly
to their peduncles. 9th. Thin skin, but sufficiently
tough to prevent bursting.

These characteristics refer more particularly to table
grapes, as wine grapes may possess particular characters

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 243

and flavors that would detract from their value as dessert
fruits, and still be unsurpassed for wine. The most
popular dessert grapes are seldom the best for wine, or,
at least, they are less frequently used for this purpose.
The form and corresponding size of our native varieties
may be seen by reference to the following figures : Fig.
96 is what is usually termed small ; Fig. 97 medium ;
Fig. 98 large ; Fig. 99 very large ; these are all round,
or spherical ; Fig. 100 oval ; Fig. 101 oblong oval, a rare
form among our native varieties.

In the following list I shall only attempt to name
the best of the well known varieties, which are believed
to possess sufficient merit to make them worthy of being
retained in cultivation. This will be followed with
another, containing the names of the principal new vari-
eties, or those which have not been sufficiently dissem-
inated to allow their merits to become well known among
grape growers, but are supposed to give promise of be-
coming valuable. In the third section the old, obsolete,
worthless and doubtful varieties will be catalogued, as a
kind of historical record of the fruits which, in their
day, served as incentive to the vineyardist to seek some-
thing better.

Agawam (Rogers' Hybrid No. 15). — Bunch large,
loose, usually shouldered. Berries large, skin thick, red
or amber; pulp rather tough, but juicy, with an
aromatic sweet taste when fully ripe. Vine a rank
grower, with large, thick leaves, somewliat subject to
mildew in some localities, and this may account for its
limited cultivation, although introduced more than
thirty years ago.

Antoinette (T. B. Miner). — Bunch medium to
large ; compact, shouldered. Berries large, skin thin,
very tender, greenish-white at first, changing to yellow-
ish-white when fully ripe. Pulp tender, very sweet and
rich. A seedling of Concord, with all the characteristics

244 THE GKAPE CTJLTURIST.

of its parent in the way of leaf and vine, but with light-
colored and much sweeter and richer fruit ; ripening two
weeks earlier than Concord. During the twenty years
this variety has been growing in my grounds it has never
suffered from disease, and while I consider it one of the
best white grapes in cultivation for home use, it will
scarcely answer for market, owing to the tender skin
and the dropping of the berries from the bunch when
handled after they are fully ripe.

Augusta (T. B. Miner). — Bunch medium, com-
pact, sometimes shouldered. Berries medium to large ;
skin thin, greenish-white, becoming decidedly yellow and
semi-transparent when fully ripe. Pulp tender, sweet
and rich. Very early, or with the Delaware. Of the
same origin and parentage as the Antoinette, but not as
strong and vigorous. A beautiful grape for the ama-
teur or the home garden of the vineyardist.

Bacchus (/. H. Ricketts). — Bunch medium, very
compact, shouldered. Berries small or medium ; black,
pulp tender, too acid to be pleasant. A seedling of the
old Clinton, and, like its parent, very hardy and pro-
ductive. Recommended only as a wine grape for North-
ern localities.

Barry (Rogers' Hybrid, 43). — Bunch large, and
short, not generally shouldered. Berries large to very
large ; skin moderately thin, black, with little bloom ;
pulp tender, sweet and sprightly when fully ripe ; vine
hardy, vigorous and productive ; season medium, or
ripening with the Concord. One of the best of Rogers'
Hybrids, and perhaps the least liable to be attacked by
mildew and black rot.

Brighton (Jacob Moore). — Bunch large, broad, but
short, sometimes double-shouldered, or clustered. Ber-
ries medium to large, reddish -purple ; skin thin, with
light bloom ; pulp tender, and more like the flesh of the
foreign varieties than of our native grapes. In flavor it

DESCRIPTION" OF VARIETIES. 245

is sprightly and very pleasant, and an excellent grape.
Vine vigorous, and usually productive when not attacked
by disease. A hybrid between the Concord and Diana
Hamburg. Very highly recommended by those who
have been successful in its cultivation, and its range will
probably be largely increased as vineyardists become
more familiar with the remedies employed for preventing
diseases.

Catawba. — Bunch large, loose shouldered. Ber-
ries medium to large; skin thin, dark red, with thin
bloom ; pulp tender when fully ripe, with a juicy, rich
and sprightly flavor. This old favorite has held its own
against all competitors for three-quarters of a century,
and during the closing days of the year it is about the
only native dessert grape to be found in our markets.
It ripens rather late for some of our Northern States,
and in some localities is subject to mildew and black rot,
but now that it is known that these diseases are not
incurable, the old Catawba may take a new lease of life,
and long remain a standard wine and table grape.

Champion. — Origin unknown. Bunch medium,
compact. Berries large, black ; pulp rather tough ;
sweet, with a decided foxy flavor. Eesembles Hartford
Prolific, but it is claimed that the berries adhere more
firmly to the stem. Very hardy and prolific, but mainly
recommended on account of earliness.

Concord (K W. Bull). — Bunch compact, large
shouldered. Berries large, round, black, thickly cov-
ered with a beautiful blue bloom. Skin thin, often very
thin. Flesh moderately juicy, sweet, rather buttery.
Pulp quite tender when fully ripe ; sometimes quite acid
at the center, with considerable of the foxy flavor. Vine
very hardy and vigorous. Leaves very thick and endur-
ing; dark green above, rusty beneath. Ripens from
lOfch to 20th of September.

Among all the varieties that have been thoroughly
tested, the Concord is, without doubt, the most profit-

246 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

able for market. It 'will grow and produce abundant
crops in situations and upon soils where some of the bet-
ter flavored and more delicate varieties would utterly
fail. Although its fruit cannot be called the best in
quality, still it seems to suit the masses ; or at least they
prefer an abundance, if it is not quite so delicate, to a
small supply of something that is really superb.

It is a really fine native grape, and has steadily
grown in favor ever since its introduction, and probably
there are more vines of it being planted at the present
time than of any other variety. It is very hardy, of
vigorous growth, and very productive. Its beautiful
appearance makes it one of the most attractive market
grapes, and for this purpose there is, perhaps, no variety
that excels it.

The preceding paragraphs contain my description
and opinion of this popular grape, as published thirty
vears ago, and I cannot now see any good reason for
making any change; for the planting of the vines is
still going on, although the few hundreds of pounds
which found their way to market in 1864 are now repre-
sented by almost, if not quite, as many tons.

Cottage (K W. Bull).— A seedling of the Concord,
resembling its parent, the individual berries being a
little larger. The skin is thicker and the pulp some-
what tougher, and while I do not think it as good as the
Concord, others may not agree with me, hence its place
in this list.

Dana (Francis Dana). — Bunch medium, compact,
shouldered, peduncle of a reddish color. Berries large,
red, with considerable bloom; pulp quite tender and
sweet. Eipens with Concord, or from the first to mid-
dle of October. Vine vigorous, hardy and productive.

Delaware. — Origin unknown, but first brought to
notice by Mr. A. Thompson, of Delaware, Ohio, who
procured it of Mr. Paul H. Provost, of Hunterdon Co.,

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 247

N. J. Bunch medium, very compact, and generally
shouldered. Berries medium ; skin thin, of a beautiful
dark red color when fully ripe, and with only a slight
white bloom; pulp tender and juicy, sweet, with a
sprightly, vinous flavor. This variety has become a
standard of excellence among our native grapes. The
vine is very hardy, young wood exceedingly hard when
mature. A sturdy grower, but not as rank as some
other native varieties. It is probably a seedling of the
Catawba, as it possesses many of the characteristics of
that old favorite, but ripening a month earlier, and
while the fruit is much superior in quality to that of its
supposed parent, the vine is less vigorous, consequently
requires a much richer soil and more care in cultivation.

Diamond (Jacob Moore). — A cross between the
Concord and lona. Bunch large, slightly shouldered.
Berries large; skin thin, but firm, greenish-white at
first, but becoming yellowish with full maturity. Pulp
tender, sweet, and rich flavored. The vine is vigorous,
healthy, hardy and productive. While this is a compar-
atively new variety, it has been so widely disseminated,
and its merits so well known, that I think it safe to
place it among the standard varieties.

Diana. — A seedling of Catawba, raised by Mrs. Diana
Crehore, of Boston, and introduced to public notice
about thirty-five years ago. There is probably no one
variety of grape in cultivation in regard to which there
is a greater diversity of opinion, and its variableness
fully warrants all that is said about it. In one section
it is really excellent, while in another, perhaps near by,
it is entirely worthless ; and the same difference is often
observable in the same garden, and from no apparent
cause. It is one of the best keeping grapes that we
have, owing, in a great measure, to its thick skin.

Bunches medium to large, compact, not generally
shouldered. Berries medium, sometimes quite large,

248 THE GRAPE CULTUKIST.

round, often ripen very unevenly. Skin thick, pale red,
covered with a thin bloom. Flesh tender, with some
pulp, juicy, rich, sweet and vinous ; but in some seasons
and localities it possesses a peculiar musky flavor that is,
to many persons, quite offensive. After the fruit has
been gathered a few days this peculiar flavor, in a meas-
ure, disappears. Vine vigorous and moderately hardy,
requiring slight protection in our Northern Border
States. Ripens the last of September in the latitude of
New York City.

Duchess (A. J. Caywood}. — Bunch large, shoul-
dered. Berries medium ; skin thin but firm, greenish-
white ; pulp tender, juicy and sweet. Vine hardy and
prolific, but much subject to disease, except in a few
favorable localities.

Eaton (Calvin Eaton). — A seedling of Concord.
Bunch large, sometimes double shouldered. Berries
extra large, round ; skin thick, black, covered with a
delicate bloom, but not quite as abundant as on the ber-
ries of its parent. Pulp rather firm, but juicy; neither
sweet nor rich, and, to my taste, very much inferior to
the Concord. Vine healthy and hardy ; a good show
fruit, but not up to the standard of excellence for a des-
sert grape.

Empire State (J". H. Ricketts). — A cross between
Hartford Prolific and Clinton. Bunch rather long,
large, and usually shouldered. Berries medium, skin
thick, but tender ; greenish-white tinged with yellow at
maturity ; very little bloom ; pulp tender, sweet, rich
and sprightly. Vine hardy, healthy, and productive*, as
might be expected from such parents. This is one of
the very best of Mr. Eicketts' seedlings for general culti-
vation, probably because it is of pure native parentage.

Goethe (Rogers' No. 1). — Bunch large, shouldered.
Berries large and of a decided oval form. Skin thick,
pale red, or flesh color, when fully matured ; pulp tough,

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 249

with a little rich juice, having a rank, foxy flavor. Vine
a coarse, rampant grower, and very productive. It is
with much reluctance that I have admitted this grape
here, because, after twenty-five years' experience with it,
I must say it has scarcely a redeeming quality beyond
that of size and peculiar shape of berries. But it is
extensively propagated and admired, and this might lead
my readers to look for it among the recommended
varieties.

