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~ RESEARCH REPORT
REPORT 739 18 OCTOBER 1956
CURRENT, TEMPERATURE, TIDE, AND ICE GROWTH MEASUREMENTS, EASTERN BERING STRAIT-CAPE PRINCE OF WALES 1953-55
G.L. BLOOM
U.S. NAVY ELECTRONICS LABORATORY, SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA
A BUREAU OF SHIPS LABORATORY
6€Z Hodey /13N weed
, THE PROBLEM
Conduct survey and field studies in the Arctic Ocean which will furnish basic geo- physical data significant to arctic naval warfare. This report covers an evaluation of data obtained during the period 1953 through 1955 at the Cape Prince of Wales Field Station. The operation of the station continues as part of an over-all program to obtain physical-oceanographic data pertinent to predicting ice coverage for the Bering-Chukchi- Beaufort Sea area. :
RESULTS
1. A northerly volume transport varying from 0.8 to 3.1 X 10° cubic meters per second appears characteristic of the period August through November.
2. An area of maximum current velocities is indicated in the 8-to-12 mile section of the eastern Bering Strait.
3. Omitting initial freeze-up discontinuities, the logarithm of accumulated degree days below 29°F exhibits essentially a linear relationship with fast ice accretion at Wales, Alaska.
4. Average total ice growth at Wales is 46 to 48 inches, with first slush ice formed late October to early November and fast ice break-up normally completed by mid-June.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Extend and make simultaneous oceanographic and meteorological measurements essential to a detailed analysis of the sea ice-heat budget regime.
2. Continue measurements of average water transport through the Bering Strait.
3. Conduct daily sea water temperature measurements from strategic points along the northwestern Alaskan coast.
4. Conduct sonar studies in respect to the effect of ice coverage and movement on ambient noise and passive detection ranges.
ADMINISTRATIVE INFORMATION
This work was initiated under SW 01402, NE 121217-1 (NEL L6-1), and was carried out by members of the Special Research Division. The report was approved for publica- tion 18 October 1956.
The over-all program at Wales has included observations on related special projects, as follows, for other NEL codes and Naval activities, as time and manpower permitted; these projects are to be reported by the cognizant activity.
1. Microwave propagation to determine the variation in radar signals over fixed paths and to study effect of ice coverage as well as meteorological conditions along the transmission path.
2. Ultra-low-frequency propagation and variation in signal strength.
3. Atmospheric radioactivity background measurements.
New facilities to be installed at Wales during the summer of 1956 include complete new electrode systems using Type-216 submarine harbor defense cable together with sea units for the study of (a) bottom temperatures (at 1-, 2-, and 5-mile offshore points), (b) wave amplitude and period, (c) low frequency ambient noise spectrum, (d) water velocity at a fixed position, (e) variation in water depth and ice movement, and (f) sound velocity.
Major changes in the Wales Field Station were the erection during the summer of 1955 of two standard 20-foot-by-48 foot BuYards and Docks arctic-type quonsets to provide essential storage, laboratory, and garage space and the installation of a 15,000-gallon bulk diesel fuel storage and distribution system.
The author wishes to acknowledge the contribution of E.E. Howick and R.N. Rowray to the direct field measurement program and to the tedious task of reducing the numerous field data, and the assistance of A. C. Walker in the design and construction of thermal units and electrode elements. Many unnamed people participated in the field work and encountered much discomfort, particularly during the current survey program; to these hardy individuals the author offers his thanks.
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page 3 3 3 8 10 15 17 20 20 21 25 page figure 3 1 5 2 6 3 7 4 7 5 8 6 9 7 11 8A, 8B 12 9A-9C 13 10 13 11 14 12 “ Ww 15 14 16 15 7 16 18 17 19 18 page table 21 1 22-24 2 17 3
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CURRENT MEASUREMENTS Direct Observations Electric Potential Measurements
SEA WATER TEMPERATURES
SEA ICE GROWTH
TIDAL MEASUREMENTS
CONCLUSIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS
APPENDIX: SURFACE CURRENT AND VELOCITY PROFILE DATA REFERENCES
ILLUSTRATIONS
Location of current stations, 1 August 1954, in the Eastern Bering Strait Average hourly current velocities from profile measurements, 1 August 1954 Average hourly wind speed and tide range, 1 August 1954, Wales, Alaska Cross-section along east-west measurement line from Wales, Alaska Average northerly water transport through a 25-mile section of the Eastern Bering Strait, 1 August 1954 Schematic of land and sea electrode systems Relation between water transport and potential values from sea electrode system Sample records showing -signal voltages vs time Relation between accumulated degree days below 32°F and potential measured between land silver/silver chloride electrode and earth ground Average monthly volume transport through a 25-mile sector of the Eastern Bering Strait, June 1953 to November 1955 Average monthly sea water temperature, Bering Strait, Wales, Alaska, October 1953 to November 1955 Daily bottom sea water temperatures, October 1953 through October 1955, Bering Strait, Wales, Alaska Comparison of polar pack boundary, early September 1953, 1954, 1955 January ice conditions, Eastern Bering Strait Observed sea ice growth at Wales, Alaska, for 1952-1953 and 1953-1954 Comparison of ice thickness and accumulated degree days below 29°F for Wales, Alaska Offshore tide recording station, Wales, Alaska Tide graph and tables for Wales, Alaska, 18 July 1954 through 18 September 1954
TABLES
Surface current observations, Eastern Bering Strait, 1 August 1954 Summary of current velocity profile measurements, Eastern Bering Strait, 1 August 1954 Summary of monthly degree days below 29°F at Wales, Alaska, for 1952-53
and 1953-54 ice seasons
65° 30’
INTRODUCTION
One of the primary projects at the Cape Prince of Wales Field Station, Wales, Alaska, is the con- tinuing and long range study of the volume transport of water through the eastern Bering Strait, the water temperature oscillations throughout the year, the effect of meteorological phenomena and tides on the net water transport, and the over-all relation to ice distribution.