Green Mountain, or Winchell. — Origin unknown,
but said to have been found in a garden in Vermont.
Bunch medium, shouldered. Berries medium, skin
greenish-white, thin ; pulp tender, sweet and excellent.
Vine very hardy and productive. This grape is highly
recommended for its early ripening and good quality.
Its value for general cultivation for market has not, as
yet, been determined.

Hartford Prolific. — A very old variety, supposed
to have been raised by a Mr. Steel, of Hartford, Conn.
Bunch medium to large, shouldered, and compact. Ber-
ries large ; skin rather thick, black, with very little
bloom. Pulp somewhat tough, but sweet, and with a
decided foxy flavor. Vine hardy and very productive.
Valuable for its earliness, ripening two weeks in advance
of Concord. It is not a good market grape, on account
of the tendency of the berries to drop from the bunch.

Hayes (Jno. B. Moore). — Bunch medium to large,
compact, shoulders very small, or none. Berries medi-
um ; skin tender, greenish-white, with an amber shade
when fully matured ; pulp tender and juicy, and of ex-
cellent flavor. Vine vigorous and hardy, with large,
healthy foliage. Ripens a little in advance of the
Concord.

Ida (T. B. Miner). — Seedling of Concord. Bunch
large, heavily shouldered. Berries as large as those of
its parent; skin moderately tough, deep green, fading

250 THE GBAPE CULTURTST.

to pale green when dead ripe ; skin moderately firm ;
pulp tender and juicy, sweet and rich. Vine almost
identical with the Concord, hardy and productive. The
color is against this most excellent grape, which I re-
ceived from the late Mr. Miner in 1877, and haye had
in continuous cultivation ever since. It is to be feared,
however, that of the dozen or more excellent varieties
raised and distributed by Mr. Miner, few can now be
identified with any degree of certainty. Some have, no
doubt, reappeared under new names, with origin falsely
claimed or unknown.

lona (Dr. C. W. Grant). — A seedling of Catawba,
raised at lona Island, about thirty-five years ago, and a
superior fruit, but the leaves are rather thin and very
likely to be attacked by mildew. Bunches large, shoul-
dered, compact. Berries large, round, semi-transparent
when they begin to ripen, but growing opaque as the
color deepens. Skin thin, pale red, with small deep red
veins at first, changing to dark red when fully ripe.
Flesh tender, with very little pulp at the center. Sweet,
brisk flavor, excellent, but not quite equal to Delaware.
Ripens from 10th to 20th of September.

Isabella. — Supposed to have been brought from
South Carolina to New York by Mrs. Isabella Gibbs,
early in the present century. It has probably been dis-
seminated under more names than any other native vari-
ety in cultivation. Bunch large, compact, shouldered.
Berries medium to large, slightly oval; skin thin, black,
with light bloom; pulp tender and sweet; excellent
quality when perfectly and well ripened. Of late years
the vine has been subject to disease, and for this reason
few are now planted, the Concord having almost entirely
superseded this old favorite.

Jefferson (J. H. Ricketts). — Said to be a cross
between the Concord and lona. Bunch large, often
double shouldered. Berries large, of a red color; skin

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 251

moderately thin ; pulp tender, sweet and rich. Vine
hardy, healthy and prolific. Ripens with the lona, or a
little earlier than Concord. A very promising variety,
Dut not, as yet, very widely disseminated nor extensively
cultivated.

Jessica. — Originated with D. W. Beadle, Canada.
A small white grape, which has been widely dissemi-
nated, and highly recommended for its earliness and
productiveness, but with me it is utterly worthless, the
vine being a feeble grower, and both fruit and leaves are
so subject to mildew that I do not consider it worth
cultivating.

Lady (C. W. Campbell). — A seedling of Concord.
Bunch medium, compact, rarely shouldered. Berries
large, skin thin and brittle, greenish-white; pulp ten-
der and sweet, but not very rich. Ripens early, or a
week or more before the Concord. Vine a moderate
grower, hardy, but not very productive.

Lady Washington (Hyb.) (/. H. Riclcetts).—A.
hybrid between Concord and Allen's Hybrid. The orig-
inator was probably awarded more prizes for this variety
than for all the many he produced, and yet it does not
seem to have become at all popular with vineyardists
anywhere. Bunch large, compact, usually double shoul-
dered. Berries large, yellowish-green, with thin bloom.
Flesh tender, sweet and delicious. Vine vigorous and
productive in the originator's grounds, but rarely seen in
this condition elsewhere. Ripens late, under the most
favorable conditions, and may prove more valuable South
than in the North.

Martha. — A well known variety raised some thirty
years ago, by Judge Samuel Miller, now of Bluffton,
Mo. Bunch medium, compact, uniformly shouldered.
Berries medium, skin rather thick, pulp sweet, juicy,
with a slightly foxy odor, but not offensive. Vine very
hardy, healthy, and exceedingly productive. A stand-
ard variety, ripening with or a little before the Concord.

252 THE GKAPE CULTUEIST.

Moore's Early (Jno. B. Moore). — Bunch large
and compact. Berries large, skin thick; black, with
heavy bloom ; pulp tender and juicy, but not very sweet
nor rich. Vine hardy and prolific. Eecommended
mainly on account of its earliness, as it ripens about two
weeks before the Concord.

Moyer. — Originated in Canada, and in the grounds
of Mr. Allen Moyer. It is probably a seedling of the
Delaware, which it resembles in both color and earliness.
Bunch small, or very small, sometimes shouldered.
Berry small, skin thin, red ; pulp tender, and exceed-
ingly sweet and delicious ; but, unfortunately, there is
little of it, for the berries are very small, with large
seeds. A very fine early grape, but too small to ever
become popular.

Niagara. — Introduced by Hoag & Clark, of Lock-
port, "N. Y. It is, undoubtedly, a pure native variety of
the Labrusca, or fox grape species. Disseminated and
propagated by a syndicate, each vine sold under seal,
with some other rather unusual schemes for attracting
public attention. Bunch large to very large, shouldered.
Berries large ; skin tough, green, retaining this color,
fading but little when fully mature. Pulp firm and
rather tough ; juice moderately sweet and good, but
with considerable of the native fox grape odor. Ripens
with Concord. Vine healthy, hardy, and very produc-
tive. In some localities it is said to be affected with
mildew, and the fruit with rot, but the same may be
said of all the varieties of this species. The Niagara is,
without doubt, a valuable grape for market ; it is large
and handsome, and firm enough to bear transportation
without injury to its appearance, and good enough to
satisfy those who are not accustomed to anything better
in the way of a light-colored grape.

Pocklington (Jas. Pocklingtori). — A seedling of
Concord. Bunch large and very compact, slightly

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES.

shouldered. Berries large to very large ; skin pale green,
becoming yellowish-green at maturity, with thin white
bloom. Pulp moderately tough, sweet, with consider-
able f oxiness in both odor and taste. It is not a first-
rate grape, but moderately good. Vine hardy, foliage
large and healthy. Eipening with, or a little before, the
Concord. A handsome grape, which seems to be gain-
ing friends with age.

Salem (Rogers9 No. 53). — Bunch medium to large,
loose, usually shouldered. Berries large, round, skin
thick and tough, dark red ; pulp tough, with some sweet
and sprightly juice. A few years ago this variety was
planted quite extensively in some of the vineyards along
the southern shore of Lake Erie, for wine making, as
well as market, but I am inclined to think its popularity
is on the wane, for I have rarely seen it in market of
late years.

Walter (A. J. Cay wood). — A cross between Dela-
ware and lona. Bunch medium, compact, shouldered.
Berries medium, light red ; pulp tender, sweet, excellent
quality. A very handsome and excellent grape, but the
vine is feeble, and subject to mildew. It is not an im-
provement upon either of its parents, although distinct,
and in some localities may be considered of more value
for wine than as a dessert grape.

Wilder (Rogers' No. 4). — Bunch very, large, com-
pact, shouldered. Berry large, round ; skin thin, black,
liable to crack ; pulp tender, with a sprightly flavor.
Eipens with Concord, and is a good keeper. Vine very
vigorous and hardy, and, unless close pruned, is likely
to over-bear and the bunches and berries fail to reach
their normal size. A good market grape.

Winchell. — See Green Mountain.

Worden (S. Warden). — Seedling of Concord.
Bunch large, compact, not uniformly shouldered. Berry
large to very large ; skin thin, black, with bloom ; pulp

254 THE GKAPE CULTURIST.

tender, moderately sweet, very much like its parent in
flavor and quality. Ripens five to ten days earlier than
Concord. Vine hardy, healthy and productive, and
where best known it is considered equal, if not superior,
to the Concord as a shipping grape.

Wyoming Red (Dr. J. S. Parker). —Bunch
small, compact. Berries medium ; skin bright, coppery
red, thick and tough ; pulp sweet, with considerable fox-
iness, but agreeable to most palates. Very early, and
the vine so hardy, healthy and prolific, that this grape
may be recommended for all localities where the better
varieties fail.

CHAPTER XXII.

NEW, OB LITTLE KNOWN VARIETIES.

Some of the following named varieties may have
been known and cultivated in circumscribed localities,
such as the grounds of the originator, and those of his
neighbors, for a number of years, but this kind of culti-
vation and dissemination does not afford the general
public an opportunity of testing and becoming ac-
quainted with their merits. In many instances those
who produce new varieties hold on to the stock for years,
merely exhibiting the fruit at fairs and meetings of
pomological and kindred societies for the purpose of ob-
taining prizes and a certain amount of free advertising
of the vines, which they expect to offer for sale at some
future time. This is all right, in a business point of
view ; at least, in the opinion of those who practice it ;
but it is sometimes rather discouraging to those who are
seeking only for facts to be placed on record, where
others, seeking information of this kind, may readily
find it.

LITTLE KNOWN VARIETIES. 255

A large number of hybrids and cross-bred varieties
raised by Mr. T. V. Munson, Denison, Tex., are named
in this list ; and while it may be said in a general way
that many of them promise well, still their value, for
either local or general cultivation, is yet to be deter-
mined. The names of several other prominent hybrid-
izers and originators of new varieties are also given, with
brief descriptions of some of their productions, but if
experience counts for anything in grape culture we can-
not suppose, nor is it at all likely, that more than one
out of every ten of the one hundred and sixty varieties
named in the following list will ever become extensively
cultivated or known in the markets of our larger cities.
There certainly cannot be any good reason (beyond that
of pleasing the originator) for describing and recording
the names of several dozen white seedlings of Concord
and Delaware, and an equal or greater number of reds
and blacks of the same or similar parentage, when it
would puzzle the most skillful expert to select, by the
fruit alone, a half dozen really distinct varieties from
among them. If all are equally good and valuable, we
gain nothing by multiplying names, beyond nourishing
our vanity and increasing the size of nurserymen's
catalogues.

Alice (Hyb.).— W. H. Lightfoot, Springfield, 111.
A seedling of Lady Washington, and quite similar to
its parent.

Alma (Hyb.). — J. H. Ricketts. Black, early.
Sparingly cultivated.