The intent is not the evolution of an extensive ice forecast program, but rather the evaluation of physical-oceanographic data in a particular system, the possible extrapolation of these data and proce- dures to similar systems in the arctic area, and the incorporation of pertinent information into existing ice prediction programs.
Field Station facilities, general measurement program and instrumentation have been reported.? (See list of references at end of report.) This report covers the measurement period 1953 through 1955 and summarizes 1954 current measurements con- ducted simultaneously from seven anchor positions located along a 20-nautical-mile line extending due west from Wales, Alaska.
66°
CONVENTION OF 1867
U. S. — RUSSIA
DIOMEDE ISLANDS
BERING | STRAIT
169° 168° 30’ 168°
These data have been used jo calibrate an electromagnetic system which records potentials gen- erated by tidal-water transport. Average monthly transport through a 25-mile section of the eastern Bering Strait has been computed and is presented herein together with monthly bottom sea water temperatures and tidal data.
A projected, additional report will study the transport on the basis of temperature-density dis- tribution and will compare the results with the direct observations reported herein.
CURRENT MEASUREMENTS
direct observations METHOD AND INSTRUMENTATION
On 1 August 1954, in conjunction with the 1954 Joint Canadian-U. S$. Beaufort Sea Expedition, a series of simultaneous current observations were taken for approximately 14 hours. Seven stations were lo- cated along a 20-nautical-mile line extending due west from the Cape Prince of Wales Field Station across the eastern Bering Strait (fig. 1). The 8- and 12-mile positions were occupied by the icebreakers,
CAPE YORK
Figure 1. Location of current sta- tions, 1 August 1954, in the Eastern Bering Strait.
USCGC NORTHWIND and USS BURTON ISLAND (AGB 1). Measurement platforms at the 1.5-, 3.0-, 5.0-, 12.0-, and 15.0-mile positions were two LVT- 3(C)’s, two LCVP’s, and one Greenland Cruiser.
Current profiles were taken at all stations using the biplane (drag) method of Pritchard and Burt.” Meial biplanes with the following characteristics were used in lieu of weighted wooden drags:
Aluminum Drag material (Alclad 24ST) Iron Cross plane dimensions (inches) Thickness 5/32 1/4 Width 18 18 Height 12 12 Ave. wt. in air (Ib) 7.34 30.88 Ave. wt. in sea 4.86 27.04 water (Ib) Velocity range 0.23 0.53 (3° to 45° wire to to angle, knots) 0.98 2.33
Wire angles were determined with inclinometers using standard oceanographic observing techniques.
Surface currents were determined from drifting aluminum biplanes submerged 3 feet beneath the sea surface. To minimize wind effects biplane support floats were constructed to provide only a slight posi- tive buoyancy. Velocity was calculated from the time required for a 200-foot drift of the submerged bi- plane. An initial drift of 50 feet was allowed before commencing measurement to obviate inertial effects.
Surface currents and velocity profiles from 5 to 45 meters were taken at approximately half-hour intervals. Measurements at the 1.5- and 3.0-mile posi- tions were curtailed early, since increasing seas neces- sitated returning to shore the amphibious vehicles located at these positions.
In addition to surface current observations and velocity profiles using the biplane method, for com- parative data a series of velocity measurements were taken at the 20-mile station using an Ekman current meter. Roll at the 20-mile position probably did not exceed 2 feet in amplitude during the measurement period. However, even this slight roll will give erro- neous direction and velocity with the Ekman current meter and must be kept in mind when interpreting these data.
Prior to 0800 the LCVP at the 5-mile position dragged anchor badly and, throughout the measure- ment period, the boat was subjected to a very severe cross chop and roll. This effect probably accounts for the low values prior to 0800. These data have, consequently, been omitted in later transport cal- culations.
DISCUSSION OF DATA
Complete surface current observations and ye- locity profile data from the seven stations are pre- sented in the Appendix, tables 1 and 2, respectively.
Average current velocities of 0.3 to 0.5 knot (zero at the two most seaward stations) were re- corded from 0200 to 0500. Velocities increased rap- idly after 0500 at all stations reaching maximum
‘average values of 1.7, 1.8, 1.8, 2.0, 1.5, and 1.2
knots, respectively, at the 3-to-20 mile positions. The data indicate that an area of maximum velocity gradient probably exists in the 5-to-12 mile sector.
All currents were predominantly north-setting, except for low velocity values recorded prior to 0500 at the 15- and 20-mile stations. The variation in direction was most pronounced at the 15-mile station, particularly in the surface current observations. From 0200 to 0600 the water appeared to be moving slowly in a clockwise eddy from south to north. De- crease in velocity with depth determined by sub- merged biplanes and checked at the 20-mile station by an Ekman current meter was slight throughout the observation period.
Average current velocities were calculated by computing the arithmetic mean for each set of profiles taken at the anchor stations. These values are pre- sented graphically in figure 2.
Average hourly wind speeds and tidal data, both measured at the Cape Prince of Wales Station, Wales, Alaska, during the current survey period, are shown in figure 3. Comparison of figures 2 and 3 suggests a correlation between current speed, tide, and wind. Since current observations did not cover a complete tidal cycle, positive conclusions cannot be drawn. Data from the electrode system (presented later in this report) show a corresponding early morning increase in water transport during flood tide, but show very little decrease in transport from 1245 to 1700 (during ebb tide). The tide range off Wales is small, generally of the order of 8 inches. The change from low tide at 0445 to high tide at 1245, on 1 August 1954, measured 11.7 inches
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compared to a 2.4-inch change from 1245 to 1700. It is possible that the wind effect (average wind speed, 21 mph) is sufficient to mask the extremely low tidal range during this period.
Dall® concluded that the northly current through the Strait is probably chiefly dependent on the tide for its force and direction, while studies in 1949 by Lesser and Pickard? indicate that the current through the Bering Strait is not primarily tidal in character, nor does it have a major tidal component. It is apparent that the relation of tides to the water trans- port through the Bering Strait remains a contradic- tory subject, and the problem can be resolved only by a well coordinated tide and current measurement program which covers sufficient tidal cycles to permit a valid analysis.
Assuming velocity measurements at the 20-mile position are valid to 25 nautical miles, the average volume transport through a 25-mile vertical section of the Strait extending due west from the Field Station (along the measurement line of fig. 1) has
.
been calculated for the 1 August 1954 observation period.
For transport calculation purposes the 25-mile section was divided into bands of average current velocity as indicated in figure 4 (crosses denote an- chor station positions and depths).
The average northerly water transport through a 25-mile section of the eastern Bering Strait is 10° X cubic meters per second for the period from 0200 to 1400 is shown in figure 5. The average maxi- mum transport value of 1.84 X 10° cubic meters per second is significantly higher than previous average values for the entire strait of 0.88 computed by Sverdrup® and 1.28 determined as a summer value based on oceanographic observations taken in 1949.4
The current data clearly indicate the erroneous interpretation which can be drawn from a series of current measurements taken at varying time intervals and positions in the Bering Strait, and are indicative of short term fluctuations in current and transport which may be encountered.
24
20
TIDE RANGE (INCHES)
te)
30 = 20 & @ TIDE CYCLE a | sy a wn a zZ = X o sy <q 10 > <q WIND SPEED ty) 2000 0000 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 2400 0400 0800
BERING STANDARD TIME
Figure 3. Average hourly wind speed and tide range, 1 August 1954, Wales, Alaska.
TRANSPORT (CUBIC METERS < 10" PER SECOND)
WALES, ALASKA
= © = r—) DEPTH (FEET)
_ ind o
180 Figure 4. Cross-section along east-west measurement line from Wales, Alaska.
25.0 17.5 13.5 10.0 5.5 2.25 NAUTICAL MILES
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4 0200 0400 0600 0800 1000 1200 1400
BERING STANDARD TIME (PLUS 11 ZONE)
Figure 5. Average northerly water transport through a 25-mile section of the Eastern Bering Strait, 1 August 1954.
electric potential measurements
The possibility of measuring tidally generated potentials in bays and through ocean channels has been considered and discussed by numerous investi- gators.°® The method has been employed in the study of mass water transport between Key West and Havana, and the average mass transport of the Florida Current for the period of August 1952 to August 1954 has been reported by Wertheim.1°
Electric potentials were initially measured in the Bering Strait in 1949.1! Continuation of these studies in 1951-1952 yielded only sketchy results, primarily because of installation problems associated with maintaining electrode-cable systems in an area sub- ject to ocean freezing and ice movement.
Obviously, the most desirable procedure for measuring potentials and for studying their relation to water transport involves installation of electrodes on opposite banks of a channel. Since this technique cannot be followed in the Bering Strait, electrodes were bottom-laid, perpendicular to flow, near the eastern side of the Strait and connected to shore recording equipment by appropriate signal links (fig. 6). (A complete description of electrode systems
SHORE LINE
‘CTRODES YA SHORE ELE!
and electrode construction has been given in refer- ence 1.) Edge effects of potential gradients extending inland have been recorded using land electrode systems laid perpendicular and parallel to flow.
Young, Gerrard, and Jevons’ considered the effect of potential gradients on a set of moored elec- trodes near one shore of a broad channel’ and demonstrated that the potential gradient e; where v1 is the observed velocity in the experimental area exhibits the following relation (sea bottom-conduct- ing):
e1 = —Vv,s + Csp (electromagnetic units)
where V = earth’s vertical field (gauss) v; = water velocity (cm/sec) s = length of water filament (cm) C =current density (abamperes/cm?) p = specific resistance of the water (ohms/cm)
Theoretically, C may have a value as great as Vvo/p where vo equals the mean velocity across the entire channel and the conductivity of the earth bed is negligible compared to the water. In such an idealized case
ey =—Vv,;s-+ Vvos
INLAND ELECTRODE
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SHORE ELECTRODES Z
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WALES VILLAGE
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7500 FEET PERPENDICULAR, LAND SYSTEM
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Figure 6. Schematic of land and sea electrode
systems.
NEGATIVE MILLIVOLTS
The effect would be to reverse the sign of e; (meas- ured potential) and give the impression that experi- mental observations disagree even quantitatively with theory.
Potentials measured by the electrodes moored near shore in the eastern Bering Strait generally in- dicate polarities opposite to that expected from the known direction of water flowing through the system and would lend experimental support to the con- clusion that water motion seaward of a moored elec- trode system can have an overriding effect on the potentials recorded.
Because of the many indeterminate effects con- tributing to the potentials measured at the Field Station, the electrode system was calibrated from current survey data and an emperical relationship used to convert observed potentials to volume trans- port values.
The relation between hourly potentials from the sea electrode system and volume transport for a 25-mile section of the eastern Bering Strait (calcu- lated from the 1 August 1954 current measurements) is indicated in figure 7. The displacement from zero may be attributed to several possibilities: (1) elec- trode polarization, (2) concentration effects, (3) earth currents, and (4) water motion in the western Bering Strait. Further current studies and comparison with simultaneous potential measurements are required to determine the constancy of the displacement and to provide an accurate estimate of cause.
Using the relation in figure 7, average monthly transports through a 25-mile sector of the eastern Bering Strait were computed from potentials recorded on the sea electrode system. The potentials were computed by determining a mean value from the
Figure 7. Relation between water trans-
port and potential values from sea elec- trode system.
(0) 0.8 0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
SOUTH NORTH AVERAGE VOLUME TRANSPORT (CUBIC METERS < 10° PER SECOND)
daily (0000-2400) voltage records (figs. 8A, 8B) and by calculating an arithmetic monthly average from the daily values.