Alphonso. — T. Huber, Illinois City, 111. A white
grape, and said to be a seedling of Concord.

Amber. — J. Rommel, Morrison, Mo. A large
amber-colored grape, with oval-shaped berries.

Amber Queen. — N. B. White, Norwood, Mass.
Large, dark amber color, and said to ripen early.

America (Hyb.). — T. V. Munson. Large, black,
a cross between Post Oak and Rupestris.

256 THE GKAPE CULTUBIST.

Annie M. — A chance seedling from Tennessee,
With greenish-white fruit, and claimed to be earlier than
Concord.

August Giant (Hyb.).— N. B. White, Norwood,
Mass. Supposed to be a hybrid between Marion and
Black Hamburg. Fruit large and of a purplish color.
It is doubtful if a variety of such a parentage will prove
to be of any value for open-air cultivation.

Bailey (Hyb.). — Munson. Fruit black, claimed
to be valuable as a wine grape.

Beacon (Hyb.). — Munson. Berries large, and of
a red color.

Bay State. — Origin unknown, or kept secret; said
to be a hybrid. Berries red.

Beagle (Hyb.). — Munson. Bunch and berry
small, or medium ; skin thick and black.

Berckmans (Hyb.). — Raised by the late Dr. A. P.
Wylie, Chester, S. C. Described as of medium size, and
of a pale red color. Dr. Wylie raised a large number of
seedlings, mainly from foreign varieties, several of which
I tested a few years ago, but found none worth culti-
vating here, although they may have proved valuable in
the South.

Berlin. — Raised by Geo. Hosford, Ionia, Mich. A
seedling of Concord, with large greenish-white berries,
ripening about the same time as its parent.

Bertha. — A small white grape from Illinois, of
which little is known.

Bertrand. ^-Originated with Hon. J. B. Jones,
Henderson, Ga. A bluish-black grape of medium size,
very sweet, with a kind of elderberry flavor. Probably
valuable for the South.

Big Extra (Hyb.). — Munson. Large, black, with
tender red pulp.

Big Hope. — Same origin as the last, but berries
only of medium size.

LITTLE KKOWK VARIETIES. 257

Black Delaware. — Jacob Rommel, Missouri.
Said to be similar to its parent, except in color.

Black Herbemont. — Munson. Seedling of the
old Herbemont, and much like it.

Boadicea (Hyb.). — Raised by C. J. Copeley, Sta-
pleton, N". Y., and claimed to be a hybrid between Black
Hamburg and Telegraph. It has a decidedly poor
parentage for a hardy grape.

Boulevard.— Raised by A. Koeth, of Charlotte,
N. Y. From Concord, crossed with Brighton. Fruit
greenish-white ; ripens early.

Brilliant (Hyb.). — Munson. A cross between
Lindley and Delaware. A large, handsome, coppery- red
grape of excellent quality, ripening with the Delaware.
Believed to be one of the best of the Munson hybrids.

Bundy. — Originated with David Bundy, Colerain,
0. A black variety ; seedling of the Concord, but ripens
much earlier than its parent.

Campbell (Hyb.). — Munson. A seedling of Tri-
umph. Bunches large, but berries only medium, and of
a golden yellow color. Ripening before the Delaware.

CanonicuS' — Raised by D. S. Marvin, Watertown,
N. Y. A small pale green variety, ripening with the
Concord.

Carman (Hyb.). — Munson. A hybrid between a
variety of the wild Post Oak grape of Texas and the
Herbemont. The berries are described as large, dark
purple, almost black. In quality similar to Herbemont.
Late in ripening.

Cayuga. — D. S. Marvin. A black variety resem-
bling the Isabella, but it is claimed to be earlier and of
better quality.

Centennial. — Same origin as the above, but of a
yellowish-green color at first, becoming amber when
fully mature. Late, or with Concord.

Chautauqua. — Found in the vineyard of T. H.
17

258 THE GKAPE CULTURIST.

Barhite, Portland, N. Y. Described as almost identical
with Concord, ripening at the same time, but the berries
a little larger.

Clover Street, Black (Hyb.). — Jacob Moore.
Hybrid between Diana, and Black Hamburg. Berries
large and black, and of fine quality, but vine tender and
unhealthy.

Clover Street, Red. — Same origin as the last, but
fruit red.

Cole rain. — D. Bundy. A seedling of Concord,
but of a greenish-white color, of excellent quality, and
ripening early, which seems to be true with nearly all of
the white or light colored seedlings of the Concord.

Colorado. — Supposed to have been raised at Canon
City, Col., but nothing positive is known of its origin or
merits. Probably some old variety under a new name.

Concord Chasselas (Hyb.). — Geo. W. Campbell,
Delaware, 0. A hybrid between Concord and Chasselas.
A light amber-colored fruit, ripening with Concord. A
very poor parentage for a grape to be grown in the open
air in our Northern States.

Concord Muscat (Hyb.). — Campbell. Of doubt-
ful value.

Concordia. — Dr. J. Stayman. A small black
grape, a seedling of Delaware, but ripens much later.

Covert. — Origin unknown, but introduced by N. B.
Covert, Ann Arbor, Mich. A greenish- white grape,
ripening with Concord.

Delawba. — A cross between the Catawba and Del-
aware, raised by Dr. L. C. Chisholm, Springfield, Tenn.
Said to be intermediate between its two parents in size,
flavor and period of ripening.

D'Elboux (Hyb.).— Raised by C. J. Copeley,
by crossing Telegraph with Black Hamburg. A large
black grape, ripening with Hartford Prolific.

Delgoethe (Hyb.). — Munson. Delaware crossed
with Goethe.

LITTLE KNOWN VARIETIES. 259

Delmar (Hyb.). — Munson. Delaware and Martha.

Denison. — Munson. Seedling of Moore's Early.

Detroit. — T. N. Chase, Detroit, Mich. Very
much like Catawba.

Diana Hamburg (Hyb.). — Jacob Moore. This
can scarcely be called a new grape, but it is one that
does not appear to have made many friends away from
home. Too late in ripening, and the vine is tender and
subject to mildew.

Dinkel. — Munson. Seedling of Catawba, and,
from the description, is not as good as its parent.

Dr. Collier (Hyb>). — Munson. Post Oak crossed
with Lindley. Large, dark red.

Dr. Hexamer (Hyb.). — Munson. Post Oak and
Triumph. Large, black.

Dr. Wiley. — Origin unknown. Named by Judge
Samuel Miller. Large, dark red. Vine healthy and
hardy.

Early Dawn (Hyb.).— Raised by Dr. Wm. A. M.
Culbert, Newburgh, N. Y. A black grape, and said to
be a hybrid between Black Hamburg and Isabella. It is
barely possible, but scarcely probable, that a valuable
variety could be produced from such parents.

Early Ohio. — A chance seedling found in the
grounds of N. A. Hunt, Euclid, 0. A medium-sized
black grape, highly extolled by those who are interested
in selling the vines.

Eclipse. — Another chance seedling, parentage un-
known. Fruit greenish- white, ripens with Concord.

Early Victor. — Same origin as the above, but
fruit black; ripening early, or with Hartford. Intro-
duced by Mr. John Burr, of Leavenworth, Kan.

Edmiston. — Originated with D. G. Edmiston,
Adrian, Mich. Seedling of Concord, and resembles its
parent, but described as having a tough skin, and ripen-
ing a few days earlier.

260 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

Elaine. — Seedling of Salem, and introduced by
0. Engle, of Paw Paw, Mich. Red, or color of its
parent.

Elvibach (Hyb.). — Munson. Medium black,
with heavy bloom.

Elvicand (Hyb.). — Munson. A cross of the El-
vira and wild Mustang grape of Texas. Dark red.

Elvira. — A seedling of Taylor, raised by Jacob
Eommel, Missouri. Only valuable for white wine.

Exquisite (Hyb.). — A seedling of Delaware, raised
by Dr. Stayman, and described as resembling its parent
in size, color and quality, but vine very healthy and
vigorous.

Fena. — Eaised by Ludwig Hencke, Collinsville, 111.
Seedling of Jewell ; black.

Fern Munson (Hyb.). — Munson. Parents, Post
Oak and Triumph ; fruit red.

Gilt Edge. — A seedling of Delaware, raised by Dr.
Chisholm. Berry cream color, or buff ; said to have a
banana flavor.

Gold Coin (Hyb.). — Munson. Martha and Cyn-
thiana. Berries medium, and of a dull greenish-yellow
color.

Gold Dust (Hyb.). — Munson. Not yet described.

Golden Berry. — Seedling of Hartford. Raised by
Dr. Culbert, Newburgh, N. Y.

Golden Drop.— Raised by. C. G. Pringle, East
Charlotte, Vt. Supposed to be a cross between Dela-
ware and Adirondac. Small, yellowish-white.

Gov. Ross (Hyb.). — Munson. Large, yellow,
conical berries, with tough skin.

Guinevra. — Raised by C. Engle, from seed of the
Salem. Very long, compact bunches, with whitish-col-
ored berries. Said to be better than Niagara.

Harrison. — Raised by Isaac Staples, Dayton, 0.
Supposed to be a seedling of Concord. Fruit medium
size, red, and fine flavor.

LITTLE KNOWtf VARIETIES. 261

Hattie. — A chance seedling found by J. A. Put-
nam, Fredonia, N. Y. Resembles Concord, but claimed
to be better in quality, and ripening much earlier.

Herman Jaegar (Hyb.). — Munson. Parentage a
wild Texas grape and Herbemont. Berry medium, dark
purple ; may prove a valuable grape for the South.

Honey. — C. Engle. Seedling of Salem. Bunch
medium ; berry large, white, and very sweet.

Hopecon. — D. S. Marvin. Bunch and berry me-
dium ; pale green, rather late1 in ripening.

Hosford. — Parentage unknown, but raised by Geo.
Hosford, Ionia, Mich. Bunch and berry large; color
blue-black, and ripens a few days earlier than Concord.

Husmann (Hyb.). — Munson. A large black
grape of excellent quality, ripening a week later than
Concord.

Ideal. — Raised by John Burr, from seed of Dela-
ware. Said to resemble its parent, but larger, and
ripens later, or about with Concord.

Jaeger's Seedlings. — A large number of varieties
raised by Mr. Herman Jaeger, Neosho, Mo., are now on
trial in the grounds of the originator, who deserves
much credit for thoroughly testing before naming and
distributing them.

Jewell. — John Burr. A medium black grape of
excellent quality, ripening early. Supposed to be a seed-
ling of Delaware. It has an excellent reputation in
Kansas, where it originated.

Jumbo. — Origin unknown, but introduced by Mrs.
R. Rose, of Marlboro, N. Y. Bunch and berry very
large, blue-black with fine bloom. Ripens a little earlier
than Concord. A very handsome and promising grape.

Juno (Hyb.). — Campbell. A large and handsome
black grape, unfit for vineyard culture, but may succeed
with and please amateurs, who have sheltered gardens.