A similar evaluation of potentials measured on land electrode systems indicates that such systems are generally unworkable, at least for this location, since tidally generated or “transport” potentials are obscured by earth currents and large random fluc- tuations in signals during the summer months and by variable losses in “pick-up” sensitivity due to the ground freezing during ihe winter months. The de- crease in electrical conductivity between land elec- trodes is illustrated indirectly by the changes in voltages developed between land silver/silver chlo- ride electrodes and earth grounds as the atmospheric heat input fluctuates (figs. 9A, 9B, and 9C). The irregular signal fluctuations are common to both sea and land electrode systems, alihough more pro- nounced in the land system. The electric potential measurements reported by Wertheim?? exhibit com- parable fluctuations and have been related to varia- tions in the magnitude and direction of the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field.
Inspection of the average monthly mass water transport for June 1953 through November 1955 (fig. 10) indicates considerable fluctuation throughout the year both in volume and in direction. A northerly transport for August through November ranging from a minimum of 0.8 to a maximum of 3.1 10° cubic meters per second is characteristic of all three years.
The large southerly outflow of water from the Arctic Ocean system in May and June of 1954 (3.8 > 10° cubic meters per second) is somewhat surpris- ing and perhaps contrary to many former opinions, although continuous measurements which provide evi- dence on the volume and direction of transport through the Strait are extremely meager. It is un- fortunate that comparative data for the same period in 1953 and 1955 are unavailable.
The reader is cautioned as to the accuracy of the mass transport data. Until further potential meas- urements and current calibrations have been con- ducted, the data presented in figure 10 must be considered tentative. It is obvious that a shift in the empirical calibration curve (fig. 7) could cause appre- ciable changes in transport values calculated from the average monthly potentials.
10
SEA WATER TEMPERATURES
Bottom sea water temperatures in the eastern Bering Strait have been measured, 1200 feet offshore in 10 feet of water, from October 1953 to November 1955. Average monthly and daily temperatures for this period are presented graphically in figures 11 and 12.
More significant data in relation to water trans- port are obtained when the thermal units are laid in deeper water at a distance 4 to 6 miles offshore, where a zone of boundary or transitional flow ap- pears to exist. Data were obtained in this area in 1951! and indicated considerable correlation with water movement and wind shifts. The reported meas- urements, taken near shore in shallow and relatively protected waters, obviously reflect atmospheric radia- tion and meteorological parameters to a far greater degree than average oceanographic changes and must be considered in the interpretation.
Ice reconnaissance data summarized in terms of the polar pack ice boundary and reported by the U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office?” illustrate the rela- tive navigability or severity of ice conditions in the Chukchi/Beaufort Seas for the years 1953, 1954, and 1955 and are reproduced in figure 13. From figure 11 it is noted that the average monthly temperatures for August and September 1954 were 2.7°F and 4.0°F higher than for the same months in 1955. This leads to speculation on the contribution of water transport, if any, to the large recession of ice off the northwestern Alaskan coast and the extreme open conditions in the Chukchi Sea during 1954.
A contradictory feature arises, if average monthly volume transport values are considered to- gether with the average monthly temperatures. Since the August-September 1955 transport values are indi- cated to be approximately twice the volume for the same months in 1954, the total theoretical amount of available “oceanic” heat above 29°F for these two months is only about 50 per cent and 70 per cent as great as for August and September 1955. Thus, it might be reasoned that the water contribution to ice disintegration is slight or negligible.
From the preceding data it is apparent that a complete heat budget study which considers all perti- nent oceanographic and meteorological parameters in relation to ice growth, dissipation, and movement
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NORMAL VOLTAGE FOR SEA ELECTRODES @8@00G AND FOR LAND ELECTRODES DURING SUMMER PERIOD
Figure 9. Relation between accumulated degree days below 32°F and potential measured between a land silver/silver chloride electrode and earth ground.
A. Period 17 October 1952 to 1 August 1953.
B. Period 22 October 1953 to 1 August 1954.
C. Period 7 October 1954 to 1 August 1955.
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Figure 10. Average monthly volume transport through a 25-mile sector of the Eastern Bering Strait, June 1953 to November 1955.
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HIHLERUER EQUEBH! AUEQ\ BOLE SVORIEOUUEL NEMHED EBHULCHERLEY
JFMAMJJSASONDJFMAMJS SASONDJSFMAMJSJSASOND 1953 1954 1955
Figure 11. Average monthly sea water temperature, Bering Strait, Wales, Alaska, October 1953 to November 1955.
13
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must be made before consistent “behavior” or pre- diction formulas can be developed. In order to un- ravel and to assign quantitative values to each factor or even realistically to group effects contributing to the ice regime, it may well be necessary to extend measurement stations to several strategic points within the system. A minimum requirement for evaluation of the Bering Strait/Chukchi Sea system appears to be coordinated oceanographic measurements from Wales and from a northern station located at Point Hope or Cape Lisburne.
SEA ICE GROWTH
The first slush ice formation off Wales, Alaska, appears from mid-October to mid-November with variable states of slush-pancake-young ice and open water combinations existing until the first or second week of December when ice accretion becomes more
uniform, with growth of the solid state continuing
- until the later part of April to early May. The heat
budget then reverses with the break-up progressing rapidly throughout late May and the first two weeks of June. By July the area is free of fast and drift ice except for a few scattered growlers.
The land-fast ice sheet is variable in width from 1 to % mile, with the sea ice beyond the fast ice in continual motion throughout the winter season. Typical ice conditions during January in the eastern Bering Strait are illustrated in figure 14.
The rate of growth of sea ice was measured in the fast ice at a point % mile offshore during the 1952-1953 and the 1953-1954 ice seasons. Thickness was determined by drilling 12-inch holes with an auger-type corer and measuring the sheet with a calibrated rod constructed with a spring-loaded arm designed to project against the underside of the ice upon release from the boundaries of the drill hole.
Figure 14. Area between Wales and Diomede Islands illustrating January ice conditions. Fast ice is the dark portion in the lower part of the photograph. All light’ ice moving north.
15
The increase in ice thickness with time is shown in figure 15.