Keystone. — Origin unknown, but found in the

262 THE GRAPE CULTTJRIST.

grounds of John Kready, near Mt. Joy, Pa. Resembles
Concord, but the skin being tougher, it is a better keeper.

Laughlin. — A chance seedling found by W. E.
Laughlin, College Springs, Iowa. Bunch and berry
medium ; color light green or white. Probably another
albino from the Concord.

Leader. — Raised by B. F. Merriman, and is very
near or much like Niagara.

Leavenworth. — Another white seedling from Con-
cord, raised at Leavenworth, Kan.

Lightfoot. — Seedling of Niagara, raised by W. H.
Lightfoot, Springfield, 111. Described as similar to its
parent, with a tougher skin, and no foxiness.

Linilva. — Munson. A cross between Lindley and
Elvira,

Linherb (Hyb.). — Munson. A cross, or hybrid,
between Herbemont and Lindley.

Linmar. — Munson. A cross between Martha and
Lindley.

Louise. — Roenbeck's. Large white, claimed to be
a good table grape.

Lucile. — J. A. Putnam, Fredonia, N. Y. Seed-
ling of Wyoming Red, and claimed to be larger and bet-
ter than its parent.

Mabel. — A. J. Caywood. Seedling of Walter, but
black ; not large enough to be useful for market.

Madeline. — A large greenish-white grape raised by
G. Henderson, Eddyville, N. Y.

Magee. — Origin unknown; introduced by J. E.
Anthony, Watkins, N. Y. Described as a bronzy green
with a purplish tinge.

Magnate. — Seedling of Concord, raised in Kansas,
and, as usual with such seedlings, of better quality than
its parent.

Mansfield. — Pringle. Seedling of Concord, and,
from description, it must be very much like its parent

LITTLE KNOWN VARIETIES. 263

Marguerite (Hyb.). — Munson. Post Oak and
Herbemont. Medium, and of a purple color.

Marguerite. — Another white seedling of Concord,
raised by T. Hubert, Illinois City, 111.

Marie Louise. — Same origin as the last, and sim-
ilar in color.

Mary Mark.— Dr. Stayman. Medium, red; sup-
posed to be seedling of Delaware.

Mary's Favorite.— J. F. Coffin, Westland, Ind.
A small black grape with bluish bloom. Ripens late.

Mason. — Raised by Mr. B. Mason, Mascoutah, 111.
White ; seedling of Concord, ripening at the same season.

Matchless. — Origin unknown, but introduced by
John Burr. Large, black, of good quality, ripening
early.

Mathilde. — G. A. Ensengberger, Bloomington, 111.
Large, dark red.

Mendota. — John Burr. Medium, black; said to
keep well.

Michigan. — E. Engle. A seedling of Salem, but
of a greenish- white color.

Mills (Hyb.). — Large, black, and a hybrid between
Black Hamburg and Creveling. Raised by Wm. H.
Mills, of Hamilton, Ont. Ripens late, and is a good
keeper.

Mineola (Hyb.). — C. J. Copely. A large white
grape, claimed to be a hybrid between Telegraph and
Chasselas Musque.

Missouri Riesling. — A small, late, pale red grape,
valuable for wine in Missouri.

Monroe. — Raised by Ellwanger & Barry, Roches-
ter, N. Y. Supposed to be a cross between Delaware
and Concord. An early, medium sized black grape, very
near Hartford Prolific.

Mrs. Munson. — Munson. A purple grape, raised
by crossing Neosho with Herbemont. It cannot possibly
be of any value in the North,

264 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

Mrs. Stayman. — Dr. Stayman. Seedling of Del-
aware, of same color, but bunch and berry larger, or
nearer Catawba in size and season of ripening.

Muench. — Munson. Another cross between Ne-
osho and Herbemont. Ifc may succeed in the South.

Nectar. — Caywood. Said to be a cross between
Concord and Delaware. Black, of medium size, and of
excellent quality.

Neva Munson. — Munson. A cross between Ne-
osho and Herbemont. Berries large, black.

Nina. — Eaised by C. H. Woodruff, Ann Arbor,
Mich. Seedling of Diana, and similar in size and color,
but said to ripen earlier than its parent.

Norwood. — Introduced by T. B. White, Norwood,
Mass. Described as resembling Concord, but clusters
and berries a little larger, and ripening somewhat earlier.

Obed. — A chance seedling found in Illinois. Berry
and bunch medium ; greenish- white with delicate bloom.

Omega. — J. Burr. A very large red grape, de-
scribed as of excellent quality, and the vine hardy and
prolific in the W^est.

Onderdonk. — Munson. A large bunch, but small
white berries. It may be worth cultivation in the South.

Oneida. — Seedling of Agawam (Rogers' No. 15).
Similar in size and color, but claimed to be a better grape.

Opal. — Munson. Bunch medium. Berries de-
scribed as large, and of a yellowish color. Seedling of
Lindley.

Oriole (Hyb.). — Munson. Small, black; vine
tender. Recommended only for the South.

Orphan Boy. — Supposed to be a cross between
Delaware and Wilder, but as described, it is very much
like Concord.

Osceola.— Dr. J. Stayman. A large white grape;
said to ripen early.

Oskaloosa. — Dr. Stayman. Medium size, black.
Supposed to be a seedling of Delaware.

LITTLE KNOWtf VARIETIES. 265

Ozark. — Dr. Stayman. A very large black grape
of unknown parentage.

Paragon. — John Burr. A large black grape, ripen-
ing with Concord, but claimed to be of better quality.

Paragon (Hyb.). — C. J. Copely. A large purple
grape, and a hybrid between Black Hamburg and Tele-
graph. It may thrive in protected gardens, but scarcely
in the open vineyard.

Pearl. — J. Rommel. Bunch and berry medium;
pale yellowish white ; vine described as hardy and pro-
ductive in Missouri.

Peola. — John Burr. A black grape of medium
size, and claimed to be a fine dessert fruit in Kansas.

Perfection. — Dr. Sfcayman. Said to be a seedling
of Delaware, but larger. The originator claims that it
is the best red grape in Kansas.

Perry (Hyb.). — Munson. A small purple grape;
for the South only.

Pierce. — Claimed to be a sport of the Isabella,
found on a vine in the grounds of J. P. Pierce, Santa
Clara, Cal. The berries and bunches much larger than
Isabella, and berries round instead of oval, as on the
parent vine. Such sports are not uncommon in all vine-
yards, but they are seldom noticed and preserved.

Prairie State. — A white grape, said to be a seed-
ling of Martha, and better than its parent. Raised by
J. Christian, Mount Carroll, 111.

Primate. — A late red grape, introduced by John
Burr. Very much like Catawba.

Prof. Hilyard (Hyb.). — Munson. Post Oak and
Herbemont. Medium, purple.

Profitable (Hyb.). — Munson. Large, pale red;
berry slightly oblong.

Pulpless. — C. Engle. — Large, oval, black; ripens
with Concord.

Purity. — Campbell. Medium, white, and claimed
to be better than Delaware, and a strong, healthy grower.

266 THE GRAPE CULTUBIST.

Reagan (Hyb.). — Munson. Large clusters, with
medium size black berries.

Red Bird. — Munson. A cross between Champion
and Lindley. Dark red.

Red Eagle. (Hyb.). — Munson. Seedling of Black
Eagle ; dark red.

Reliance.— J. G. Burrows, Fishkill, N. Y. A
cross between Delaware and Ion a. Described as a vigor-
ous grower, with large, healthy foliage. Fruit resembles
Delaware, but larger.

Rochester. — Ellwanger & Barry; parentage un-
known. Large bunch, medium berry, black. Very
productive, and the fruit excellent as grown at Eochester.

Rockland Favorite. — Ellwanger & Barry. Seed-
ling of Concord, and very much like it.

Roenbeck. — Found in the grounds of Jas. W.
Trask, Bergen, "N. J. ; origin unknown. Fruit pale
green, and of medium size.

Rommel (Hyb.). — Munson. A medium size berry
and large clusters. Yellowish white, and it is thought
that the vine will prove hardy in the North.

Roswither. — L. Hencke, Collins ville, 111. A dark
purplish grape of medium size, ripening before the
Concord.

Rotent. — Seedling of Pocklington, and closely re-
sembling its parent. Eaised by C. F. Eotent, Put-in-
Bay, 0.

Superb. — Southern origin, and said to be a seed-
ling of Eumelan, and of the same color (black). Eaised
by A. F. Eice, Griswold ville, Ga.

Superior. — John Burr. Seedling of Jewell. Black.

Supreme. — John Burr. Same origin as the last,
and same color.

Triumph (Hyb.). — Campbell. A hybrid between

LITTLE KNOWN VARIETIES. 267

Concord and Chasselas Musque. Large, white, said to
succeed well in the South.

Ulster Prolific. — A. J. Caywood. Bunch and
berry medium, red, sweet ; ripens with Concord. Vine
hardy and prolific.

Undine. — Ricketts. A large, pale green grape,
recommended for the South only.

Vergennes. — Introduced by Wm. E. Green, Ver-
gennes, Vt. A large red grape, with medium size
bunch ; rarely with shoulder. Skin very thick and
firm ; pulp sweet and juicy. Will probably become a
profitable market grape.

Vinita. (Hyb.). — Munson. Same parentage as
the Perry. Small, purple.

Watertown. — D. S. Marvin. Medium, greenish-
white ; sweet and good.

Wells.— C. I. Roberts, Butler, Mo. Described as
a large, dark wine-colored fruit, adhering to the bunch
long after it is fully ripe. A little later than Concord.

White Ann Arbor. — This is another of the many
hundred white grapes raised from Concord seed, ripen-
ing earlier than its parent.

White Beauty. — A seedling of Duchess, of same
color, but said to be healthy and prolific in Kansas.
Raised by Dr. Stayman.

Whit£ Cloud. — Same origin as the last, and of
same color.

White Imperial. — This is another seedling of
Duchess raised by Dr. Stayman, and much prized by the
originator for its good quality, and productiveness of
the vine.

White Jewell. — Seedling of Elvira, by Dr. Stay-
man, and claimed to be very early, and one of the best
white grapes in Kansas.

268 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

Witt. — Seedling of Concord; large, white, and
described as one of the very best of its kind.

Woodbury White. — Introduced by David B.
Woodbury, Paris, Me. In growth of vine it is said to
resemble the Delaware, but berries are white, and as
large as those of the Concord

CHAPTER XXIII.

OLD, OBSOLETE, AND INFERIOR VARIETIES.

As the new varieties are introduced and become
known, the inferior among the older ones are very likely
to be crowded out of cultivation, although an occasional
vine may remain in old gardens, or be retained in vine-
yards for the purpose of comparison with the newer pro-
ductions. Many such old acquaintances, and perhaps
some local favorites, will be found in the following list,
and a few of these are still growing in my own grounds,
as relics of more than one hundred similar varieties long
since cremated. There are also a number of varieties
named in this list which may be considered of some value
for wine, and they will be noted, but as this work is not
intended as "a wine-maker's manual," I have paid very
little attention to grapes recommended only for wine.
I have also purposely placed here many varieties which
are not sufficiently distinct to make them worthy of pres-
ervation, except in the grounds of those who pride them-
selves upon the number of names recorded in their private
or published lists of grapes. If a man has almost any
four of Rogers' hybrids in cultivation, he possesses all
that is specially valuable in the twenty or more originally
disseminated, and this is equally true of several other

OBSOLETE AND INFERIOR VARIETIES. 269

collections which have been distributed in years past as
well as those likely to be, in years to come.

Adelaide. — Eicketts. Hybrid, black; vine un-
healthy.

Adeline. — Miner. White; obsolete.

Adirondac. — Proved to be Isabella.

Advance. — Eicketts. Hybrid, black ; worthless.

Aiken. — Seedling of Isabella ; now lost.

Albert. — Huber. Black ; too near Concord.

Albino. — J. B. Garber. White ; now obsolete.

Aledo. — B. F. Stringer. Greenish - white ; poor
quality.

Alexander. — Old wild, black, fox grape.

Allair. — Large, red, wild, fox grape.

Alnez or Hagar. — Small, black; worthless.

Amanda. — Black, wild, fox grape.

Aminia. — Eogers' No. 39 ; not sufficiently distinct
from Barry.

Andover. — Black fox ; worthless.

Anna. — Hasbrouch. Late white; no value.

Archer. — White ; too late for the North.

Ariadne. — Eicketts. Small, black ; worthless.

Arkansas. — Southern. Doubtful if it can now be
identified.

Arnold's Hybrids. — Eaised by the late Chas.
Arnold, Paris, Ont. Introduced some thirty years ago
under various names ; but all are worthless here in the
Northern States.

Arrot. — White ; and too near like Cassidy.

Aughwick. — Small, late, black; very acid.

August Pioneer. — An old, black, fox grape.

Autuchen. — Arnold. Greenish-white; vine tender.

Baldwin's Lenoir. — Black; no special value.

Barnes. — An old, black grape; out of cultivation.

Baroness. — Similar to Moore's Early.

Baxter. — Black, very acid; worthless.

270 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

Belinda. — Miner. Not distinct from Ida.

Belvidere. — Too much like Hartford.

Benjamin. — Eesembles and ripens with Concord.

Berks or Lehigh. — Only a Catawba.

Bird's Egg. — White or spotted ; doubtful.

Black Defiance. — S. W. Underbill. Of no special
value.

Black Eagle. — Same origin as the last, and
worthless.

Black Hawk. — Probably out of cultivation.

Black Imperial. — An old, black, fox grape ; but
this name has recently been appropriated by Dr. Stay-
man for one of his new varieties.

Black King. — From Pa. ; is Clinton.

Black Maderia. — See Alexander.

Blackstone. — An early, black, fox grape; worfch-

Black Taylor. — May be valuable in the South, but
very doubtful.

Bland. — Southern. Small, pale green ; obsolete,
and the same is true of several other varieties which
Col. Bland introduced many years ago.

Blood's Black. — And Blood's white. Both wild,
fox grapes ; of no value.

Blue Favorite. — Southern. Said to be a good
wine grape.

Boadicea. — Miner. Doubtful if now known.

Bottsi. — Southern. Probably Herbemont.

Brackett's Seedling. — Proved to be Isabella.

Brandy wine. — A white grape; a seedling of some
foreign variety.

Brinckle. — Raised by Peter Eaabe. A seedling of
foreign ; black and worthless.

Brown. — Too much like its parent, the Isabella.

Burroughs. — Too much like the Clinton.

Burton's Early. — Wild, fox grape.

OBSOLETE AND INFERIOR VARIETIES. 271

Cambridge. — Not distinct from Concord.

Camden. — A white fox grape of no value.

Canada. — One of Arnold's hybrids; not valuable.

Canada Wine. — A wild frost grape; no value.

Canby's August. — Black; worthless.

Carlotta. — Miner. White ; like Augusta.

Carter. — Black, and a slight advance upon the wild
grape.

Carpenter. — A supposed hybrid, now obsolete.

Catawissa. — See Creveling.

Charlotte. — Eesembles Diana; probably lost.

Charter Oak. — Large, worthless, fox grape.

Chippewa. — Named but not disseminated ; black.

Christina. — A large, black, fox grape ; obsolete.

Clara. — A seedling of Vinifera ; white, no value.

Claret. — The grape known to me under this name
is much like Clinton, but there is said to be another of a
claret color, but of no value.

Clarke. — A red grape from Washington, D. C.; of
no special value.

Clinton. — Old and well known frost grape; some-
times cultivated in the North for wine.

Cloantha. — Black; seedling of Isabella, but more
foxy.

Cornucopia. — Arnold. Black, acid ; worthless.

Cotoctin. — An old, white grape, now unknown.

Cowan. — Very old; black, obsolete.

Creveling. — Old, black grape; probably obsolete.

Croton. — A white, hybrid variety raised by S. W.
Under hill, but the vine is tender and subject to mildew ;
no value.

Cunningham. — Small, blue-black; valuable for
wine in the South.

Cuyahoga. — A white grape from Ohio, which has
been superseded by larger and better varieties.

Don Juan. — Ricketts. Large, dark red, probably
not disseminated*

272 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

Dorinda. — Seedling of Rebecca, and worthless.

Dorr Seedling. — Seedling of Delaware ; discarded.

Downing. — Eicketts. A cross between two foreign
varieties, and worthless for vineyard culture.

Dracut Amber. — Wild, red ; fox, or seedling
therefrom.

Dunn. — From Texas; of the Herbermont type;
tender in the North.

Early Dawn. — Black ; early, but the vine is very
feeble.

Eldorado. — Ricketts. Vine subject to disease and
not very hardy.

Elsingburg. — Very small, late, black; of little
value.

Essex. — Rogers' No. 41. Rarely cultivated.

Eugenia. — Miner. Very much like Augusta.

Eumelan. — Medium black; vine unhealthy, but is
said to thrive in the South.

Eureka. — W. R. Prince. Proved to be Diana.

Eureka. — D. H. Bogue. Very like Isabella.

Ewing. — From Missouri ; too near Isabella.

Faith. — Early white; excellent in Missouri.

Fancher. — T. B. Fancher. The old Catawba.

Fisk. — J. T. Allen, Salem, Mass. Rejected.

Florence. — Said to resemble Hartford, but inferior.

Flowers. — One of the many local names of the wild
Scupper nong grape of the South.

Framingham. — Synonym of Hartford Prolific.

Franklin. — Miner. Black seedling of Concord,
but inferior to its parent.

Gsertner. — Rogers. Red; doubtful if now to be
found in cultivation.

Garnet. — Dr. Wylie. Of no value in the North.

Gazelle. — Ricketts. White; probably lost.

Gerber. — Dr. Wylie. Medium black; of no value.

Golden Clinton. — An old, and worthless variety.

OBSOLETE AND INFERIOR VARIETIES. 273

Golden Concord. — "White; very much like, but
inferior to Martha.

Graham. — Black ; probably not in cultivation.

Grains' Golden. — Of little or no value here.

Harrison. — Black ; very late, not valuable.

Harwood. — From Texas. May succeed in the
South.

Herbert. — Eogers' No. 44. Near to, but no better
vthan Barry and Aminia.

Hermann. — Small, black; a good wine grape in
the South.

Herbemont. — An old, and well known wine grape
in the South.

Highland. — Eicketts. Large, black; ripens very
late.

Imperial. — Kicketts. White; large but late.

Israella. — Dr. 0. W. Grant. Medium, black ; vine
unhealthy.

Irving. — Underbill. Black ; vine feeble, worthless.

Irving. — October. Late, wild, red, fox grape.

Ives. — Henry Ives. Very near Hartford Prolific.

Jacques. — Synonym of Lenoir.

James. — A variety of the Scuppernong.

Jennie May. — John Laws. Probably Concord.

Kalamazoo. — Dixon. As described, near Catawba.

Kalista. — J. Sacksteder. Very like Delaware.

Kay's Seedling. — Probably Herbemont.

Kendall. — Very near, if not, Isabella.

Kilmington. — Not now known by this name.

Kingsessing. — Pale red, wild, fox grape.

Kramer's Seedling. — 0 Kramer. Probably Con
cord.

Lacrissa. — Sacksteder. Wh?te > seedling of Dela-
ware.

Lady Charlotte. — Pringle. White; scarcely
known in cultivation.
13

274 THE GBAPE CULTURIST.

Lawrence. — Dr. Fay. Similar, but inferior to
Concord.

Lenoir.— Small, blue-black; Southern wine grape,

Lexington. — Miner. Black ; not in cultivation.

Lincoln. — Small, black ; Southern wine grape.

Linden. — Miner. Medium, black ; worthless.

Lindley. — Kogers' No. 9. Large, red ; said to be a
fine grape in the South.

Logan. — An old, black grape, of no value.

Lorain. — Similar to above ; never disseminated.

Louisiana. — Southern wine grape.

Luna. — Too near Martha, if not identical.

Lutie. — Seedling of wild, red, fox gra}>e.

Lydia. — Chas. Carpenter. White; of little value.

Lyman. — Small, black ; much like Clinton.

Lyons. — Red, and very near Catawba.

Manhattan. — Medium size, wild, white, fox grape.

Mammoth Sage. — Large, red, fox grape.

Marsala.-— A red fox grape of little value.

Marion. — An old, black variety ; obsolete.

Mary Ann. — J. B. Garber. Black ; now unknown.

Mary. — Carpenter. White; long since discarded.

Mary Wylie. — Dr. Wylie. Worthless except in
the South.

Massasoit. — Rogers' No. 3. Too near Salem and
Lindley, but neither worse nor better.

Maxatawney. — Small, pale yellow, and worthless.

Maclure. — Peter Wylie. Small, white; of no
special value.

Meade's Seedling. — Synonym of Catawba.

Medora. — Small, white ; may succeed in the South.

Merrimac.— Rogers' No. 19. Too much like
Wilder, or Rogers' No. 4.

Metternich. — Caywood. Small, black; vino
unhealthy.

Minnehaha. — Seedling of some foreign variety.

OBSOLETE AND INFERIOR VARIETIES. 275

Mottled. — Carpenter. Long since discarded.

Naomi . — Eicketts. Large, pale red ; vine unhealthy.

Nebraska. — Wilding. See page 104.

Neosha. — Wilding. From Missouri; good for
wine.

Neverfail. — Black, and very late.

Newark. — Medium black; subject to rot and
mildew.

Newburg. — Kicketts. Of doubtful value.

New Haven. — Too near Concord to be retained.

Noah. — Small, greenish-white; of no special value.

Nonantum. — Francis Dana. Very like Isabella.

North America. — Wild, black, fox grape.

North Carolina. — Very close to Isabella.

Northern Muscadine. — Wild, red, fox grape.

Norton's Virginia. — Southern. Sparingly culti-
vated for wine.