Discontinuities exist at the beginning of each season, caused in 1952 by the destruction of the fast ice sheet and in 1953 by the influx of drift ice which remained and developed as the permanent fast ice sheet. Prior to the destruction of the ice on 5 January 1953 by high winds and above freezing temperatures, an estimated thickness of 14 to 18 inches had been attained.
The break-up of the fast ice on 29 May may be indicative of the mild ice conditions experienced off the northern and northwestern Alaskan coast during the summer of 1954 and is approximately two weeks earlier than the average observed time for the 5-year period from 1951 to 1955.
A comparison of ice thickness and accumulated degree days below 29°F is given in figure 16. For each season, degree days are calculated starting with the date the first slush ice was observed. The average daily temperature is computed as the mean of the maximum and minimum air temperature re- corded at Wales. Based on the Field Station weather observations, the meteorological factors of cloud cover, wind speed, and humidity and the insulating effect of snow cover on rate of ice growth are gen- erally comparable for the two ice seasons considered here. The snow cover on the ice did not exceed 4 inches throughout the measurement periods. Minor irregularities in the comparison of degree days and ice thickness are expected, due to the limited tem- perature data and to the method of calculating aver- age daily temperatures.
The discontinuities during the initial formation of the fast ice should be kept in mind, since these have a definite bearing on the slope of the ice formation curve and no doubt account for much of the divergence during early stages of growth. Com- parable rates of growth are indicative for both seasons after an ice thickness of 31.5 inches was reached.
The complexity of the variables affecting the ice growth rate is recognized and field studies are now in progress to obtain more complete meteor- ological, oceanographic, and temperature profile (air-ice-water) data. These observations will be an- alyzed in greater detail than the preceding data and the observed ice growth compared with the- oretical values computed by various methods dis- cussed and summarized by Calaway.1%
16
OFFSHORE 20
JUN
1953, NO FAST ICE,
DRIFT ICE 3 MILES
| iz
1954, FAST ICE OUT
1953, FAST ICE BREAKING OF
AND DRIFTING TO SEA 1
|
ICE ESTIMATED 14-18 INCHES DRIFTED AWAY FROM AREA
STORM AND 45°F TEMP., FAST| THICK ON 1 JAN 1953
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Observed sea ice growth at Wales, Alaska, for 1952-1953 and 1953-1954.
Figure 15.
The number of degree days below 29°F in each month, October through May, for the approximate 1952-53 and 1953-54 ice seasons is summarized in table 3.
TABLE 3. Summary of monthly degree days below 29°F at Wales, Alaska, for 1952-1953 and 1953- 1954 ice seasons.
Degree Days Degree Days
Month Year Below 29°F Year Below 29°F October 1952 —77* 1953 4 November 1952 198 1953 276 December 1952 649 1953 964 January 1953 996 1954 918 February 1953 1079 1954 1134 March 1953 1104 1954 710 April 1953 488 1954 322 May 1953 52 1954 —148*
Total 4489 4180
* Minus value indicates degree days above 29°F.
Total degree days for the 1953-54 period are approximately 7 per cent less than for the previous year. The relatively rapid atmospheric warming and the mild air temperatures in the spring of 1954 are reflected in the lower degree day totals for March and April and in the number of degree days above 29°F for May. The significance of these data and the predictable effect, if any, in relation to break-up require further study.
—e-- ICE SEASON, 1952-1953
~-©--ICE SEASON, 1953-1954 5000 ion
1000
ACCUMULATED DEGREE DAYS BELOW 29°F
500
te) 5 J US 270 23. 3 € 40 <5 & ICE THICKNESS (INCHES)
TIDAL MEASUREMENTS
A secondary type tide station was erected in the surf area off Wales, Alaska, during the summer of 1954 and a series of tide observations taken for a period of 9 weeks from 19 July to 18 September. Observations were conducted primarily to assist in the evaluation of a hydraulic system for measuring fluid transfer from off-shore points and to provide simultaneous tide data in conjunction with electro- magnetic transport measurements.
Tidal cycles were measured with a Type 5-FW-1, Instrument Corporation, “portable automatic water level recorder.” The instrument utilizes a conven- tional type 4-inch-diameter float and counterpoise weight attached to a steel tape riding over a 12-inch circumference pen drive wheel. The 5-inch-by-14.5 inch curvilinear chart is cylindrically mounted with rate of advance controlled by an 8-day spring-wound clock.
The recording insturment was mounted atop a 5-inch-diameter-by-12-foot iron float well with the counterpoise weight riding in an adjacent 2-inch- diameter tube. The wells were supported inside a 10-foot tripod, constructed from %-by-3-by-3-inch angle iron, with a 50-inch base leg spread. The tripod was located approximately 300 feet off shore and secured in position with four 100-foot-5/32-inch
Figure 16. Comparison of ice thickness and accumulated degree days below 29°F for Wales, Alaska.
17
guy lines running from the upper corners of the tripod to 100-pound danforth type anchors (fig. 17). In spite of moderately heavy surf action, considerable success was achieved in maintaining the equipment in continuous operation. Following one south storm it was necessary to relevel the float well and tripod; however, the procedure is generally applicable to making short term tide studies in remote and un- protected acreas where a more permanent installation is impractical or unwarranted.
Tidal measurements are summarized in figure 18. The height of water given in inches is based on actual staff readings with zero representing the ocean floor at the tide stand. A permanent inshore bench mark has been established which will permit correlating future observations. All times listed are Bering Standard. The graphic presentation indicates the character of the tidal cycles measured.
A stage height ratio of 5 inches of chart equal to 60 inches of water and a time scale of approxi- mately 1 millimeter equal to 30 minutes were the instrument recording chart coordinates. The estimated
ah Bee aoe
reading errors for the time of high and low tides is of the order of 10 minutes and for tide heights is plus or minus 0.2 inch.
A complete analysis correcting for winds, bar- ometric conditions, and other factors effecting tide changes has not been made; however, the following predominate features are noted from inspection of the tidal data. The tides off Wales exhibit consider- able diurnal inequality while the average period indicates that the partial tide force is “principal lunar” with the occurrence of high and low waters normally characterized by a semidiurnal variation.
Range between successive maxima and minima are small, averaging 8 inches during the 9-week observation period and ranging from a minimum value of 0.2 inch to a maximum of 18 inches. Strong local winds and storms over the Bering Sea/Bering Strait tend to deform the tidal curve, depressing or enlarging the oscillations and the daily tidal periods. A maximum variation in sea level from low low water to high high water of 51 inches was observed during the July-September recording period.
Figure 17. Offshore tide recording station, Wales, Alaska.
18
SUN MON TUES WED. THURS FRI SAT
JULY 1954 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 HIGH LOW HIGH Low ae DATE | TIME HT (IN)| TIME HT (IN) | DATE| TIME HT (IN)| TIME HT (IN) JULY 1954 JULY 1954 Be 19 1715 17.5 || 25 | 0345 30.7 |0900 22.6 t MON | 2315 24.7] — — SUN | 1630 39.4 |2300 29.4 | 20 — — |o0600 11.5 | 26 | 0500 33.3 }1130 27.9 10 Tues | 1200 17.5 |1700 11.9 |] MON| 1815 36.3 |2300 27.9 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 21 | 0030 23.9 |0545 11.9 ] 27 | 0600 36.3 |1145 29.1 50 wep | 1300 25.1 |1830 15.5 |] TUES| 1830 41.1 |2300 33.9 22 | 0045 26.9 |0630 12.5 |] 28 | 0615 43.5 |1330 30.1 A THUR| 1345 25.7 |1915 14.3 |] wed | 1930 361 | — — 23 | 0130 22.3 |0715 12.1 | 29 | 0845 25.9 |0215 21.7 FRI | 1445 28.0 |2010 20.8 |] THUR| 2200 30.1 |1430 18.1 30 24 | 0240 29.8 |0830 18.7 ] 30 | 1045 31.9 |0330 19.9 SAT | 1515 32.1 ]2140 21.3 }] FRI | 2210 36.2 |1630 26.9 31 1015 37.4 10330 23.0 20 sat | 2200 32.6 |1630 24.2 10 AUGUST 1954 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 50 40 30 ay AUGUST 1954 AUGUST 1954 | 1 1245 29.0 ]0445 17.3 | 15 | 1115 22.5 |o330 15.0 10 suN | — — |1700 26.6 ] suN | 2230 24.9 ]1715 19.2 8 9 10 i 12 13 14 2 | 0130 40.4 |o600 30.5 | 16 | 1130 21.0 }o445 13.8 50 MON | 1315 38.0 |1840 31.1 MON | 2330 23.4 |1700 15.6 PS GOA || = = 17 | 1330 24.6 |0530 13.8 ~ 3 | 1310 35.9 |o630 26.9 | Tues] — — |1745 20.4 sa tues | — — |2000 27.1 | 18 | 0015 28.8 |0620 19.2 4 | 0050 33.1 }0710 20.5 || wen] 1415 31.2 |1845 25.2 30 wep | 1410 30.1 |1950 20.8 ] 19 | 0030 31.5 |oB00 17.2 5 | 0200 30.7 }0720 26.2 }] THUR] 1430 25.0 |1930 19.0 - ie THUR | 1430 35.5 |2020 27.1 | 20 | 0300 29.2 |0800 25.6 8 FRI | 1530 36.8 |2100 30.8 21 | 0245 35.6 |0930 26.6 10 SAT | 1600 35.3 |2215 26.7 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 0400 30.3 | 0900 25.5 a 40 SUN | 1615 36.3 |2130 26.7 uw 23 | 0630 42.3 |1100 39.3 G BO MON] 1846 46.8 |2315 43.2 z 24 | 0530 48.3 |1315 40.2 5 Tues} 1830 43.5 | — — 3 20 25 | 0730 44.4 |o000 38.4 a wed | 2000 44.1 |1400 39.6 z= | 26 | 0730 36.9 |0300 34.8 a UG) THUR] 2045 28.2 |1630 26.4 F 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 27 1030 22.2 |0400 19.2 a FRI | 2130 25.3 |1600 19.6 28 | 1100 19.9 |0430 16.6 40 SAT | 2300 25.4 |1545 17.6 29] 1300 32.6 |0430 20.9 SUN | 2350 37.1 ]1700 31.1 30 30 1230 31.4 |0720 28.4 MON| — — |1859 26.3 20 31 | 0015 29.9 |0615 24.5 Tues| 1330 32.6 ]1815 29.1 10 _l SEPTEMBER 1954 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 50 a 40 30 20 5 A = a 5 5 aa SEPTEMBER 1954 SEPTEMBER 1954 60 1 | 0145 37.5 |0630 33.9 } 12 | 1115 21.5 |0330 14.6 wep | 1345 42.6 |2215 37.5 |] SUN | 2200 28.7 |1400 20.6 2 | 0230 39.0 |osa5 31.2 ff 13 | 1130 24.0 |0530 20.1 3) THUR | 1430 35.4 |2020 30.0 |] MON| 2300 26.6 |1600 22.7 3 | 0110 31.5 |0845 225 f| 14 | 1300 34.7 |0430 23.5 40 FRI | 1500 27.8 |2030 24.8 | Tues} — — |1730 32.9 4 | 0330 30.8 |0830 29.2 | 15 | 0000 39.0 |0700 30.5 sat_| 1400 30.7 | — — wed | 1230 35.8 |1820 28.6 30 5 — —| 000 19.3 oO B14 | = = SUN | 0300 19.7 |1000 12.2 | 16 | 1320 27.9 |0700 20.6 m0 1730 20.3 |2130 19.3 | THUR; — — |1845 22.2 6 | 0430 24.7 |1045 21.1 | 17 | 0015 26.7 |0640 19.9 MON | 1825 27.1 |2230 25.6 | FRI | 1245 27.5 |1945 17.8 10 esl L -_ 7 | 0600 29.5 |1000 28.6 | 18 | 0100 20.4 |1000 10.7 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Tues | 2145 43.0] — — sat | 1400 11.8] — — 40 = 8 — — |0800 38.8 wep | 2030 47.2 | — — AO 9 | 0800 51.4 ]0100 46.0 THUR} 1900 43.2 | 1600 43.0 10 | ouT 20 FRI | OUT 11 | 0841 23.6 |0500 22.2 5 sat | 2030 19.7 | 1630 17.9
SUN MON TUES WED ——«sTHURS FRI SAT
Figure 18. Tide graph and tables for Wales, Alaska, 18 July 1954 through 18 September 1954.
19
CONCLUSIONS
1. Average mass water transport through the eastern Bering Strait exhibits considerable fluctua- tion throughout the year both in volume and direc- tion.
2. A northerly volume transport varying from 0.8 to 3.1 X 10° cubic meters per second appears characteristic of the period August through No- vember.
3. An area of maximum current velocities is indicated in the 8-to-12-mile section of the eastern Bering Strait.
4. Potentials measured with short sea electrode systems can be correlated with mass water transport, while land electrode systems appear generally un- workable for the Cape Prince of Wales area.
5. Bottom sea water temperatures in the eastern Bering Strait attain maximum average values of 45°F to 49°F by late August and reflect north-south shifts in wind direction and water transport.
6. Omitting initial freeze-up discontinuities, the logarithm of accumulated degree days below 29°F exhibits essentially a linear relationship with fast ice accretion at Wales, Alaska.
7. Average total ice growth at Wales is 46 to 48 inches, with first slush ice formed late October to early November and fast ice break-up normally completed by mid June.
8. Tides off Wales are semi-diurnal in varia- tion, with ranges between high and low water during the summer months averaging less than 12 inches.
4
20
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Extend and make simultaneous oceano- graphic and meteorological measurements essential to a detailed analysis of the sea-ice-heat-budget regime.
2. Continue measurement of average water transport through the Bering Strait by the electro- magnetic method and conduct independent water velocity measurements for correlation with transport data.
3. Conduct daily sea-water temperature meas- urements from strategic points along the northwestern Alaskan coast as an aid to the study of temperature/ transport discrepancies.
4. Conduct sonar studies in respect to the effect of ice coverage and movement on ambient noise and passive detection ranges.
5. Study and relate tide and wind contribution to water transport through the Bering Strait.
6. Obtain data on the variation of the hori- zontal component of the earth’s magnetic field and the contribution to the fluctuations present in the water-transport-generated signal potentials.
7. Conduct laboratory experiments to simulate the effect of varying current speeds and direction on electrical potentials generated by simultaneous irregular flow conditions across the Bering Strait.
APPENDIX: SURFACE CURRENT AND VELOCITY PROFILE DATA
TABLE 1. Surface current observations, eastern Bering Strait, 1 August 1954.
Position Current Position Current n.m.due| Time (n.m.due] Time (BST*) west line)]| (BST*) LVT-3(C) No. 1 0730 | N 1.5 | 0230 Ww 0.49 0801 N 0310 | WNW] 0.20 0830 | N 0345 NW 0.17 0901 N 0930 | N LVT-3(C) No. 2 1002 | N 3.0 | 0250 | NW 0.53 1030 | N 0300 | NW 0.52 1100 | N 0337. | NNW | 0.47 1130 | N 0445 | NNW | 0.48 1200 | N 0535 | NW 0.56 1230 | N 0610 | N 1.13 1307 | N 0620 | N 1.40 1330 | N 0705 | N 1.69 1400 | N USS BURTON ISLAND USCGC NORTHWIND LCVP. SEND GWE 5.0 | 0300 | 320° | 0.20 15.0 | 0205 | 180° | 0.15 CED |) ay 0:22 0240 | 180 0.11 Weis) |) Seay 0:24 0305 | 195 0.11 OI) | 0.31 0325 | 195 0.14 CH) |) 9 zai 0405 | 200 0.14 OF | ee O19 0435 | 250 0.14 0600**| 340 0.17 cea || axes one OES) Neti Gs 0540 | 305 0.36 Ce SY 0.11 0605 | 335 0.55 LCVP recalled, new crew sent out. 0630 335 0.83 Boat reanchored 3 miles north of 0700 355 1.13 first position. 0730 355 1.13 me WGN ae 0800 | 000 1.52 Sant Gia Bie 0830 | 000 1.50 i 0900 | 000 1.52 USCGC NORTHWIND Wey) |] Gey) 1.48 “ 1005 | 350 1.25 Bc ye gal OHS 1040 | 350 1.13 337 GEN 1115 | 350 0.87 O18 08 1145 | 350 0.99 ol3 Ore 1200 | 350 0.69 ive) N20 1235 | 350 0.78 ) IS 1300 | 350 1.03 012 1.22 001 1.18 USS BURTON ISLAND 015 1.40 20.0 | 0200 005 1.27 0230 010 1.45 0300 010 1.36 0330 008 1.48 0400 007 1.35 0430 012 1.41 0500 009 1.46 0530 003 1.43 0600 0630 USS BURTON ISLAND LCVP 0700 12.0 | 0200 | N 0.25 0730 0230 | N 0.34 0800 0300 | N 0.32 0830 0330 | N 0.49 0900 0400 | N 0.34 0930 0430 | N 0.59 1000 0500 | N 0.88 1030 0530 | N 1.22 1100 0600 | N 1130 0634 | N 1200 0705 | N 1230
* Bering Standard Time (plus 11 zone).
** LCVP dragging anchor; values highly questionable.
21
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REFERENCES
1.
G. L. Bloom Facilities and Measurement Program at Wales, Alaska (Navy Electronics Laboratory, Report 445) 20 May 1954 (CONFIDENTIAL).
D. W. Pritchard and W. V. Burt ““An Inexpensive and Rapid Technique for Obtaining Current Profiles in Estuarine Waters” Journal of Marine Research vol. 10, no. 2, 1951, pp. 180-189.
W.H. Dall The Currents and Temperatures of Bering Sea and the Adjacent Waters (Coast and Geodetic Survey, Superintendent’s Annual Report, 1880, Appendix 16, pp. 297-340).
R. M. Lesser and G.L. Pickard Oceanographic Cruise to the Bering and Chukchi Seas, Summer 1949; Part Il; Currents (Navy Electronics Laboratory, Report 211) 24 October 1949 (CONFIDENTIAL).
H. U. Sverdrup The Oceans, Their Physics, Chemistry, and General Biology Prentice-Hall, 1942.
M. Faraday “Experimental Researches in Electricity’’ Royal Society of London. Philosophical Transactions vol. 122, 1832, pp. 125-162.
F.B. Young et al. ‘On Electrical Disturbances Due to Tides
10.
11.
12.
13.
and Waves” Philosophical Magazine Series 6, vol. 40, no. 235, July 1920, pp. 149-159.
M.S. Louguet-Higgins ‘The Electrical and Magnetic Effects of Tidal Streams’’ Royal Astronomical Society of London. Monthly Notices. Geophysical Supplement vol. 5, no. 8, March 1949, pp. 285-307.
W.V.R. Malkus and M.E. Stern ‘Determination of Trans- ports and Velocities by Electromagnetic Effects’’ Journal of Marine Research vol. 11, no. 2, 1952, pp. 97-105.
G.K. Wertheim Studies of the Electric Potential Between Key West, Florida and Hayane, Cuba, Number 2 (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Reference 54-68) Septem- ber 1954.
G.L. Pickard and W.K. Lyon Project Aleutians: Attempted Electromagnetic Measurement of Sea Currents in the Bering Strait (Canada. Pacific Oceanographic Group) 28 November 1949 (CONFIDENTIAL).
Hydrographic Office, H. O. Miscellaneous 16,366 U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office Report on Project 572 December 1955 (CONFIDENTIAL).
E. B. Callaway An Analysis of Environmental Factors Affect- ing Ice Growth (Hydrographic Office, Technical Report TR-7) September 1954.
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Chief, Bureau of Ships (Code 312) (12 copies)
Chief, Bureau of Ordnance (Re6) (Ad3) (2)
Chief, Bureau of Aeronautics (TD-414)
Chief of Naval Operations (Op-37) (2)
Chief of Naval Research (Code 416) (Code 466)
Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet
Commander in Chief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet
Commander Operational Development Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet
Commander, U.S. Naval Air Development Center (Library)
Commander, U.S. Naval Air Missile Test Center (Technical Library)
Commander, U.S. Naval Air Test Center (NANEP) (2)
Commander, U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory (Library) (2)
Commander, U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Station (Pasadena Annex Library)
Commanding Officer and Director, David Taylor Model Basin (Library) (2)
Commanding Officer and Director, U.S. Navy Underwater Sound Laboratory (Code 1450) (3)
Director, U.S. Naval Engineering Experiment Station (Library)
Director, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (Code 2021) (2)
Director, U.S. Navy Underwater Sound Reference Laboratory (Library)
Commanding Officer, Office of Naval Research, Pasadena Branch
Hydrographer, U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office (1) (Air Weather Service Liaison Office) (1) (Division of Oceanography) (1)
Senior Navy Liaison Officer, U.S. Navy Electronics Liaison Office
Superintendent, U.S. Naval Postgraduate School (Library) (2)
Assistant Secretary of Defense (Research and Development) (Technical Library Branch)
NAVY — NEL San Diego, Calif.
INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST
(One copy to each addressee unless otherwise specified)
Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, U.S. Army (Document Library Branch) (3)
Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army (Engineer Research and Development Division, Field Engineering Branch)
The Quartermaster General, U.S. Army (Research and Development Division, CBR Liaison Officer)
Commanding General, Redstone Arsenal (Technical Library)
Commanding Officer, Transportation Research and Development Command (TCRAD-TO-1)
Chief, Army Field Forces (ATDEV-8)
Resident Member, Beach Erosion Board, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army
Commander, Air Defense Command (Office of Operations Analysis, John J. Crowley)
Commander, Air University (Air University Library, CR-5028)
Commander, Strategic Air Command (Operations Analysis)
Commander, Air Force Armament Center (ACGL)
Commander, Air Force Cambridge Research Center (CRQST-2)
Executive Secretary (John S. Coleman), Committee on Undersea Warfare, National Research Council
Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard (Aerology and Oceanography Section)
Commander, International Ice Patrol,
U.S. Coast Guard Director, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Oceanic
Fishery Investigations (Library), Honolulu U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, La Jolla, California
(Dr. E. H. Ahlstrom)
(South Pacific Fishery Investigations, John C. Marr) Brown University, Director, Research Analysis Group University of California, Director, Marine Physical
Laboratory, San Diego, California
University of California, Director, Scripps Institution of Oceanography (Library), LaJolla, California The Johns Hopkins University, Director, Chesapeake
Bay Institute (Library), Annapolis, Maryland Massachusetts Institute of Technology Director, Acoustics Laboratory (John A. Kessler) University of Miami, Director, Marine Laboratory University of Southern California, Department of Geology (K. O. Emery) Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, Head, Department of Oceanography (Dr. D.F. Leipper) The University of Texas Director, Defense Research Laboratory University of Washington, Department of Oceanog- raphy (Dr. R.H. Fleming, Executive Officer) (Fisheries-Oceanography Library) Yale University Director, Bingham Oceanographic Laboratory Director, Lamont Geological Observatory (M. Ewing) The Director, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Vitro Corporation of America, Silver Spring Laboratory (Library)
VIA BUREAU OF SHIPS:
The Admiral, British Joint Services Mission (Navy Staff) (3)