Oberon. — Campbell. Black ; vine tender.

Ohio. — Red ; and probably now unknown.

Old Ford. — A wild, red grape from N. 0.

Onondaga. — Very close to Delaware.

Ontario. — Same as Union Village.

Oporto. — Old, and worthless native variety.

Oriental. — Not sufficiently distinct to be preserved.

Osage. — Origin and merits in doubt.

Osee. — White ; recommended for wine only.

Othello. — Arnals' Hybrid. Black ; very late

Pauline. — Similar to Lenoir and Lincoln.

Pauline. — Miner. Similar to Antoinette; white.

Peabody. — Ricketts' Hybrid. May be valuable
South.

Pearson's Ironclad. — A. W. Pearson. Excellent
for wine.

Perkins. — Old, red, fox grape ; worthless.

Peter Wylie. — Dr. Wylie. Small, white ; foreign
parentage, succeeds best in the South.

276 THE GRAPE CULTUBIST.

Pizzaro.— Ricketts. Eecommended for red wine.

Pollock. — Purplish black; seedling of foreign
species, and worthless.

Progress. — Much like Catawba, but not as good.

Putnam. — Ricketts. Of this variety little is known.

Quassaic. — Ricketts. Of doubtful value.

Raabe. — Peter Raabe. Small, red ; worthless.

Racine. — Small, black; Southern; unproductive.

Rariton.— Ricketts. Recommended for wine only.

Rachel. — Small, white ; probably obsolete.

Rebecca. — E. M. Peake. White ; vine unhealthy

Red Shepherd. — Small, red ; discarded.

Rentz. — S. Rentz. Large, black ; rejected.

Requa. — Rogers' No. 28. Red; unreliable.

Rockinham. — Miner. Medium, black ; worthless.

Rockwood. — E. W. Bull. Inferior to Concord.

Rulander. — A Southern wine grape.

Sanasqua. — Underbill. Purplish- black; unreliable.

Saratoga. — Proved to be Catawba.

Secretary. — Ricketts. Large, black, acid ; scarcely
edible, and vine unhealthy.

Selma. — Black ; recommended for red wine.

Seneca. — Seedling of Hartford, and of no value.

Sharon. — Too much like Isabella.

St. Catharine. — J. W. Clark. Seedling of wild,
red, fox grape, and of no value.

Storm King. — E. P. Roe. Very near if not iden-
tical with Concord.

Taylor. — Small, white, and worthless.

Telegraph. — An old, early, black grape; near
Hartford.

Theodosia. — E. S. Salisbury. Small, black ; like
Clinton.

Thomas. — A variety of the Scuppernong. Valua-
ble in the South.

To Kalon. — Large, purplish black; long since
discarded.

OBSOLETE AND INFERIOR VARIETIES. 277

Transparent. — Seedling of Taylor; for wine only.

Uhland. — Greenish-yellow, similar to Taylor.

Underbill.— Dr. A. K. Underbill Wild, red, fox
grape.

Union Village. — Late, black; of no special value.

Urbana. — Seedling of Concord; yellowish-white,
late.

Venongo. — An old, red, fox grape; long since
discarded.

Victoria. — Miner. Very like Antoinette.

Waverly. — Ricketts. Black ; very acid and late.

"White Catawba. — J. E. Mottier. Long since
discarded.

White Delaware. — Of these there are a great
number, but I have yet to see one worth cultivating.

Wilmington. — Greenish-white ; old and discarded.

Yeddo. — From Japan, and of no value.

York Maderia. — An old, black grape; long since
discarded.

Young America. — Miller. Very much like Con-
cord.

CHRONOLOGICAL CATALOGUE
OF

WORKS ON GRAPE CULTURE.

PUBLISHED IN THE UNITED STATES, WITH DATE AND PLACE
OF ^UBLICATION, AND NAMES OF AUTHORS.

1823 — A Memoir on the Cultivation of the Vine. By John
Adlum, Washington, D. C.

1826. — The American Vinedresser's Guide. John James

Dufour, Cincinnati, Ohio.

1827. — The American Vinedresser's Guide. Alphonse Lou-

bat, N. Y.
1829. — Vinedresser's Theoretical and Practical Manual. The"a-

baut de Berneaud (translated from the French),

New York.
1830 — American Manual of the Grape Vine. C. S. Rafinesque,

Philadelphia.

1830. — Treatise on the Vine. William R. Prince, New York.
1834. — Observations on the European Vine. S. I. Fisher,

Philadelphia.
1837. — Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine.

Clement Hoare (reprint from the English edition),

Boston.
1846. — Cultivation of American Grape Vines. Alden Spooner,

Brooklyn, N. Y.

1848. — Grapes and Wine. James Busby, New York.
1852. — Culture of the Grape. Robert Buchanan, Cincinnati,

Ohio.
1852. — American Grape Grower's Guide. William Chorlton,

New York.

1853.— The Cold Grapery. William Chorlton, New York.
1853. — A Practical Treatise on the Culture of the Grape Vine.

J. Fiske Allen, New York.
1854 A Rough Sketch of the Renewal System of Pruning

Grape Vines. William Martin, Sr., Pittsburg, Pa.

278

WORKS OK GRAPE CULTURE. 279

1855 — The Vine; its Culture in the United States. R. H.

Phelps, Hartford, Conn.
1856. — A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Grape

Vines. James Suydam, Brooklyn, N. Y.

1856. — New Process of the Culture of the Vine. Persoz (trans-
lated by J. O'C. Barclay), New York.

1859. — Vinedresser's Manual. Charles Reemelin, New York.
1859. — Grape Culture. H. De Caradeuc, Augusta, Georgia.
I860. — An Essay on Grape Culture. By George Husmann, St.

Louis, Mo.
I860. — Both Sides of the Grape Question. William Saunders,

Philadelphia.

I860.— Bright on the Grape. William Bright, Philadelphia.
1862. — Open Air Grape Culture. John Phin, New York.
1863.— Our Hardy Grapes. J. M. Knowlton, New York.
1863. — An Essay on the Culture of the Grape. George Hus-
mann, Hermann, Mo.
1863 — Grape Culture and Wine Making. A. Haraszthy, New

York.

1864.— The Grape Culturist. A. S. Fuller, New York.
1865. — Grape Culture in Steuben Co. Hon. G. Dennison,

Prattsburg, N. Y. Prize Essay for the N. Y. State

Agricultural Society.
1866 — The Canada Vine Grower. By J. M. De Courtenay,

Toronto.
1866 My Vineyard at LakeviUe. By A Western Grape

Grower, New York.
1866 — Grapes and Wine. George Husmann, Hermann, Mo.

New York.

1866 — Manual of the Vine. C. W. Grant, lona, N. Y.
1866. — Essay on Grape Culture and Wine Making. B. D.

Reddington, Rockland, Iowa.
1866 — Essay on a New System of Grape Culture. Dr. H.

Schroeder, Bloomington, 111.
1866 — Culture of the Grape. W. C. Strong, Brighton, Mass.

Boston.
1867 — Hand Book of Grape Culture. T. Hart Hyatt, San

Francisco, Cal.
1867. — The Grape Vine. By Frederick Mohr (translated by

Prof. Charles Siedhof), New York.
1867 — Vineyard Culture. By Du Breul, with notes by Dr.

John A. Warder, Cincinnati, Ohio.
1867. — An Elementary Treatise on American Grape Culture.

By Peter B. Meade, New York.
1867 — The Champagne County. By Robert Tomes, New York.

280 THE GRAPE CULTURIST.

1868 — The Wine Maker's Manual. By Charles Reemelin,
Cincinnati, Ohio.

1868. — Rudiments of Grape Culture. By John R. Eakin,
Little Rock, Ark.

1869. — Three seasons in European Vineyards. By Wilson J.
Flagg, New York.

1877 — Various Experiments with Grapes. By George Haskell,
Ipswich, Mass.

1880 — Report upon Statistics of Grape Culture and Wine
Production. By Wm. McMurtie, Ph. D., Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

1881. — First Annual Report of the Board of the State Viticul-
tural Commissioners of California, San Francisco, Cal.
The second report of the same, 1882 ; the third, 1884 ;
and others at intervals down to the present time.

1886. — Report on the Fungus Diseases of the Vine. By Lam-
son Scribner, Department of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, D. C.

1888. — Report on the Experiments made in 1887, in the Treat-
ment of the Downy Mildew and Black Rot of the
Grape Vine. B. F. Lamson Scribner, Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

1890. — Classification and Generic Synopsis of the Wild Grapes
of North America. By T. V. Munson, Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

1891. — Fungus Diseases of the Grape, and their Treatment.
By B. T. Gallaway, IT. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

1893 — Our Native Grapes. Grapes and their Culture. Pub-
lished by C. Mitzky & Co., Rochester, N. Y.

1893. — American Grape Training. By L. H. Bailey, New
York.

1893.— Practical Treatise on Grape Culture. By J. H. Tryon,
Willoughby, Ohio.

INDEX

PAGE

Abbot sphinx 218

Acheruon sphinx , .... 218

Adventitious bads , 112

Alternate renewal system 180

Al ypia octomaculata 220

Ammoniacal solutions 236

Anthracnose 234

Application of remedies 237

A single-roofed house 46

Bagging grapes 195

Black rot 234

Blue caterpillars 219

Bine flea beetle 208

Books on grape culture 278

Borders and drains 158

Bordeaux mixture 236

Botanical characteristics 3

Bow system 190

Bright's dwarf renewal system 177

Broad-necked prioiius 211

Brown rot 233

Buds 112

Buck pruning 171

Bxick pruning 185

Bunch with shoulder Ill

Butterflies 204

California prionus 212

Callus on cuttings 57

Caterpillars 212

Cecropia moth 218

Chaerocampa pampinatrix 218

Classification of the grape 9

" of species 3

Copper sulphate 236

Coleoptera 204

Cork dust for packing 198

Cotalpa lanigera 209

Cottony maple-scale 224

Cross fertilizing 79

Cuttings in the open air 48

" in pots 39

Dactyl opius adonidum 224

Description of varieties 239

Desmia maculalis 213

Diseases of the grape 231

Double buds 112

" stem vine 166

Downy mildew 233

PAGB

Eau celeste 237

Eight-spotted forester 220

Entomological works 206

Eudryas grata 219

" unio 220

Fan system of training 169

Fldia viticida 210

Form of berries 242

" of cuttings 49

" of leaves 103

" of single bud cutting 33

Four tiers of arms 162

Fox grape 6

Frost grape 7

Fungus diseases 231

Garden culture 156

Gathering the fruit 196

German bow system 186

Girdling the vine 173

Goat's beard spiraea 208

Goldsmith beetle 210

Grafting machines 73

" the grape 63

Grape cane curculio 211

Grapevine fidia 210

Grape leaf folder 213

" " louse 226

" root borer 211

" trellises 120

Grapevine plume 213

Graptodera chalybea 208

Growing from seed 15

Gray rot 233

Heeling-in 88

Hemiptera 204

Herbaceous grafting 73

Hog caterpillar 218

Honey-bees and grapes 205

Hotbeds , 31

How to layer vines 59

" " plant out 84

Husmann's bow system 190

Hybridizing and crossing 74

Hymenoptera 205

Inarching vines 72

Inferior varieties 266

Insect enemies 203

Implements for the vineyard.. 201

281

282

INDEX.

PAGE

Kniffm's system 192

Lady bug, or beetle 222

Lses tadia Bidwellii 234

Layering the vine 58

Leaf hopper 221

Lean-to propagating house 45

Leaves, forms of 103

Lepidoptera 204 ,

Long rod system 183 ]

Long spurs «n vines 140 ]

Malaga grape 198 1

Mallet cuttings 55

Manures 97 I

Mealy bug 224

Method of applying remedies . . 238

Munsoii's renewal system 181

Nebraska grape 105

New and little known varieties 254

Oblique arms 150

Old and obsolete varieties 269

One arm vine 161

Opposite arms 147

Pearl wood nymph 220

Pelidnota punctata 209

Pemphigus vitifolia 226

Persian insect powder 222

Peroiiospora viticola 233

Philampelus Achemon 218

" Satellitia 216

Phylloxera vastatrix 226

Pinching laterals 85

Planting cuttings 51

" in beds 26

" the vines 114

Platysamia Cecropia 218

Portion of vine with tendril.... 109

Post oak grape 108

Position of border 160

Powdery mildew 233

Preparing the soil 94

Procris Americana 220

Propagation from seed . . 12

Pruning and training 125

Pruning shears 201

Pterophorus, perisceUdactylus 213

Pulvinaria innumerabilis 225

Red spider 222

Renewal systems 181

Remedies and the preparation 236

Removing the leaves 174

" the anthers 79

Reversing the arms 186

Ricketts' hybrids 240

River grape 5

Rogers' hybrids 240

Root pruning 115

Rose chafer 207

Ruben's system 189

PAGE
Sand for cuttings 23

Scuppernong grape 106

Selection of cuttings 49

Short spurs on vines 139

Single arm system 185

" buds 22

" " in open air 27

Spseceloma ampelinum 2b4

Special manures loo

Sphinx moths 214

Sphingidse 214

Spilosoma Virgiiiica 214

Spiraeas 208

Splice grafting 71

Soil and situation 89

Southern fox grape 8

Spotted pelidnota 209

Starting in hotbeds 28

Stem appendages 102

Structure of flowers. 13

Summer grape 6

Tendrils 110

Tetranychus telarius 222

The American procris 220

beautiful wood nymph — ^19

fan system 193

Kniffin system 194

grape curculio 210

leaf folder 213

oporto grape leaf 104

" satelite sphinx 216

" yellow bear 214

Thick-leaved grape 5

Thinning the fruit 194

Thomery syst em 183

Three-bud cuttings 50

Thrips, aphis and scales 221

Thyreus Abbotii 218

Tile-horned prlonus 211

Time to make cuttings 49

" to prune vines 123

Training to stakes 167

" vines in gardens 160

Transplanting 81

Trellises in gardens 166

Two-bud cuttings 50

Uncinula spiralis 2.°3

Varieties little known V-A

Various systems of training — 1,6

Vitis vinifera !0

" species of 9

Weight of soil b3

Western grapes 5

Winter grapes 7

Wine making 1!)9

Wire, sizes of 122

Yeddo grape 107

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preparation for sale, and the profits that may be expected.
This booklet is concisely written, well and profusely illus-
trated, and should be in the hands of all who expect to grow
this drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new and
profitable industry to their farms and gardens without inter-
fering with the regular work. New edition. Revised and en-
larged. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $0.50

Landscape Gardening

By F. A. WAUGH, professor of horticulture, University of
Vermont. A treatise on the general principles governing
outdoor art ; with sundry suggestions for their application
in the commoner problems of gardening. Every paragraph is
short, terse and to the point, giving perfect clearness to the
discussions at all points. In spite of the natural difficulty
of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is made
entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. Illustrated.
152 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . » . . . $0.50

Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters and Live Fences

By E. P. POWELL. A treatise on the planting, growth
and management of hedge plants for country and suburban
homes. It gives accurate directions concerning hedges ; how
to plant and how to treat them ; and especially concerning
windbreaks and shelters. It includes the whole art of making
a delightful home, giving directions for nooks and balconies,
for bird culture and for human comfort. Illustrated. 140
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50

Farm Grasses of the United States of America

By WILLIAM JASPER SPILLMAN. A practical treatise on
the grass crop, seeding and management of meadows and
pastures, description of the best varieties, the seed and its
impurities, grasses for special conditions, lawns and iawn
grasses, etc., etc. In preparing this volume the author's ob-
ject has been to present, in connected form, the main facts
concerning the grasses grown on American farms. Every
phase of the subject is viewed from the farmer's standpoint.
Illustrated. 248 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $1.00

The Book of Corn

By HERBERT MYRICK, assisted by A- D SHAMEL, E. A.
BURNETT, ALBERT W. FULTON, B. W. SNOW and other most
capable specialists. A complete treatise on tfce culture,
marketing and uses of maize in America and elsewhere, for
farmers, dealers and others. Illustrated. 372 pages. 5x7
inches. Cloth «... $1.0

The Hop — It's Culture and Care, Maiketing
and Manufacture

By HERBERT MYRICK. A practical handbook on the most
approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing and selling
hops, and on the use and manufacture of hops. The result of
years of research and observation, it is a volume destined to
be an authority on this crop for many years to come. It
takes up every detail from preparing the soil and laying out
the yard to curing and selling the crop. Every line represents
the ripest judgment and experience of experts. Size, 5x8;
pages, 300 ; illustrations, nearly 150 ; bound in cloth and gold ;
price, postpaid, * . i . $1.50

Tobacco Leaf

By J. B. KILLEBREW and HERBERT MYRICK. Its Culture
and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture. A practical hand-
book on the ^ most approved methods in growing, harvesting,
curing, packing and selling tobacco, with an account of the
operations in every department of tobacco manufacture. The
contents of this book are based on actual experiments in
field, curing barn, packing house, factory and laboratory. It
is the only work of the kind in existence, and i? destined to be
the standard practical and scientific authority on the whole
subject of tobacco for many years. 506 pages and 150 original
engravings. 5x7 inches. Cloth $^.OQ

Bulbs and Tuberous-Rooted Plants

By C. L. ALLEN. A complete treatise on the history,
description, methods of propagation and full directions for
the successful culture of bulbs in the garden, dwelling and
greenhouse. The author of this book has for many years
made bulb growing a specialty, and is a recognized authority
on their cultivation and management. The cultural direc-
tions are plainly stated, practical and to the point. The
illustrations which embellish this work have been drawn
from nature and have been engraved especially for this
book. 312 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $1.50

Fumigation Methods

By WILLIS G. JOHNSON. A timely up-to-date book on
the practical application of the new methods for destroying
insects with hydrocyanic acid gas and carbon bisulphid, the
most powerful insecticides ever discovered. It is an indis-
pensable book for farmers, fruit growers, nurserymen, garden-
ers, florists, millers, grain dealers, transportation companies,
college and experiment station workers, etc. Illustrated. 313
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00

Diseases of Swine

By Dr. R. A. CRAIG, Professor of Veterinary Medicine at
the Purdue University. A concise, practical and popular guide
to the prevention and treatment of the diseases of swine. With
the discussions on each disease are given its causes, symptoms,
treatment and means of prevention. Every part of the book
impresses the reader with the fact that its writer is thoroughly
and practically familiar with all the details upon which he
treats. All technical and strictly scientific terms are avoided,
so far as feasible, thus making the work at once available to
the practical stock raiser as well as to the teacher and student.
Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 190 pages. Cloth $0.75

Spraying Crops — Why, When and How

By CLARENCE M. WEED, D. Sc. The present fourth edition
has been rewritten and reset throughout to bring it thoroughly
up to date, so that it embodies the latest practical information
gleaned by fruit growers and experiment station workers. So
much new information has come to light since the third edition
was published that this is practically a new book, needed by
those who have utilized the earlier editions, as well as by fruit
growers and farmers generally. Illustrated. 136 pages. 5x7
inches. Cloth. $0.50

Successful Fruit Culture

By SAMUEL T. MAYNARD. A practical guide to the culti-
vation and propagation of Fruits, written from the standpoint
of the practical fruit grower who is striving to make his
business profitable by growing the best fruit possible and at
the least cost It is up-to-date in every particular, and covers
the entire practice of fruit culture, harvesting, storing, mar-
keting, forcing, best varieties, etc., etc. It deals with principles
first and with the practice afterwards, as the foundation, prin-
ciples of plant growth and nourishment must always remain
the same, while practice will vary according to the fruit
grower's immediate conditions and environments. Illustrated
265 pages. 5.x 7 inches. Cloth. . . . . . - $1.00

Plums and Plum Culture

By F. A. WAUGH. A complete manual for fruit growers,
nurserymen, farmers and gardeners, on all known varieties
of plums and their successful management. This book mark?
an epoch in the horticultural literature of America. It is a
complete monograph of the plums cultivated in and indigenous
to North America. It will be found indispensable to the
scientist seeking the most recent and authoritative informa-
tion concerning this group, to the nurseryman who wishes to
handle his varieties accurately and intelligently, and to the
cultivator who would like to grow plums successfully. Tllu ;-
trated. 391 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $1.50

Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing

By F. A. WAUGH. A practical guide to the picking '"or
ing, shipping and marketing of fruit. The principal Mibier^
covered are the fruit market, fruit picking, sorting and pack-
ing, the fruit storage, evaporating, canning, statistics of the
fruit trade, fruit package laws, commission dealers and dea'ing,
.zold storage, etc., etc. No progressive fruit grower can nflfo d
to be without this most valuable book. Illustrated. 232 pages.
5 x 7 inches. Cloth. . . . ',• . --.,,• • $1.00

Systematic Pomology

By F. A. WAUGH, professor of horticulture and landscape
gardening in the Massachusetts agricultural college formerly
of the university of Vermont. This i- the first book in the
English language which has ever made the attempt at a com-
plete and comprehensive treatment of systematic pomology.
It presents clearly and in detail thp whole method bv which
fruits are studied.' The book is suitably illustrated. 288 page=.
5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00

Feeding Farm Animals

By Professor THOMAS SHAW. This book is intended alike
for the student and the farmer. The author has succeeded in
giving in regular and orderly sequence, and in language so
simple that a child can understand it, the principles that govern
the science and practice of feeding farm animals. Professor
Shaw is certainly to be congratulated on the successful manner
in which he has accomplished a most difficult task. His book
is unquestionably the most practical work which has appeared
on the subject of feeding farm animals. Illustrated. 5^ x 8
inches. Upward of 500 pages. Cloth $2.00

Profitable Dairying

By C. L. Peck. A practical guide to successful dairy man-
agement. The treatment of the entire subject is thoroughly
practical, being principally a description of the methods prac-
ticed by the author. A specially valuable part of this book
consists of a minute description of the far-famed model dairy
farm of Rev. J. D. Detrich, near Philadelphia, Pa. On this
farm of fifteen acres, which twenty years ago could not main
tain one horse and two cows, there are now kept twenty-seven
dairy cattle, in addition to two horses. All the roughage,
litter, bedding, etc., necessary for these animals are grown on
these fifteen acres, more than most farmers could accomplish
on one hundred acres. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 200 pages.
Cloth $0.75

Practical Dairy Bacteriology

By Dr. H. W. CONN, of Wesleyan University. A complete
exposition of important facts concerning the relation of bacteria
to various problems related to milk. A book for the class-
room, laboratory, factory and farm. Equally useful to the
teacher, student, factory man and practical dairyman. Fully
illustrated with 83 original pictures. 340 pages. Cloth.
Sl/2 x 8 inches $1.25

Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Milk
Products

By L. L. VANSLYKE. This is a clear and concise discussion
of the approved methods of testing milk and milk products.
All the questions involved in the various methods of testing
milk and cream are handled with rare skill and yet in so plain
a manner that they can be fully understood by all. The book
should be in the hands of every dairyman, teacher or student.
Illustrated. 214 pages. 5x7 inches $0.75

Animal Breeding

By THOMAS SHAW. This book is the most complete and
comprehensive work ever published on the subject of which
it treats. It is the first book which has systematized the
subject of animal breeding. The leading laws which govern
this most intricate question the author has boldly defined and
authoritatively arranged. The chapters which he has written
on the more involved features of the subject, as sex and the
relative influence of parents, should go far toward setting at
rest the wildly speculative views cherished with reference tc
these questions. The striking originality in the treatment of
the subject is no less conspicuous than the superb order and
regular sequence of thought from the beginning to the end
of the book. The book is intended to meet the needs of all
persons interested in the breeding and rearing of live stock.
Illustrated. 405 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $1.50

Forage Crops Other than Grasses

By THOMAS SHAW. How to cultivate, harvest and use
them. Indian corn, sorghum, clover, leguminous plants,
crops of the brassica genus, the cereals, millet, field roots,
etc. Intensely practical and reliable. Illustrated. 287 pages
5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $1.00

Soiling Crops and the Silo

By THOMAS SHAW. The growing and feeding of all kinds
of soiling crops, conditions to which they are adapted, their
plan in the rotation, etc. Not a line is repeated from the
Forage Crops book. Best methods of building the silo, filling
it and feeding ensilage. Illustrated. 364 pages. 5x7 inches.
Cloth. . $1.50

The Study of Breeds

By THOMAS SHAW. Origin, history, distribution, charac-
teristics, adaptability, uses and standards of. excellence of all
pedigreed breeds of cattle, sheep and swine in America. The
accepted text book in colleges, and the authority for farmers
and breeders. Illustrated. 371 pages. 5x7 inches.
Cloth. .-.".. $1.50

Clovers and How to Grow Them

By THOMAS SHAW. This is the first book published which
treats on the growth, cultivation and treatment of clovers as
applicable to all parts of the United States and Canada, and
which takes up the entire subject in a systematic way and
consecutive sequence. The importance of clover in the econ-
omy of the farm is so great that an exhaustive work on this
subject will no doubt be welcomed by students in agriculture,
as well as by all who are interested in the tilling of the soil.
Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 337 pages. Cloth. Net . . .$I.QQ

Land Draining

•

A handbook for farmers en the principles and practice of
draining, by MANLY MILES, giving the results of his extended
experience in laying tile drains. The directions for the laying
out and the construction of tile drains will enable the farmer
to avoid the errors of imperfect construction, and the disap-
pointment that must necessarily follow. This manual for
practical farmers will also be found convenient for reference
in regard to many questions that may arise in crop growing,
aside from the special subjects of drainage of which it treats.
Illustrated. 200 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $1.00

Barn Plans and Outbuildings

Two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most valu-
able work, full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., for the
construction of barns and outbuildings, by practical writers.
Chapters are devoted to the economic erection and use of
barns, grain barns, horse barns, cattle barns, sheep barns, corn-
houses, smokehouses, icehouses, pig pens, granaries, etc.
There are likewise chapters on birdhouses, doghouses, tool
sheds, ventilators, roofs and roofing, doors and fastenings,
workshops, poultry houses, manure sheds, barnyards, root
pits, etc. 235 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $1.00

Irrigation Farming

By LUTE WILCOX. A handbook for the practical applica-
tion of water in the production of crops. A complete treatise
on water supply, canal construction, reservoir and ponds,
pipes for irrigation purposes, flumes and their structure,
methods of applying water, irrigation of field crops, the
garden, the orchard and vineyard, windmills and pumps,
appliances and contrivances. New edition, revised, enlarged
and rewritten. Profusely illustrated. Over 500 pages. 5x7
inches. Cloth. $2.00

Forest Planting

By H. NICHOLAS JARCHOW, LL.D. A treatise on the care
of woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timberlands
on plains and mountains. The author has fully described
those European methods which have proved to be most useful
in maintaining the superb forests of the old world. This
experience has been adapted to the different climates and trees
of America, full instructions being given for forest planting
of our various kinds of soil and subsoil, whether on mountain
or valley. Illustrated. 250 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.50

The Nut Culturist

By ANDREW S. FULLER. A treatise on the propagation,
planting and cultivation of nut-bearing trees and shrubs
adapted to the climate of the United States, with the scien-
tific and common names of the fruits known in commerce as
edible or otherwise useful nuts. Intended to aid the farmer
to increase his income without adding to his expenses or
labor. Cloth. I2mo. . . . . . . . . $1.50

Cranberry Culture

By JOSEPH J. WHITE. Contents: Natural history, history
of cultivation, choice of location, preparing the ground, plant-
ing the vines, management of meadows, flooding, enemies
and difficulties overcome, picking, keeping, profit and loss.
Illustrated. 132 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $1.00

Ornamental Gardening for Americans

By ELIAS A. LONG, landscape architect. A treatise on
beautifying homes, rural districts and cemeteries. A plain
and practical work with numerous illustrations and instruc-
tions so plain that they may be readily followed. Illustrated.
390 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . . . $1.50

Grape Culturist

By A. S. FULLER. This is one of the very best of works
on the culture of the hardy grapes, with full directions for
all departments of propagation, culture, etc., with 150 excellent
engravings, illustrating planting, training, grafting, etc.
282 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.50

Gardening for Young and Old

By JOSEPH HARRIS. A work intended to interest farmers'
boys in farm gardening, which means a better and more profit-
able form of agriculture. The teachings are given in the
familiar manner so well known in the author's "Walks and
Talks on the Farm." Illustrated. 191 pages.. 5 x 7 inches.
Cloth. V $1-00

Money in the Garden

By P T. QUINN. The author gives in a plain, practical
style instructions on three distinct, although closely connected,
branches of gardening— the kitchen garden, market garden and
field culture, from successful practical exp_erience for a term
of years. Illustrated. 268 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $i-oo

Greenhouse Construction

By PROF. L. R. TAFT. A complete treatise on greenhouse
structures and arrangements of the various forms and styles
of plant houses for professional florists as well as amateurs.
All the best and most approved structures are so fully and
clearly described that any one who desires to build a green-
house will have no difficulty in determining the kind best
suited to his purpose. The modern and most successful meth-
ods of heating and ventilating are fully treated upon. Special
chapters are devoted to houses used for the growing of one
kind of plants exclusively. The construction of hotbeds and
frames receives appropriate attention. Over 100 excellent
illustrations, especially engraved for this work, make every
point clear to the reader and add considerably to the artistic
appearance of the book. 210 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth, $1.50

Greenhouse Management

By L. R. TAFT. This book forms an almost indispensable
companion volume to Greenhouse Construction. In it the
author gives the results of his many years' experience, together
with that of the most successful florists and gardeners, in the
management of growing plants under glass. So minute and
practical are the various systems and methods of growing
and forcing roses, violets, carnations, and all the most impor-
tant florists' plants, as well as fruits and vegetables described,
that by a careful study of this work and the following of its
teachings, failure is almost impossible. Illustrated. 382 pages.
5x7 inches. Cloth $1.50

Fungi and Fungicides

By PROF. CLARENCE M. WEED. A practical manual con-
cerning the fungous diseases of cultivated plants and the
means of preventing their ravages. The author has endeav-
ored to give such a concise account of the most important
facts relating to these as will enable the cultivator to combat
them intelligently. 90 illustrations. 222 pages. 5x7 inches.
Paper, 50 cents; cloth $1.00

Mushrooms. How to Grow Them

By WILLIAM FALCONER. This is the most practical work
on the subject ever written, and the only book on growing
mushrooms published in America. The author describes how
he grows mushrooms, and how they are grown for profit by
the leading market gardeners, and for home use by the most
successful private growers. Engravings drawn from nature
expressly for this work. 170 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $i.OQ

The New Egg Farm

By H. H. STODDARD. A practical, reliable manual on
producing eggs and poultry for market as a profitable business
enterprise, either by itself or connected with other branches
of agriculture. It tells all about how to feed and manage,
how to breed and select, incubators and brooders, its labor-
saving devices, etc., etc. Illustrated. 331 pages. 5x7 inches.
Cloth. . $1.00

Poultry Feeding and Fattening

Compiled by G. B. FISKE. A handbook for poultry keep-
ers on the standard and improved methods of feeding and
marketing all kinds of poultry. The subject of feeding and
fattening poultry is prepared largely from the side of the
best practice and experience here and abroad, although the
underlying science of feeding is explained as fully as needful.
The subject covers all branches, including chickens, broilers,
capons, turkeys and waterfowl ; how to feed under various
conditions and for different purposes. The whole subject of
capons and caponizing is treated in detail. A great mass of
practical information and experience not readily obtainable
elsewhere is given with full and explicit directions for fatten-
ing and preparing for market. This book will meet the needs
of amateurs as well as commercial poultry raisers. Profusely
illustrated. 160 pages. 5x71-2 inches. Cloth. . $0.50

Poultry Architecture

Compiled by G. B. FISKE. A treatise on poultry buildings
of all grades, styles and classes, and their proper location,
coops, additions and special construction; all practical in de-
sign, and reasonable in cost. Over 100 illustrations. 125 pages.
5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50

Poultry Appliances and Handicraft

Compiled by G. B. FISKE. Illustrated descriptions of a
great variety and styles of the best homemade nests, roosts,
windows, ventilators, incubators and brooders, feeding and
watering appliances, etc., etc. Over 100 illustrations. Over
125 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . . . $0.50

Turkeys and How to Grow Them

Edited by HERBERT MYRICK. A treatise on the natural
histor)' and origin of the name of turkeys ; the various breeds,
the best methods to insure success in the business of turkey
growing. With essays from practical turkey growers in
different parts of the United States and Canada. Copiously
illustrated. 154 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $1.00

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY