WM 7825088 3 cde EY A Al: vg cos = aw SAY H|: [Sad mR 4 'g f?. 3) 6 = f\s | » - | in| C5 H . s A 7H, ey & | AR a ‘ R be al ] — ° (20 en / 41 | GE N) 4 iN a : Pe as ar els WO) oa WS SE mK P ~ : x y 4 wD ° 4" rN J .\ 7 q e 2 : & ; & 5 | sak \ : ex q if > e = J) al ox 1H y >) cc iis , xs y : —— ~~ v r) 9 (OC Wy = be. =| ® Oca | 2 byenk : J. aM y %z f ® zm H ) A in s \ hy i 8 ‘= ANS 7 Ps @/2) . e i" : eo Cd 4 ole bre > : SI: te) y W)C H| Digitized by the Internet Archive In 2011 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/cyclopaediaorun05rees THE CYCLOPA DIA; OR, Untversal Dictionary Or ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE. VOL. V. Printed by A. Strahan, New-Street-Square, Londons THE CYC LOPA DIA; OR, UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF Arts, Sciences, and Witerature. BY ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS. EE IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES. VOL. V. RR LONDON: Printed ror LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, PavresrnostER-Row, P.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A.STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL, CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J- AND As ARCH, CADELL AND DAVIES, 8S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY PARBURY AND ALLES, RK. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND COs, J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING. 1819. : Ne aia a, Alt ee ean » van } iy aes 3 a £ ‘. , f an . a he ; aw tATG a ey a * ‘ . ¥ hour's aH | wa oad ; | rt in . Ef . . 5 eae : ar - ; ' aafnrame wae cave ; | ‘ 7 bo be sri pile se i a ) CAMO GHIA PRAT AI a a. / Mera ok ORACey BUT | an . td - ss fd eDov | : t ¥ 7 ‘ on : D r { . ‘ EIR Rime = = ‘ , ‘ 5 1 Wea r r —_ -* to 5 aa a ye ¢ > ~ et . . J. mA : ; ome Ok pada 50h natant iy iu wn: eae oreingis aM oe. SL OMMREMD YY Wy. EAU ilies CONNER a FEN EAA et Pe 09) sa io a . ie " SRL meh eh Be, , Bide eee pan, oS ae, rj me oe << ik HEAL Uaghtaoony, ae te yin 4 Ces uo ah j Pen ff nas 4 20h ce ee Goede 4 J « Lit f 1 ‘att J ; < UNIVERSAL . CYCLOPEDIA: OR, A NEW DICTIONARY OF ARTS. and SCIENCES. (SECOND EDITION.) ' EEE | BOOK-KEEPING. - OOK-KEEPING isthe art of recording mercantile tranfaCtions in a regular and fy{tematic manner. ~ A merchant’s books fhould exhibit the true ftate of his affairs. They fhould fhew the particular fuccefs of each tranfaction, as well as thé-general refult of the whole ; | and fhould be fo arranged as to afford correct and ready ee upon every fubje€t for which they may be con- ulted. ' Books may be kept either by fingle or double entry. Single Entry is chiefly ufed in retail bufinefs; it is the moft concife and fimple method of book-keeping ; but not the mott perfedt, ie defeGtive in fome effential par- ticulars, Double Entry is generally ufed in wholefale and mercantile affairs ; whence it is fometimes called Merchants? Accounts. This method is univerfally preferred in extenfive commerce, being the moft comprehenfive and fyftematic in its principles, and the moft certain in its conclufions. Book-keeping, asa {cience, is therefore underftood to mean the method b * double entry ; and in this fenfe we thall ufe the term, unlels when there is occafion to diftinguifh double from fingle entry. Boox-xeerinc, Hifory of. The origin of book-keep- ing, like that of moft other ufeful arts, is involved in great obfcurity. Itis generally fuppofed to have been firft prac- tifed at Vite in the fifteenth century, when that city was the grand emporium of Europe. Some authors, however, ‘ Bink that double entry was known to the ancients, and re- vived ouly in Italy, with the revival of commerce; and certain aotations are adduced in fupport of this opinion. Thus liny, in {peaking of fortune, fays, “ Huic omnia expenfa ; huic omnia feruntur accepta; et in tota ratione mortalium fola utramque paginam facit,’’ lib. ii. cap. 7. Similar paffages may be likewife quoted from others, : mm thew, that the ancients entered the receipts and pay- ou. V. Strahan and Prefion, ~Rices Square. Leadon. ments of money on oppofite pages, in the way of debtor and creditor; but nothing beyond fingle entry can be in- ferred from this practice ; nor is it probable that any thing more was wanted in the rude and {imple ftate of ancient commerce. Infurances, bills of xchange, and other modern improvements required, and, in all probability, produced cor- refponding improvements in the mode of keeping accounts ; but the circumiftance which places the queftion in the cleareft light is, that the terms of this art cannot be traced to any ancient language, but feem immediately derived from the Italian, as adopted in the other languages of Europe. When Snellius tranflated Stevin’s book-keeping into Latin, he was obliged to invent or adopt newterms. ‘Thus he calls book-keeping, apologiftica; the ledger, codex accepti expen- JSique 3 the walte-book, liber deletitius ; the {tock account, fors ; and the balance-account, epilogi/mus. From the principles of book-keeping, conjectures may be formed of its origin. ‘The double purpofe of a bill of ex- change, and the manner of recording the fame, might have naturally fuggefted the idea of double entry. The prin- ciple ‘might have been even deduced from the axioms of Euclid, or the properties of an algebraic equation; and it is remarkable that the firft European author on alge~ bra, Lucas de Burgo, wrote the firft treatife on book- keeping, which is thus defcribed by de la Porte: * Vers Van. 1495, Frére Luc Italien de nation, en fit imprimer un traité en Italien (c’eft Je plus ancien auteur que j’aic vii fur cette matiére), il fut fuivi par plufieurs auteurs du méme Pays, & par des Frangois, qui au commencement du fiecle fuivant nous en ont donné des Méthades impriméer. Mais Vordre embarraffant, & le ttyle long & embrouillé de cesouvrages comparés a la nettete & a la briéveté qui font en ulage aujourd’hui, font yoir combien Pexperience a poli & abrégé cette Science.”’ La Science des Negociaus et Teneure de Livres, par M. Dela Porte, p. 12. Paris, 1753. B a Porte’s BOOK-KEEPING. La Perte’s remarks on the want of method and arrange- ment in the old fyftems of book-keeping, will, in fome meafure, apply to his own, though it full continues a favourite work in France. We fhall, however, take no further notice here of foreign publications, but confine our obfervations to thofe of cur own country, wHere every fubjec&. conneGted with commerce feems to have been. cultivated with the greateft affiduity and fuccefs. The firft treatife on book-keeping, in the Englifh lan- guage, of which there is:any account, was publithed in-the year 1543 by Hugh Oldcaitle, a fchoolmatter ; and it was re- printed, in 1588, by John Mellis, under the following curious title: «A briefe inftru€tion and manner how to keepe bookes of accompts, after the order of debitor and creditor, and as well for proper accompts, partible, &c. by three bookes, named the memoriall, journall, and leager. Newly aug- mented and fet forth by John Millis, fchelemaifter of Lon- don. Imprinted by him at the Signe of the White Beare, nigh Baynard’s Cattle, 1588, 12mo.”’ In his Epiitle to the Reader, Mellis fays, “* And knowe ye for certaine, that I prefume ne vfurpe not to fet forth this worke of mine own labour and indultrie, for truely [ am but the reneuer and reutuer of an auncient old copie printed here in London the 14th of Auguit 1543.’ See Ames’s Typographical Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 753- In 1569, a fyftem of book-keeping was publifhed in Lon- don by James Peele, who fays, in his pretace, ‘that he had initru&ted many mercantile people in thisart, which had been long practifed in other countries, though then new in England.”” There is no trace of any other work of the kind untiljthe year 1652, when John Collins, an eminent mathematician and accountant, publifhed a large work, entitled, «An In- trodution to Merchants’ Accounts,’ which ferved long as a ftandard book on the fubje@. ~ About the beginning of the following century, feveral {maller fy{tems were written, chiefly by Snell, Hatton, Mal- colm, Webfter, Miers, and Stevens; but the moft popular work that had yet appeared, was Mair’s ‘ Book-keep- ing methodized,”? publifhed in 1738, which, after pafl- ing through three editions, was re-printed, with, altera- tions, in 1768, under the new title of ‘ Book-keeping modernized ;’? and: thefe alterations, he fays, became necef- fary, ‘in confequence of the conitant change and perpetual flux in the forms and fafhions of accountfhip.”” Butit may be obferved, that if this edition was modelled after the real practice of that time, the forms and arrangements of: mer- ehants’ accounts muft have fince undergone great changes, and manifeft improvements. In Mair’s Book-keeping, how- ever, the principles of double entry are correétly explained ; but the rules and examples are too numerous and verbofe for {chool praétice. From the firft appearance of this work, to the year 1789, numerous other fyftems were publifhed, better adapted to the purpofes of teaching the art, though differing but little in arrangement. ‘The moft generally approved were thofe of Dodfon, Wefton, Donn, Hutton, Hamilton, Gordon, Dow- ling, and Jackfon. rats were alfo written, within the above period, by Crofby, London, Shortland, Wood, Cooke, Sedger, and Dilworth. On a review of the foregoing publications, it does not appear that the theory of book-keeping had hitherto kept pace with the improvements of practice. While merchants were conttantly adopting plans of arrangement, which pro- moted perfpicuity and correétnefs, and diminifked the la. bour of the counting-honfe; fchool-mafters, the chief authors on book-keeping, feemed only to confult or imitate each other’s works, which had been long confidered by men of bufigefs as obfolete or impraéticable. _ A work of a very different defcription was publifhed in 1789, by Benjamin Booth, a merchant, who thus obferves in his preface: “It is furprifing that in a commercial country like this, there fhould not be a treatife on the fubje& (book-keeping), which, when applied toa large fcale of. bufinefs, can be reduced to praGtice. Thofe I have feen,. appear to have been written by perfons who had not abilities fufficient for the undertaking, or by fuch as never had an opportunity of bringing their theories to the teft of expe- rience.”? ‘This elaborate work, which is evidently the refult of experience, contains various examples of judicious arrange- ment; but it is not elementary, having only a journal and ledger. Some fmaller publications followed, which deferve com mendation, particularly thofe of Mr. Wicks and Mr. Shires. The latter work is ftated to be the refult of thirty years” experience. It exhibits much neatnefé and ingenuity in the arrangement ; but, like Booth’s Book-keeping, it contains only a journal and ledger. In tracing the progrefs of Italian book-keeping, fome- thing fhould be faid of a rival method, entitled the “ Eng- lith Book-keeping,”’ publifhed by Mr. Jones in 1796, a work chiefly remarkable for the enormous fubfcription raifed on the cccafion. Ac profpeftus of this performance was pre- vioufly cireulated, announcing the difcovery of an infallible method of book-keeping by fingle entry, and at the fame time reprefenting the Italian method as delufive and erroneous. By high promifes and accredited recommendations, fubferip= tions (at a guinea each) are faid to have been obtained, to» the amount of fix or feven thoufand pounds. The work, however, did not anfwer the expectations of the public. Se- veral ingenious tra¢is foon appeared, defending double entry,.. and expofing the infufficiency of this new fyitem; and one of peculiar merit, written by Mr. Mill, clofed the contro- verfy. This gentleman, in order to form a comparative eftimate between the Englifh and Italian methods, arranged Mr. Jones’s materials into a journal and ledger, by double entry ; and, in the courfe of the operation, detected an ef- fential error ;—a detection which completed the triumph of double entry. The Englith fyftem of book-keeping, though univerfally rejected, has proved ufeful to the public as well as to the author. It gave rife to much inveftigation on the fubje& 5. and the extraordinary eagernefs manifefted in the fub{erip~ tion, fhewed that men of bufinefs wifhed fer a more praCtical fyftem of merchants’ accounts than had been hitherto offered to their notice. : In 1801, Mr. Kelly publifhed a work, entitled «‘ The Elements of Book-keeping,’? which appears to have met with very general approbation, and from which the prefent~ article is, by permiflion, extraéted. The fubfequent edi- tions of this publication have been confiderably enlarged by traéts on exchange, banking, and other commercial fubje&ts ; but its principal obje&t (as ftated in the preface) is to explain and illuftrate the modern improvements of mer- chants? accounts. Of what thefe improvements confift, may be known from the following account of the work, given in Nicholfon’s Philofophical Journal, Feb. 1802. «©The improvements, which time and experience have effected in book-keeping, do not comprehend any change in _ the original principle of double entry, but in the arrangement and claffification of fimilar accounts, which facilitate the operations of commerce nearly in the fame manner that the bufinefs of manufatures is expedited by the divifion of la- bour. The elementary treatife before us (Kelly’s Book-keep- _ 6 ing) ing) exhibits thefe imptovements, Here the Waite book is di- vided into a number of fublidiary books, each of which is the regilter of its peculiar portion or department of butinefs ; and each book is divided into monthly tranfaGtions. . By thefe means the journal is greatly fhortened and fimplified ; but the principal advantage of fuch arrangement confiits in polting the books ; for here a whole month’s cafh, bills, commiffion, infurance, and intereft, are each carried in one fum, or entry, from the journal to the Iedger. This me- thod, by which repetitions are avoided, and labour confi- derably diminifhed, is now generally adopted in our princi- pal’ mercantile houfes.”’ Principres oF Boox-xsErinG BOTH BY SINGLE , axp Dovsrs Entry. Sixcre Entry chiefly records tranfaétions on credit, and for this purpofe two books are required, called the Day Book and the Ledger. The day book begins with an account of the owner’s property, debts, &c.; then fellows a detail of the occur- rences of trade, fet down in the order of time in which they take place. The name of the perfon, or cuflomer, is firft written with the term Dr. or Cr. annexed, according as he becomes debtor or creditor by the tranfaction; and this may be dif- tinguifhed by the following general rule : “The perfon who receives is Dr. and the perfon who ives or parts with any thing is Cr.”’ Thus, if I fell goods on credit, I enter A.B. the buyer, Dr. to the goods, fpecifying their quantity and value. If I buy goods oncredit, [enter C.D. the feller, Cr. by the goods, Preckt pice their quantity and value. By the fame rule, if I pay money, the perfon to whom I pay it is made Dr. to cafh for the amount ; and if I receive money, the perfon from whom I receive it, is made Cr. by cafh, for the amount. And if debts be contracted or difcharged by any other means, the fame rule is obferved; the perfon, who becomes indebted to me, is entered Dr. and the perfon to whom I become indebted, Cr.—Alfo, the perfon whofe debt I dif- charge is made Dr.; and he that difcharges a debt due by me, 1s Cr. ' The ledger colle&s together the difperfed accounts of each perfon in the day book, and places the Drs. and Crs. upon oppolite pages of the fame folio. The perfon’s name is written in large characters as atitle: on the left hand, or firlt page, he is flyled Dr. ; and on the oppofite, or right atid page, Cr. Onthele pages the trawfaétions are en- } a | Jous Surtu Dr) eV 5.40. To Account from Ledger A - {100, 0} © 17} i | bees | ; Se . James Tavror Dr. H I ‘ies ae | 55) oO] O per yard - Jan. 3.| To Cloth for 60 yatds, at 183. ft _ _By the above ledger it appears that the balances are in my favour ; and if thefe be added to the cath T have in hand, _ ahd the value of the goods uafold, the fim is the net of my BOOK-KEEPING. tered as they fland Drs. or Crs. in the day-book. For in- ftance, A. B. is debited for whatever he has bought of me ; aud on the oppoiite page, he is credited for the payments he has made. In fhort, whatever I have given him, is on the Dr. tide, and what he has givén me onthe Cr. ; and the difference between the Dr. and Cr. fides is called the © balance.”? A feort Specimen of Single Entry. January 1, 1805. Suppofe John Smith owes me iool. which is my fole property, or the net of my eftate ; and fuppofe that on the 2d of January, I buy of hin 80 yards of cloth, at 15s. per yard ; on the 3d, I fell James Taylor, on credit, 60 yards of the faid cloth at 18s. 4d. per yard; and on the 4th, James Taylor pays me in part gol. Required the day book and ledger of the foregoing tranfaétions, according to fingle entry, and alfo the profit or lofs. Day Book. Folio | —___— Jan.1,1805. — } af John Smith, Dr. £ ils. 4a Eedger. To Balance from Ledger. 4 - - 2.———— John Smith, Cr. By Cloth for 80 yards, at 15s. per yd. 3. James Taylor, Dr. ToCloth for6oyds, at 18s. 4d. per yd. —_ - — SS James Taylor, Cr. By Cafh received in part - - To poft the foregoing Accounts into the Ledger. The ledger being ruled in folio form, according to the following {pecimen, with the left fide for Dr. and the right fide for Cr. alfo a margin for the date, and near the money columns, one for reference to the day book, proceed as follows: Open an account for John Smith, and debit him, on the left hand page, for 1ool. ; and for the 2d day’s tranfaétion, credit him for 6ol. on the oppofite page. 5 For the 3d day, open an account for James Taylor, de- biting him for 551.; and forthe 4th day, credit him for gol. When every tranfaction is thus pofted, each account is balanced, by fubtraéting the lefs {um or fide from the greater, and then putting the difference or balance under the fmaller fide, by which both fums are made equal. LEDGER BY SINGLE ENTRY. Contra. Cr. -| By Cloth for 80 yards, at 15s. per yd. By Balance - - - - ConTRA. Cr. Jan.°4,| By Cath received in part - 2 | By Balance - - - - eflate ; which, compared with my original flock, fhews my profit or lofs, Thus it appears that Bz John BOOK-KEEPING. - John Smith owes me + » £.40 James Taylorowesme - - 15 Ihave in Cafh - - - - + 40 Thave unfold zoyards of cloth, at 15s. per yard (the pine 05 coft) 110 The net of my eftate, 1co Stock beginning. #. 10 gain. Hence I have cleared rol. by the fale of 60 yards of cloth at a profit of 3s. 4d. per yard, , Remarks on fingle Entry. By fingle Entry I cannot tell what goods are unfold, or my profits or lofles by my books only, except when the tranfactions are but few, asin the foregoing examples. For as the ledger here contains only the accounts of perfons dealing en credit, it affords no other knowledge to the owner, than what debts are due to him, and what he owes. But if he wifh to know what goods are undifpofed of, and what he has gained or loft by the whole or any part of his dealings, he cannot obtain this knowledge by fingle entry, without “taking ftock;” that is, he mult weigh or meafure what goods he has unfold; and their value, added to the cafhin hand, and the balance of debts, will fhew the net of his eftate, and this, compared with his original ftock, will fhew his profit or lofs. Hence book-keeping by fingle entry is effentially defective, as it affords no method of afcertaining the ftate of a mer- ehant’s affairs, without taking ftock ; a tafk which is both laborious and liable to error, and which at beft affords no adequate means of preventing embezzlement or detecting fraud ; but thefe objeéts are attained by double entry, per- haps as effeCtually as human ingenuity can devife. Dovste Entry. In double entry, three principal books are required ; the wafle book, journal, and ledger. The waffe book gives a regular detail of the tranfaGtions of bufinefs, fet down in the order of time in which they take place, and {tated ina clear, fimple,and circumftantial manner. The journal records the fame tranfaétions as the waite book, but they are differently exprefled ; for here the Drs. aud Crs. of the various accounts are afcertained, in order to -transfer them with more eafe to the ledger, The manner of afcertaining the Dr. and Cr. of each tranfaction here is the fame, in effect, as in fingle entry ; but in double entry, things as well as perfons, are made Drs. and Crs.; and one thing or perfon is made Dr. to an- other thing or perfon. Thus, if I fell cloth to A.B. on credit, I enter it in the journal, A.B. Dr. to Cloth. If I buy cloth of C.D. on credit, I jovrnalize it, Cloth Dr. to C.D. ; andif1 buy or fell for ready money, or barter one kind of goods for ano- ther, the following general rule mutt be obferved : «What I receive is Dr. to what I giveor part with.” For inftance, if I buy cloth for ready money, the journal entry is “Cloth Dr. to Cath ;”? and if I fell it for ready money, ‘* Cath Dr. to-Cloth ;” always {pecifying the quan- tity, price, and amount. When two or more perfons or things are included in the fame account, they are exprefled by the term “ Sundries,” or “ Sundry Accounts :” thus, if I fell cloth for part mo- ney, and the reft on credit, I journalize it, ** Sundries Drs. to Cloth ;” and then fpecify the particulars. The following rules for diftinguifhing Dr. and Cry will apply in all cafes: The perfon to whom, or for whofe account I pay, or furnifh the means of payment is debior. The perfon from whom, or for whofe account, I receive, or who turnifhes me with the means of payment, 1s creditor. Every thing which comes into my pofleflion, or under my direétion is debtor, Every thing which paffes out of my poffeffion, or from under my direction, is credi/or. The word Inoc is fometimes ufed to affift the memory as being compofed of the initials of the rule—Jn Debior, Out Creditor. ; : The following lines may likewife affift the memory in journalizing : By journal laws, what I receive, Is debtor made to what I give ; Stock for my debts mutt debtor be, find creditor by property ; Profit and lofs accounts are plain, I debit lofs, and credit gain. : The edger colleéts the fcattered items, articles, or tran< factions, from the journal, and places them under their re- {pective heads, oppofing the Drs. and Crs. of each, on the fame principle as in fingle entry; but here accounts are opened for goods as well as for perfons, and every accountis entered twice, whence this methed iscalled ‘double entry.” The accounts of the ledger are diftinguifhed into three kinds, perfonal, real, and fictitious. Perfonal accounts are the fame in double as in fingle entry; and every perfon is debited or credited as he ftands Dr. or Cr. in the journal. Hence every perfonal account, fuppofe that of A.B., con- tains on the Dr. fide all items or articles, by which he be- comes indebted to me, and on the Cr. fide all items or arti- cles, by which I become indebted to him. Real accounts dre thofe opened for merchandize, or any other {pecies of property, fuch as cafh, bills, fhips, houfes, &c. Here, as in all other accounts, each tranfaétion is entered on the Dr. or Cr. fide, as it ftands in the journal. Thus, goods bought are entered on the Dr. fide ; and when thefe or any part of them are fold, they are entered on the Cr. fide ; by which the quantity on hand, and the profit or lofs on each article may be, at any time, afcertained. Fiiitious accounts are thofe of ftock, and profit and lofs. Stock is a term ufed to reprefent the name of the mer- chant or owner of the books. On the Dr. fide is entered the amount of the debts which he owed when the books were opened ; and on the Cr. the amount of the cath, goods, debts, and any other property then belonging to him. The difference between the Dr. and Cr. fides fhews his net ftock, at that time. Profit and lofs is a general term ufed for either gain or lofs, fuch as may arife a trade, intereft, commiffion, &c. On the Dr. fide are entered all tranfactions of loffes ; and on the Cr. fide thofe of gain—the difference fhews the net gain or lofs. x A fhort Example of Double Entry. { WASTE BOOK. Lonpon, Jan. 1. 1805. John Smith owes me, as per old Ac- count in Ledger 4. - - - = JAN. 2. Bought of John Smith, 80 yards o Cloth, at 15s. per yard, on account -| 60} o| © Sold James Taylor on credit, 60 yards of Cloth, at 18s. 4d. per yard + Received of James "Taylor, inpart - -| 40! of o 4 JOUR- =e BOOK-KEEPING, , JOURNAL. Folio of ——__—. Lospon, Jan. 1, 1805. 2 islal Ledger. John Smith Dr. to Stock, £100 + | For Balauce of old Account - - j100! o| o 2 aes eee ! Chih Dr. to John Smith, #60 - - | For 80 yards, bought at 15s. per yard | 6o! * 2 James Taylor Dr. to Cloth, £55 = ed | For 60 yards, at 18s. qd. per yard - 55} | ro ee A. — oe | | Cafe Dr. to James Taylor, £40 . - | Received of him on account - - - | 40.0 o| Rules for pofting the Journal into the Ledger. The ledger being ruled with the Dr. fide to the left, and the Cr. fide to the night, (as before defcribed,) let there be a {pace allotted to the left of each page, for the day of the ing tothe order in which they fland in the journal ; this is not, however effential to the truth of the work, but it is the moft regular method, and the moft clear to learners. The ftock account ftands firft, and, like all other accounts, . is debited or credited as journalized. Here ftock is Cr. by John Smith; then for the fecond entry, John Smith is Dr. to flock, for every Dr. mult have a Cr, and every Cr.a Dr. By the fame rule the other accounts are entered twice in the ledger; firlt, in the direét way, as they ftand in the jour-' nal, and then reverfed. Thus, the fecond day’s account is potted, Cloth Dr, to John Smith, and then John Smith Cr. by Cloth. In the fame manner the third and fourth day’s. accounts . are pofted; James Taylor is debited to Cloth, and Cloth credited by James Taylor ; Cath is next made Dr.to James Taylor, and James Taylor Cr. by Cath. Here it may be obferved that, when an account is once opened in the ledger, every following tranfaction which month, and to the right, for the page of the journal from =¢o"cerns it muft be brought back, and entered there on the 5 whence each account is taken. The accounts are moftly opened in the ledger, accord- proper fide, as an account is never opened twice, though it may be transferred for want of room, LEDGER. 805. | Stock. £5. d. 0 Balance for the Net of my Estate 110) o] oO John Smith an. 1. /To Stock Cloth an. z./To John Smith, 80 yards, at 15s. % yard - - To Profit and Lofs - James Taylor Dr. an. 3. |T'o Cloth for 60 yards, at 18s. 4d. y yard . |Profit and Lofs 0 Stock gained Balance To John Smith To Cloth - o James Taylor To Cath . 1805. Per Contra, aueere By John Smith By Profitand Lofs ~ Per Contra, Jan. 2, By Cloth - |By Balance Per Contra, Cr. Jan. 3. By James Taylor, 69 yards, at 18s. 4d. By Balance unfold,20 yards, at 15. Per Conira, Jan. 4. By Cafh - By Balance Per Contra, By Balance Per Contra, By Cloth - Per Contra, Cr. By Stock for the Net of my Eflate - ea BOOK-KEE PING. To make a trial balance. Whenevery account is pofted twice from the journal into the ledger, and on oppofite, or contrary, fides, it is evident that all the fums on the Dr. fide will equal all thofe on the Cr. fide. : This trial, or check, is generally made on a feparate pa- per, and it may be performed every day, month, or year, “according to the extent of the bufinefs.. The titles of the kedger accounts are written under each other with Dr. to the left, and Gr. to the right. Annexed to each, on its proper fide, is fet down the fumofvevery Dr. and Cr. ; and both fides willagreeif the work be right: as in thefollow- ing example, from the preceding ledger. Trial balance. Dr. : LU iGr. £. ipa |j “2. l se | d. e|o]o] Steck - - - + - ; 100 |} 0} 0 roo | o | o || John Smith- - - + -| 6o|o]}o Gail46 | dx Clow, John Gibfon - 26,431 15 9 216 > £ { Walter and Hume 30, 610 15 3 Thomas Pembroke 30,105 11 6) books, where fuch are regularly entered.—The following |, 19 { 3 are the references : B kts Bene Bal Feb C. B. - Cath Book, I. B. - Invoice Book, p15 Patrick Hamil 5 bay tee 23 B. R. - Bills Receivable, S.B. - Sales Book, a7) cried spe LE Tg .F- B. P. - Bills Payable, —— |_ 2608) 4 o 2 ; 6569|11)10 ; —_——-——+— Jan. 1, — a ee a Ne Soe al Shipped on board the Neptune, for Naples, The following is an inventory of my effects, Henry Marfom matter, fugar for the account both real and potocal, being a lift of the of William Pemberton, as @ invoice book, viz. balances in my faveur and againft me, tranf- Merchandize - = 128) 1/10 ferred from ledger A. dated the 31ft ult. Charges - - . 7.16.9 Commiffion— - - - 4.18% 2 | have in cafh . a ~ = Infurance - = - Bu eG Funded property 4,000l. in the 4 p Oe} 143/18] o} gt Ss a ee ak og = = . Accepted a bill drawn on me -by George Houfe at Richmond -— = r Holland, as y bills payable, No. 1. 400) o} o Houfehold Furniture - - ———————-—— ——3-- ——-- Ship Charlotte, my half = - 3120) Received by this day’s poft a bill from erchandife for balance in hand - | 2165|10| 64 [Charles Le Coin, of 2385 livres 11 fous, at caste for balance due to the > teal 25% p ecn. as # bills receivable, No. 1. 8s5i14| 7 oufe — pe tet heal aia Bam: S 5 Paid Henry aaa bill, No, 215. as % ills receivable for the following bills in hand, cath book - 2 - e 410) o| « (particulars from former bill book.) Received difcount on the above, for 29 days, | * tov cent. C. B. - - - 112! 6 On Ramfay and Co. due i 12 - — Jan. 15. - - BAP, Ph Shipped on board the Swan, for Bilboa, On Edward MaloneJan.z5, 400 oc fundry goods for the account of William On ditto - - 383 10 © Lamos, as » I, B. viz. On Hamilton and Co. Merchandize - - 635 19 10 Feb. 1. - » i aS Charges = = * 10 1g 8 Commiffion - - a oe 9 Infurance - - oe LT, PeCunG BOOK-KEEPING. .WASTE BOOK, Jan. 12, 1805. ——-12 “Paid Charles Mills’s bill, due this aa | No. 213. C.B. - - - I —— Received the amount of Ramfay and Co.’s sill, No. 210. as p C. B. -I Shipped on board the Betfy, for Leghorn, lead for the account of Wilfon and Vanelli, as} | | p I. B. viz. : | Merchandize - > PANG eas Charges - - - Ourz”O Commiffion - - - 4°17 2) Tnfurance - - - 3 15 0) —__ — -16 | Accepted a bill drawn by Gibfon and Carr, N. 2, B.:P: - - - - - —————_ -18 — —| Bought of Samuel Lightfoot, fundry goods, | mounting, as bills of parcels, to - | _——_____. -__———__ - | - 1. Received from William Chulmley, two bills, No. 2. and 3, B. R. - - . —— —21 Samuel Lightfoot has drawn upon mie two pills, No. 2. and 3, B. P. ————__ -2 Arrived the Nancy, from Oporto, on board of which are ten pipes of Port wine, coniigned ome by Millman and fon, to fell for their ac- count, S. B. Paid fundry charges on landing = | eee Received of William Lamos, three bills of exchange, No. 4, 55 and 6, B.R. = — ee — 25 —— Received cath of Edward Malone’s bills,t No. 424 and 435, C. B. - - - | eo oe J ae eee Paid John Gibfon’s bill, No. 214, C. B. | 88 Hh Paid James Harrifon’s bill, No. 219. C. B. — 27 Received from G. Seaford, my half fhare for freight on board the fhip Charlotte, C. B. Se —-28 Received from William Shepherd for the produce of farm in Kent, C. B. = - 54/10 -2¢ = Accepted three bills drawn by Smithfon | ud Co. No. 5, 6, and 7, B. P. - = 820] 5 Paid for repairs on board the fhip Char- lotte; (CaBb.) 7 < - - - - 43\15| Paid Walter and Hume’s bill, N°210,C.B.| 61ojrs Paid Thomas Penibroke’s bill, No.21®,C.B.| 1o5}11 Se yy or eS Shipped on board the Hope, Stanley, for iJamaica, fundry goods for fundry perfons, as » I. B. viz. {e) Nn WwW WASTE BOOK, Jan. 31, 1805. Winter and Weft, Merchandize + - 375 9 9 Charges “ 5 aes ONS Commiffion = = 1110 8 Infurance - - 1218 6 Hampton and Co. Merchandize - ain 170 2 O Charges - - = 7 i2.°6 Commiffion - - Sree gao Infurance - - - 519 O Edward White, Merchandize - ~ - 608 2 6 Charges - - - Sp ak kG Commiffion - - gsane, 8 Infurance - - =" ZONE Tiel James Prime, ' Merchandize - -- 603 13 6 Charges - = s : Obs One Commiifion . - 18 11 6 Infurance - - 205-777 16 Edmund Connor, Merchandize - = 704,32 1 Charges - - - Oe Oe 12 Commiffion - - oh has (2a Tnfurance - . 27 10 II Richard Broadly and Shipper, each a hal fhare, Merchandize ~- - 923 15 3 Charges - - = S78 va: Te Commiffion - - Zorro Infurance - - 3G) SP sG Sold Smithfon and Co. Port wine, S. B. Sold George Holland, Port wine, S. B. — - 3 | — ——-— Received a dividend at the bank, half year’s intereft on £4000. at 4 Cent.C.B. - = SS SS - Sold £2000 flock a 793 p Cent. commif- fion 4 # Cent. C. B. - - - - = ee se Received this month, debentures gor fundry goods fhipped, amounting to - = Received cafh for debentures this month, Bs = = = - = é Paid fundry charges this month for houfe expences, C. B. - - - - All the infurances of this month have been made with the London Affurance Company, and the premiums are unpaid. 403\18 189) 1 652) 1] 8 997) O10) 218] 1/ § IZ9\11| 3 80! 0} c — se BOOK- SUBSIDIARY BOOKS ; Comprehending the Bill Book, Invoice Book, Sales Book, and Cafb Book. Tre Britt Boox. The bill book is an index or regifter of bills of exchange, " whether receivable or payable. Bills receivable are thofe which the merchant receives in yment of fome debt or contraé&t—and bills payable are fon as are drawn upon him, and which he muft pay when due. E When Bills receivable come to hand, their particulars are entered in their refpeCtive columns of the bill book ; andthe particulars of bills payable are likewife inferted in their pro- per columns, when advice is received of their having been dran, or when they are left for acceptance. The ufe of the bill book will be underitood by obferving how the two following bills are entered. 6 Ditto 25|Ditto Hill (Ditto Bills Payable, na By whom drawn and Place. 1 George Holland London Jan. 2 George Binns | 2 Gibfon and Carr Birmingham Jan.12/Alfred Simpfon 3 Saml. Lightfoot! London Jan.21 John Andrews 4 Ditto London —_|Jan.24) Ellis and Co. 5 Smithfon & Co.|London _|Jan.28 George Ramfay 6 Ditto London Jan-28' Henry Watts 7 Ditto (London Invoice Book. An Invoice is a paper fent off with Goods exported on commiffion. The preamble generally contains the name of the fhip, mafter, A Se of danza, and of the perfon to whom the confignment is made. An account is next given of the quantity and amount of the goods, which are generally charged at the bona fide prime coft. The tradefmen’s Bills of parcels are either copied or fent with the invoices, and referred to. The fhipping charges are added to the value of the goods, and upon this fum the agent or factor generally charges his commifion. When he infures the goods, he has alfo a {mall commiffion on the capital S liieesl which capital is al- lowed to be fomething more than the value of the rifk, in order to cover the amount of the rifk, premium, and other expences, in cafe of lofs, Vou. V. Bills Receivable, January 1803. pase Is] Recene ‘ene | Pej horses em tat Date. | To whom Payable. Time. Due. Suan. 2 1\Jan. 3\Chas. Le Coin\Jones}Paris Carr |London Dec.g/William Bing | 2 Months fight|March 6 85\14'7 2 | 2 Ditto 19,;Wm.Chulmley|Bifh |Hull (Hall ‘Ditto \Jan. 5\Charles Hume |31 Days fight/Feb. 22/210 06 2 | 3)Ditto rgjDitto \Ord |Peterfburg|Fox -|Briftol |Nov.g'George Ellis |21 Days fight|Feb. 12}372|100 2 | 4 Ditto 25{Wm. Lamos |Pope|Bilboa {Grey Ditto |Jan. 2|Edward Ingram| 2 Months fight|March 281250 oo 2 | 5 Ditto 25|Ditto ie {Ditto Hood London\Jan, 2}Horner & Scott | 2 Months fight|March 28/310] o!o 2) iCox |Ditto Date. To whom Payable. Time. | Acc*. Due. | Jan.28 Wrightand Hull|31 Daysdate Jan. KEEPING. Copy of the Bill, received from Charles le Coin, and entered in Bills receivable. Liv. fol. a. Paris, Dec. 9th, r80r. 2385 11a25}. , Two months after fight pay to the order of Mr. W. Bing, two thoufand three hundred and eighty-five livres eleven fols Tournois, exchange a 25} » ecu. for value received. Mr. John Carr, Accepted Jan. 1802. London. J. Carr. H. Jones Copy of the Bill drawn on me by George Holland, and entered in Bills payable. £.400 0 0 London, Jan. 2, 1825. Thirty-one days after date, pay to Mr. George Binns, or order, four hundred pounds for value received. To Mr. A.B. Accepted, London. AB ‘ Gerorce Hottranp. [Jan, 2| White & Croker | 2 Months fight March 28/240] 00 January 1805. Sum. | To whom paid and when. 31 Daysdate\Jan. 2Feb. 5/400) 0,0 Clerk of the Bank|Feb, 5 31 Daysdate Jan. 16Do. 15/300 oo John Stubbs \Feb.15 31 Daysdate Jan. 21)Do. 24/500} o!o,D. Lindo ~ |Feb.29 2 Mths.dateJan. 24!/Mar.27\550) olo|William Hoare |Mar.27 21 Daysdate Jan. 29) Feb.21/237\10j0/Henry James Feb.21 John Sills Samuel Binns 31 Daysdate Jan. 29\Mar. 3)310!10/0 29\Do. 3/272| slo i The coft of infurance generally concludes the invoice, and the agent figns his name at the bottom with the words, errors excepted; this fignature, however, does not appear in the book. The invoice book, which contains the copies of all invoices fent off, is fometimes called the invoice book outward, to diftinguifh it from the invoice book inward, which contains copies of invoices received from abroad. But this book is often difpenfed with, by preferving the originals, either filed, or in pigeon-holes, or patted in a blank book made for the purpofe. Invoices of goods reccived to be fold on commiffion, are. generally copied into the fales book, to which the charges are added. The following invoice is here deemed a fufficient {pecimen, and thofe referred to in the walte book may be underitood as arranged in the fame manner, Lriwsine BOOK-KEEPING, _Lnvoice of Sugar fhipped on board the Neptune, Henry Marfom, Mafler, for Naples, by order of William Pemberton, Merchant there, for his Account and Rifk, and to him configned. London, Jan. 1, 1805, ‘ W.P. | No. Cwt. Cwt. ‘No. | 1 Grofs g 120 Tare rr 11 Taian 2 ==. 8 Oro" 2G) = nome 29 ==) Oo. 2 1g i Watt 80 Be —— \O Ge aa Lt Dae Grofs 37 3 4 5 0 12 Tare Be Omen SSS Neat 32 2 20 at 5]. 3s. ¢ Cwt. 168} 5) 10 CHARGES. Debenture Entry = = Coft of Hogfheads - Cartage, Wharfage, rt a esol Pubs iG Bills of Lading - Commiffion on 1761. 1s. tod. Premium of Infurance on rgol. at 1 2 17 Policy Duty Commiffion $y Cent. - fo) eA —_— CaS) es) at 2% p Cent. 3) IDs fo) - —WOn 4s -C ° 19 0 Aleut), pO Drawback allowed at the Cuftom-Houfe - 40) 4/ oO Enta. Jour. Tue Saves Book, or Factory Book. This book is ufed to trace the net proceeds of any cargo or confignment fold upon commiffion. An account fales generally occupies two pages, with a preamble over both, fetting forth the names of the goods, fhip, and perfon, from whom the confignment is received. The firlt, or left-hand page, contains an account of the various charges incurred by the tranfaétion, fuch as freight, cuftom, expences of landing and felling, together with the brokerage, and faétor’s commiffion, both of which are charged on the grofs amount of the Sales. Commiffion is fometimes charged on money advanced for duty, together with the grofs amount of the confignment ; and fome face tors likewife charge intereft on all advances. Pose rz] Sisto The fecond, or right-hand page, contains an account of - the quantity, price, and amount of the goods fold, with the buyer’s name, and the time of payment. between this grofs amount, and the charges, is the net pro ceeds : for which the factor gives his correfpondent credits . and fends him a copy of the account fales, to which he genes rally figns his name, with the words Errors excepted. In fmall confignments, an account of fales may be com~- prifed in one page, beginning either with the charges, or with the amount of the goods. The forms ef thefe ac- counts are various, but all tend to the fame object, that of afcertaining the net proceeds. ; CHarGces. The différence - - BOOK-KEEPING, Dr. Account Sales of 10 Pipes of Port Wine, received » the Nancy, from Oporto, on Account of Millman and Son, Gr. { 1805. vie ae an.23-/To Duty * on 1374.Galls. at 1s. 63d. per Gall. 106.17 “4 Excife, at rl. 18s. p Tun of 252 Galls. ets i Freight, Primage, &c. - 10° 7 ——| 182) 2] 6 Cooperage, 3s. » Pipe 110 O Cartage, Whariage, at 6 4 as p Cooper’s Account 9 Vault Rent, Infurance from Fire, and taking b CIC yartte) Stock - - Brokerage, 5s.» Pipe - 210 0 Landwaiter’s Fees - - O10 0 Poftage of Letters - - 010 3 = "141 gh 3 {ntereft on Duty advanced to this 2 ; | Day, 96 Days, at 5p Cent. - | Commiffion at 2§ » Cent. 818) 9 | 207,15: 8 Jan.31. To Millman and Son, for Net 14911 Proceeds due this Day - 17) 3 357)12.11 * The above Sales took place in 1790, fince which period the duty has been advanced to Js. ad. per gall. and the excife to 44]. 11s. per tun. As thefe charges are Jiable to continual teration, the old rates are here continued as heing equally proper to thew dhe form of an Ac- sount Sales, Tue Casu Book. ‘The cath book contains an account of all money tranfac- tions; it is kept in a folio form like the ledger, with Dr. marked on the left-hand page, and Cr. on the right. On the Dr. fide is entered all money received, and on the Cr. all money paid. ' The amount of thefe receipts or difburfements may be carried in one fum to the ledger, for every month, weck, or day, according to the extent of the bufinefs ; but monthly ‘divifions are moft general; and it is found convenient to transfer the cath book firft to the journal, claffing articles ef the fame kind together. The following cafh book is formed from the wafte and fubfidiary books, by obferving thofe tranfactions where sed 1805. Jan.31.|/By Smithfon and Co. fold them pay able at 2 Months V4 I4t 838 Lefs two Gall. — allowed for UI- lage, viz. 836 | | | | | | Galls. at 361.» | 27° of 138 | Gallons. 5) Jan.31. By George Holland, fold him payable in 3 Months. 4 Pipes, 7 138 8 140 9 118 10 140 536 Lefs r Gall. for —- Ullage,535Gall. at 361. 3% Pipe of 138 Gallons. Ent’, Journ. P. 4. and 6. money is either paid or received, and entering them accord. ingly with dates, names, and other neceflary particulars In real bufinefs, however, fuch tranfa&tions fhould be en- tered at the time they take place. Separate columns are fometimes allotted in the cafh book for money kept at different places ; fuch as, at a banker’s at the bank,and athome. The banker’s book is OceshiOn- ally found ufeful in correéting and abridging the cafh book, which may be alfo abridged by the help of a petty cafh book, containing an account of {mall charges on merchan- dize, and of other incidental expences. The cafh book fometimes contains accounts that need not be transferred to the journal ; fuch as loans and accommo- dations, which are to be foon repaid; thefe may be entered fhort, and when fettled, they 4 courfe, balance themfelves, 2 BOOK-KEEPING. Casi, Dr. | 1805. | Jan, 5. To Intereft for difcounting let ee high 6 low’s Bill, No. 215 : - 15) Lo Bills Receivable, No. 210, Ramfay a ol | and Co. - - - - 5 | 25 ae ; Ras mae ea 400 2 as -No.235, ditto - | 383/10) o 27\lo Ship Charlotte, received for freight | 138)10' o 28/To Farm in Kent - - - 54/10! o 31/Lo Debentures - = = 195,10) 6 To Intereft, received a Dividend at 80 ol 4 the Bank - = E < | To Funded Property, fold 20o00l. | | ftock at 793 and % 4 5 i 1595) 9 O Ent. Jour. P2 1. and 2)|———|_—_|— i 3368 13, 0 |——————_ —_ —_—_ — t \ Contra, * Cr. 1805. 1 Jan. 1.\By Charges on Merchandize, ~ | | | Naucy, for Naples 2 : t 716, 9 5 By Bills Payable, No. 215, H. Barlow 4i0 cl of 32 By Charges on Merchandize, # Swan, | | for Bilboa - - - ale 8 By Bills Payable, No. 213, C. Mills 7iZ1i| 0 15 By Charges on Merchandize, » Bet- } | | dey; for rae = 5 | 2) 6 23 By ditto for Sales, Nane aid : “Cuftoms, &c. “8 = a 196/11) 9 26\By Bills Payable, No. 214, J. Gibfon | 43i[ts 9 — No. 219, J. Harrifon, 21010) 6 30 By Ship Charlotte, paid for Repairs | 43.151 0 By Bills Payable, No. 216, W. Hume | 6:0 15] 3 No. 218, F. Pembroke 105 1 1] 6 31\By Charges on Merchandize, » Hope We} for Jamaica = = = 44' 9 § By Houfe Expences - - - 6810 co) | 28541 2) 7 JOURNAL. The journal opens with the inventory of ftock ; after which the fubfidiary books are journalized feparately, ac- cording to the following rules, and then fuch tranfactions of the waite book as are not contained in any of the fubfidiary books, clofe the journal for the month. Rules for journalizing the Subfidiary Books. 1. To journalize the cath book. + For all money received, ‘¢ Cafh Dr. to Sundries;’’ for all money paid, ‘Sundries Drs. to Cafh 5” {pecifying parti- culars, and claffing items of the fame kind together. See p- 1. and 2. journal. ; 2. To journalize the bill book. For all bills received, ‘Bills receivable Dr. to Sundries;”” for all bills accepted, “Sundries Drs. to Bills payable ;” fetting forth names, numbers, and other neceflary particu- lars. See p. 2. journal. 3. To journalize the invoice book. The perfon, for whofe account the invoice is fent, “ Dr. to Sundries,” viz. «© To Merchandize ;”’ for amount of goods. «To Charges on Merchandize,” for fhipping, and other charges. «To Commiffion,” for the factor’s commiffion. “To Infurance,”’ for premium of infurance. See p. 3. journal. "When feveral invoices are fent by the fame fhip, they may be arranged in columns, asin p. 5. journal ; a method which promotes both accuracy and difpatch, aud which might be alfo ufed with the invoice book in general, and with the fales book. 4. To journalize the fales book. The perfon, to whom the goods are fold, is debited for the fales ; and if they are fold for ready money, the account is entered accordingly in the cafh book. Then, “Sales (p the fhip’s name, &c.) Dr. to Sundries.” «©'To Charges on Merchandize,?? for charges at landing, xc. “To Intereft,”’ for intereft, if charged on money ad- vanced. «To Commiffion,” for the factor’s commiffion. “To A.B. (the configner),” for net proceeds. p- 4: and 6. journal. The above titles vary in different houfes; as ‘ Sales of Cotton, Sugar, &c, per the fhip, Dr;?? ‘ Merchandize im- ported, Dy. ;”” and the charges on fales and invoices, viz. “Freight,” ‘¢ Convoy,” “Duty,” and * Cuftoms,”? are mottly arranged under feparate heads. But, however thefe modes and terms may vary, the principles and refult are the fame. Note. The pages of the different books are put in payen- thefes in the corners; and in the ledger the page of the journal, where the article is to be found, is inferted in a co- lumn next to the date ; and the reference next to the money column fhews the folio of the ledger where the fecond entry is made: but here there can be no figure for « Sundries,”? as the fundry accounts may occupy different folios; this is an inconvenience which can be only remedied by turning to the journal, where the fundries are {pecified, and where the folio of each ledger account is marked in the margin, See SuNDRIES BOOK-KEEPING.. a) ~ « SOURNAL,. Jane 1305. . ’ - Senpaies Drs. to Stock. For uh: following Balances in my faveur the 31{t uit. wransiferred. i 1\Cafh—for balance in hand : - _ |ELTOC} ©} 1|Funded Property ager at 782 in ae is 3c} 4 per cents. - J * 1;Farm in Kent = : = | 1529 © z\Houfe at Richmond = -~ - 500] ° 2}Houfeheld Furniture - = “| 750 2\Ship Charlotte—my haif —- - 31 or ° 9 2 Merchandize—for balancé in hand - for balance due at the 4Debentures Cufiom-houfe i 3) Bills receivable, for the amount of nits due to me - a Millman and Son rie = harles Le Coin Paris 2 5| William Lamos Bilboa = | William Chulmley Hamburgh~--~- g)William Pemberton Naples a 5) WVilfon and Vanelli Leghorn Stock Dr. to Sundries. For the following Balances azainft me the 31ft ult. transferred. 6 Te Smithfon and Co. London - o George Holland Ditto. - - 'o Gibfon and Carr Birmingham 'o Winter and Weft Jamaica =" 7\To Hampton 2nd Co. Ditto - - 7\To Edward White Ditto - - 7\Lo James Prime Ditto - - 7:To Edmund Connor Ditto - - ‘o Richard Broadly Ditto - - o Bills payable, is my acceptances unpaid - - - 1 Casu Dr. to Sundries. = For the following Sums reecived this Month, as per C. B. ‘| S/To Intereft - - sxe 16 8 To ditto - - - 80 0 o ‘0 Bills receivable, No. 210, 520 0 © —224, 400 0 © — 235, 383 10 © 'o Ship Charlotte - - . ‘o Farm in Kent - - e o Debentures m » ~ es ‘o Funded Property o ° 3 t 6 JOURNAL, Jant 1895. For the following spt oe ths Sunpeiss Drs. to Cath? Month, as,per €. B. 1) 3'Chgs.on merch. Lge pes for Naples - 2 RS for Bilboa - p Betfey, for Leghorn - = p Nancy, from Oporto - = Hope, for Jamaica - - 7.16 f= 0: on Swan, 10 13 n 2 196 II RN _NO. a4 9 a +Bills payable, No. 215 AO OF we AE Ship Charlotte 3 Houfe Expences Birts Recervasre Dr. to Sundries. For the following Bills received this Month, “as per B.R. 4 ToC. LeCoin, N* r,due Mar. 6 5) To W. Chulmley, 2,—Feb.22,210 0 © 3> 12,372 Io oO} 9 25) 5/To Will. Lamos, 4,—Mar.28,250 0 = 28,310 OO Sunpries Drs. to Bills payable. For the following Bills accepted by me this Month, as per B, P. 2| 6G. Holland, Net, due Feb. 5 16 6Gibfon andCarr,2, -15 21 95. Lightfoot, 3,——-2}, 5009 o o ————-- 4,—Mar 27.550 © © 29) 6Smithfon & Co. 5,—Feb.21, 237 10 oO ——_———_-6,— Mar. 3, 310 10 o -- 582110] o 2570| 5] 0 BOOK-KEEPING. i JOURNAL, Jan. 1805. JOURNAL, Jan. 1805. —~ Ww wa | is Mercuanpize£ Dr.to Samuel Lightfoot. For amount of goods bought of him, as 30 p B. P. - - - - = Witii4m Pemserton Dr. to Sundries. For Amount of Invoice of Sugar per Nep- tune, for Naples, as per W. B. p. 2. 2}Lo Merchandize = 128. 1 10 3iT'o Charges on Merchandize 7 16 0} /To Commiffion : - 4 18 2 To. Infurance - - 3) a2aee Insurance Dr. to the London Aflur- ance Company. For Amount of Infurances made this Month, as per I. B. = ———$—— ES p Nancy, for Naples - 3 2 p Swan, for Bilboa = Tavs » Betfey, for Leghorn - 3 15 » Hope, for Jamaica - 123 8 | oe Date. ae ee Www wt Fol. Ledg ES % mes) | oo (9) u on Wirutam Lamos Dr- to Sundries. For Amount of Invoice. per Swan, for Bilboa, as per W. B. p. 2. 2|To Merchandize - 635 19 I0| | 3|To Charges on Merchandize .10 13 8) 3\To Commiffion - - 19 II 4! To Infurance - - LL. It +6 Desentrures Dr. to Merchandize. For Drawbacks received this Month - Ws —— = ——— ———— | Sunpxies Drs. to Sales p the Nancy. For Amount of 10 Pipes of Port, for Account 15 5)Wixson and Vanetti Dr. to Sundries. of Millman aad Son, as per S, B. ia For Amount of Invoice of Lead per Betfey, for Leghorn, as per W.B. p. 3. Smithfon and Co. 6 pipes ore! rede 2\To Merchandize - a 2a Aas at 2 months = 3)T'o Charges on Merchandize .o 2 6 \George Holland, 4 do. at 3/To Commiffion - = 7 et i 3 months 3 x i 139 Ir 3 3\T'o Infurance - - Z 15 .0 a (5) JOURNAL, Jan. 31. 1805. I Sunpaites Drs. to Sundries. For Amount of Invoices per the Hope, for Jamaica, as per W. B, p. 3. Ka re Merchandize. oe Commiffion. | Infurance. ede —_— T= GL Drs.—-————————_——_—_ |—_|_—— ee eo ae bar \j ‘6 Winter and Weit - =. bas - = 375 9 9/3 19 5] 11 10 8 12 18 6 | 7|Hamptox and Co. - - . - - 70} 2) O-yarzs Grea eroHmSMTo: oO 7 Edward White - - - - - 608 2 6) 6-5 of 8 rre"8}20°-7 16 7\)James Prime - - - - - - 603 13 6|/9) 9-27 St T1776) 20) 17 6 7,Edmund Connor = - - - - 7OA 12 TIM WO 2) 20 12 11) 27 vou 8jAdventure to Jamaica, in company with R. Broadley, my half —- - = = i 7G 15,, B83 WA 25)! 288...) 80.05) 8 io 2) Richard Broadley, his half = = = Pn Pie Sa eats i ce dar te rms cl i - ——— Crs. 2\Merchandize = re jew mts lB, 1G TE giCharges on Merchandize ~- + «+ - = «© +144 9 8 3\Commiffion - - = . 2 te . . a es -|104 0 9 3 Infurance JOURNAL, Jan. 1805. 8) Sates p the Nancy Dr. to Sundries. j 3/To cha on Merchandize 196 11 9 3'To Commniffion - 818 9 ) 8/To Intereft - otal ie To Millman and Son, for f net proceeds of 10 ris bas 17. 3). . of port, as p S.B. Seen 49 - 3571/1211 LEDGER. ’ The rules already-laid down in the introdu@ory part will ply in all cafes that can occur for pofting the journal into 3 ledger: fome further explanations, however, may be here ufeful with refpeét to new forms and arrangements. Ia the followin lediex the accounts are arranged in the fame order as in the journal, except in folios 2, 3, and 4, shere articles, which are often referred to at the fame time, afe contiguoufly placed, to fave the trouble of frequently turning to the index. This method of clafling accounts of "the fame defcription is found very convenient in extenfive bufinefs ; but inthe theory of book-keeping it is more obvi- pus and regular to follow the order of the journal. When all the accounts are opened in the ledger from the inventory of ftock, let the fubfiaiary books in the journal, foreach month, be potted in the following manner : 1. To poft the journal of. the cafb book: Debit the cafh account—to fundries, for the amount re- Then, for the fecond or double entry. Credit each account feparately—by cafh, for the refpec- tive fums received. Debit cach account -feparately—to cafh, for. the refpec- e fumis paid. 2+ To poft the journal of the bill book. Debit bills receivable—to fundnes, for their whole amount. dit each perfon from whom they have been received — by bills receivable for their refpeétive amounts.—A gain, Credit bills payable—by fundries, for their whole amount. to bills payable; for their refpeCtive amounts. = To poft the journal of the invoice book. Debit the perfon to whom the invoice is fent—to fundries, the whole amount. Credit merchandize, charges, commiffion, and infurance eetively—by the faid perion, for the refpeétive {ums an- to thefe terms. When feveral invoices are journalized together in columns, asin page 5 of the journal,) the whole amounts of mer- thandize, charges, commiffion, and infurance, are each pofted pné eutry. This arrangement not only faves labour and tition in the journal, and affords checks againft error, is alfo greatly fhortens and fimplifies the edger. Had i Debit each perfon for whom they have been accepted— - BOOK-KEEPING. thofe fix invoices been journalized feparately, there muft have been twenty-four entries in the journal, and the fame num- La in the ledger, which, by this method, are comprifed in our. 4. To poft the journal of the fales book. Debit the perfon or perfons to whom the configment is * fold—to fales (» the fhip’s name) for the amount,—and Credit charges, commiffion, intereft, and the configner—= by fales forthe fums annexed to thefe titles refpeétively. Some merchants open alfo a general account of fales, to which they transfer the amount of Dr. and Cr. fides of the factory book. When the other articles of the journal are pofted, a trial balance fhould take place. This ufeful cheek may be ap- plied either monthly, weekly, or daily, according to the ex- tent of the bufinefs. In making the general balance, the refidue of funded pro- perty, houfes, lands, furniture, fhips, or goods unfold, is {et down at the firft coft; but in real bufinefs, it is more correét and fatisfactory to enter fuch balances at their aétual value, and to debit or credit profit and lofs for the difference between their prefent worth and prime coft. Such a valuation be- comes neceflary, when any change takes place in the firm of a houfe, or in the terms of copartnerfhip ; and in order, at any time, to make a true eftimate of protitand lofs, intereft fhould be charged on all property as well as on debts. Partnerfhip accounts are made very obfcure and perplexing in moft old fyitems of book-keeping, though in real bufinefs no fuch difficulty occurs... The general practice is to keep the books of a joint concern as if they belonged to one per- fen only :—to open a feparate account for each partner like that of any other individual, and on clofing the books to di- - vide the profits and loffes according to the terms of copart- - nerfhips. Alphabetical Index to the Ledger. A FOL. | I roL. Adventure to Jamaica - 98 | Infurance - ~- 3 Interett - - - 8> Bills receivable < ~ 3 K. Bills payable - - 4 | Kimpton, Edward = 17 Broadley, Richard - - 8 Balauce - - 10 L. Le Coin, Charles - 4 Cc Lamos, William - ery Cath ~ - - 1) Lightfoot, Samuel - - 9 Charges onmerchandize. = 3 | London affurance Company - 9 Commiffion - - 3 Chultnle, William eats) M Connor, Edmund - 7 | Mercliandize - - 2° Millman and Son - 4 D Debentures * - - E Pginberton, William - 5 F Prime, James - ik | Funded property =- = 1} Profit and Lofs - 9 Farm in Kent - - 1 S ] G Stock - - - 1 Gibfon and Carr - - 6} Ship Charlotte - - 2 Smiuhfon and Co, - > 6 H Sales, per the Nancy. * - * Houfe at Richmond - 2 Houlelold furniture = - 2 Ww Holland, George - - 6) Wilfonand Vanelli - 3 Hampton and Co, o - 7 | Winter and Weft Cc Houle expences - 8} White, Edward - - 7 BOOK-KEEPING: SS (1) LEDGER. ‘ ep a Dr. STOCK. Cr. SE SEE ee EL A Le ee | | | ih aes Jan. 1., 1/To Sundries - - abe ri}tc} Wan. I ‘By Sundries - - - | (2856617) 2 Jan.31.| To Balance . - -" [10 (22334) Ae ai [Jan.3r-| ‘By Profit and Lofs - at 9, 33618110 j | —— —- 28903116) ° | ' \28903 1G) ° SS peat | ——— | lt | | | : te I} hom | | | } | Ripeicl L Le Drs CASH. Cr. ee aaa ST | | | | iF | Jan. 1.) t'To Stock - - - 1}1 1700} 0; of Jan. 3.| 2 ‘By Sundries - - = 28s5a4l 2 Jan. ute Sundries > - - | 3308 Aes, Jan.31.| {By Balance - 2 - |ror22t4{iol 5 aes i | —|— | 15068)13] 0 | ml | ee Dr. FUNDED PROPERTY. Gir = ———__ aE a a, TT \Jan. “ 1|To Stock, 4col. a 784 . I| 3130 roy Jan.31.) 1 By Cath, 2ocol. a 792 - 1] 1595] © ‘\Jan.31.| [To Profit and Lofs + -}9) 30,0 0 By Balance, 200el. a 78} =~ |10} 1565 ° FARM IN KENT. | ,| an. I. tro Stock = an.28.) 1|By Cath te i | Jan.31. \To Profit and Lofs an.31.| |By Balance alae - {IC| 1520) o] ¢ . + - BOOK-KEEPING. Gi {ayen LEDGER. Dr. HOUSE AT RICHMOND a $$ an. xt} 1ToStock - - - j 1) 500 0 oO Jan. see [Py Balance - yt / aI Dr. HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE. ig Me 11) 1/To Stock = ea - 1] 750) o| Of Jan. 31) {By Balance Dr. SHIP CHARLOTTE. Jan. 13 Po Stock = - Sige 1] 3120 A 2'To Cath - - - tie bas 15) fe) 31} |ToProfitand Lofs - -/9 ap c Jan. 27) 3 31 By Cath By Balance 3258)10) o MERCHANDIZE. | 1| 1\To Stock ~ 2 | 7 GJ t /i6s\v0l 6} jJan. 3 By William Pemberton -_ - | a) 128} 11 18) 4 To Samuel Lightfoot - 9} 3°50] oF "| 3\By William Lamos z - | 3]. 635\19)t i—| | 3.By Wilfon and Vanelli - - | 3, 2 3| 4! 5: petsito 6) 5 By Sundries os = ie 4 338 s\15 11 — -—|— 4. By Debentures . - -| 4! 138/15 « j HE 31) |By Balance - - - |10} 7143) 13| 6 iia ag Vou. V. fee BOOK-KEEPING, LEDGER. CHARGES ON MERCHANDIZE. | Jane* i Po Cah sn ie ee er ae mY Wan. 1 ;|By William Pemberton - = | 5 7;16 ol, allie |) 3\By W. Lamos - , 5} 10113] 8H 3 By Wilfon and Yarellt 2 el 5 | 2, 6 5 By Sundries - - 449 ai | 6 By Sales p the Nancy | - - |8 196)1 1! g}} Dr. COMMISSION. Cr. Jan. 31} |To Profit and Lofs - - ol ap | 6 2) Jan. 1 3|By W. Pemberton -. = = | 5 hs 2 12} 3|By W. Lamos - 5 19)11 4 15 3/By Wilfon and Vautik - + 15 4)17| 2 31| 5|By Sundries - - - 104 a9 4| 6\By Sales p the Nancy - - | 8 8|18! 9 at 142) 6} 2 | MeL: a Dr. INSURANCE. Cre Jan. 31| 4|To the London Affurance Jan. 1| 3By W. Pemberton - - - 2|.0}- Company - -: 141 \6)xr ’ 12| 3 By W. Lamos - ; A 1] 6 ; 15} 3 By Wilfon and Vanelli - - | 5 3\15| 0 ; 31| 5 By Sundries - - - 123] 8] 5 141} 6|11 Dr, _ BILLS RECEIVABLE, Cre Jan. 1] 1|'T'o Stock : - - | 1] 2225\10 Jan. 1|By Cath - - - {| 1] 1303/10] o 2/To Sundries - - 1468] 4] 7 31} |By Balance - = [Ia] 2390 4 7 BOOK-KEEPING. | r ! ee (4) LEDGER. Dr. BILLS PAYABLE. Cr. | oy = + = | | 2482 ,| fe) an. ; By Stock - = = | 1] 2608) To Balance - - = |10) 2696 5) 34 2|By Sundries - - - | .257¢ i | | Dr. DEBENTURES. | | | 462,10 o} Jan. 31) By Cath = : < - | | A lhe 6 13815 0 31) {By Balance - = - |10) , 40514] 6 | “Van, | To Stock - = ° 1 To Merchandize ~ - 2 MILLMAN AND SON. Dr. CHARLES LE COIN. an. 31) 2 By Bills receivable |\By Balance - BOOK-KEEPING, (5) LEDGER. a EERE Dr. ‘WILLIAM LAMOS, Gr: el | | Jan. 1} 1,To Stock - - - | 1] 428|12| of Wan. 23) 2By Bills receivable - - 3 802| fo} ire) 12| 3/To Sundries - - - |e] 677) 6) 4 31| |By Balance a. ie - |1o} 305/18] 4) | } | Ltbs 8) 4 {ta ves} 4 | | | ipa tere ——— = | ——|—— | | | | | | | | | | | Dr. WILLIAM CHULMLEY. Gr. | ! | | | Jan. 1| 1/To Stock . - - 11 310113; of Wan. 19] 2 To Bills receivable - - | 3] 582 a 31|° |To Balanee - - =) Ufrala a 7hir7] oO stale eee os WILLIAM PEMBERTON. Cr. | | Jan. ; 1\T’o Stock - - - 7| 72%\13 an. 31 |By Balance é ad, - |10} 865!12| 2 1} 3|To Sundries - - - 143,18 Dr. WILSON AND VANELLI. Jan. | 1/T'o Stock -. = <= = 1} 570) 2) 6} Jan. 31! |By Balance 15| 3\L'o Sundries - BOOK-KEEPING. (6) LEDGER. | Dr. : SMITHSON AND CO. Cr. | SS SLi PY ORLA ORC Pay a Dea ea a Jan. 29) 2/To Bills payable = A 820 5| an. \t|'s|By Stock *- > - “- | a} B20 5 J na Sales p Nancy . -|8 218} 1 | 31| \By Balance Sy arco ag he] sai sf 8 : io —|—- | ; EOE | aa | | | | | | | | | | | | i ia | Dr. GEORGE HOLLAND. Cr. lian. 2| a'To Bi Pree. | Jan. 2) 2 To Bills payable eh es 4! 400 o Jan. 1} 1/By Stock - - = 1) 421|11! 6 4 To Sales » Nancy - - | 8 139)! a 31) |By Balance - - - |10) 117/19] 9 53911) 3 539\tt| 3 : } j j aes 2 esi EM be | Dr. GIBSON AND CARR. an. 13 {To Bills payable 1 By Stock “ \By Balance Dr. WINTER AND WEST. ) | | na. 31| 5 To Sundries 3 ; 1 By Balance 31| |To Balance BOOK-KEEPING. TE SE Sa we (7) LEDGER. | an. / 1 By Stock = FS A \By Balance - - « Lo | | | | | Jan, .1).5/fo Sundries - - -- 652i 6, 8} | pBg Stock: (= 0? Stee yr 316) 4}-ch A 31| |By Balance > - - 10}, 336) 2| 8 | | < an. 1} 1/By Stock - - = > 31). |By Balance - - = BOOK-KEEPING, LEDGER. RICHARD BROADLEY. 5|To Adventure to Jamaica’ - li, athe sf Jan. | ily Stock - - - | 216) ol ) I 1 ee | : 1) 33| By Balance . - - a 282) Tis | | : | ted | | J Dr. ADVENTURE TO JAMAICA. Cre an. 31} §To Sundries, my $ -- - 498\10 s| Jan.gr} |By Balance + - = {fro iat 5 Dr. SALES PER THE NANCY. Cr. Jan. 31 4 Sundries - - - 357\12/1 an. 31] 6|By Sundries - - - INTEREST, ! ans ‘5 1|By Cath - - ee Pa ie Jan. 31) |To ProftandLofs . -| 9 83117) 8 6\By Salesy Nancy - - 1/8]; 21 5 : BOOK-KEEPING. (9) LEDGER. : Dr. HOUSE EXPENCES. Cr. Jan. 31} 1|To Cafh Dire SAMUEL LIGHTFOOT. Cr Jan. Z 2/To Bills payable - - 4 ca o} of fJan. 18 4) By Mercnhandize - -3| 3050} O| oO} 31} |To Balance - - - 10} 2009) ©} o a Vie 3050) o|.0 ees r2mo. publithed in 1756, and again in 1764. An elementary work, BOR, trork, compofed for the benefit of his pupils: Remarques Tor Pinfentilité de quelque parties,” r2mo. 1757. He reckons tht tendons and aponcurofes of the mufcles among the infenfible parts. In 1768, he publithed a tranflation of Haller’s Elements of Phyfiology into French; in 1769, €« Differtation fur les autifeptiques,”” 8vo.; and ih 1774, * Memoires fur le danger des cauftiques pour la cure radicale des hernies,” 12mo. For the titles and account of his differtations, publithed by the academies with which he cor- refponded, fee Haller. Bib. Chirag. Eloy. Di&. Hiit. ORDENTOWN, in Geography, a pleafant town of ‘America, in Burlington county, New Jerfey, fituate at the mouth of Crofiwick’s creek, on the eait bank of a great Dend of Delaware river; 6 miles below Trenton, g N.E. from Burlington by water, and 15 by land, and 24 miles N. E. from Philadelphia. This town contains about 1co houfes, and isa thoroughfare from New York to Philadelphia. BORDER, in Gardening, a navrow {tripe or portion of ground running along the fides of the walls, or other fences that inclofe gardens, and ornamented lands, and which bound the walks, or ferve to feparate the different principal divifions of the former, the earth being generally laid out ina gently loping manner from the front to the back parts. Thefe com- sartments are cither of the ufeful or ornamental defeription. Mate of the firft kind, are fuch as are carried rcund the ‘walls of garden-grounds, and which are moftly employed, efpecially where the afpeét is to the fouth, in planting out various forts of | fruit-trees upon, fuch as cherries, figs, plums, apples, pears, peaches, ne¢tarines, apricots, ‘&c. in order to their being trained to the walls or fences, fo as to form wall-trees, as well as extremely ufeful in raifing different early efculent herbs, roots, and leguminous crops; and on the other afpedts, for the ewe rearing and pricking out of many forts of feeds and plants upon, in the fammer feafon, that require a cool fituation, or a degree of thade at particular periods of their growth. ‘The general rule in laying out thefe borders is, that of making them with a dth in proportion to the height of the walls, or palings towards which they are formed, which fhould never be iefs than eight or twelve feet. Thoy were formerly made not more than five or fix feet in breadth, which is much too narrow for convenience in the culture of the plants, or the management of the trees that may be leittad on them. Where trees are to be planted as efpa- a ‘ten or twelve fect are the breadths that fhould, in moft caf®, be allowed. Als to borders intended for the raifing and growth of differ- ent forts of flowers, or for {mall thrubs and herbaceous plants; or flowers being plunted out in affemblage or mixture wih éach other, five or fix feet in the former, and eight in the Jatter, may be proper breadths for the purpofe. Their depthe, where trees are to be planted, fhould never be lefs than two feet at the walk, gradually increafing to three at the backs or fences. Some fruit-trees, however, require much more, as pears and apples. In other cales, one foot at the walks, and two at she backs, may form a fufficient depth and flope for the perfect culture of the crops thac may be grown upon them. For flowers, and the fmaller forts of fhrubs, it is often convenient to have them a little rounded on the furface. Wher the fituations in - which the borders are made are of the more moift and reten- tive kinds, having clayey, or gravelly and cankery bottoms, roper drains fhould formed, and conduGted along the Boitsor borders to the full depth of the fubfoils, in order, effeGually, to convey off the injurious avetnefs that may take place, and allow of a fuitable bed being formed for the upper foil. -This is often effected by paving the bottoms BOR ‘of the beds with tiles or bricks, But a much lefs expentiva, atid at the fame time, equally effectual method is advifed by the author of the “ Scotch Forcing Gardener,” which is that of letting the bottoms be laid in a floping direction from the walls to the drains, a fall of fix inches being given, firlt-with a layer of good loam, two inches in cthcle beitig {pread evenly, and well rolied down ; then a fimilay ftratum of cleay pit or river gravel applied over it, and forced down in the fame manner; upon this, another coat of loamy earth is to be depofitedto the thicknefs of awingh or mare, and well prefled down ; rhe whole being executed while the materials are in a rather dry condition. Thefe thould be after- wards a little moiilened, and well rolled down till the furface becomes glazed, the waterings aad rollings being continued alternately, till the whole acquires a fhining hardnefs, and the gravel begins to thow itfelf clearly through the loamy coat. In this way, it is afferted, bottoms may be formed, through which the roots of no trees can penetrate, and which are at the fame time perfectly favourable to the growth of trees and plants. In conttituting the borders, thofe fubftances and mixtures of different materials, which are moft adapted to the growuh and fuccefs of particular forts of trees or plants, will be ex- plained in deferibing the culture which they require. Where the railing and growth of mott forts of culinary vegetables are the principal objeé of borders, there fhould be couftantly a due proportion of good vegetable mould, in combination with a proper quantity of rich, mellow, loamy earth, a {uitable portion of well-rotted flable dung, according to circumftances, being incorporated with them, which produce them in the greatett perfeétion. j : Theré is another fort of ufeful border, which is that which divides or furrounds the principal,compartments or divifions of kitchen-garden grounds, and which immediately bounds or verges the main walks, as being convenient for planting ranges of dwarf-apple, pear, plum, cherry, medlar, ' and other trees upon, as eipaliers,, as well as for the culture of many herbaceous, efculent plants. The line of efpalier trees, in thefe cafes, fhould be planted at leaft three or four feetfrom the outer edges, fo that there may be three or foor feet bordersonthe outfide next the walks, and a {maller one on the intide of the efpaliers, the broader outfide borde:s ferving for the rearing and culture of many low-growing, efculent plants; and fometimies, where the kitchen and flower- garden are united, as fldwer borders. The {maller’ inward borders may be found ufeful in raifing many forts of {mall plants and herbs, as lettuces, &c. Borders of the latter, or, ornamental fort, as thofe of pleafure or other grounds, muft be formed according to circumftances. It was formerly the tate, in many places, to have almott every walk bounded on each fide by a border embellifhed with various ornamental plats; this tafle bas now, however, im a great meafure, given way to that of planting only on one fide. A fine walk, orbamented on each fide by {pacious borders, fully planted out with curious flowering fhrubs, and. other plants, have, notwithftanding, a fine appearance and good effect in many fituations. Borders of curious flowers, carried along the boundaries of grafs plats, or lawns contigoous to the houfe, whether formed ina ttraight or ferpentine nvanner, produce an agree- able effeét, and much variety. The borders for particular kinds of flowers, fuch“as the curious forts of hyaciuths, tulips, ranunculuges, anemones, carnations, and various others, may be made ¢ither along the fides of walks, or de- tached in other parts of gardens, or oruamented grounds. Such borders ‘as immediately bound or verge gravel, or fandy walks, fhould be ried the fides, with edgings of Ge forme B-O'R forme wathever#reeh fort of plants, fuch as thofe of box, thrift, daifies, pinks, &¢.;° but the firft is the neateft and moft durable plant for the purpofe. See Buxus, and Enernc. : Thete forts of borders fhould always be raifed two or three inches or more above the common furface level; fuch as are detached being generally finithed off in a gently {welling or rounding form, in order that they may afford the fulleit éffeGs, ~ Borper, in Hera/dry. See Borpure. BORDE'RES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the higher Pyreneés, and chief place of a ¢atiton, in the diftri@ of Bagnéres, four leagues S. of La Barthe; the place contains 398, and the canton 2822 inha- bitants ; the territory comprehends 2074 kiliometres, and 2F communes. BORDERS, among Fiori/fs, are fuch leaves as ftand about the middle thrum of a flower. BORDES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- artment of the Arriege; 73 leagues W. of Mirepoix. BORDEU, Antuony, in Biography, a phylician of confiderable eminence, was born at Hefte, in Bearn, in 1693. After being initiated in the ftudy of medicine by his father, he went to Montpellier, where he was admitted doétor in ‘that fculty in 1719. Invited, in 1723, to Pau, the capi- tal of the province, he’acquired fo much reputation, as to procure him the offices of phyfician to the military hofpital at Bareges, and of infpector of the mineral waters there. To the waters he paid great attention, and in 1750, he publifhed a {mall treatife, fhewing the effects he had experienced from them ina variety.of difeafes. He lived to an advanced age, but the precife time of his death has not been noted. ' Borvev, THeopnitus pe, following the fteps of his feather, attained to a ftill higher degree of profeffional emi- nence. He was born in 1722; and having paffed through his ftudies with fingular credit, was created dogtor in medi- cine at Montpellier, in 1743. In 1745, he was appointed to fircceed his father, as infpeétor of the mineral waters, and profeffor in anatomy, which was his favourite ftudy. In 3747, he was made correfponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Parts, whither he foon after went; and after paffing through the ufuahcourfe of ftudies, he was admitted do€tor m medicine there, in 1754. He was taken off fuddenly bya itroke of apoplexy in 1776, being in the 55th year of his age. He was through hfe diligent and attentive to his profeffional duties, and feems to have been a€tuated by a defire of improving his art, and of leaving me- morials of his induftry and ingenuity. The principal of his works are, ‘ Chylificationis hiftoria,”” his inaugural thefis, 1742, re-printed at Paris, 1752, 1zmo. with his “ Re- cherches fur les glandes.”” He thought he obferved a du& paffing from the thyroid gland to the trachea ; an opinion, which he repeats in another of his works, but without fuf- ficient ground. * Differtatio phyfiologica de fenfu genericé confiderato,” Montpelii, 1743, 8vo. ; 1751, Paris, with hhis “© Chylificationis hiftoria.”” “ Lettres contenant des eflais jur Phiftoire des eaux minerales du Bearn, &c. 12mo. 1746.” _In thefe he treats of the properties of the waters, and of the geography of Bearn. ‘ Recherches anatomiques fur la pofition des glances et fur leur a€tions,”? Paris, 1751, Svo. « Recherches fur le pouls par raport. aux crifes,’? Paris, i756, 12mo.; in which he has gone much beyond Solano in his difcrimination of pulfes, and beyénd what can be fol- lowed sin praétice. ‘“* Recherches fur le tiffu muqueux, et Vorgane Cellulaire,” Paris, 1766, 12mo. Haller accufes him of difingenuity in attributing to himfelf the difcovery of fome properties of the celiular membrane, which had been BOR before defcribed by him and others, but does not deny the work to have on the whole confiderable merit. Hall. Bib, Anat. »Eloy. Di&. Hitt. Aikin’s Gen. Biog. : Berpeu, Francis, brother to Theophilus, and edu- cated under his father and him, was born at Pau, in 1737- Having taken his degree of doctor in medicine at Montpel- lier, in 1756, he returned to Pau, and was appointed to fupply the place of his brother, as infpector of the waters there. In1757, he publifhed “ De fenfibilitate et contrac- tibilitate partium in corpore humano fano,”? Monfpell.; and in 2760, “ Precis d’obfervations fur les eaux de Bareges,” &e. y2mo. collected principally from the works of his father, brother, and other writers on the fubject. ‘* Recherches. fur les maladies chroniques, leur rapports avec les maladies aigues,”? &c. 1775, 8vo.; principally with the view of fhew— ing the utility and the manner of adminiftering mineral waters in the cure of chronical complaints. Haller. Bib. Chirurg. Eloy. Di€. Hitt. ; BORD-Free. See Free. Borp-Ha.rrenny, or BRop-HALFPENNY, money paid’ in markets and fairs, for fetting up boards, tables, and ftallsg. for the fale of wares. : . BORDIGHERA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the ttate of Genoa, 3 miles E.N.E. of Ventimiglia. BORD-LANDS, the demefues anciently kept by the lords in their hands for the maintenance of their board or table. This was anciently, called ordage. , BORDO Nuova, in Geography; a town of Servia, 18 miles E.S.E. of Piftrina. . BORDOE, one of the Faroe iflands, having a harbour on the N.W. coatt. BORDONE, Parts, in Biography, a painter of hiftory, portrait, and architecture, was born at Trevigi, in 1513, and at a proper age became a difciple of Titian, whofe un- communicative difpofition he had occafion to. regret. He ftudied and imitated the ftyle of Giorgione, and acquired fuch reputation, that at the age of 18: years he was employed in painting a piGture in the church of St. Nicholas. «From Venice he removed to Vincenza, in confequence of an invi- tation to adorn a gallery with paintings in frefco, in which Titian had exhibited a defign reprefenting the judgment of Solomon. Bordone compofed the hiftory of Noah and his fons,. which he finifhed with fuch care, thatit wasnot elfteemed infe -- rior to the work of Titian. Having finifhed feveral confidera- ble works:at Venice and Trevigi, he entered, in 1538, imto. the fervice of Francis I. of France; and gained additional re- putation by various hiftorical fubjeéts and portraits, which were exeellently defigned, and recommended by.a charming: tone of colour. On quitting France he vifited feveral citizs of Italy, in which he left a number of memorable works, as mo- numents of hisextraordinary abilities. Hiscolouringrefembles nature, and his portraits havebeen very muchadmired ; feveral. of them are ftill preferved in the Palazzo Pitti at Florence, the colouring of which is clear, frefh, and beautiful. This artut died in 1588, at the age of 75, according to Wafari; but ac- cording to Felibien, atthe age of 65 years. Pilkington. BORD-SERVICE, called alfo Borpace, the tenure of: lands on condition of furnifhing provifion for the lord’s board or table. ‘ Some lands in the manor of Fulham,.and elfewhere, are ftill held of the bifhop of London, by the fervice, that the- tenants pay fixpence per acre in lieu.of fmding provifion for their lord’s table. BORDURE, or Borner, in Heraldry, is a partition line running all round the infide of the field, of an equal width, taking up one-fifth from the outer edge of the field, and without any fhadow. Arms .baving a plain bordure, are em- blazoned — BOR Blazoned argent, a bordure gules ; but ifindented, engrailed, embattled, &c. argent a bordure indented, gules. The bordure always gives place to the chief, the quarter, and the canton ; for example, or, a bordure, azure, and a chief, gules. The chief, therefore, is always placed over the bordure, as are alfo the quarter and canton. The bordure is continued under the chief, but with the quarter and canton it continues round, until it touches them, and there finifhes; but with other ordinaries, as the chevron, fefs, bend, &c. the bordure always pailes over. In arms empaled*with another having a bordure, the bordure mutt finifh at the empaled line, and not round the coat, as is too often practifed. When the bordure is charged with bezants, plates, billets, or pellets, it is termed a bordure, gules, bezantée, platée, billetée, or pelletée ; all other charges are expreisly mentioned as to number and colour. The bordure is borne different ways, as gobone, cheque, vair, bend, &c. which are explained un- derthe different terms. See Gosone, &c. The bordure is not confidered as one of the honorable erdinaries, but asa mark of difference, to diitinguith one fa- mily from another. - parma Per, an. inner bordure, appearing as two bordures : bordure indented, with the middle line indented. Borpure, point in poiut indented, differs from the bordure bordure indented, as the indents muift be from line to Fre, that is, mult touch both fides of the bordure. Borovre of the jicld, is merely a partition line,, of the co- Tour of the field, ruoning roundthe arms. his bearing is never ufed in Englifh armory, but is often borne both in France and Ge-many. Boanure Zntier, commonly called entoyer, orentoire, a term when charged with inanimate things, as efcallop- fhells, &c. Borpure Lnaluron, fo called when charged with birds. Borpvure Lxurny, when charged with lions. Borpure Verdoy, when charged with vegetables. Boapuse Purflewwed, when it is fhaped like vair. BORDUUN, German, prebably from Bourden, Fr. a ftop in an organ fo called, of which the founds are an octave lower than the diapafon, to which this ftop is in the fame proportion as the double-bafe to'the violoncello. In an or- gan, of which the longett pipe in the diapafon is fixteen feet, that of the borduun sth require thirty-two feet. See Oacan and Drapason. BORE, in Geography, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Caramania, 70 miles E.N.E. of Cogni. Bort, a term ufed to denote a fuddenandabrupt influx of the tide into a river or narrow ftrait. This prevails toa confiderable degree in the principal branches of the Ganges, and in the Megna ; but the Hoogly river, and the paffages between the iflands and fands fituated in the gu'f, formed b the confluence of the Ganges and Megna, are more fubjee to itthan the other rivers. This may be owing partly: to their having greater “* embouchures,”’ in proportion to their channels, than the others have: by which-means a larger proportion of tide is forced through a paflage comparatively imaller; and partly to the want of ceptal openings near them, by which any confiderable portion of the accumulat-- ing tide might be drawn off. Inthe Hoogly or Calcutta river, the bore commences at Hoogly point, where the river firft contratts itfelf, and is perceptible above Hoogly town ; and its motion is fo quick, that it hardly takes u ie hours in pafling from one to the other, although the diltance is near 70 miles. At Calcutta it fometimes occafions an inftantaneous rife of five feet; and both here, aud in every other part of its track, the boats on its approach, immediately quit the fore, and feck fafety in the middle of the river. Inthe BOR channels, between the iflands, in the mouth of the Megna, &e. the height of the bore is faid to exceed twelve feet ; and it is fo terrific in its appearance, and dangerous in its confequences, that no boat will venture to pats at {pring- tide. After the tide has paffed the iflands, no vettige of a bore is feen, which may be owing to the great width of the Megna, in comparifon with the paffages between the iflands; but the effects of it are vifible enough, by the fudden rifing of the tides. The bores are alfo high and dangerous in the mouths of the river Indus. ‘T’o this fudden mflux of the tide, in a body of water elevated above the common furface of the fea, may be ateribed the injury fuffered by Alexander’s fleet, and deicribed by Arrian. He fays, thofe fhips that lay: upon the land were {wept away by the fury of the tide, while thofe that ftuck in the mud were fet a float again with- out damage. In order to account for this faé it fhould be confidered, that the bottoms of channels, in great rivers, are muddy, while the fhallows-are formed of fand ; and it is the property of the bore to take the {horteft cut up a rivers. inftead of following the windings of the channel; confequent- ly it mutt crofs the fand-banks it meets in its way;, and it will alfo prove more deitruétive to whatever it meets with aground than what is afloat. Rennell’s Memoir. Bore, in Gunnery; the bore of a gun, or piece of ordnancey. is ufed for the chafe or barrel ; though it feems rather to de- - note the diameter of the chafe. See Cainer, and Cannon- Bore /quare, in Smithery, denotes a {quare {teel points, or fhank, well tempered, fitted in a {quare focket in an iron wimble, ferving to wind holes, and make them truly round and {mooth within. BOREA, an ancient name for a fpecies of Jasper of a bluifh green colour. BOREADES, in Mytholozy,. the patronymic names of Zethes aud Calais, the fons of Boreas. Hyginus (fab. xl.) fays, that they had wings to their heads and feet: BOREAL Signs, in Affronomy, the firlt fix figns of the zodiac, or thofe on the northern fide of the equinoétial. BOREALIS, Aurora. See Avrora Borealis. Boreatts, in Conchology, a {pecies of Venus. This fhell is lentiform, with very remote, ereét, membranaceous- tranfverfe ftria. Gmel. This is a {mail fhell meafuring about an inch and a half in length ; colour dirty white. Iuhabits the north of Europe- Donov. Brit. Shells, &e. Boreatis, in Lntonology, a {pecie-of Tananus, dif- tinguifhed by having the eyes with three purplifh bands ; abdomen black, the fegments whitifhat the edges. Size of T. pluyialis. Inbabits Norway. Gmel. Fabr. The tho- rax of this infect is brown; abdomen black with a pale glau- cous fpot on each fide of every fegment ; legs black. This is a rare [pecies. Borearis, a fpecies of Coccinera, of a reddifh, or yellowifh colour, with twelve black dots on the wing-cales, and four on the thorax. ‘Thunberg, Fabr. &c. This is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.. Shape gibbous, beneath of a yellow colour. Boreatis, in Natural Hiflory, a {pecies of Crio, of a whitifh colour, having the lobes of the head terminated in a fleth coloured doris | apilla; tentacula three, flefhy, and thick at the mouth. Tahabits the north feas. Pallas, &e. This is nearly allied to: Cilio retufa. Gmelin fufpects that it may be the fame. OREALIS, a {pecics of Ecuinonnyncuus, found in the inteftines of the Eiderduck. Gmel. This is called Sipun- culus lendix, by Pips. it. Boreacrs, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Awas, with a nar- row bill, the head green, throat-and abdomen se vcatiane. 6 ‘his BOR This is the Gauland duck of Latham, who informs us it is a native of Iceland, where it inhabits fens, and is very fearce. , Boreatis, a fpecies of Trixca, the belly and legs of which are fufcous; body above cinereous, beneath white 5 tail and wings dufky. Found in King George’s bay. This is the Boreal fand-piper of Latham, The bill is fhort, black, and fomewhat gibbous at the tip ; eye-brows white. Boreatts, afpecies of Moracitta, of a green colour; beneath ‘yellow ; front, throat, and temples ferruginous ; tail rotund, feathers on the fides and at the tips white. A native of Kamtfchatka, called by Latham the Ru/ly-headed warbler. . Obf. The bill is pale; legs black; and the whole body tinged with olivaceous colour. BOREAS, a Greek name now in popular ufe, for the north wind. Etymologilts ufually derive the word from Bon; clamor, noife; or from Bore, food, becaufe it creates an appetite. Pezron obferves, that anciently, and with much greater propriety, Boreas fignified the north-eaft wind, blowing at the time of the fummer folitice ; he adds, that the word comes from the Celtic Lore, morning ;~becaufe their principal light, in that feafon, came from that quarter, whence alfo the winds then ufually blew. The Greeks ereGed an altar to Boreas, whom they con- fidered asa deity, the fon of Aftreus and Aurora, whofe feat was in Thrace. He is reprefented on the temple of the eight winds at Athens with his robe before his mouth, as if he felt the cold of the climate over which he prefides, agree- ably to the defcription of Ovid, who calls him gelidus tyran- nus, the fhivering tyrant. Met. vi. ver. 711. But he is ufually defcribed by the Roman poets as violent and impetu- © ous, Ibid. yer. 686 —ver. 707. The qualities allowed by naturalifts to this wind are cold- refs and drynefs. Boreas, in Entomology, a fpecies of Bombyx, (Phal. Linn.) the wings of which are tailed, and varied with cine- reous and fufcous; on the firft, or anterior pair two dots, on the pofterior wingsa fingle traufparent one. Fabricius, &c. This is a native of America, and has the anterior wings fal- eated. Boreas, a fpecies of Cancer, inthe family Afarus, that inhabits the north feas; it is diftinguifhed by having the thorax aculeated, and the fecond and third pair of legs fili- form. Fabr. Obf. The beak of this kind is fhort, depreffed, acute, grooved on each fide with a ftrong tooth beneath. Boreas, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Arcadia on which are che remains of an old temple, which, it is pre- tended, was built by Ulyffes after his return from ‘Troy. BOREASML, were feafts inftituted at Athens in honour ef Boreas, who was thought to bear fome relation to the Athenians, as he had married Orithya, the daughter of Krec- theus; for which reafon, when, in a fea fight, many of the fhips of their enemies were deftroyed by a north wind, the Athenians imputed it to the kindnefs manifeiled by Boreas to the native country of his wife. Paufanias Attic. We are informed by the fame author (Arcad.) thac folemn facri- fices were offered to Boreas at Megalopolis in Arcadia, where he had atemple, and divine honours. BORECH, in: Natural Hiflory, a kind of falt brought from Perfia. BORECOLE, or Boorcote, in Agriculture, a plant of _ the cabbage kind, fometimes cultivated in the field for the purpofe of # green winter food for cattle flock, ‘There are - BOR three forts of it, the common borecole, the green borecole, and the Siberian borecole, or curled cole, or kale. The lait. fort is the moft hardy. a Vhefe plants are grown to moft advantage in the feld,. where the foils are rather ftrong; frefh, rich, and deep, whe- ther of the clayey or loamy kind; and where they have been deeply ftirred by the plough, and had a good proportion of. manure turned in. See Brassica. . In Mr. Baker’s experiments inplantingthem in rows at the. diftance of two feet each way, for the ufe of the horfe hoe 5 the produce was very confiderable. And he fuppofes that it would be ftill greater, if they were cultivated at the diftance of eighteeninches. If the crops were equally good, there would be, he afferts, from the preduce he has already ob-. tained, in the firft method, feventeen tons fifteen hundred weight on the-acre;,and. in the latter more than twenty-three tons twelve hundred. On this account, as well as that of their being capable of being cut over two or three times, and their ftanding the fevereit froft, it is concluded that they. are highly deferving the grazing farmer’s attention as a winter food for cattle aud fheep, though it is confefled that the firit produce may not be fo great as in the common cabbage, but that deficiency is made up by the fucceeding ones. There is likewile rather more trouble in collecting the food and conveying it to the animals. It is fuggefted, without having been fubje&ted to the teft, of actual experiment, that the beit mode of confuming this fort of food by fheep flock, would be to have two imalk fields under this kind of crop, proportionate to the number of animals; and to turn the ewes or other fheep into one of them about the beginning of September, or the fol- lowing month, for a few hours in the mornings and evenings for five or fix weeks; lodging them ona portion of grafs or fallow ground near it for thereft of the time, in order that they may evacuaté themfelves, by which much improye- ment may be produced in fuch lands ; and when all the more luxuriant leaves of this piece have been crapped and con- fumed, the other field fhould be managed in the fame way. In this method it is fuppofed that a ituck of itore fheep might be kept a whole winter at a very moderate expence : and while the produce of ene piece was confuming, the other would be coming forward. It is remarked, that the ftock fhould not be kept fo long upon the crops as to injure the ftems of the plants, as that might check the fucceeding growth of the leaves. This plan is obvioufly confined to ewes or ftore fheep. It is doubtful, however, whether the expence of cultivat- ing this fort of crop, except in particular foils, fituations, and fevere feafons, will admit of its being ufed asa winter fheep food in preference to turnips, or other fimilar articles of fodder. Borecote, in Botany. Sec Brassica. BOREE. See Bourres. BOREELI Coprx, in Bibhcal Hiflory, a MS. noted F, in the firft part of Wetfltein’s N.T. which contains the four goipels, beginning with Matth. vii. 6. and having the two following chafms, Matth. xiii. 2558. and Mark vi. 6—16. It was formerly in the poilefon of John Boreel, Dutch ambaflador at the court of London, in the reign of James I, Its prefent fitvation is unknown. BOREK, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pala, tinate of Kalifh ; 28 miles W. of Kalifh. Here isa famous image of the virgin Mary, to which pilgrims refort.—Alfo a fmal! town of Bohemia, in the circle of Saaz. BOREL, Peter, in Biography, born at Cattres in Lan- guedoc, about the year 1620, after being initiated in claffical ‘Lterature by his father,. James Borel, from whom he alfo re- z .~ ceived : BOR ceived x tafte for poetry, and for antiquarian refearches, profecuted his medical itudies at Montpellier, where he was admitted do&tor in medicine, in 1641. Returning to Caf- tres, he acquired fo much reputation by his practice there, that in 1653 he was invited to Paris, and made phyfician in ordinary to the king; and, in 1673, member of the royal academy of fciences. Borel wasia diligent collector of natu- ral and artificial rarities, of which he left a cabinet well ftored. His publications are, ‘Les Antiquites, raretés, plantes, mineraux, &c. de Ia ville et comté Caltres, et un recueil des infcriptions Romaines du Languedoc et de Pro- vence, avec la litte de principaux cabinets et autres raretés de ’Europe.”? Caltres, 1649, 8vo. The titles of the ar- ticles in his own cabinet are here given. ‘ Hiftoriarum et obfervationum medico-phyficarum, ceuturie quatuor,”? Caf- tres, 1653, 12mo. A few of the cafes are curious and in- tereiling, but far the greater number of them are too infigni- ficant to deferve notice, or too extravagant to be cre- dited by perfons who are only moderately inftruéted in the principles of medicine. To this volume are ufually joined the obfervations of Cattier, of Rhodius, of Arnold Boot, and the confultations of Roffius. « Bibliotheca chymica, feu catalogus librorum philofophicorum hermeticorum,” Parifiis, 1654, 12mo. ‘* De vero inventore telefcopii, cum brevi omnium confpicillorum hiftoria,”’? Hage Comitis, 1655, 4to. “Trefor des recherches et antiquites Gauloifes.’? « A dictionary of words and phrafes, which had become ob- folete,"" 1655, 4to. << Difcours prouvant la pluralite des mondes,” Geneve, 1657, 8vo. ‘ Hortus, feu armaufen- tarium fimplicium plantarum et animalium, ad artem niedi- cam {pectantium,” Parifiis, 1666, 8vo. ‘lo each of the articles, which are arranged alphabetically, the author has given a fhort account of its medical properties. Borel died at Paris in 1678. Haller. Bib. Anat. Med. Botan. Eloy, Dit. Hitt. BORELLI, Jonw Acruonsvs, diltinguifhed for his profound {kill in mathematics, and in medicine, was born at Caftelnuovo in Naples, the 28ch of January 1608. Under the tuition of Caftvlli, at Rome, where he was fent to com- plete his education. he made fuch progrefs, that he was, at an early age, invited to Meffina to teach the mathematics. As he had made medicine, as well as philofophy, his ftudy, he there publithed an account of a malignant fever which had raged in Sicily, in the years 1647 a 1648. ‘* Delle ra- ioni delle febri malign di Sicilia,’ Cofenza, 1649, 12mo. ifgufted, at length, with his employers, he accepted the offer of the profeffor’s chair at Pifa, in 1656, where he lec- tured with great applanfe and fuccefs. ‘The fame of his abi- lities had now conciliated to him the favour of the grand duke Ferdinand, and priace Leopold, who procured him to be ele&ted member of the academy del cimento. It was here probably he firlt conceived the defign of employing ma- thematical principles, in explaining the funétions of animal bodies. He now applied himfelf diligently to the diffection of animals. Several of his letters, on the fubje¢t of anatomy, are pablithed in Malpighi’s poithumous works, written be- tween the years 1659 and 1664. In 1658 he publithed, at Pifa, a fecond traét on the nature and treatment of malig- nant fevers. “ Della caufe, delle febri maligne,” gto. His firft phyfiological work, “ De rerum ufu judicium,” ap- peared in 1664, with the treatife of Bellini, ‘* De ftru€tura retum,”’ printed at Strafbourg, 8vo. In 1669, he gave a differtation, fhewing that in mof€ men the eyes have un- ~ equal powers, the one fheaving objeéts more diftinétly than the other, ‘ Obfervazioni interno alla virtu inequale degli occhi,” Gioruc de Lit. In 1667 he publifhed, Tracta- tus de yi percuffionis,”” Bonon. 4to.; and in 1669, * Obfer- , ® BOR ‘vations ona remarkable eruption of mount Aétna,” at which he had been prefent, haying the preceding year quitted Pila, and returned again to Meffina, This account was written . at the defire of the royal fociety of London, with which he correfponded, and was printed in their tranfactions. In 1770, he gave his treatife “* De motionibus naturalibus a gravitate pendentibus,” a prelude to his great work, “De motu animalium,”’ which did not appear until after his death. Atthe revolt of Meflina, being {uppofed to have favoured: the infurgents, he was obliged to quit that place. Chriftina, queen of Sweden, who refided, at that time, at Rome, in- vited him thither, and he continued to enjoy her patronage to the time of his death. ‘That he was not, however, much enriched by her favour, nor had acquired much by his lece tures, and by the works he had publifhed, appears by his being obliged, during the two lalt years of his life, to undergo the drudgery of inftracting youth in mathematics, at the con- vent of St. Pantaleon, called the pious fchools, where he died of a pleurify, December 31, 1679, in the 72d year of hisage. The firft volume of his work, “« De motu anima lium,’’ appeared in 1680, Rom. gto. It is dedicated to Chriltina, and was printed at her expence ; and the fecond, which conipleted his delign, in the following year. Borelli’s principal intention in this work, was to explain the funtions of animal bodies, on mechanical principles. He defcribes the fibres of the mufcles, which he fuppofes to be be veficular; and that thefe veticles become inflated by a portion of the nervous juice failling into them, and mn and fermenting with the blood they contain, whence the mufcle becomes fwelled, and its fibres thortened.. He meafures the degreeof force or power each of the fibres pofleiles, and the power of them collectively, which, according to his eftimate, is immenfe. He fhews how that power is increafed or diminifhed, by the manner ia which the flefhy fibres are joined to the tendons. He cal- culated the power of the heart, in propelling the blood, which he fuppofed was equal to 180,000 pounds in weight. Though Borelli in this and other of his calculations was fhewn to have erred confiderably, yet his general principles were for a long time after acknowledged and adopted, and even the operations or effeéts of medicines, on the human body, were fuppofed to be explicable on mechanical princi- ples. He allo invented an apparatus by which penfons might go down a confiderable depth under water, remain there, move from place to place, and fink or raife themfelves at their difcretion ; alfo a boat in which two or more perfons might row themfelves under water. Haller. Bib. Anat, Gen. Biog. Philof. Tranfaétions abridged, vol. ii. BORER, in Rural Economy, an implement invented for the purpofe of fearching or exploring the nature of foils, This inftrument is compofed of two rods of iron, each fix feet long, and an inch in diameter... The end a@ of ecm. in Plate on draining implements, ferews into the end 4, of Jig. 2. after taking out the ftopper c, the ufe of which is to hinder dirt or duit from getting into the ferew. The ferew is an inch and a half long, and three quarters of an inch in diameter: d, fig. 1. is.a fteel poiat fomewhat blunt, to pierce the earth or any fubltance it may meet with. It fhould be about three inches long, and made with three, four, or more, fides, as may. be thought moft convenient. Lt is ferewed into the rod a in the fame manner, and with a {erew of the fame fize asa is {crewed into the rod 4. It hasa groove fix inches long, a third of an inch wide, and three quarters of | an inch deep, rounded in the bottom, and intended to brin up part of each different layer of materials through which it pafies. When fprings are fought for, a bit of {ponge is put into the groove. .At the end of the rod, fig. 2. is a ferew to fix into another rod of the fame kind, if it be found recef- fary « BOR fary to lengthen the inftrument ; and this may be repeated, by the addition of more rods, to any depth defired; g¢ 4, g. I. is the handle of this inftrument, two-feet and a half long ; this handle is faftened te the rod by means of a clafp, 7, lined with fteel, fixed at one end by a hinge, aud at the other by the ferew 4, fo that it may be placed at any height. Fig. 3. is the handle feparated from the rod, and marked with the rod, with the fame letters as before. Fig. 4. is another handle, or rather lever like the handle already defcribed, except its having only one branch, or lever, marked g. This ferves to ftop the borer in bringing it up from a confiderable depth ; and alfo to ferew and un- ferew the feveral bars or joints as occation requires, and to put on and take off the fteel poit at the bottom. The handle g 4, fig. 1. is that by which the rod is held, and ‘wrought into the earth, either by twiiting it round, efpecial- - ly at firit, or, after it has penetrated to fome depth, by hfting it up, and letting it fall again, which it does with fuch force as to pierce even the hardeft rocks ; efpecially if it works at any confiderable depth, and has of courfe been dJengthened accordingly ; for every foot of this rod weighs three pounds. ‘Two men will eafily found the depth ef twelve feet in lefs than a quarter of an hour, if they do not meet with many ‘tones. When the rod becomes too heavy to be properly managed by hand, it may be raifed by a rope fattened at one end of the handle, and at the other to a roller, or kind of windlafs, ereéted at a proper height, prependicu- Jarly over the hole, and turned with either one or two handles. This will coft but a trifle, and eafily raife the rod, which, when let go, will fall with fuch weight as to Strike each time very deep into the earth. The marquis de Turbilly obferves, that he has feen it wrought in this man- ner to the depth of more than a hundred feet. The tougheit iron is the bett for making this inftrument, which fhoud be well hammered, till its furface is quite {mooth and even; for the leaft roughnefs and inequality would occafion frigtion, which would grately retard its work- ing. For the fame reafon, and alfo to increafe the force of its fall, it is neceffary that it fhould be perfeétly ftraight ; nor fhould it ever be itruck with a mallet, hammer, &c. to force it down, becaufea blow might bend it, and it would ealily break afterwards. The female ferew mult be turned like that in the breech of a gun-barrel, in a feparate piece of iron, crofs-ways to the grain; and this piece mutt be afterwards well foldered on to one of the ends of the rod. The reafon for this is, that if the female ferew were bored only at the end of the rod, it would, by being hammered ut in the fame direction with the grain, be ftringy and poraus, and confequently fo weak as to give way, or burit, an the working of the rod; whereas, when made of a fepa- rate piece, taken crofs-ways of the grain, the threads of the ferew will run with the gvain of the iron, and be thence con- fiderably ftrengthened. A bit, like that of an augre, pro- portioned to the thicknets of the rod, may at any time, when neceflary, be fubftituted inftead of the fteel point, to draw up a fampleof the fubftance from the very bottomof the founding. If the only thing wanted be to know the nature of the un- der foil, and layers of earth, fo far as they may affeét the vege- tation of plants, it will be quite fufficient to bore eight or ten feet deep. A greater depth is only requifite, when water, marle, ore, &c. is fought for, but the common augre may do very well for fhallow boring. By either of thefe implements there is a certainty of dif- covering, without much charge or any hazard, not ouly what earths are under the upper foil, but alfo whether any other fubflance of value lies concealed there, fuch as marle, #balk, fullers’ earth, foflile fhells, coals, quarries of flate or BOR fione, ores, &c. many of which lie hid and entirely un- thought of in places where their value, was it known, would be ‘ten times more than that of the eftate. which covers them. ; BORETIUS, Matturw Ernest, a learned phyfician and anatomift of Berlin, publifhed in 1724, “ Anatome plantarum et animaliumanaloga,”? Regiom, 4to; andin 1739, “Mufeum Boreticium, et cetalogus preparatorumanatomico- ram rerumque naturalium,’’ Regiom, 8vo. Haller. Bib. Anat. BOREUM, in Ancien? Geography, a mountain of Greece, in the Peloponnefus, placed by Paufanias, in Arcadia.— Alfo, the name of a port in the ifle of Tenedos, according to Arriaa.—Alfo, a promontory of Africa, in the Cyrenaica, at the extremity of the gulf ofthe Syrtis Major. Ptolemy. BORG, or Bure, in Geography, a town of Denmark, in the ifland of Femern. N. lat. 54° 30’. BE. long. 11° 8’. BORGARUCCI, Prosper, in Giography, an Italian phyfician of eminence, who flourifhed about the middle of the 16th century. After attending the leGures of Vefalius for fome years, he travelled into France, Helland, and Eng- land, to improve himfelf in medical knowledge. On his return he publifhed “ Della contemplazione anatomiea fopra tutte le parti del corpo umano, libro quinque,” 8vo, 1564, Venet. Some ufeful obfervations are made, in this volume, on the great anatomical work of Vefalius, whom. our au- thor, however, every where treats with refpe€&t. “ Trat- tato di pefte,”? Venet. 1565, 8vo. ‘De morbo Gallice methodus.”? Though he defcribes the method of curing the lues with mercury, he prefers the ufe of guiacum, be- lieving that men from ufing mercury were rendered incapable of procrcating. He makes no mention of farfaparilla, or the China root, though well known in histime. This tract is inferted by Leufinius in his collection of treatifes on the difeafe. Borgarucci taught anatomy and medicine at Padua for fome years. In the year 1567, he was called to France, where he was honoured with the title of phyfician to the king, which he afterwards ufed. ‘The time of his death is not known. Aitruc. de Morb. Ven. Haller. Bib. Anat. Eloy. Di&. Hift. ‘ BORGE, in Geagraphy, a town in the ifland of Cepl lonia; 2 miles S. of Cephalonia. BORGE-Frorps, or BorGan-riorver, a fyflel or dif tri@ of Iceland, in which are warm baths, built inthe 13th century, by the famous hiftorian Snorro Sturlafon. They are fo fpacious and fo well contrived, that too perfons may bathe in them at the fame time. Near thefe is the crofs- bath, in which the inhabitants of the weftern parts of Ice- land were baptized, in A. D. 1000; whence its name. BORGENTRICK, or Borrenrix, a town ot Ger- maiy, in thecircle of Weitphalia, and bifhopric of Paderborn ; 5 miles N. N. E. of Warburg. BORGHETTO, a town of Italy, in the Lodefan, 7! miles 5. of Lodi.—Alfo, a town of Italy in the ftate of Genoa, 8 miles N. E. of Albenga. BORGHINI, Vincent, in Bingraphy, a learned Bene- diétine, was born of a noble family at Florence in i515 3 and entered among the Benedictines in 1=31, devoting himtelf to ftudy and the offices of a religious lite. Duke Cofmo ap- pointed him prior tothe hofpital Sta. Maria degli Ennocenti at Florence; and he performed the duties of this fation with reat benefit to the inftitution, declining the archbifhopric of Pifa, till his death in 1680. His reputation for acquaint- ance with the purity of the Tufcan dialeé&t was fuch, that he was entrufted with the publication of a corrected edition of the decameron of Boccacio in 1573 ; and to him are afcribed the annotations and difcourfes that accompany it. Hisown principal work conlifted of two volumes ef *“ wees prigte BOR ; finted at Florence in 1584 and 1585, gto. which compre- Trend twelve diietations mn aoe re Saki ftate of that city, and of others in Tufcany, abounding with a variety _of curious erndition. He was likewife well {killed in paint- ing and architecture ; and he was entrafted by duke Cofmo with the decorations for the nuptials of his fon Francis, and named by him as his fubilitute in the academy of defign. Several of his letters are publifhed in various colleétions. Gen. Biog. : 2 : ‘ > PORGHOLM, in Geagraphy,.a town of Sweden, in the ifland of Oeland. Nearit is the commodious harbour of i ~BORGHOLZHAUSEN, atown of Germany, in the circle of Weitphalia, and county of Ravenfberg, 6 miles “BIW. of Hervorden. : : BORGHORST, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weitphalia, and bifhopric of Munfter ; 3 miles E. of Stein- fort. _ BORGL, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, placed by Ptolemy in Aria. : BORGIA, Cesar, in Biography, aman whofe dire am- bition deferves to be configned to perpetual infamy in the of hiftory, was the fecond fon of cardinal Roderigo, rds pope Alexander VI.) by his mittrefs, the artful anozza. As he was defigned for the church, he was in- yveited, whilft achild, with the archbifhopric of Pamplona, and fent to Pifa for his education. As foon as his father > Sig to the papal fee, in 1492, Borgia laftened to a ting to fhare in thofe dignities which his father’s : seaddiation empowered him to beftow. On his arrival, Alexander received him with a grave afpe&, and with a lec- ture on the neceflity of reftraining his ambitious views, and of feeking honour in the path of virtue. This mode of re- ception was neither fuited to the character of the father nor the difpofition of the fon: but the mother of Borgia Binsaeeted his mind, by afcribing it vo its true caufe, the artifice and hypocrify which Alexander thought it neceffary to practife on his elevation to the papal throne. Notwith- ftanding this leffon of moderation, Borgia was immediately made archbifhop of Valentia, and, in the following year, d to the dignity of cardinal. When the French army, under Charles VIII. entered Rome, in their expedition againft Naples, and compelled the pope to a treaty, Borgia was obliged to accompany the king as apoftolical legate, or gather as an hoftage br the performance of the ftipulated ‘conditions ; but finding an opportunity to make his cfcape, and to return to Rome, the treaty was broken, and the king was under a neceffity of leaving Italy. About this time Vanozza urged a complaint againft the French for having undered her property, and excited both Alexander and her to revenge the injury fhe had fuffered. Accordingly ‘they began with adminiftering poifon to Geme, brother to Bajazet, who had fied to Ttaly, as to ‘a fanétuary, from that fultan, and whom the French withed to have in their poffef- fion, becaufe, afterthe taking of Naples, they projeéted an expedition againit the Turks. Not fatisfied with this viola- tion of the obligations of hofpitality, they proceeded, by “means of affaffins, to ceftroy the French who remained at ‘Rome. Boris, conceiving that his elder brother, the duke ‘of Gandia, obftrnéted him in the career of his ambition, and that he was his rival inan amour witha lady, faid by fome to be their own filter, Lucretia Borgia, who wasalfo-a very ticular favourite of her father, determined to get rid of is competitor. Accordingly, on the eve of his departure to the king of Naples, under the character of his leyate a Jatere, he contrived means to affaflinate his brother. This ‘event happened in the year 1497. “After the acceffion of * Vou. V. “BOR Lewis XII. to the throne of France,pope Alexander entered into a negotiation with him, particularly with a view to the promotion of his fon. _ Forthe, more effectual attainment of the objects of his ambition, Borgia refigned his dignity of cardinal; and proceeded as ambaflador.to France, wiere Lewis created him duke of Valentinois, granted hima pen- fion; and appointed him toa command of cavalry. » At this time Lewisjhad folicited the pope for a difpenfation to di- _yorce his wife, and to marry Anne, duchels of Burgundy ; and the difpenfation for this purpofe was conveyed by Borgia. Borgia, however, retained it in his poffeflion, in order to enforce his intereft with the king, for obtaining Charlotta, daughter of the king of Naples, who was intended by his father Alexander for his wife. But pretending. that he was in daily expectation of receiving the difpenfation from Rome, and delaying the delivery of it, the king he- came impatient; aud applying to the bifhop of Setta, who was then the pope’s nuncio, at Paris, he was informed, that Borgia had brought it with him to France... Upon. this _ Lewis conyeneda number of divines, who authorized him to divorce his wife,,and to. marry Anne of Burgundy. The martiage having been concluded, Borgia «was at length obliged to deliver the difpenfation to the king ; buat he re- venged himfelf on the nuncio by a dofe of poifen, which proved fatal. Charlotta rejecting his addreffes, on account of his infamous charaéter, he married the daughter of the king of Navarre, and was honoured by Lewis with the order of St. Michael. The father and the fon, powerfully pro- tected by France, co-operated in a variety of barbarous af- faflinations, partly for the purpofe of revenge for real or imagined injury, and partly witha view of feizing the pro- perty of thofe whom they difpatched, in order to carry oa an unjuft war, which they had undertaken. The pope, having formed a delign of reducing the territory of Romagua to the obedience of the holy fee, intended to form it into a principality for his fon, Borgia, now duke of Valentinois, came from France with a confiderable force, in order to ac- complifh the purpofes of his father; and began his campaign with the fiege of [mola and Forli, which foon furrendered ; aud he afterwards reduced Pefaro, Rimini, and Faenza. In 1501, Borgia obtained from his father the title of duke of Romagna. In the courfe of this war, conduéted with a ferocity and fpirit of rapine and revenge feldom paralleled, he proceeded with fuch hoccels, that the Italian powers were at length alarmed, and formed a confederacy againft him, He contrived, however, to defeat this combination, to detach fome parties from the alliance, and, with his accultomed per- fidy and cruelty, to invite three of the heads of the affoci- tion to Senigaglia, under a pretence of eftablifhing peace, and there to caufe them to be ftrangled. | Borgia and his father concurred in all thefe deteftable meafures, and by their united arts, alternately courted the powers of France and Spain, as each appearéd to have the greatcft influence in the affairs of Italy. In 1503, Borgia loft his father, who was fuppofed to have died by poifon, which they had prepared for a rich cardinal, whole eitate they wifhed to uppropriate to theme felves, but which they both took by miftake. It proved fatal to the father; but the fon, by Rrength of conittitution, efcaped with his life, though he long experienced its. per- nicious effeéts. Upon the acceffion of pope Pius IIT. Borgia came to Rome with a great retinue; but beimy uni- verfally detefted, he avoided the affaults of his enemies by fheltering himfelf in the Vatican ; and his life was preferved by the proteétion of the king of Frauce; but he afterwards, with bafe ingratitude, quitted his party, and jotoed that of Spain, During this interval, many of the towas in his ter- ritory of Romagna were feized by the Venetians; na pope Julius 11. BOR _ Julius II. feized him at Oftia, and confined him in prifon, in order to compel him to furrender the reft. As fcon as he made his efcape from this confinement, he fought refuge in Naples, and was at firft treated with refpect by the Spanifh general, Gonfalvo de Cordova; but in confequence of an order from the king of Spain, he was fent thither, and con- demned to perpetual imprifonment in the caftle of Medina del Campo. Here he remained two years; but efcaping out of a window, by means of a rope, he fled to Navarre, feeking the proteétion of king John, his wife’s brother. From hence it was his intention to have vifited France, and to have engaged the affiftance of king Lewis in retrieving his _ fortune : but that king refufed to receive him, confifcated his duchy of Valentinois, and withdrew his penfion. In ths fate of humiliation and diftrefs, without territory or revenue, not only friendlefs bu: generally detefted, he was under a neceflity of depending upon his brother-in-law for a fubfift- ence ; and being engaged as a volunteer in his fervice, on occafion of a civil war with one of his rebellious fubjects, he was killed in a fkirmifh before the walls of Viana, in 1507. His body was {tripped by the viGtors ; but being afterwards recognized by his fervants, it was carried upon a horfe, and interred in the cathedral of Pamplona. ‘Such,”? fays one of his biographers, “¢ was the end of this man, who, for his abilities in forming, and vigour in executing, great {chemes for his aggrandizement, unmoved from his purpofe by any confiderations of juftice, honour, or humanity, has been held up to admiration by Machiavel, asthe perfect fpecimen of a “creat man.’’ Tated in profperity, detefted in adverfity, flripped of all his honours and pofleffions, even fuch as he might fairly have claimed, and leaving behind hima name - configned to univerfal deteftation, it would feem that he gained little by being a villain.” _Borgia’s motto was ‘* Aut Ceefar, aut nihil.” Mod. Un. Hilt. vol. xxiii. Gen. Did. Gen. Biog. BORGIAN MS. in Biblical Hiftory, a fragment of a Coptic-Greek MS, brought byanignorant monk from Egypt, confifting of about 12 leaves, fent to Stephen Borgia, fecre- tary to the Society de propaganda fide. It begins with John vi. 28. and ends vii. 23. ; and is divided into two co- dumus, the firft containing the Greek text in uncial letters, and without intervals between the words, and the other con- taining the Coptic. It is an important {pecimen, fays Mi- chaelis, of the Alexandrine edition ; and he greatly laments that fo much of it is loft. Profeffor Birch, who collated this MS. defcribed it in his Prolegomena, p. 49, and commu- nicated its various readings in his Greek Teltament. The whole of it is printed in “* Georgii Fragmentum Grzco- Copto-Thebaicum,” Rome, 1789, 4to. Birch has likewife described and communicated the readings of two other Bor- gian MSS.; one fuppofed to be of the 11th century, contain- ing the four gofpels, and the other of the 12th, containing detached parts of the gofpels, and of St. Paul’s epiftles. Boraian, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan, go leagues fouth of Zareng. BORGIANI, Orazio, or Horazio, in Biography, a ainter of hiftory and portraits, and an engraver, was born at Rome in 16303 inftruéted in the art of painting by his brother, Giulio Borgiani, called Scalzo ; and by ttudying the capital performances of ancient and modern artifts in his native city, he made {uch progrefs in his art, that his works were held in high eftimation in Spain, where he refided for fome time. Upon his return to Rome, he was employed in confiderable works for chapels and convents, and alfo in painting portraits, by which he acquired honour, and lived in afluence. His etchings were performed in a bold and free manner; and more finifhed than ufual, when confidered as BOR the works of a painter. His drawing is not corre& ; but the ftyle is mafterly, and the effect agreeable. His moft finifhed etching is faid to be a ‘ dead Chrift,” with the figure very much fore-fhortened, and behind the two Maries and St. John, whois kiffing one of the hands of our Saviour ; from a compofition of his own, dated 1615. His death, which happened in 168£, was occaftoned by the malicious treatment of an envious competitor and contemporary, whofe name was Celio. Pilkington and Strutt. BORGIE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the pro- vince of Zeb or Zeeb, about 5 leagues from Bifcara; a town much more populous than the latter, and the re= fidence of a great number of merchants, mechanics, and. labourers of all kinds. BORGLUM, a prefe@ture of Denmark, in thediocefe of Aalburg, including 14 parithes. BORGNE, Leg, a town on the north fide of thenorthera peninfula of the ifland of St. Domingo, 3 leagues weft by north from port Margot, and 8 eaft by fouth from Port de Paix. N. lat. 19° 49’. BORGO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Nyland, im the gulfof Finland, 21 miles N.E. of Helfingfors. This is an ancient fea-port, with an indifferent harbour, a bifhop’s fee, anda good feminary. The inhabitants trade in all kinds of linen. Borgo gives name to a diftrict. Boreo, atown of the Tyrol. N. lat. 46% E. long. 11° 30!. BORGODES, in Ancient Geography, a people placed by Pliny in Arabia Felix. BORGOFORTE, in Geography, a town of Italy, inthe duchy of Mantua, at the conflux of the Oglio andthe Po; 8 miles S.S.W. of Mantua. BORGOFRANCA,a place of {mall note in the princi- pality of Piedmont, and marquifate of Ivrea, 24 miles north of Ivrea. BORGO Dr Forwaazt, a town of Italy, in the republic of Genoa; 1o miles north of Genoa. Borco Manero, a {mall place in the duchy of Milaa, and diitrict of Novarefe ; 12 miles N.N.W. of Novara. Borco pi Sr. Downe, a fmall town of the duchy of Placentia, though it is the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of the archbifhop of Bologna, and the capital of the diftri€t; 12 miles N.W. of Parma. Boreo v1 St. Szrpouero, a town of the duchy of Tuf- any, fituate near the fource of the Tiber, on the borders. of the ecclefiaftical ftate, with a fort on a rock; the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Florence, and fief of the pope ; 48 miles E.S.E. of Florence, and 12 N.E. of Arezzo. Borco pi Sesia, a town of the duchy of Milan, ina diftiG called ‘Val di Sefias’? 22 miles N. W. of No- vara. : Borco pi Var v1 Taro, a town of the duchy of Pla- centia, feated on the river Taro, in the diftrict called “* Val di Taro ;”? 23 miles S.W. of Parma. BORGSTALL, a town and bailiwic of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and Old Marck of Brandenburg ; 12 miles S.S.W. of Stendal. - BORIA, or Borja, atown of Spain in Arragon, feated at the foot of an eminence near Cayo, and ina country which produces plenty of grain, wine, oil, hemp, flax, and moft kinds of efculent plants; 34 miles W. N. W. of Sara- offa. = BORJA, atown of Peru, fituate on the head waters of the Amazon river.—Alfo, atownin Brazil, on the fouth- eaftern bank of Uraguay river. 5. lat. 29°15’. W. long. 56° 30!. BORIN, in Ornithology. Under this name Aldrovandus, Ray, BOR Ray, Willughbg, and other old writers deferibe the pafferine i motacilla pafferina, Gmel. BORING, the att of perforating a folid body, or mak- ing a hole throughout its whole length or thicknejs. _ Surgeons {peak of boriug the bones of the fcull, properly called trepanning. . Boaine Jiredy and other trees, ia praGifed in the {pring for their juice, called alfo sapping and bleeding. Phil. Tranf. N° 44. p. 880. See Beruca. Boxinc, in Farriery, an operation formerly practifed for the cure of horfes whofe fhoulders are wrenched. The me- thod isthus: they cut a hole through the fkinin the middle oi the fhoulder, and with the thank of a tobacco pipe, blow it as a butcherdoes a fhoulder of veal; then they run.a cold flat iron, like a horieman’s fword-blade, eight or ten inches up, between the fhoulder blade and the mbs, which they eall boring; after that they burn him round his fhoulder with a hotiron. This, fays Bartlett, is an abfurd and ufe- lefs, as well as a cruel practice. Borinc of Cannon, in Foundery. See Cannon. . Boainc of Majls, from top to bottom, is propoled by Dr. Hook, as a means of itrengthening and preferving them ; as this would make them dry and harden the better, and prevent their cleaving and cracking. Fi ut of this the outfide drying, when the infide does not, the former fhrinks faiter than the latter; the confequence of which is prejudicial. Borina, in Mineralogy, a method of piercing the earth by a fet of fcooping irons, made with joints fo as to be lengthened at pleafure. The {kilful mineralift will be able to guefs where a vein of ore may lie, though there are none of the common outward figns ef it upon the furface of the earth; and in this cafe he has recourfe to boring; the fcooping irons are drawn back at proper times, and the famples of,earth and mineral matters they bring up, are examined; and hence it is known whether it will be worth while or not to open a mine in the place. See Coat. Borinc, in Rural Economy, a practice fometimes em- ployed in order to afcertain the nature of the different {trata that lie beneath the furface foil ; and alfo for the purpofe of difcovering {prings, and tapping them, fo as to draw off the injures the grounds Fea or in the neighbour- n this laft obje& is in view, boring is generally in the bottoms of ditches or drains, previoufly the land, to the depth of feveral feet. See Drain- anc of Land. Boxinc Augre, an implement employed for the purpofe ef boring the foil, and letting off water confined beneath it, &c. See Borer. _ Boric of Water-pipes. The method of boring alder poles for water-pipes isthus: being furnifhed with poles of a fit fize, horfes, or treffels are procured of a due height both tolay the poles, and reft the augre onin boring ; they alfo fet up a lath, whereby to turn the leffer ends of the poles, and adapt them to the cavities of the greater ends of others, in order to make the joint fhut each pair of poles to- her. The outer, or concave part, is called the female, and the other, or inner, the male part of the joint. In turning the male part, they make a channel, or {mall groove _ in it, ata diftance from the end; and in the female rt, bore a me veo ty fit Re i this channel ; they then re through their » flicking u t nails at each end to guide them right 3 but Sy connote bore a pole at both ends; fo that if it be crooked one way, they can neverthelefs bore it through, asd not fpoil it. Neve Build. Did. in voc. Alder. BOR This operation is now performed with # horfe-mill, as at Dorfet Stairs for the New River company. ’ : Belidor, in his Hydraulics, has defcribed a machine, in which a water-wheel is made ufe of both to turn the augre, and to bring forward the carriage on which the pipe to be bored refts. This machine (fee Tab. II. Mechanics, fig. 67.) is put into motion by the water-wheel A, in the axis of which there is a cog-wheel B, that turns the lanterns C and D; the trundles of D turn two fmall wheels E and F; the firit of which is vertical and turns the augre; the other is horizontal and moves the carriage by means of the two arms H and I. H drawsthe wheel G towards F ; and I pufhes* it in a contrary direction; and thefe combined actions caufe the carriage to advance towards F, and the augre to bore the pipe. The augre being-about twelve feet long and propor- tionally heavy, is fupported by the pieces LL; and they are prepared fo as to give no obitruétion, in the following man- ner: CC, (fg. 68.) are two planks of wood which are faftened to the timber-work of the mill; thefe encompafs another plank, hung by a cord, at the bottom of which are fixed the pieces 44, with joints at e and e, and, that they may not move out of the vertical plane, they are joined by tenons to the plank a, in which they may work freely : on the fide of one of thefe pieces is fixed a {pring, g, in order to hinder them from uniting, by forcing 7 into a mortife, in d; in this fituation the two pieces are penetrated with a hole through which the augre is to pafs. The cord is faftened to the plank a, as in fig. 69, and goes over the two pullies 44 3 at the other end of the cord there is hung a weight e, refting on the piece N, which is fupported at one end by the piece O, aud fixed to the other by a joint to the lever K, which has its centre of motion in the piece of wood H;; fo that, leaning againit the extremity M of the lever, N quits the fupport O, the weight finks down, and draws up the piece a; then the fides 2), fig. 68, quit the mor: tife d, and the fpring g feparates them: and thus the fupporter does not in the leaft hinder the motion of the augre. BORJOKTIT, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the’ palatinate of Podolia ; 28 miles eaft of Kaminiec, BORIQUEN. See Birka. BORIQUETTA, a province of South America, in the country of Terra Firma. BORISSOGLEBSK. See Bartssoerensx. BORITH, in the Holy Scriptures, an herb thought to be the kali, or faltwort ; of the afhes of which fome thake foap, and a very good ley to wah linen with, It is mentioned in Jeremiah, chap. ii. ver. 22. BORKAH, or Arpu, in Geography, an ancient empire of the Afconian Turks, which extended on this fide of the Volga from Uvieck, near Saratof, quite to mount Caucafus, Some of thefe were called Kumani or Komani, from the riyer Kuma, and their town was named Kumager. BORKAN, a town of Perfia, inthe province of Lariftan; 64 miles S.W. of Lar. BORKELOE. Sce Borcxetos. BORKEN. Sce Borcwan. Boren, a bailiwick of Germany, in the landgraviate of Heffe, confifting of eight yillages, and a {mall town of the fame name, become almoft extinét. BORKZOW KA, a town of Poland in the palatinate of Podolia, 20 miles W.N.W. of Kaminiec. BORLASE, Wi tian, in Biography, an eminent te~ pographical writer, was born of an ancient family at Pen- deen, in the parifh of St. Jufl, Cornwall, in 1696 ; and having finifhed his grammatical education at Penzance, 'Vi- verten, and Plymouth, was entered at Exeter college, Ox- Hz ford, BOR ford; in 17133 where, in 1719, he took the degree of matter of arts. In'the following year he took prietts’ orders, and. in 1722 was induéted to the reCtory of Ludgvan in Cornwall, on the prefentation of the duke of Bolton ; and | this, with the vicarage of his native parifh, was the only pre- ferment he ever obtained. At Ludgvan his fituation was’ pleafant.and retired; and he applied with exemplary affiduity'to the duties of his profeffion, and to thofe ftudies of natural biitory ard antiquities, to which his inclination led him. ‘The pavifh of Ludgvan abounded with mineral and metallic foffils ; and the various parts of Cornwall pre- fented’to his refearch many druidical remains. To thefe objects his attention was directed; and he commenced his literary career with ** An Effay on Cornifh Cryftals,” which he éommunicated to the Royal Society, and which produced his'ele€tion inte that fociety in 1749: In 1754, he pub- lifhed, in folio, his « Antiquities, hiftorical and monumen- tal, of thecounty of Cornwall, confifting of feveral effays on the ancient inhabitants, Druid fuperftition, cuftoms and re- mains of the moft remote antiquity in Britain and the Britifh ifles, exemplified and proved by monuments now extant in Cornwall and the Scilly iflands; with a vocabulary of the Cornu-Britifh language ;?? a learned and judicious work, free from thofe: long disreffions and fanciful hypothefes, in which antiquarian writers have indulged themfelves, A fecond edition of this valuable work, with feveral additions, a map of Cornwall, and two new plates, was publifhed at London, i769. His next publication was ‘* Obfervations on the ancient and prefent fate of the iflands. of Scilly, and their importance to the trade of Great Britain,” ato. 1756. This was followed; in 1758, by his ‘ Natural Hiftory of Corn-. wall,”? which. was juitly confidered, at the time of its publi- cation, asa yery important, acceflion to the mineralogical hiftory of Great Britain. Soon after this publication he prefented to thé Afhmolean mufeum at’ Oxford, a variety of foffils and remains of antiquity, for which he received the thanks of the univerfity, and the honour of the degree of doGor of divinity. Having completed his three principal works, and attained the age-of more than 60 years, he per- fevered in his application to his favourite ftudies, and in. his diligent difcharge of the duties of his profeffion. _ His com- munications to the Royal Society were very numerous ; and fome or other of his papers may be found in its Tranfactions from the year 1750 to 1772; With a view to his own amufement and improvement, rather than with any defign of publication, he compofed paraphrafes on the books of Job and of Solomon, and wrote other pieces of a religious kind; and he prepared for the prefs a treatife, which he had written fome years before, concerning the ‘‘ Creation and Deluge ;”? but increafing infirmities prevented its being printed. His decline commenced with a fevere illnefs in the beginning of the year:1771, and terminated in.his deceafe on the 31it of Auguft 1772, in the 77th year of his age. He was much efteemed by all who knew him, as a kind father, affectionate brother, fincere friend, inftructive paftor, and good citizen; and as a man of erudition whofe life had been devoted to important and ufeful purfuits. He liad fix fons, two. of whom. furvived him, and they were both in the church. Dr. Borlafe furnifhed Mr. Pope’s grotto at Twick- enham with a great number of the materials that were ufed in forming it: In Mr. Pope’s letter of acknowledgment, he fays, «¢ I am much obliged to you for your valuable collec- tion of Cornifh diamonds. I have placed them, where they may beft reprefent yourfelf, in a /hade, but /bining ;” alluding to the obfcurity of the donor’s fituation, and the brilliancy of histalents. Biogs Brit. BORMES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de, BOR partment of the Var, feated ou the coaft of the Mediterra- nean, near a flat fhore, which ferves for a port, whither the veffels, which cannot reach the gulf of Hieres before a tem- eft, retire ; 3 leagues E. of Hieres. BORMIDA, or Bormia, a river of Italy, which rons into the Tanaro, near Alexandria. j BORMIO, a county inthe territory of the Grifons, lying at the foot and in the midft of the Rheztian Alps, and bor- dering upon Engadina, the valley of Muntter, the Valteline; Tyrol, Trent, and the Venetian territories. It is entirely jnclofed within the mountains, except a narrow cpening, which conneéts it with the Valteline ; the other acceffes to it lie acrofs the rugged Alps, and m winter are frequently impaflable. This country, which was once a part of the Milanefe, became fubje& to the Grifons in 1512, (See Vat- TELInE.) It is divided into five diilricts; viz. Bormio, comprifing the capital and feveral dependent villages 3 tho. valley of Furba; the valley of Pedinofo ; the valley of Ce- pino; and the valley of Luvino. In the new divifion of Swifferland, fince the French revolution, the county of Bor- mio, with the Valteline and Chiavenna, form a part of the Cifalpine republic. Whilft it_ remained under the. govern- : ment of the Grifons, its inhabitants were exempt from the oppreffions exercifed by the Grifon governors in the other countries fubje& to their dominion. They paid a fixed and moderate contribution; they colleéted and enjoyed their own duties upon exports and imports, and were thus fecured- from injudicious and oppreflive taxes ; the fines for criminal offences belonged to the community ; and as no part was affigned to the governor, he was not interefted in convicting criminals; aud the. chief privilege, which diftinguithed this country from the Valteline, was the freedom of its govern ment, and the limitation of the podetta’s authority. The fupreme magiitrate of Bormio, called “ Podefta,’” was fent from the Grifons, and continued two years in office’; his authority was very circimfcribed, and his power was al- moft wholly dependent on the concurrence of the councils. In thofe councils he never gave a yote, except in cafe of equality ; he poilefled not the power of arreiting a criminal, nor of pardoning or leffening the punifhment. His annual ftipend of about 8ol. arofe partly from a payment of money, partly from an allowance of rye, and partly from the cofts {uit in civil and criminal caufes. "The fupreme authority fided in the podefta, and councils, confifting of a civil ‘he “4 minal tribunal, the membeis of which were annually | by the people. The criminal court, or council of fixteer changed every four months, confifted of two regents, the - treafurer, the notary, and 16 counfellors, of whom ten were taken from the town, and two from éach of the vallies ° Furba, Pedinofo, and Cepino. This council was convened by the podefta, at the requeit ofthe two regents. In order to arrelt a criminal, it was neceflary to aflemble the whole council, orat Jeaft feven of the members; in other import- ant cafes, the podefta and two regents might give an order of .arreft; but this was deemed contrary to law. The procefs, conduéted by the podeita and two regents, was laid before + the council ; and upon conviétion of the criminal, provided he did not confefs his crime, the majority of the council’ determined whether the evidence -was fufficient to juitif torture: which was applied in the prefence of the podefta, the two regents, the treafurer, and notary. Ifthe proofs were infufficient for conviction, the podefta and countellors - received nothing for their attendance; a regulation, which - fometimes indnced the judges to ftrain flight circumftances into proofs of guilt, and not unfrequently occafiened the in- - fiiGtion of torture. = - : ; : The civil tribunal confifted of twelve members'taken from 7 the BOR Sapennt Bormio ; and from their decifion an appeal lay to the fyndicate of the Grifons. the affembly of the people. In the choice of the two re- ats, fix perfons fele@ed in a peculiar manner by the regent fl in office and the treafurer, chofe fix members of the af- fembly, three from the diltrict of Bormio, and three trom the vallies, who appointed fix candidates ; the names were then thrown into fix bags, and ballotted for; andthe two who had the greateit number of ballots, were regents, who re-, ja office only four months. The revenue of the country amounted: in one year to 2221, 14s, 4d. 3 and the average expences to 212]. 2s. 2d. The expences and re- ceipts are tubmitted, when the regents retire from office, to the council of fixteen, and cannot pafs without their ap- probation. te wey The county of Bormio is about 15 miles in length, and rz in breadth; and the inhabitants are eftimated at about 14,coo. The mountainous parts produce ouly palturage and wood ; the lower diftrict about Bormio yields corn, but not fufficient for domeftic confumption. The inhabitants export cattle, a {mall quantity of cheefe, and iron obtained from the mines of Freli, in the valley of Pedinofo, wrought at the expence and for the profit of a private perfon, who pays to the community a {mail annual rent. The hovey produced in Bormio is efteemed excellent. Wine is imported from the Valteline, corn from the Tyrol, corn and rice from Milan, linen from Bergamo and Appenzel, and cloth from Germany. The air is cool, but pure and healthy. The eltablifhed religion is the Roman catholic; and the exercife of every other worthip is prohibited. Spiritual affairs are under the jurifdiction of the bifhop of Coire, who has a vicar’s court’) at Bormio, in which all ecclefiattical caufes are tried. The priefts have peculiar. privileges, which are ex- tended even to thofe who wearaclericaldrefs. Moft of the peafants poffefs a {mall portion of land, and, in confequence of the freedom of the government, are happier than the peos ple of the Valteline and Chiavenna. Coxe’s Travels, vol. ii. Boamro, the capital of the county of the fame name, is fituated at the foot of the mountains, clofe to the torrent Fredolfo, which falls at a {mall diftance into the Adda. It contains about 1000 inhabitants, but has a defolate appear- ance ; the houfes are of plaiftcred ftone, of which fome fw make a tolerable figure, amid{t many with paper windows ; and feveral, like the Italian cottages, have only wooden window fhatters. The palazzo, or town-houfe, contains @ fuite of Wretched rooms for the refidence of the podetta, a chamber for the courts of judicature, aud an apartment where the reprefeatatives of the people affemble. In ove of the reoms is an engine of torture, which, in defiance of common ferfe as well a¢ humanity, is {till ufed in thefe countries to force confeffion. The archives are kept in an apartment, the door of which has feveral keys; fo that all the magiftrates, who are entrnited with them, muft be pre- feat, whenever it is opened. The molt important of the papers kept in thefe archives, is the charter, by which the Grifons confirm, in the moft ample manner, the immunities nted to this country by the dukes of Milan; it was:paffed in the diet of Luntz, under Paul, bifhop of Coire, in 1513, the year fuccceding that in which the Grifons annexed Bor- mio to their dominions. Many circumftances have concurred to deter the Grifons from infringing this charter; the two ipal are, the fitaation of Bormio on the confines of the ] » whence they might receive affiftance from the houfe Auftria; and the fpintef freedom which diftinguithes the habitants, who have watched with a jealous eye the flight: The members of thefe councils were chofen annually by BOR eft advances of encroachment, and sever failed to remonftrate with great unanimity and refolution, whenever the podeita has difcovered the leatt inclination to exceed the bounds of his authority. About a mile from the towa are the baths of St. Martin Melina, recommended for rheumatic com- plaints, &c. N, Jat. 46° a7! E.long.-10® 21, BORN, Icyavius, Baron, in Liegraphy, an-eminent mineralogilt and philcloger, was bora of a noble family at Carliburg, in Tranfylvania, December 26th, 1742. He-- ing ftudied in the college of the Jefuits at Vienna, he entered into this fociety, but continued a member only one year and a half. At Prague he ftudied the law ; and, after an exten- five tour on the continent, he devoted himfelf to natural hittory and mining; and, in 1770, was admitted into the department of the mines and mint of that city. At this pe- riod he vifited the principal mining diftri€ts of Hungary and. Tranfylvania, and kept up a correfpondence with the cele- brated Ferber, whe afterwards publifhed his letters. In this journey he very nearly lott his life, and did permanent injury to his health, by detcending into a mine at Pelfo-Banya, which was full of arfenical vapours that had been raifed by the heat employed to detach the ore. Upon his return to Prague, he publifhed in 1771, a {mall work of the Jefuis Pada, on the machinery ufed in mines; and, in 1772, he priuted his Lithophylacium Bornianum,” or catalogue of his collection of fofiils, which he afterwards fold to Mn Greville for one thoufand pounds. His reputation, as’a mineralogift, was now generally known; and he was ad- mitted into various learned focieties, among which were thofe of Stockholm, Vienna, Padua, aud London. . Un- confined to one brauch of ftudy, he engaged in various plans. for the advancement of literature and fcience in Bohemia. He took a part in the work eatitled “ Portraits of learned. men and artifts of Bohemia and Moravia;” he engaged in the “ Aéta Literaria Bohemix et Moravia ;” and in 1775, he laid the foundation of a private literary fociety in Pragre, which has publithed feveral volumes of Memoirs. In 1776, he was fummoned by the emprefs Maria Therefato Vienna, to arrange the imperial colle@tion of natural hiltory; and, two years after, he publithed, with the affiftaace of the emprefs, the *Conchology”” of it. But it was difcontinued on the acceffion of the Emperor Jofeph. Bora was appointed to inftruct the archduchefs Maria Anna in natural hittory; and, as a recompence for his fervices, the office of counfellor of the mines and miat was conferred upon him in 1779, which obliged hinr to refide conftantly at Vienna. However, he felt feverely the confequences of the injury he ad fuftained. at Felfo Banya; {> that he became a martyr to the moft’ excruciating colics : and in one of his attacks he fwallowed fueh a quantity of opium as threw him into s lethargy for twenty-four hours. ‘The diforder then fixed in his leas and feet, and he became lame for the relt of his life. Never- thelefs, his mind was vigorous and aétive, and he entered with zeal into every meafure that was calculated to enlarge the boundaries of {cience, and to enlighten and improve man- kind. Reftriéted, underan arbitrary government, from free difcuffions on the fubjeéts of religion and polities, he con- neéted himfelf with the fociety of free-mafons, and united with others of a fimilar turn of mind, in carrying on a kind of matked attack upon fuperftition and various kinds of error. Born was alfo.a member of the new fociecty of the * Wluminati,”’ whofe views at firlt were dire‘ted to the ime provement of mankind, and not to the deflruGtion of fociéty. During the reign of popery and arbitrary power, we may reafonably fuppofe, that their projects of” reform were lefs hoftile to religion and government in general, than what has been charged upon thei principles, fince they have been al- hed BOR lied with thofe of the French revolution. The emperor Jo- feph feems at this time not to have been adverfe to fuch co- adjutors; and he appeared to be pleafed with a witty and popular publication of Born, in 1783, entitled « Monacho- logia,” which was a fevere attack on the monks, whom he chara&erized in the technical language of natural hiftory, under the regular divifions of order, genus, and {pecies, ufed in the Linnzan fchool. The clergy complained, and their complaints were retorted by Born with more bitter fatires, exceeding the bounds of prudence and candour. He de- tended his affociates, the « Illuminati,’? with great zeal; and when the eleétor of Bavaria iffued an order to difmifs all of this fraternity from his fervice, Born returned to the academy of Munich the diploma by which he had been admitted as one of its members, The emperor Jofeph gradually with- drew his fupport from thefe reformers, whom he had at firft encouraged ; and Born’s continued influence was principally owing to his fill in mineralogy and metallurgy, by which he was capable of rendering fervice to the ftate. In the pro- cefs of extracting the noble metals from their ores, by amal- gamation with quicktilyer, he manifefted his fuperior fill ; and to this purpofe, a decifive experiment was performed at Chemnitz, by the emperor’s order, in the prefence of Char- -pentier from Saxony, Ferber from Roflia, Elhujar from Spain, Poda, and other celebrated chemilts, which met with aniverfal approbation, and eftablifhed the utility of his dif- covery. Jn 1786, Born publithed, at the defire of the empe- ror, his treatife on amalgamation; and in the following year, a farther account of it was publifhed by his-friend Fer- ber. As aconfiderable faving in wood, time, and labour, attended his procefs, the emperor gave orders that it fhould be employed in the Hungarian mines; and as a recompence to the inventor, a third of the {um that fhould be faved by adopting his method was granted to him for ten years, and for ten years more the intereft of that fum. Such, however, was the hofpitality of Born, and his readinefs to admit and entertain all travellers, and to patronize diftrefled talents of every kind, that his expences exceeded-his income, and he was at lait reduced to a flatg of infolvency. Amidft all his bodily infirmities and pecuniary embarraflments, and not- withitanding the variety of his official avocations, he was indefatigable in his literary purfuits; and in 1792, he pub- lifhed.intwo volumes, a Catalogue methodique raifonné,” ef Milfs Raab’s collection of foflils, which is regarded as a claffical work on that fubjeét. He employed himfelf alfo in bleaching wax by a new chemical procefs, and in boiling falt with half the wood commonly ufed for that purpofe. Whillt he was engaged in writing the * Fafti Leopoldini,’* ora hiftory of the reign of Leopold II. in claffical Latin, and a work on mineralogy, his difeafe rapidly advanced, and being attended with violent {pafms, terminated his life on the 28th of Auguit, 1791. ‘Townfon’s Travels in Hungary, Ato. 1796. Born, in Geography, atown of France, in the depart- ment of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Villeneuve d’Agen; 14 league N.N,W. of Montflaquin. BORNA, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and territory of Leipfic, feated on an ifland formed » by the rivers Wichru and Pleifs, The inhabitants are chiefly employed in mannfacturing ftuffs; 12 miles S.E. of Leipfic. BORNE, ariver of England, which runs into the Tame, about a mile S.W. of Tamworth,.—Alfo, a riyer of Savoy, ‘which runs into the Aroe, about two miles north from Bon- neville. BORNEO, an ifland of the Eaft Indies, which, before BOR the difeovery of New Holland, -was confidered as the largeft ifland in the world. This ifland feems to have been the Greater Java of Marco Paolo, which, he fays, is about 3000 miles in circuit, being above goo miles in length by Goo at its greateft breadth. The lateft and beft account that has yet been given of this ifland is publifhed in the Tranfactions of the Batavian Society. The ifland of Borneo extends from the 4th degree of S. lat. to the 8th of N, lat. and from 109? to 119° E. long. It is about 780 miles in length, and 720 inbreadth, Its climate is almoft the fame as that of Java; but Borneo is lefs mouatainous, and the land, for 12 or 15 miles, and fometimes more, from the coaft, is almoft every where marihy, and covered with foreits of trees of large fize, and of various kinds. The remaining part of the ifland is fufficiently fertile, and would be productive, if the inhabitants were not too indolent to cultivate the: foil, and fonder of fearching for gold and diamonds, which they barter with the Javaneie for various neceffaries of life. ‘The middle of the ifiand 1s occupied by an extenfive ridge of mountains, called the « Cryftal mountains,”’ becaufea great quantity of cryftalis foundin them. At the foot of thefe mountains 1s a large inland lake, which is the fource of al] the rivers that traverfe the whole ifland. The real natives of this ifland are the Biadjoos, or Biajoos, or Dajakkefe, who live in the interior parts of the country. The fea-coatk is inhabited by Malays, Moors, Macaffers from Celehes, and Javanefe. Wehave accounts, on which we may depend, only of the countries fituated along the coait ; the interior parts of the ifland being little known, Thelargeft kingdom in the ifland, and the moft important on account of its con-) nection with the Dutch Eaft India company, is that of Ban-. jer-mafling on the fouthera coait, The great river Pontiana, which is navigable for flips that draw from 12 to 13 feet of water, is very conyenient for trade. The fultan Sufuhunan> Natahalam, fince the year 1771, has transferred his refidence from Cagu-Tangie to Martapura, where he caufed a large city to be built, anda canal to be dug, which paffes through the middle of it, and at the fame time he changed the name Martapura into Bumie-Kintjana. The inhabitants of the city, as well as thofe who refide in places at a diftance from the coait, are Mahometans, mixed witha great many Biad- joos, or Dajakkefe, who are Pagans. Thefe Biadjoos, who irhabit villages, amounting in number to 784, are fub-. jet to various petty princes, who acknowledge the fultan as their fuperior. The factory of the Dutch Eait India company is fituated at the end of the village of Tatas, or Banjer mafling. Their fort is of an o€tagonal form, fur- rounded by pallifades, which on the ealt fide next the river is furnifhed with three, and on the weit, or land fide, with two baitions. The productions of the country, which are fought for as articles of commerce, are pepper, gold (chiefly gold-duit, not very abundant in metal), diamonds, canes, birds-nefts, wax, pedra del porco, dragon’s blood, and iron, For thefe the Dutch give in exchange agates of a longifh form, rings of red agate, different kinds of coral, all forts of Chinefe articles, fuch as coarfe porcelain, red and other kinds of filk, all forts of cotton cloth, fuch as is worn b the Indians, various productions of Java, and alfo opium, which, being prohibited by the fultan, is privately intro- duced. See BanjeR»MASSING, i Succatana lies ia o° 50! S. lat.; and alittle north of it is the river Pontiana, which difcharges itfelf into the fea under the line, through a great many mouths, At its mouth it ig 12 feet in depth, and at high water 16, fo that floops and {mall veffels can proceed with great eafe in about 12 hours to the company’s factory. The, river, at the diftance of about feven or eight miles from its mouth, feparates into. 6 twe BOR, branches; the fouthernmoft of which flows through the country governed by Pangerang (a term of dignity) inp, who, in 1778, was advanced by the company, to be fultan of Safango and Pontiana, under the name of Sarief Abdulla Rachmann, Thefe two kingdoms extend far into the country ; and produce excellent gold, wax, birds-neits, rls, , diamonds, tin, and iron, which are bartered ee provifions of all kinds and cotton cloth, but particularly rice and falt. | Heavy rains prevail here from November till May; and the thermometer is never lower than 82°, nor higher than 94°. _ r , lies on the northern arm of the river Pontiana, in N. lat. 0° 35’. The Dutch hada refident here 150 years . After that period their poffeffions were deitroyed, ull the king of Baatam, to whom Landac and Succatana had for many years belonged, madea grant, either voluntary or by compulfion, to the company of all thefe lands in 1778. From this time the Dutch have confidered thefe lands as their property, and the princes who govera them as their vaflals ae then built 2 fort at Pontiara, between Landac and Succatana, and appointed Pangerang Saidja Nata, as regent of the whole ditrict. ‘The relidence of the prince of Landac is fituated on the projecting point of a mountain, to which there is an afcent by 118 iteps. Two rivers, which are fo full of rocks that no veffels can be navigated i flow on the right and left of this mountain ; and the ace is naturally impregnable. It is alfo well furnifhed with artillery. In this kingdom there are gold and dia- mond mines of confiderable importance. Between Landac aid Borneo, the moft northern kingdom of the ifland, and from which, probably, the whole country took its name, there are feveral finaller kingdoms, not yet fufficiently known. Their $ are, in part, vallals of the fukastof Boroco. A fi trade is carried on in thefe diitrias J, diamonds, canes, wax, and other articles of the like ki . are given in exchange for the pro- ductions ; but thetraffic is unimportant and pre- carious, as the princes of this part of the country live by piracy. ‘ is governed by a fultan, who refides in this place, where a confiderable trade is carried on with the productions 7. coms which are péarls, birds-nefts, wax, flaves, and caimphor. The camphor of this ifland is preferred éven to that of Sumatra. The camphor of Borneo and Sumatra is uced by a tree with oval, tharp-pointed leaves, and large tulip-like flowers. It is thus diftin- Both from the camphor-tree of Japan, and from the ces of the Ladi: An hundred weight of the of Borneo cofts 3000, and one of that of Sumatra 2000 rix-dollars, but the Japanefe cofts fearcely 50. OF the camphor of Borneo about 4375 pounds are annually exported. The articles imported are tin, cotton-cloth, and the productions of Java, except rice, which is culti- vated here in great abundance. ! The fultan of Borneo lives in great ftate, "and is more feared by his fubjeéts than that of Banjer; but he is faid, by thofe who frequent this part of the coalt in {mall vef- fels to exchange cotton-cloth for pepper, to be more con- ftant in his friendfhip, and more faithful in fulfilling his engagements. ween Borneo and Tidor lie the two {mall kingdoms of Balangan and Baraoon, where birds-nefts, wax, &c. are exchanged for J roduétions, and a fort of coarfe ¢otton-cloth. ext to biele is Dannuar, and a little far- ther are Sammunta, and Cottee. Between the two laft are many villages, the names of which are not known. The fame articles are exported and imported here as at Borneo. BOR The next place is Appar Karrang, and tlie lait kingdom is Paffier. he articles of trade in this country are gold, birds-nefts, wax, and canes, which are exchanged for the productions of Java. The inhabitants of Paflier are few in number, and therefore they have been unable to expel the Buginefe; who have made themfelves matters of the river, and alfo of the trade. Further fouth lies Simpanahan ; and the whole country from this place to the extreme boun- daries of Salatang belongs to the king of Banjer-maffing, who poffeifes alfo the great and {mall ifland Pulu-Lauts. There appear to be no other kingdoms in the interior part of Borneo ; or, at leaft, they are not known. The inha- bitants of the mountains bring the produtions of their lands, and their different articles of manufaure, to the neareit part of the coaft for fale. The mott productive diamond mines of Borneo are at Ambauwang, beyond Molucco, in the diitrié of Banjer- mailing, and at Landac and Pontiana. Befides thefe mines, which lie among the mountains, diamonds are alfo fearched for on the banks of various rivers ; but they are fo fcarce that ten or twelve perfons may dig and fearch fometimes for a whole month before they find diamonds to the value of 20 Spanifh rials. With regard to the gold mines, the ignorance of the natives as to every thing relative to mining is fuch, that little advantage is derived from them, though they are fuppofed to be very rich. In Banjer-mafling the gold is found at the depth of about three fathoms; the veins properly fo called are.of a reddifh kind of marl. At Landac the ore is found at the depth of about ten feet, un- der a cruft refembling rotten wood. Of the animals of Borneo the moft remarkable is the orang outang. The Biadjoos or Dajakkefe, who are the native inhabit- ants of this ifland, and principally occupy an extenfive dif- trict in the interior part of the country on the welt fide of the river Banjer, are of large ftature, and well formed, and their women, whom they never bring to the places of trade, are faid to be fair and handfome. In their drefs they re- femble the Malays. The women, and even the wives of their princes, are naked to the middle, and generally wear round the body only a fhort gown, The men paint their bodies with various kinds of figures. ‘They come to Banjer to fell their gold, canes, and rice, for which they receive in exchange coarfe Chinefe porcelain, copper, and earthen veffels or tampayangs, on which are reprefented dragonsy fnakes, and other figures fuited to their taite. Before any one of the Biadjoos can fucceed in obtaining a female for his wife, le mult give proof of his courage by cutting off the head of an enemy; and when he is accepted by the parents, he carries to his bride a prefent, which confifts of a male or female flave, two drefles, and a water-pot, on which fome of their favourite figures are exhibited. On the wed- ding day, the bride and bridegroom give each a feaft at their refpeétive houfes; at the conclufion of which, the bride- groom, in his beft apparel, is conduéted to the refidence of the bride, at whofe door is one of her relations, who {mears him with the blood of a cock, which has been killed for that pnrpofe ; and the bride is fmeared in like manner with the blood of a hen. They then prefent to each other their bloody hands, and the folemnity is clofed with a fecond en- tertainment. If the wife die, the hafband cannot contra& a fecond marriage until he has cut off the head of fome in- dividual of another nation, and thus avenged the death of his wife. When a married woman commits adultery, the hufband, without avenging himfelf on the adulterer, puts to death two or three of Fis flaves, and thus frees himfelf from all fhame ; the woman i punifhed merely with words, but fometimes with blows, The Biadjoos are unacquainted with polygamy BOR Polyzany. ff a man wifhés to feparate from his wife in coniequeice of hee having committed fome crime, he re- -tains her clothes and ornamehts, and makes her pay a fine amounting to about 30 rials; and each party is then at liberty to mufry. When a Biadjoo dies, the body is put into’a coffia, and kept in the houfe, until all the remaining males ia the family have purchafed a flave; who is behéaded on the day when the body is burnt, that he may attend the deceafed in the other world; and before he is put to death, he is enjoined fidelity to his mafter. ‘The afhes of the deceafed, together with the head of the flave, are put into a watering-pot, and depofited is a {mall edifice or tomb éonftruéted for that purpofe. Sometimes a whole year élapfes before a flave can be procured. ‘The houfes of the Biadjoos are conftruGed of boards joined together without windows or ‘partitions, except that which feparatesa {mall corner in which they fleep. The whole family refide to- gether with their flaves,and confit fometimes of 100 perfons. Their only light is that of a piece of pine-wood, which burns no longer than till about cight in the evening. Over their doors they fufpend the bloody heads which they cut off in their fkirmithes. In order to procure thefe they pro- ceed, with great fecrécy, to the river Badjer, and furprife in the night, or attack, in open day, fome fimall veffel he- longing to Banjer fifhermen ; and one or two of their un- fortunate captives are then deflined to become a facrifice to their infatiable rage for murder. When they return with a head, the men, women, and children of a whole village teftify their fatisfa€tion by every demonftration of joy. Gongs, or mufical inftruments of copper, aré beat by thofe who conduét the conqueror to his own houfe, where the women dance around him, and taking from him the head, they force into the mouth fome food and drink ; after which ceremony, accompanied with a repaft and dance, they hang it up as a trophy of victory. Before the Biad- joos undertake expeditions in queit of Banjerefe heads, they endeavour to deduce fome omen of good or bad fortune from the flight of a kind of hawk (falco milvus), They have fearcely any form of government, and no written laws. Ifa perfon be accufed of theft, and no fufficient proof can be alleged againft him, the culprit and the accufer are earried before one of the oldeft inhabitants. An earthen pot with afhes and water is placed on the ground ; and acrofs the pot is laid a piece of wood, on which are depo- feed two fmall copper buttons. An oath having been ad- miniftered to each party, the piece of wood is fo turned yound that the buttons fall into the water ; the aceufed and the accufer take up one of thefe buttons; and he, whofe button appears as if fcowered and whitened by the afhes, is deemed to have fucceeded. , The Biadjoos are faid to have fome idea of a fupreme being, to whom they addrefs prayers under the name of Dewatta; and as they believe that this Dewatta not only created, but fill preferves and rules the world, they requeft him to grant them happineifs and pro- {perity. If we may judge from the character of thefe peo- ple, their deity muft be a gloomy and revengeful being ; no nation on earth having a greater propenfity to murder and revenge. The Biadjoos acknowledge the fultan of *Banjer as their fovereiga, and pay him yearly a {mall tribute in gold duit of. the value of 20 rials. ; The Portuguefe, Dutch, and Englifh have ever fince the 26th century endeavoured to eftablifh themfelves in this ifand; but the Dutch haye been the. molt fuceefsful. The Portuguefe, it is faid, wifhed te form a fettlement here in 1526, aid with this view prefented to the fultan of Landac and Suecatana fome beautiful pieces of tapettry, on which curious figures were wrought ; but the fultan, i BOR conceiving thefe figures to be animated or magic, and ap- prehending that they might rufh {uddenly from the tapeftry and eal him, rejected the prefent and expelled the Portuguele from the country. The English were not much more fortunate, having quitted Borneo entirely ever {ince the year 1706. In 1766, they made an attempt to form a fettlement in the ifland of Balambangan, at the N. extre- mity of Borneo, which was given up to them by the king of Solon. They placed in it a few Europeans for the fake of trade, anda garrifon of 300 foldiers, Europeans and blacks; and intended to eltablifh a factory, where they might exchange the produ€tions of Europe and Hin- dooftan for thofe brought hither from China and the Indian iflands; but in the year 1772, after a part of their troops had been fwept off by contagious difeafes, the fort they had conftruéted, being badly. fortified, was fuddenly at- tacked, and the whole cftabhifhment deftreyed, The En- elifh have fill fome eftablifhmente on the north coaft of Borneo ; and the circumjacent Indian nations, and the Chi- nefe carry ona great trade with thisifland. About Borneo are feveral fmall iflands, that may be denominated. the ¢ Bornean iflands,” fuch as the Soloos, Tawea, Pulo Laut, Anamba, Natuna, &c. Borneo, a fea-port and capital of the ifland of. this name; is large, populous, and commercial, with a good harbour; it confilts of about 300 houfes, built on piles, aud is fituated on the N. W. fide of the ifland. N. lat..4° 5a’. E. long. 115° of BORNEVALT, a town of Germany; in the circle of Weftphalia, and duchy of Berg; 3 miles W. of Lennep., BORNEUS, in Ornithology, the long-tailed Jcarlet lory. This beautiful bird is of a red colour; quills and tail fea- thers at the tips green; a blue fpot on the wings ; orbits fufcous. Inhabits India. WW Abo The length of this bird is nine inches and a half. | Its bill is orange; orbits of the eyes) bare of feathers: quill feathers with blue and green dots; the two exterior feathers inclining to green; lower tail coverts red, bordered with blue. Gmel.—Jori perruche rouge, No. 1. Buff. Pfittaca coccinea bonarum fortunarum infule. Brifl. a BORNHEIM, a village of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and territocy of Franckfort onthe Mayne; 6 Enelifh miles N. of Franckfort. This village is faid to be notorious all over Germany for its numerous brothels. Render’s Tour. ; BORNHOLM, an ifland of Denmark, in the Baltie fea, the remoteft and moft eaiterly of all the Danifh iflands, about 12 miles in length, and £0 in breadth, Although it is nearly furrounded by rocks, and the foil is ftoney, it. is a fertile {pot, abounding with excellent paftures; oats, butter, and fifh,conftitute the wealth of the inhabitants. There are fome mines of coal and quarries of marble. It was conquered by the Swedes in 1645, and furrendered to them by the treaty of Roflild, in 1658; but the inhabit- ants revolted in the fame year, and reftored their ifland to the Danifh dominion, under which it has fince conti- nued. Bornholm is diftant.75 miles from Zealand, and 15 from the coaft of Schonen. N, lat. 55° 12', E. long. 1520". «s BORNIL, in Conchology, a {pecies of Terxina, figured by Born, This fhell is tranfverfely ftriated, bent on one fide, and reddufh; with red rays. This is three quarters ef an inch long, and two inches broad. The native place is not known. ' ' BORNOU, in Geography, an extenfive kingdom of Africa, lying fouth-ealt of Fezzan, and bounded on the north by the defert of Bilma, on the weft by Kuka, Tagua, and Nubia, BORNOU. Nubia, on the fouth by Kauga and Begarmee, and on the weit by Zegzeg, rhe Pos and Kafiina. ‘The name Bor- nou, which is given to this kingdom by the natives, is dif- tinguithed in Arabia by the appellation of Bornou, or Ber- noa, fignifying the land of Noah; for the Arabs conceive, that, on the firt retiring of the deluge, its mountains re- ceived the ark. This is a country of great extent, being comprehended between the 16th and about the 22d degrees of N latitude. The climate is characterized by exceffive, but not uniform, heat. Two feafons divide the year ; one com- mencing about the middle of April,and introduced by violent winds from the S.E. and S., iatenfe heat, a deluge of rain,and fuch tempetts of thunder and lightning as deflroy many ezt- tle, and people ; at this time the inhabitants confine them- felves to their houtes; the reft of the feafon, though fultry and rainy, docs not hinder the labours of the hufbandman and fhepherd. The other feafon commences towards the latter end of OGober, when the heat becomes lefs intenfe, the air more foft and mild, and the weather ferene. The inhabitants are numerous, and confift of various nations ; and it is reported that thirty different languages are {poken in this empire. The language of the common ope of Bor- nou, though different from, ftrongly refembles that of the i Ting negroes, and is very unlike the Arabic, in which, however, the nobles and principal families converfe. The art of writing is known among them; and they are taught to exprefs the Bornou tongue in the charaéters of the Arabic. 'y are entirely black, but not of the negro caft. Their general drefs is compofed of fhirts of blue cotton, manufa@tured in the country ; a red cap, imported from Tri- poli; and a white muflin turban, brought from Cairo by the ilgrims, who return through that city from Mecca. Nok-tings of gold are alfo worn by the principal people, as a mark of diftintion. Wheat and barley are feldom 1aifed in Bornou; but the horfe-bean of Europe, and the common kidney-bean are affiduoufly cultivated, as they are ufed for food, both by the flaves and by the cattle. They alfo cultivate a kind of grain peculiar to the country; and the neigbour- hood of the city of Bornou is fertile in Indian corn and rice. Gum-trees are thinly feattered ; cotton, hemp, and indigo are alfo to be reckoned among the various produdiions of its foil. In the culture of the ground, the hoe is the only in- ftrument in ufe, as the tough is not known; and the wo- men fhare with the men the labours of their hufbandry. The fowing feafon commences at the end of the periodical rains in April; and fuch is the rapidity of vegetation, that one fpecies of their grain is reaped in July, and another, of deer growth, in Auguft or September. ‘Two fpecies of roots are ufed as fubftantial and wholefome food; one called the “dondoo,” whofe leaves refemble thofe ofthe garden bean, is dried in the fun, and reduced to fine powder, which is mixed with palm oil into the confiftency of pafle; and the other pre- pared for ufe merely by boiling. The fruits of Bornou are grapes, apricots, pomegranates, lemons, limes, and melons. The dates are {carce ard indifferent, as are alfo the apples and plums; but it has a valuable vegetable, called, « Ke. deynzh,”’ refembling the olive in form and height, and the lemon in its leaf, which bears a nut, whofe kernel is an efteemed fruit, and fhell, when bruifed, yields an oil that fupphes the lamps with a fubftitute for the oil of olives. To the clafs of animals we may refer innumerable flocks of fheep, and herds of goats and cows, (for there are no oxen,) together with multitudes of horfes, buffaloes, and camels, the fleh of which is in high eftimation, which cover the vales or pafture on the mountains of Bornou. ‘The common fowl is reared by the inhabitants; and their hives of bees “ar that the wax is often thrown away as an o1. V. article of no value in the market. Their game confi ts of antelopes, partridges, wild ducks, aud the oftrich, the fiefh of which they prize above every other. Their other wald animals ere the lion, the leopard, the civet-cat, the {mall wolf, the fox, the wild dog that hunts the antelope, the elephant, of which, however, they make no ufe, the croco- dile, the hippopotamus, and giraffe. Bornou is much in- felted with different kinds of dangerous and difgufling rep- tiles, efpecially foakes and {corpions, centipedes and toads. Its beatts of burthen are numerous and various ; of which we may reckon the camel, the horfe, the afs, and the mule. The dog appears to be the only domestic animal. In Bor- uo the fame plan of conftrudting their houfes univerfally prevails, our walls, inclofing a {quare, are erected ; with- in the walls, and pacallel to them, four other walls are alio built ; the ground between the walls is then divided into different apartments, and covered with a reof. ‘Thus the {pace within the interior walls determines the fize of the court ; the {pace between the walls, limits the width of the apartments; and the height of the walls regulatee the height of the rooms. In a large houfe the rooms are cach about twenty feet long, eleven feet high, and as many in width, On the outtide of the houfe,a fecond {quare or large yard, fur- rounded by a wall, is ufually provided for the inclofure and protection of thecattle. The walls are generally compoled of earth and fand, but others are formed of ftones or bricks and clay ; and the roofs confiit of branches of the palm-tree, intermixed with brufh-wood, covered with layers of earth ; and the whole building is white-wathed with a {pecies of chalk. The utenfils - a houfe, among the lower claffes, are mats covered with a fheep-ikin, upon which they fleep ; an earthen pot and pan; two or three wooden difhes, a couple of wooden bowls, an old carpet, a lamp foroil, and a copper kettle. Perfons of u fuserior rank alfo poftefs leathern cufhions, ftuffed with wool, brafs and copper uten- fils, a handfome carpet, and afort of candleftick, which is ufed for their candles that are made of their bees’ wax and the tallow of their fheep. The current {pecie of the empire confifts of pieces of metal fromanounce to a pound in weight, formed of copper and brafs, melted together and mixed wth other materials. The ruling people in Bornou profefs the Mahometan religion, fo that the fultan and his fubjeéts are muffulmen, and the other clafles are pagans. The govern- ment is an eleétive monarchy; and the new fovereign, when chofen from among the fons of his predeceffor, is invefted with all the flaves, and with two-thirds of all the cattle and land, of his father; the remaining third being always de- tained as a provifion for the other children of the deceafed monarch. To the four lawful wives of the late fovercign, a feparate houfe with a fuitable eflablifhment, is granted by the reigning monarch ; and fuch of his concubines, as were not flaves, are at liberty to return to their friends, with their cloaths and ornaments, and with the permiffion to marry. The adminiftration of the provinces of Bornou is committed to governors, appointed by the crown; and the expences of the fovereign are defrayed partly by his hereditary lands, and partly by taxes levied onthe people. ‘The fultan Alli, who was the fovereign of Bornou, in 1789, though plain in his drefs, maintained a magnificent feraglio, accommodating 500 ladies, and was reputed to be the father of 350 children; and the number of horfes kept for his own eS ee that of his fervants, amounted to 500. ‘The military force of Bore nou confifts ina great multitude of horfemen, which renders him-a much more powerful monarch than the emperor of Morocco; but his foot-foldiers are few in number, and of little importance. Their weapons of offence are the fabre, the lance, the pike, and the wat be anda fhield of hides forms their BOR their defenfive armour. Fire-arms, though not entirely un- known, are neither ufed nor poffeffed by the people of Bor- nou. As to their habits and manners, the people are fingu- larly cousteous and humane. On the road they ftop to fa- lute every one they meet; their quarrels, when they occur, are mere. conteits of words: and though their women fhare with them in the bufinefs of hufbandry, their work, which is dropping the feed in the furrows, and removing the weeds with a hoe, is more an'amufement than labour. Their at- tachment to. play is immoderate; andon the game of drafts, which is the only game with which the lower claffes are ac- quainted, ‘they ftake their gold duft, their brafs money, and even their cloaths. Perfons of a fupericr rank ave equally devoted to chefs, in which they are emivently filful. The , articles of export furnifhed by the empire of Bornou are gold- duit, flaves, procured from Beearmee, horles, oltrich fea- thers, falt, collected on the fhores cf the feveral lakes that produce it, and civet, obtained from a fpecies of wild cat that iscommon in the woods of Bornou and Kaflina. Asto their manufactures, they make a coarfe linen of the hemp of their country. ‘Their cotton is {pun to a very fine thread, and then manufa€tured into callicoes and muflins about nine inches broad, and in length from fifteen to twenty yards. Such of thefe cotton manufactures as are enriched with the blue dye of the country, which, from the fuperiority of the indigo, is preferable to that of the Eaft Indies, are valued more highly than filk. They alfo fabricate a fpecies of car- pet, as a covering for their horfes; and tents, of wool and the hair of guats and camels, are made for the ufe of the army. From the iron ore of their country they form, with little fall, fuch flight tools as their hufbandry requires ; and the little filver they have is converted by their own artilts into rings. In return for their exports, they receive from . Tripoli, by way of Fezzan, copper and brafs, which are ufed as eurrent fpecies ; and alfo imperial dollars, of which they make rings and bracelets for their women ; red woollen caps worn under the turban, check linens, light coarfe woollen cloths, baize, baracans, {mall Turkey carpets, and plain Mefuyata carpets. Mr. Lucas’s Communications in the Proceedings of the African Affociation. Bornov, the capital of the country above defcribed, is fituated at the diftance of a day’s journey from a_river which is called “* Wed-el-Gazel,” from the multitude of antelopes that feed on its banks, and which is loft in the deep and fandy waftes of the vatt deferts of Bilma. It is feated in a flat country, on the banks of a {mall river. Bor- nou, though a town of greater extent than Tripoli, confitts of amultitude of houfes, foirregularly placed, that the in- tervals between them cannot be called ftreets: it is furnifhed with mofques, which are conftruGted of brick and earth, and with {chools, jn which the koran is taught, as in the principal towns of Barbary. ‘The royal palace, in which the fultan refides’in time of peace, is furrounded by high walls, and forming a kind of citadel, is built, perhaps for fecurity, in a corner of the town. Within the city are markets for the fale of provifions ; but for other articles a weekly market, as in Barbary, is held without the walls. ‘This city is furrounded by a wall, fourteen feet high, con- ftruGted on a foundation from eight to ten feet deep, of con- fiderable ftrength. It is fecured by a ditch which encom- paffes the whole; and at fun-fet, the feven gates, which form the communication with the country, are fhut. Brown, in his travels, p. 467, fays, that the wall has four gates, open- ing eaft, weft, north and fouth. N, lat. 19° 35’ E. long. 22° 40. BORNSTET, a town and bailiwick of Germany, in the cirele of Upper Saxony ; 4milesS. W. of Eifleben. BOR BORNY, a towa of France, in the department of the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Metz, 2 miles E. of Metz. 7 BOROCZANE, a town of Poland, inthe palatinate of Red Ruffia; 28 miles S.S.W. of Halicz. ~ * BOROLIBICUS, the wind which blows ia the middle between the north and welt points; ' called alfo the north- weit wind. : ' BORONOO, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Archangel ; 80 miles S. of Archangel. BOROS.Jeno, a town of Hungary; 28 miles S. of Gros-Warden. BOROUGH, Bvurrovesx, Borow, or Buren, is fre- quently ufed for a corporate town, which is not a city. ar Borough, in its original Saxon dorge, cv dorgh, is by fome fuppofed to have been primarily meant of a tything or com- pany confifting of ten families, who were bound or combined together as each cther’s pledge. byt Afterwards, as Veritegan informs us, borough-came to fignify a town that had fomething of a wall or inclofure about it; fo that all places which among our anceftors had the denomination of borough, were one way or other fenced: or fortified. But in later times, the fame appellation was allo beftowed on feveral of the ville infigniores, or country towns of more than ordinary note, though not walled: Ac- cording to Somner, a borough was a place of fatety, pro- teClion, and privilege ; and im the reign of king Henry IT. boroughs were fo highly privileged, that if a bondman or fervant remained ina borough a year and a day, he was by fuch refidence made a free-man. Glanville. 'Thefe were denominated free-burghs, and the tradefmen who inhabited them free-burgefles, becaufe they enjoyed a freedom to buy and fell without moleftation, and with exemption from toll, &c. granted by charter, The ancient Saxons, according to Spelman, gave the name burgh to thofe called, in other countries, cities. But divers canons being made for removing the epifcopal fees. from villages and {mall towns to the chief cities, the name city became attributed to epifcopal towns, and that of borough retained to all the reft; though thefe too had the appears ance of cities, as being governed by their mayors, and have ing laws of their own making, and fending reprefentatives to parliament, and being fortified witha wall and caflle, and the like. See Ciry. Borovues, or burgh, is now particularly appropriated to fuch towns and villages, as fend burgeffes or reprefentatives to parliament. Boroughs are equally fuch, whether they be incorporate or not; there being great numbers of our Enghih boroughs, not incorporated ; and, on the contrary, feveral corpora- tions that are not boroughs; e. gr. Kingtton, Deal, Ken- dal, &e. Boroughs are diftinguifhed into thofe by charter or ftatute; and thofe by prefeription or cuitom. The number of boroughsin England and Weles, including cities and cingue ports, which elect members, is 2155 fome whereof fend one, fame two reprelentatives. It has been a fubject of controverfy among antiqua- ries, at what time the reprefentatives of boroughs form- ed a part of the great council of the nation. Some have traced their origin as far back as the Saxon Wittens agemot.; and have fuppofed that they were the qwitess. fapientes, ov wife men, who, befides the prelates and alder- men, are mentioned as a component part of this aflembly, Others, however, have maintained, that thefe wites were the judges, or men learned in the law. Others who exclude the burgefles, or commons, from the Saxon wittenagemot, 3 _. allege, BOROUGH. allege, that the expreffions, eniployed by allancient hifto- d be ay mentioning this national council, feem to contradict . rmer {uppofition, The members, it is faid, are almoft valways called t ——— fatrape, optiniates, magnates, pro- ceres; terms which feem to fuppofe an aviftocracy, and to ex- clude the commons. The boroughs alio, from the low ftate of commerce, were fo {mall and é poor,.and the inhabitants lived in fuch dependence on the great'men, that it does not Acem probable they would be admitted as a part of the na- tional councils. It appears from Domefday that the greateft boroughs Were, at the time of the conqueft, fcarcely more than country villages; and that the inhabitants were'of a ftation little better than fervile. If it be unreafonable to think that the vafials of a barony, though their tesure was military, ard noble, aad honourable, were ever fummoned to give their opinion in national councils, muel lefs can it be a that the tradefinen or inhabitants of boroughs, whofe condition was fo much inferior, would be admitted to that privilege. Thefe boroughs were not then fo much as incorporated ; they formed no community; they were not regarded asa body politic; and being merely formed of a number of low dependent tradefmen, living without any icular civil tie, in neighbourhood together, they were incapable of being reprefeuted in the ftatesof the kingdom. The commons are well known to have had no fhare in the governments eftablifhed by the Franks, Burgundians, and other nérthern nations ; and as the Saxons remained longer barbarous and wncivilized than thefe tribes, they could never think of conferring fuch aa honourable privilege on trade and induftry. The milicary profeffion alone was honourable ng all thofe conquerors; the warriors fubfifted by their polleffions in land; they became confiderable by their influ- ence over their vaffals, retainers, tenants, and flaves ; and it requires ftrong proof to convince us, that they would admit any of a rank fo much inferior as the burghers, to fl:are with them in the legiflative authority. ‘The firit corporation, even in France, which made more early advances in arts and civi- lity than England, is fixty years pofterior to the conqueft un- der the duke of Normandy; and in Normandy, the conttitu- tion of which wes moft likely to be William’s model in railing his new fabric of Englith government, the {tates ‘were entirely compofed of the clergy and nobility ; and the fir. rporated boroughs, or communities, of that duchy, were en and Falaife, which enjoyed their privileges by a grant of Philip Auguftus, inthe year 1207. All the an- cient Englith biltorians, when they mention the great coun- cil of the nation, call it an aflembly of the baronage, no- bility, or great men; and none of their expreffions, fays Mr. Hume, (uéi infra,) though feveral hundred paffages might be produced, can, without the utmoit violence, be tortured to a meaaiog, which will admit the commons to be contti- tuent members of that body. When hiilorians mention the people, populus, asa part of the parliament, they always anean thelaity, in saree to the clergy : and though the word communitas lometimes occurs, Dr. Brady maintams, it always means communilas baronagii. If, therefore, in e ne period of 200 years, which clapfed between the and the latter end of Henry IIl., and which abounded in faétions, revolutions, and convulfions of all kinds, the houfe of commons never performed one {ingle degiflative aét, fo confiderable as to be once mentioned by any of the numerous hiftorians of that age, they muft have ‘been totally infignificant; and in that caie, what reafon can be affigned for their ever being aflembled? can it be fup- pofed, that men of fo litde weight or importance poflefled a ive voice againit the king and the barons? Every page of the fubfequeat hiilories difcovers their exiftence; though thefe hiftories are not written with greateraccuracy than the preceding ones, and indeed fearcely equal them in that par- ticular, ‘The magna charta of king John provides, that no feutage or aid fhould be impofed, either on the laud or towns, but by confent of the great council; and for more fecurity, it enumerates the perions entitled to a feat in that aflembly, the prelates and immediate tenants of the crown, without any mention of the commons: ‘* An authority (fays Mr. Hume) fo tull, certain, and explicit, that nothivg but the zeal of party could ever have procured creditto any contrary hypothelis.”” The: fame writer adds, that it was probably the example of the French barons, which firit emboldened the Enghth to require greater independence from their fovereign ; and itis alfo probable, that the be- roughs and corporations of England were efablifhed in imitation of thote of France. In ancient times, men were not very folicitous to obtain a place in the legiflative afflemblies.; and rather regarded theit attendance as a burden, which was not compenfated by any return of profit or honour, proportionate to the trouble and expence. The only reafon for- initituting thefe public councils was, on the part of the fubje&, that they defired fome fecurity from the attempts of arbitrary power; aad on the part of the fovereign, that he defpaired of governing men of {uch independent {pirits without their own confent and concurrence. But the commons, or the mhabitants of boroughs, had not-yet reached fuch a degree of cozfideration- as to defire /ecurily again their prince ; or to imagine, that even if they were aflembled in a reprefentative body, they had power or rank fufficient to enforce it. For prorection againit the violence and injuftice of their fellow citizens, to which alone they afpired, they direéted their views to the courts of jultice, or to fome great lord, to whom, either by law or by choice, they were attached. On the other hand, the fovereign was fufficiently affured of obedience in the whole community, if he procured the concurrence of the nobles. The military fub-vaffals could entertain no idea of oppofing both their prince and their fuperiors; and much lefs could the burgeffes and tradefmen afpive to fuch a thought. Thus, if hiitory were filent on the head, there is reafon to conclude, from the known fituation of fociety during thefe ages, that the commons were never admitted as members of the legiflative body. The fir time in which, according to the opinion of thofe who admit the conclufivenefs of the above reafoning, hiftorians {peak of any reprefentatives fent to parliament by the boroughs, was the year 1265, during the reign of Henry I1:.; when the earl of Leicefter ufurped the royal aren and fummoned.a new parliament to London, where e knew his power was uncontrolable. Befides the barons of his own party, and feveral ecclefiaftics, who were not im- mediate tenants of the crown, he ordered returiis to be made of two knights from each fhire, and alfo of deputies from the boroughs; an order of men, it is ‘faid, which, in former ages, had always been regarded as too mean to enjoy a place in the national councils. Accordingly, this pertod is commonly eXecmed the epoch of the houfe of commons in England, But though that houfe derived its exiftence from fo precarious, and even fo invidious an origin, as Leicefter’s ufurpation, it foon proved, when’ fummoned by the legal princes, one of the molt ufeful, and, in procefs of time, one of the mof powerful members of the national conttitution; and gradually refcued the kingdom from ariftocratical as well as from regal tyranny. But Leicefter’s policy, if we afcribe to him fo great a bleffing, only forwarded by fome y cars an inftitution, for which the general ttate of things had already prepared the nation. It was not, however, till the 23d Iz year BOROUGH. year of the reign of Edward I. (A.D. 1295), that the de- puties of towns and boroughs were, by a regal fummons, admitted into parliament. This is therefore régarded as the legaland true epoch of the houfe of commons, and the faint dawn of popular government in England. Leicefter’s ufurp- ation produced only a temporary effeét, and the f{ummons of reprefentatives from boroughs was difcontinued in fubfequent parliaments ; but from this period burgefles became a per- maneat part of the Britifh legiflature. The neceflities of Edward, occafioned by his continual wars, and by the dimi- nution of his demefnes, induced him to recur to this meafure for obtaining requifite fuppliess and he became fenfible, that inflead of impofing taxes by his prerogatives and enforcing his ediéis for this purpofe, a more expeditious and effectual mode was to affemble the deputies of all the boroughs, to Jay before them the neceffities of the ftate, to difcufs the matter in their prefence, and to require their confent to the demands of their fovereign. With this view he iffued writs to the fheriffs, enjoining them to fend to parliament, along with two knights of the fhire, two deputies from each bo- rough within their county, and thefe provided with {ufficient powers from their community, to confent in their name, to what he and his council fhould require of them. Accord- ingly, writs were iffued to about 120 cities and boroughs. “ As it is a moft equitable rule,’ fays he in his preamble to this writ, “ that what concernsall fhould be approved by _ all, and common dangers be vepelled by united efforts ;” a noble principle, which may feem to indicate, fays Mr. Hume, a liberal mind in the king, and which laid the foundation of a free and an equitable government. The writs of the parlia- ment immediately preceding remain; and the return of knights isthere required, but not a word of the boroughs ; a demonttration, according to Brady (of Boroughs), that this was the very year in which they commenced. After the eleGtion of thefe deputies by the aldermen and common-council, they gave fureties for their attendance be- fore the king and parliament; their charges were refpec- tively borne by the borough which fent them; and they had fo little idea of appearing as legiflators,—a character fo re- mote from their low rank and condition, —thatnointelligence eould be more difagreeable to any borough, than to find that they muft ele&, or to any individual, than that he was eleGted to a truft, from which no profit or honour could poflibly be derived. Properly fpeaking, they did not compofe any effential part of the parliament; they fat apart both from the barens and knights, who difdained to mix with fuch mean perfonages ; and after they had given their confent to the taxes required of them, their bufinefs being then finifhed, they feparated, even though the parliament {till continued to fit and to. eanvafs the national bufinefs. As they were all real burgeffes of the places from which they were fent, the fheriff, when he found no perfon of abilities or wealth fuflicient for the office, often took the liberty of omitting particular beroughs in his retarns; and as he received the thanks of the people for this indulgence, he gave no dif- pleafure to the court, which levied on all the boroughs without diftinGtion the tax agreed to by the majority of the deputies. Tt-wasvot till the reign of Richard II. that the fheriffs were deprived of the power of omitting boroughs at pleafure. ¥ Rie. 11. cap. 4. : The union of the reprefentatives from the boroughs gra- dually gave mote weight to their whole order; and it be- came cultomary for them, in return for the fupplies which they granted, to prefer petitions tothe crown for the redrefs of any particular grievance, of which they found reafon to complain. Thefe petitions received the fan@tion of royal authority, and acquired validity, even without the confent of the nobles. Afterwards, however, the houfe of peers, the moft powerful order in the ftate, reafonably expected, that their affent fhould be expvefsly granted to all public ordinances ; and in the reign of Henry V., the commons required that no laws fhould be framed merely upon their pe- titions, uvlefs the flatutes were worded. by themfelves, and had paffed their houfe in the form of a bill. At this time, the commons were much below the rank of legiflators ; and throughout the reign of Edward I. their affent is not once exprefled in any of the enacting claufes ; nor in the reigns enfuing, till the 9th of Edward III. nor in aay of the enact- ing claufes of 16 Ric: II. Nay even fo low as Henry VI. from the beginning till the 8th of his reign, the affent of the commonsis not once expreffed in any enacting claufe. Pref. to Ruffhead’s edition of the ftatutes, p. 7. The commons were fo little accuftomed to tranfact public bufinefs, that they had no fpeaker till after the parliament 6th Edw. TIL.; and in the opinion of moft antiquaries, not till the 1ft of Richard II. The houfe of reprefentatives from the counties was gradually feparated from that.of the peers, and formed a diftin& order in the ftate. Neverthelefs the knights of fhires did not. form the fame houfe with the burgeifes. But by degrees the growth of commerce augmented the private wealth and confideration of the burgeffes; the frequent de- mands of the crown increafed their public importance; and as they reprefented particular bodies of men, refembling m this refpect the knights of fhires, they were united together in the fame houfe. Mr. Carte, after having carefully confulted the rolls of parliament, affirms (Hilt. vol. ii. p. 451.), that they never appear to have been united till the 16th of Ed- ward III. But this union does not feem to have been final; for, in 1372, the burgefies acted by themfelves, and voted a tax after the knights were difmifled; and inftances occur at later periods of their aGting feparately. The chief baron Gilbert (Hilt. of the Exchequer, p. 37-), is of opinion, that the reafon why taxes always began with the commons, or burgeffes, was, that they were limited by the inftruétions of their boroughs. In the manner above ftated, the third eftate, or that of the commons, reached at laft its prefeat form; and as the country gentlemen made thenceforwards no f{eruple of appearing as deputies from the boroughs, the diftinétion between the members was entirely loft, and the lower houfe thence acquired a great acceffion of weight and importance in the kingdom. Still, however, the office of this eftate was very different from that which it has fince exercifed with fo much advantage to the public. Inftead of checking and controling the authority of the king, they were naturally induced to adhere to him, as the great foun- tain of law and juftice, and to fupport him againft the power of the ariftocracy, which was at once the fource of oppreffion to themfelves, and difturbed him in the execution of the laws. The king, in his turn, gave countenance to an order of men, fo ufeful, and fo little dangerous; the peers were alfo obliged to pay them fome confideration; and thus the third eftate, formerly fo abject in England, as well ‘as in all other European nations, rofe by flow degrees to its prefent importance ; and in its procrefs, made arts and com- merce, the neceflary attendants of liberty and equality, flourifh in the kingdom. : : In addition to what has been already advanced, Mr. Hume alleges a further evidence, that the commencement of the boufe of burgefles, who are the true commons, was. not an affair of chance, but arofe from the neceffities of the prefent fituation 5 viz. that Edward, at the very fame time, faummoned deputies from the inferior clergy, the firft that ever met in Englard, and required them ta impofe taxes on their conitituents for the public fervice, a ie BOROUGH. On the other hand, it has been argued by the advocates of the higher antiquity of the commons, that if we look to the beit accounts of the original cuftoms of the ancient Ger- man nations, we fhall find, that, in their communities, all the freeholders enjoyed an equal right with the nobles to affift in deliberations on affairs of great moment. See Tacitus de Moribus German. c. 25. Upon their firft fettlement in any foreign country, and while their number was fmall, this right might be exercifed, without much inconvenience, by the whole body of the freebolders affembling together on open plains. To this purpofe, Matthew of Wettminiter Sub. Ann. 1213. Johan. 15.) intimates, that the Anglo- ‘Saxons, after they came into Britain, exercifed their right in this manner ; for he fays, that the meadow near Staines, in which king Joha granted the great charter, was called * Runemeed,’’ denoting in the Saxon language the ‘ mea- dow of counfel,’”? becaufe from ancient times it had been ufual to confult there upon bufinefS which concerned the peace of the kingdom. But this cuftom had been difufed under, and ated hefties the government of the Normans ; perhaps from the time in which the Saxon heptarchy was united into onekingdom. The only inftance that occurs of its having been revived is the meeting in the reign of king John ; ail the parliaments, or great councils, of which we have any accaunt before, were held in churches, abbies, or royal caitles ; and therefore, if the right of the-freeholders continued, the greater part of them muft have exercifed it, not perfonally, as in ancient times, but by their reprefenta- tives. By a record cited by Dr. Brady, fo late as the fifteenth year of king John, it appears, that not only the greater barons, but all the inferior tenants in chief of the crown, had aright to be fummoned to parliament by par- ticular writs; and therefore we may conclude, that till that time, no reprefentatives had been fent by any of thefe to ferve for them in parliament; but they attended the great councils of the nation in their own perfons: and their num- ber was not fo confiderable, as not to allow of their being accommodated in the body of achurch, or the great hall of an abbey or caftle. But thefe were far from being all the freeholders of the kingdom ; for this defcription compre- hended all who held of the barons, either by Bi ht fervice, or free focage, and all the poffeffors of allodial ay Oy with all the free inhabitants of cities and boroughs not holding of the crown. The number of all thefe was too great to be contained in any building however fpacious. But were thefe men either wholly excluded from parliament, or were they prefent there by any kind of repreientation? Some learned ‘writers have fuppofed, that every fuperior lord, whio held of the king immediately and in chief, gave au opinion on mat- ters of government, which bound all his vaffals. But if this were abe cafe, the pofleffors of allodial eftates, to which clafs we may refer all the parochial clergy, having no fupe- tior lord to a& for them in parliament, could not be thus reprefented, or virtually bound by the atts of the kiny’s barons, to whom they were not attached by any feudal con- nexion, and of whom they held nothing. Befides, the > ors citizens, and burgeffes, who are now reprefentatives ofthe commons of England, are eleéted by thote for whom they ferve ; and on occafion of every new parliament, the € are at li to make a new choice: whereas, the reprefentatives, in the above hypothefis of fir H. Spelman, were neither eleGted, nor liable to be changed at any period of time, by thofe whom they reprefented ; their right to fit in parliament not arifing from any truft conferred by the people, but wholly from their tenures. It is alfo certain, that the feudal oy was the fame under the govern- ment of Henry Ifk. as of William I., and continued fo for fome ages. If therefore the barons, and fuperior lords of great fiefs. holden immediately of the crown, had, by virtue of the inititutions of Walliam L., been fuppofed to reprefent their vaflals in parliament, aad the notion then was, that every feudatory, holding by a mefne tenure, was bound by the parliamentary acts of his lord, how came that notion to be difcarded in the 49th year of Henry ILI. or under the reign of his fon, or at any time afterwards? A baron, who held of the crown, was to all inteats and purpofes the head of his vailals, in the reigns of Edward I: and Edward IIL, as much as in any of the preceding reigns. How happened it then, that the confent of thefe vailals to the making of laws, or any other aét of moment to the public, was not fill included in the vote of theirlord? Why was it given, againft the courfe of former proceedings, not by him, as their re- prefentative, but by knights of the fhire, or by citizens, or by burgefles, chofen by the vaffals? Some have referred this change, as we have above ftated, to the earl of Lei- cefter, in the agth year of Henry III. But an exifting re- cord, it is faid, demonftrates this date to be falfe. A writ of fummons, dire&ed to the fheriffs of Bedfordthire and Buckinghamfhire, and requiring two knights to be fent for each of thefe counties, is extant in the clofe roll of the 38th year of Henry III. And there is alfo a claufe in the great charter of the gth of the fame king (fee Dr. Blackftone’s edition of the charter , whereby it is declared, that, together with the fpiritual and temporal lords, other inferior free- holders, et omnes de regno, by which words lord Lyttelton underitands ‘ the whole commonalty of the realm,”’ granted to the king the fifteenth part of all their moveable goods, in return for the liberties acceded to them in that charter. “Nor,”? fays his lordthip (ubi infra), *¢ can I difcover in the hiftory of thofe umes any reafon fufficient to render it probable, that fo great an alteration fhould then have been made in the conftitution of England.”? Such an alteration mult have produced difputes, which would have been noticed by fome of the numerous hiftorians of that age. But the Englith hiftory is altogether filent as to any difputes between the nobility and the people, on this account, from the ear- liefk times of the Saxon government down to the reign of Charles I. Hence it may be reafonably prefumed, that the right of the commons mutt have been inconteftibly eftablifhed by cuftom, and interwoven into the original frame of our government. It is hardly conceivable, that the admiflion of all the lower orders of freemen, or indeed of any large number, to the great council of the kingdom, and toa par- ticipation of the legiflative power, to which they had no right before, fhould have been brought about, and yet pafs unobferved by any writer who lived in that. age. If we fuppofe, as fome have done, that the fitting in parliament was at this time regarded only as a trouble and burden, the impofition of fuch a burden on orders of men, who had been before exempt from it, mult have been on their part refitted and oppofed. But from the act of the 4th of Edward III., which is thus worded, * It is accorded, that a parliament fhall be holden every year once, and more often, if need be,” we may infer, that it was generally re- garded ina very different light, rather as a privilege, of which they earneftly defired the frequent enjoyment, than as a burden, from which they wifhed to be exempt. It is true, fome boroughs, which, on account of their poverty, were unable to bear the expence of fending members to par- liament, declined the exercife of that privilege; but it would be unfair to allege this cireumftance, which occurred in particular inftances, as an argument in favour of the pre- neral fenfe of the commons in counties, cities, or other more wealthy boroughs. Befides, there are fome inftances of bo- roughs that petitioned to be reftored to the ule of the pri- vilege of fending members to parliament, after a very long interruption, BOROUGH. interruption. Moreover, it feems incredible, that if the whole legiflative power had, before the reign of Henry IiL., been always placed in the nobility and the king, they fhould not have oppofed the extenfion of it to fo many perfons of lower rank in the ftate : more efpecially as the power of the nobility was never higher than it was in this reign. With regard to the earl of Leicefter, it was not his intereft, while he was acting at the head of the nobles and people, in a very dangerous conteft againft the crown, to make any innovations offenfive or diftatteful to either of thofe bodies; nor is it probable, that any new inftitution, begun by that earl, fhould have been confirmed and perpetuated by Edward I. Among the clofe rolls of the 24th of this king, there is a writ of fummons to parliament, already cited, in which it is afferted, not as an innovation ‘intfoduced by the earl of Leicefter, but **a maxim grounded on a mott equitable law, eftablifhed by the forefight and wifdom of facred princes, that what con- cerns all, fhould be done with the approbation of all; and that dangers to the whole community, fhould be obviated by remedies provided by the whole community.’’. If the earl of Leicefter, or even if Edward I., or his father, had intro- duced the practice of Summoning the commons to parliament, Edward could not with propriety have ufed this language. It is further alleged, that there is not in any of the oldett writs for fending up reprefentatives from cities or boroughs the leaft intimation, that fuch elections were a novelty then introduced. Some writs are taken notice of by Mr. ‘Tyrrel, an induftrious fearcher of records on this fubject, which fet forth a claim of certain tenants in ancient demefne, before the rsth year of Edward II., that they ought not to be charged with wages to knights of the thire; ‘ forafmuch as they and their anceftors, tenants of the fame manor, had, from time beyond memory, been always exempted, by cuftom, from the expences of knights, fet by the commu- nity of their county to the parliaments of the king, and of his royal progenitors.’’ A time beyond memory is defined by our law-books to be a time antecedent to the beginning of the reign of Richard I. ; and if no wages had been ever paid to knights of the shire till the reign of Henry IIL., it would have been prepoiterous for thefe perfons to tell the grandfon of that king, that they had enjoyed a cuttomary privilege of not paying wages from time beyond memory, which muft be fuppofed, when this exemption was claimed, to go much further back than the reign of Richard I, With regard to cities and boroughs, there are likewife extant two claims, made in the reigns of Edward II. and Ed- ward III., which feem to decide the fenfe of that age con- cerning the antiquity of the cuftom of citizens and burgefles coming to parliament, and from towns that were held under fubjects, not immediately of the crown: Thefe are the claims of the towns of St. Albans and Barnftaple. In the petition of the borough of St. Albans, firft taken notice of by Selden, and then by Petyt, Brady, Tyrrel, and others, and prefented to parliament; in the reign of Edward II., the petitioners affert, that though they held in capite of the crown, and owed only for all other fervice their attendance in parliament, yet the fheriff had omitted them in his writs; whereas, both in the reign of the king’s father, and all his predeceffors, they had always fent members. This expref- tion, it is alleged, could not have been ufed, if the com- -mencement of the houfe of commons were in the reign of Henry III. However, Madox, in his ** Hiftory of the Exchequer,”’ p. 522, &c. has endeavoured to deitroy the authority of this petition for the purpofe to which it is ad- duced. He afferts, firft, that there was no fuch tenure in England, as that of holding by attendance in parliament, initead of all other fervice ; and fecondly, that the borough of St. Albans never held of the crown at all, but was always demefne land of the abbot. Itis no wonder, therefore, fays Mr. Hume, that a petition, which advances two falfe- hoods, fhould contain one hiftorical miftake, which indeed amounts only to an inaccurate and exaggerated exprefiion ; no ftrange matter in ignorant burgefles of that age, who wanted to fhake off the authority oftheir abbot, and to hold of the king, without rendering any fervices even to the crown. See the difcuffion of this fubject, and an examina- tion of the reafoning of Madox and Dr. Brady, in Lyttel- ton’s Hit. of Eng. vol. iii. p. 405,-&c. The advocates for the antiquity of borough reprefentatives further refer to a ftatute of the 5th year of Richard II. ftat. 2. which enacts, «¢ that all and fingular perfons and commonalties, which from henceforth fhall have the fummons of the parliament, fhall come from henceforth to the parliaments in the manner as they are bound to do, and have been accuflomed within the realm of England, of old times. And ifany perfon of the fame realm, which from henceforth {hall lave the faid fummons (be he archbifhop, bifhop, abbot, prior, duke, earl, baron, banneret, Anight of the /hire, citizen of cily, burge/s of boroughs or other fingular perfon or commonalty ), do abfent himleif, &c. he fhall be amerced, and otherwife punifked, according as of old times hath been ufed to be done within the faid realmin the faid cafe.”’ Upon this fatute it is argued, that it makes no diitin&tion between the antiquity of fummons to parlia- ment feat to the greater nobility, and thofe to citizens, bur- geffes, and knights of the fhire. Betides this remarkable teftimony of the whole legiflature in the reign of Richard Wis to the antiquity of the cultom of the commons coming to the parliament, we have a petition of the commons in the fecond parliament of the reign of Henry V., which jets forth to that prince, ‘that asit hath ever been their libertie and free- dom, that there fhould no ftatute nor law be made, unlefs they paft thereto their affent, confidering that the commune of your land, the which is and ever hath been a member of your parliament, be as well affenters as petitioners,” &c. This claim was not difallowed either by the lords or the king. -Befidesthefe authorities drawn from ftatutes and re- cords, it is faid, that very evident indications of the prefence of the people in the national councils, and of their being conttituent parts thereof, though in a diforderly mauney, are to be found in fome ancient hiitories, and contemporary ac- counts of tranfaCtions in parliament, from the death of Ed-. ward the Confeflor to that of Henry Il. Several inftances to this purpofe, occurring in the reigns of William the Con- queror, William Rufus, Henry I., Stephen, Henry II., &c. are produced by lord Lyttelton, in the Notes to his Hiitory, vol. iii. p. 421, &c. We may further add, that the prefence of the peop/e in the Saxon councils, and their having had a fhare in the higheft acts of legiflature and go- vernment, even till the entrance of the Normans, feems to be proved very ftrongly from the preambles of laws and other proceedings of thofe councils, and from the words of the beft hiftorians who lived near to thofe times, On this long ufage, fays lord Lyttelton, their right was eftablifhed; and it ap- pears to have been continued under William the Conqueror, with other cuftoms and rights confirmed by him to the na- tion, and under his fucceflors, by like fanGtions of ancient liberties granted in repeated royal charters. In ancient times, however, the property of the commons was fo un- equal to that of the nobles, and the feudal obligations of the inferior landholders to the lords under whom they held, created fuch a dependence of the former on the latter, that although, in the idea and fcheme of the government, a po- pular power was mixed with the regal and ariftocratical, yet, in reality, the {cale of the people was not weighty enough te BOROUGH. to make a proper connterpoife to either of the others. The commons ufually declined to give their opinion or advice to the crown, in certain matters of ftate, and fubmitted their judgment rofpecting them to the king and his council, or to them andthe While the reprefentatives of cities, towas, and boroughs, were chofenonly ontof perfonsrefidentiathem, they were generally people of lowdegree andcondition, whofe education and way of life rendered them very unfit to judze of arduous queftions concerning foreign affairs, and treaties with foreign ftates. Neverthelefs, even in the earlieft times, fo far back as we haye any rolls of the parliament, all the commons appear to have given their advice with great free- dom in matters concerniag the internal government and order of the kingdom. What they declined to advife in, upon fome wéeatiens, were queitions that related to the making of peace or war. Mr. Hume, indeed, afferts, on the authority of a citation from fir Robert Cotton’s abridgment of the records in the Tower, that the commons in thefe times were much below the rank of legiflators, and that they were con- fidered by the king merely as petitioners, or deltitute of any eC od legiflative authority. But the whole paflage, cited y Lord Lyttleton, feems to confirm, inftead of denying their legiflative authority: - In.the king’s anfwer to their application, they are truly told, that the power of judica- ture does not appertain to them, but to the king and the lords; and this was the queition to which their prayer re- lated: but in ftatutes they were to judge, as well as in grants, fubfidies, &c. Their being petitioners was cer- tainly no argument againf their being legiflators ; fince the courle of proceedings thet! was, that their petitions, if af- fented to by the lords and theking, fhould be turned into fta- tutes, asall the old recordsof parliament unqueftionably fhew. Burgeflés were firft admitted into the Scottifh parliaments by Robert Bruce, A.D. 1,26; and in the preamble to the Jaws of Robert IL. they are ranked among the conftituent members of that aflembly. Brady of Boroughs. Petyt’s Right of the Commons. Brady’s Anfwer to Petyt. T'yr- rel’s Appendix to his Hiftory of England. Hume’s Hitt. of Englaud, vol. i. and ii. Appendix i. andii. Lyttelton’s Hiftory of Henry II. vol. iii. Robertfon’s Hift. of Scot- land, vol. i. p.79. 8vo. See WivrrNacemore, and Par- LIAMENT. Boroven, in Scots Law, isa body corporate, confifting of the inhabitants of a certain traét of ground, erected by the fovercign, with jurifdiétion annexed'to it. Boroughs aré erected, either to be holden of the fovereign himfelf, which is the general cafe of royal boreughs, or of the fupe- rior of the lands fo ere€ted, as boroughs of regality and ba- rony. The former are empowered, by their charters, to choofe annually certain office bearers, or magiftrates; but in the latter, the nomination of magiltrates is, by their charters, lode fometimes in the inhabitants, fometimes in the fuperior. | Bailies of boroughs have jurifdiGtion in mat- ters of debt, fervice, and queftions of poffeffion betwixt the inhabitants. Their criminal jurifdi@ion comprehends petty riots, atid recklefs fire-raifing. ‘The dean of wild is that magiltrate of a royal borough, who is head of the merchant- company; to him belong the cognizance of mercantile caufes within the borough, and the infpection of buildings, that they eneroach neither on private property, nor on the public ftreets; and he may direét infufficient houfes to be pulled down. His jurifdiction bas no dependence on the court of the borough, or bailie-court. Boroucus, Royal, in Scotland, are corporations made for the advantage of trade, by charters granted’ by feveral of their kings; bering the privilege of fending commiflioners to reprefent them, befides other peculiar privileges. ce ‘ : Thefe form a body of themfelves, and fend commiffioners, each to an annual convention at Edinburgh, to confult the benefit of trade, and the general intereft of the boroughs. According to Chamberlayne, they have the fole power of trade and merchandize, exclufive of all others, a power of holding courts, exercifing the jurifdiGtion of heriffs, making bye Iaws, &c. m The company of merchants in a royal borough make what is called a guild ; the chief of which isa dean of guild, who is next magiftrate to the bailiff. See Gurip. j The royal boroughs are not only fo many diftin® corpo- rations, but do alfo conftitute one entire body, governed by, and accountable to one general court, anciently called the * court of four boroughs,” held yearly to treat and deter- mine concerning matters relating to the common advantage of all boroughs. ‘The four boroughs which compofed this court were Edinburgh, Stirling, Roxburgh, and Berwick ; which two lait falling into the hands of the Englifh, Lin- lithgow and Lanerk were put in their places; with a faving to the former, whenever they fhould return to their allegi- ance. But this court not being fufficient to anfwer the ne- ceflities of the royal boroughs, they were all empowered, under James IIT. in 1487, to fend commiffioners to a yearly convention of their own, which was then appointed to be held at Inverkeithing, andis now held at Edinburgh, under the denomination of the convention of boroughs, velted with great power. Borovcu-Courts, in Law, are certain courts held in bo- roughs, by prefcription, charter, or act of parliament: fuch are the fherff’s court, and court of huftings in London. See Court. BorouGu-Englifh, {fo named in conttadiftinG&tion, as it were, to the Norman cuitoms, and noticed by Glanvil (1. 7. c.3.), and by Littleton (§ 165.), denotes a cuftomary de- feent of lands or tenements in fome ancient boroughs and copyhold manors, whereby they come to the youngeft, in- ftead of the eldeft fon; or if the owner hath no iffue, to the youngeft inftead of the eldeft brother; becaufe according to Littleton, the youngelt is fuppofed, in law, the leaft able to fhift for himfelf. 1 Inft. 110. b. And in fupport of this reafon, other ufagesin favour of the youngrlt are alleged, as that in Kent, where the lands being equally divided among all the fons, the youngeft is to have the privilege of aftre or hearth in the manfion-houfe, in his fhare, as being fuppofed the tendereft and more in need of warming. Others, not- withftanding, fufpe& a different reafon for the rife of bo- rough-Englifh, viz. that the places, where this cuftom now obtains, were anciently liable to that cuftom granted to the Jords of manors in Scotland by king Eugenius, who had the privilege of enjoying the firft night of their tenants? brides; fo that the eldeft fon being prefumed to be the lord’s, they ufually fettled their lands on the youngeft fon, whom they thought their own ; which being praétifed along time, grew at length intoa cufllom. The cuitom, however, never’ obtained in England, though it did in Scotland, under the name of * mercheta,’”? or ‘marcheta,’’ till it was abolifhed by Malcolm I1f. Perhaps, fays judge Blackttone, ‘the ori- gin of this practice may be illuftrated by that of the Tar- tars, mentioned by Du-Halde, among whom the fame cuf- tom of defcent to the youngeft fon prevails, As the nation is compofed of fhepherds and herd{men, the eldeft fons mi= grate from their father with an allotment of cattle, to feek a’ new habitation. The youngeft fon, continuing latett with’ his father, is naturally the heir of his houfe ; the reft being» already provided for. This cuftom of migrating phiebiondh in many other northern nations ;‘and borough-Englifh may be a rempant of that paftoral ftate of our Britifh and Ger- man BOR aidn anceftors, which Czfar and Tacitus defcribe, ftone’s Comm. vol. il. p. 83, 84. This cuftom goes with the land, and direéts the defcent to the youngeft fon, although there be a devife to the contrary. 2 Lev. 138. If a copyhold in borough-Englifh be furren- dered to the ufe of a perfon and his heirs, the right will de- fcend to the youngeft fon, according to the cuftom. 1 Mod. 102. Anda youngeft fon fhall inherit an eftate in tail, in borough-Englifh. Noy. 106. But an heir at common law fhall take advantage of acuftom annexed to borough-Englifh land; though the youngeft fon fhall be entitled to all actions in right of theland. 1 Nelf. Abr.396. And the eldeft fon fhall have tythes arifiag from borough-Englifh land; for tythes of common right are not inheritances defcendible to an heir, but come in fucceffion from one clergyman to an- other. Ibid. 347. Borough-Englifh land being defcend- ible to the youngeft fon, if a younger fon dies without iffue male, leaving a daughter, fuch daughter fhall inherit << jure reprefentationis.” 1 Salk.243. By this cuftom the widow fhall have the whole of her hufband’s lands in dower, called her ‘¢ free-beach ;’’ and it is given to her to enable her the better to provide for the younger children entrufted to her care. Co, Litt. 33. 111. F.N.B. 150. Mo. Pl. 566. As borough-Englifh is particularly noticed by the law, it is un- neceflary to prove that fuch cuftom aGiually exits, but only that the lands in queftion are fubje& to it.. 1 Comm. 76. But the extenfion of the cuftom to the collateral line mult be {pecially pleaded. Robinf. om Gavelkind, 38. 43.93. Boroucu-Head, or Head-Boroucu, was one of the loweft magiftrates among the Anglo-Saxons, and the chief man of the decennary, tithing, or free burg, coniifting of ten families; chofen by the reft to fpeak and act in their . behalf. He is alfo called the tithing-man, and, in fome countries, the borough-holder, bors-holder, or borough’s- elder, being fuppofed the difcreeteft man in the borough, town, or tithing. According to the inftitution of Alfred, every houfeholder was anfwerable for the behaviour of his family and flaves, and even of his guetts, if they lived above three daysin his houfe; and ten neighbouring houfeholders formed themfelves into a corporation, under the name of a decennary, or tithing, of which the head-borough, or bors-holder (derived from the Saxon words lor, afurety, and older, ahead or chief), was the prefident, and they were anfwerable for the condu& of each other. Every man was punifhed as an outlaw, who did not regifter himfelf in fome tithing; nor could any one change his habitation, without a warrant or certificate from the bors-holder of the tithing to which he formerly belonged. When any perfon in any tithing was guilty of a crime, the bors-holder was fummoned to anfwer for him; and if he were not willing to be furety for his appearance and his clearing himfelf, the criminal was committed to prifon, and there de- tained tillhis trial. If he fled, either before or after finding fureties, the bors-holder and decennary became liable to in- quiry, and were expofed to the penalties of the law. Thirty- one days were allowed them for producing the criminal : and if they did not find him within that time, the bors-holder, with two other members of the decennary, was obliged to appear, and, together with three chief members of the three neighbouring decennaries (making twelve in all), to fwear that his deceunary was free from all privity both of the crime committed, and of the efeape of the criminal. Lf the bers- holder could not find fuch a number to anfwer for their inno- cence, the decennary was compelled by fine to make fatisfac- tion to the king, according to the degree of the offence. The feverity of this regulation was afterwards a little miti- gated, and the oaths of all the members of the tithing to Black- BOR which the criminal belonged, to the above effe&t, were ad- mitted as a fufficient exculpation, provided that, at the fame time, they promifed, upon oath, to prefent him to jutftice, as foon as they could apprehend him. « By this inftitution, every man was obliged, from his own intereft, to keep a watchful eye over the condué@ of his neighbours ;_ and was in a maa- ner furety for the behaviour-of thefe who were placed under the divifion co which he belonged; and hence thefe decenna- ries received the name of frank-pledges. -See Tiree. In many parifhes, head-borough alfo fignifies a kind of head conftable, where there are feveral chofen as his affiit- ants, to ferve warrants, &c. See ConsTABLe. Boroucs, or Borge, denotesa pledge or fecurity for an= other’s keeping the peace, and conforming to the laws. The word is Saxon, and is fometimes alfo wiitten borough ¥ in Latin writers, borgha and burgha. Boroucu-breach, Borgi /radura, in Ancient Law Writers, denotes a breaking of the pledge or fecurity given by the members of tithings for the behaviour of each other. This is the fame with what is otherwife called dorg-bregty borgh-brege, borg-breche, and éorghi-fradura, ; Borovcus, Law, or Borrows, in the law of Scotland, the-fame with what in England is called binding to the peace, In cafe of a contravention of law-boroughs, the furety or cautioner is equally liable with the principal for the penalty fpecified therein, the one-half to the king, and the other te the complainer. : BOROUGH-BRIDGE, in Geography, an ancient bo- rough town of Yorkfhire, in England, derives the latter part of its name from a handfome ftone bridge over the river Ure, This place was formerly called New-borough, in contra- diftinGion from Aldborough or O/d-borough, a village about one mile diftant. Each of thefe places has the privilege of fending two members to parliament ; and as both are included in one parifh, that parifh has the fingular power of returning four members. Aldborough firft made a return in 15535 and New-boroughin 1553. The former place is attributed, by many refpeCtable writers, to Roman origin, andis faid to be the {tation Ifurium, which was placed on the Watling- ftreet, 17 miles from Eboracum, or York. The ancient walls of this town (Ifurium), obferves Mr. Gough, though level with the ground, may eafily be traced ina circumference of more than a mile andahalf. ‘They inclofe an area of an oblong fquare, containing about 6o acres, which flope to the river Ure. The walls, nearly four yards thick, were founded on large pebbles, which were laidina bed of blue clay. Near the centre of the ftatien was a hillock, called Borough-hill, which feems to have been the citadel, where foundations of buildings, Mofaic pavements, &c. have been difcovered. A, fudatory, with {culptured altars, numerous coins, urns, and other relics of the Romans have been found at this fta- tion, which was evidently of much confequence in Raman Britain, although probably fubordinate to the great one at Eboracum. It is generally written Ifurium Brigantum, whence Horfley infers that it wasthe capital of the Brigantes, A. particular account of the antiquities found here, with en- gravings, may be feen in Gough’s edition of Camden, vol. il. p. 59, &c. anda very judicious account in Hargrave’s Hiftory of Knarefoorough, fifth edition, 12mo. 1798. Borough-Bridge is only a {mall town, with 114 houfes and 680 inhabitants. It belongs to the parith of Ald- borough, and has a chapel of eafe to the mother church, To the centre of the town is a crofs, or obelifk, about twelve feet high, of the fame f{pecies of ftone asthe Devil’s Arrows, which are at a (hort diitance weit of the town. Thefe fin- gular ftones have excited much curiofity among antiquaries, and furnifhed a theme for various mei abismaenmaacnie => 3 poe | BOR Thete were formerly four ftones, raifed upright in the ground, but one of them was demolifhed in the laft century. ‘The remaining tliree ftand about two hundred feet from each other, ace of an obeliikal’ fhape, and of a ftupendous fize. The tops feem as if {plit, and the fides are indented, or fur- rowed, fora certain {pace downwards. This appearance induced fome writers to aflert that they were fluted by art ; but it is more probable that the weather effeGed this opera- tion. The height of the talleit flone is twenty-two feet and a half from. the ground, and its greateit circumference fixteen feet. Its depth in the ground is four feet and a half. Another ftone meafures twenty-one feet high, by feventeen feet in girth ; and the third {tone is feventeen feet high, by twenty-two feet in circumference. Mr. Drake (in his hiftory of York) fuppofes they were trophies raifed by the Romans; Leland is of the fame opinion ; but Dr. Gale conjectures, that they were Herma, and from their parti- cular pofition pointed to four different Roman roads that met at this place. Doors Plott and Stukely attribute them to the Britons, and this feems the more probable, as we are well affured that the primeval inhabitants of Britain raifed various fingle upright flones, and different circles of ftones of varied diameter and magnitude. Thefe, fays Mr. Pennant, were either monumental memorials of departed he- roes, or the rude objects of worfhip, fuch as the Ifraelites bowed to, when they departed, from the purity of adora- tion. Such objeéts are fityled in Wales Meini-hirion, or the long ftones, and Meinigwyr, or the ambrofial ftones, as de- forthed by Bryant and others. . The river Ure-is not navigable higher than Borough- bridge, near which the canal from Ripon communicates with it by means of a lock. About two miles and a half below the town, the river Swale joins the Ure. Borough-bridge, Aldborough, and the manor, honour, and cattle of Knaref- borough were, in the 13th of Henry ILI. granted to the famous Hubert de Burgh, upon his paying rool. a year into the exchequer, but were forfeited by his fon in the fame reign for joining Simon de Montfort at the battle of Evefham. Borough-bridge remained in the crown till the reign of Edward II. who beftowed it on his infolent favourite Piers Gavefton. It now belongs, with the intereft of the two boroughs, to the duke of Neweattle, Near this place, in 1322, a battle was fought between the foldiers of Edward II. and prince Thomas, earl of Lancafter, when the latter was taken prifoner, and, after fuffering various indignities, was beheaded. Mott of his partizans were taken, and fome were flain ; among whom was John’ de Bohun, earl of Hereford, who, in a over the wooden bridge of this place, was killed by a lance from a foldier Jurking beneath the bridge. This town has a weekly market on Saturdays, and feveral fairs annually ; the principal of which, in June, continues for a week, and is much frequented by the manufacturers from Sheffield, Birmingham, Wolverhampton, &c. Har- grove’s Hutory of Knarefborough. Gough’s edition of Camden’s Britannia. Pennant’s Tour from Alfton Moor to Harrowgate, 4to. 1804. BOROVITCHI, a town and diftri@ of Ruffia, in the government of Novogorod, fituated on the river Mita; 88 miles E.S.E. of Novogorod,and 168 S.E. of Peter{burg. BOROWA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Czaflau, 8 miles E.N.E. of Teutfch Brod. BOROWICA, atown of Poland, in the palatinate of Volhynia ; 20 miles N. of Lucko. BOROWICK, atown of Poland, in the palatinate of Kiou, 32 miles S.E. of Czerkafy. , BOROWNIZA, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigingratz, 18 miles S. E. of Konigingratz. s Vou. V. BOR BOROWSKO, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Czaflau ; 7 miles W. of Ledetfch.. BOROZAIL, in Medicine, a difeafe which refembles the yaws, frequent among the Africans inhabiting the banks of the river Senegal. See Yaws. BOROZDINKA, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruffian Tartary, in the government of Caucafus, on the Ural; 32 miles N. of Guriel. ; BORRAGO, in Botany. See Boraco. BORRELISTS, in Leclefifical Hiflory, a fe& or fort of Anabaptills in Holland, who allow of no ufe of facra- ments, public prayers, or other external worfhip, nor of any human glofs or explication of {eripture ; but profefs to adhere to the faith and manners of the New Teftament times in all their fimplicity. They took their denomination from their founder, Bor- rel, a perfon of great learning in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin tongues, and brother of M. Borrel, ambajflador of the States to the French king. BORRI, Joseen Francis, in Latin Burrhus, in Bio- graphy, an impoflor and empiric of the 17th century, was born at Milan, about the year 1625, and educated in the Jefuits’ feminary at Rome. ' In early life he was notorious for his licentious conduét; but afterwards affuming the cha» rater of a religious devotee, he declaimed againtt the cor- ruption of the age, and pretended to fupernatural vifions and revelations. Dreading the powers of the inquifition at Rome, he removed to Milan, where he eftablifhed a new fect, con- fifting of perfons whom he attached to himfelf and his caufe by vows of fecrecy, and whom he deprived of their property by enforcing the obligation of voluntary poverty. With the affiftance of his deluded followers, and by means of a {word which he pretended to have reccived from heaven, he propofed to compel all mankind to unite in one fheep-fold, of which he was to be the fhepherd and fuperintendant. Among his other fancies and chimeras, one of his mott diftinguifhing doétrines was that of the deification of the virgin Mary, whom he conceived to be the only daughter of God, and the Holy Ghoft incarnate. Arrogating to him- felf a divine miflion, he aflumed the privilege of conveying illumination to his followers by the impofition of hands; and after gaining a fufficient number of adherents, it was his in- tention to open his commiffion at the great {quare of Milan, aud there to inveigh againft the civil and ecclefiaftical abufes of government, to animate the people to recover their liberty, and to feize the city and its territories, with a view to more extenfive conquelts and dominions. As foon as fome of his difciples were arrefted and imprifoned, he made his efcape ; and the inquifition proceeding againtt him, declared him con- tumacious, condemned him as a heretic, and caufed hie effigies to be publicly burnt at Rome. At this time, viz, in 1661, he fought an afylum at Amflerdam, and here he found a convenient theatre for the further exercife of his impottures, Having affumed the charaéters of a chemift and a phytician, he pretended to extraordinary {kill in the cure of all kinds of diftempers, fet up a fplendid equipage, and ufurped the title of excellence. But when his credit funk, and his refources derived from the art of f{windling failed, he fled from Am- {terdam: in the night, taking with him all the money and jetvels he could collect, and removed to Hamburgh, where he impofed upon queen Chriftina, by pretending to the fecret of the philofopher’s ftone; but when her means of encourage ing this delufion failed, he removed to Denmark, and ob tained from the king profufe fupplies, Upon the death of the king, he thought it moft prudent to make his efeape, and in his flight towards Turkey, he was apprehended on the German frontier by miftake, as a political criminal. His K name BOR name being accidentally mentioned to the emperor in the prefence of the pope’s nuncio, he was demanded as an here- tical offender, and delivered up by the emperor on condition ** that his life fhould’be preferved. Upon his arrival at Rome, he was fenteticed to abjure-his errors, to do public penance, and to be imprifoned for life. In prifon he‘was vifited by feveral perfons of rank, who reforted’ to him in confequence of the fame of his adventures; and having’performed a cure on the duke d’Etrée, the French ambaffador, who had been given over by feveral phyficians, he obtained fome degree of liberty, and at length a removal to the caftle of St. Angelo, where he was‘allowed to profecute his chemical experiments, and where he died in 1695. Some writings were attributed to him, and printed at Geneva in 1681; one, entitled « La Chieve del Gabinetto ;” i. e. the key of the cabinet, being a feries of letters relative to alchemy and the Roficracian philofophy ; and the other, “ Iftruzioni Politiche,”? or 4 fet of political aphorifms, with a commentary addreffed to the king of Denmark. The Bibliotheca Medicorum men- tions alfo two of his letters, printed at Copenhagen in 1669, and written to Bartholine ; one, “¢ De ortu cerebri et ufu medico ;” the other, “ De artificio oculorum humores re- flituendi.”” Konig attributes to him another piece, entitled ‘© Notitia gentis Burrhorum.” Borri combined a confiderable portion of cunning and artifice with his enthufiafm, and thus became capable of ee more fuccefsfully on the credulity of mankind. is fancies with regard to the new celeftial kingdom, which he pretended a commiffion to eftablith, and the downfal of the Roman pontiff, which he threatened to accomplifh, are fo extravagant, childifh, and abfurd, that they can be viewed by fober perfons in no other light than as the crude reve- ries of a difordered brain. In his condu&t he manifefted, on various occafions, the greateft vanity and levity, accom- panying that fpirit of impofture which is ufually difplayed by quacks and mountebanks ; and, indeed, fays Mofleim, s¢ in the whole of his behaviour, he feemed deftitute of fenfe, integrity, and prudence.” Gen. Dié. Motheim’s Eccl. Hilt. vol. v. p. 240. ~ BORRIANO, in Geography, a town of Spain, at the mouth of the river Millas, in the gulf of Valencia; 7 leagues N. of Valencia. BORRICHIUS, Oxavus, in Biography, the fon of a Lutheran minifter at Ripen in Jutland, was born April 6th 1626. At the age of 18 he was fent to Copenhagen, where he applied with fo much affiduity to his ftudies, as to gain him the friendfhip of the fuperiors of the college, by the re- commendation of whom he obtained the canonry of Lunden. By continuing this courfe of life, his reputation for learning and diligence was fo eftablithed, that in 1654, when he was only 28 years of age, he was invited to accept the regency of the academy at Herlow. But ashe had determined to dedi- cate his time to the acquirement of the knowledge of medi- cine, he refufed this offer, purpofing to fpend a few years in vifiting foreign academies, and hearing the moft celebrated profeffors in the different branches of that art. The execu- tion of this projec was, however, poftponed, at the inftiza- tion of M. Gerftorff, the prime minifter of Denmark, who entertained him at his houfe as preceptor to his fons. Here he continued five years, at the end of which time, as a proof of the fatisfaGtion he had given, and of the opinion the mi- nifter had conceived of his various endowments, he was at once created profeffor in philofophy, poetry, chemiltry, and botany, in all of which he eminently excelled. Before he entered on the dutics of his offices, he was permitted, agreeably to his original intention, to vifit the different fchools of Holland, England, France, Germany, and Italy, BOR accompanied by the. two fons of the minifter, his pupils. Having {pent fix years in his tour, and ftored his mind with the knowledge of all that was curious or ufeful, in the countries he pafled through, and taken his degree of doctor in medicine at Angers, he returned in OGober 1666 to Copenhagen. He now undertook the duty of leGturer in chemiftry and in botany; and by the excellency of his difeourfes on thefe fubjects, confirmed his countrymen in the high opinion they had entertained of his talents. Though the time neceffarily {pent in this employment, and in pre- paring his numerous publications, left him, one would have thought, but little leifure for the praétice of phyfic, yet from the great number of valuable obfervations furnifhed by him to the AGa Haffnienfia, he muft have had no incon- fiderable fhare of bufinefs in that way. In 1686, he was made counfellor in the fuperlor court of juftice; and, im 1689, counfellor inthe royal chancery. He died the 3d of Otober, in the following year, three weeks after having undergone the operation for the ftone in the bladder. As Borrichius had never been married, he left a confiderable part of the large poffeflions he had acquired by his practice, for erecting and endowing a college for poor ftudents in medicine. - His principal medical produétions confift of obfervations publifhed in the Aéta Hatfnienfia, and other fimilar colleGtions, and of the letters fent by him while on his travels, to F. Bartholine, under whom he had been edu- cated. The letters, Haller obferves, are the moft valuable of thofe publithed by Bartholine in his Epiftole Medice ;?? but the works by which he acquired his principal celebrity, were * De ortu et progreffu chemiz,” publifhed in 1668, 4to.; and his “ Hermetis AXgyptiorum et Chemicorum fapientia, ab H. Conringio vindicata,’’ 1674. In this very learned and elaborate work, the author defends the charac- terof the ancient Egyptians, againft the ftri@ures of Con- ringius: attributing to them the invention and perfeGtion of chemiftry, and even of alchemy; perfuading himfelf that among their fecrets they poffefled the art of tranfmuting metals. But either from infatuation, ora defire of viGtory, he cites feveral manufcripts, fince known to be fpurious, as genuine, and fome written fince the time of our Saviour, as of much higher antiquity. Notwithftanding thefe ble- mifhes, the works have great merit. He fhews from un- doubted authority, that the Egyptians were early acquaint- ed with the medical properties of feveral of their plants; that they ufed faline, and even mineral preparations, fome of them prepared by ’chemiftry ; that incubation, or the method of hatching eggs by artificial heat, was firt ufed by them ; in fine, that the art of medicine, invented by them, paffed from them to the Grecians.- Borrichius was alfo author of « Confpectus preftantiorum feriptorum lingue Latin ;” ‘¢ Cogitationes de variis lingux Latine etatibus;’? « Analeéta philologiea, et judicium de lexicis Latinis Gre- cifque,””? and various other philological works: Eloy. Di&.- Hift. Gen. Dict. and Hailer’s Bib. Med. Pra. where will be found the titles of the differtations, and an analyfis of the principal works. “BORROMEAN Isuanps, in Grography, two iflands fituate in the bay of the lake called «* Lago Maggiore,”? or Lago di Locarno,” in the Milanefe, fo denominated from their having belonged to the Borromeo family. One of thefe iflands is called “* Ifola-Bella,”’ and the other “ Ifola- Madre.” ‘They are about a league diitant from one ano- ther, and derive the various beantiful feenes and objects which they prefent from the tafte and liberality of the counts Renatus and Vitalian Borromeo. They were origi- nally barren rocks ; but, with immenfe labour and expence, they were furnifhed with numerous terraces, grottoes, gar= dens, BOR dens, fountains, groves of cedars,cyprefs, citron trees, orange > trees, laurel, &c. which render them feenes of enchantment, anda kind of terreftrial paradifes. For a’particular def- cription of them, fee Keyfler’s Travels, vol. i. p. 374; &c. ORROMEO, Craacrss, Cardinal, in Biagrapiy, the fon of count Gilbert Borromeo, and a jifler of pope Pius IV. was born at the caftle of Arona, in 15383 and having made 2 confiderable progrefs in literature, he was called to Rome on the acceflion of his uncle to the papal chair ia 1539, and inveited with the dignities of cardinal-nephew, archbifhop of Milan, and penitentiary, legate of Ancona, Bologna, and Romagna, and protector of feveral crowns and religious orders. At the age of 22, he was entrafted with the government of the mof important affairs of the church ; and he principally contributed to that encourage- moént of literature and patronage of learned men which dif- tingnifhed this pontificate. He infituted‘at his houfe an academy, to which ali the learned mem at Rome repaired, when the bufinefs of the day was ccnciuded, to difculs lite- rary queftions, and. particularly fuch as related to facred fubjects. The works of this fociety have been publithed in feveral volumes, under the title of “* No&tes Vaticanz,’’ fo denominated becaufe its afemblies were held at night in the Vatican. In conformity to the direétions of ‘his uncle, hie began his public career with great magnificence and: {plen- dour, more anxious to do honour to the pope and the rank affigned him by his favour, than to gratify his own inclina- tions ; but when the council of Trent iffued its decrees for the reformation of clerical manners, he fet an example of obedieace by difmiffing at once 80 domettics, difearding filk from his drefs, and falling once every week on bread and water. In co-operation with the defigns of the coun- cil, he exerted himfelf in promoting a better education -among the clergy ; and with this view he inftituted a num- ber a feminanes in his own diocefe, and_in other places. He founded the Jefuits’ college at Milan, and was eminently inftrumental in ereéting a magnificent edifice for the uniyer- fity of Bologna. He took pains in corre¢ting the writings of fome doétors of the church, which had been corrupted, and employed Achilles Statius for this purpofe ; and he was alfo ative in eftablithing the congregation of eight cardinals, for refolving doubts and obviatyng difficulties that ight arife in the explication of the decrees of the council of Trent. Although he was urged by his parents, and even by the pope, to prevent his family from becoming extinct entering into a married ftate, he preferred continuing in the church ; and notwithftanding.many impediments ariling from ill health, awweak voice, and defeétive articulation, he determined to become a preacher, and by affiduous and perfe- vering application overcame all difficulties. After thedeath of his uncle, he removed to his archbifhopric, and devoted himfelf to the duties of his paftoral office, which he perform- ed with great honour to himfelf, and very much to the fatif- faétion and edification of the people. He took great pains in the reformation of religious orders, and in admiotiter- ing confolation to the remoteft parts of his diocefe. Dur- ing the plague, which afflicted the city and diocefe of Milan in 1576, he continued in the fcene of danger, by -his prefence imparted comfort to the fick and dying, and fold his. im order to furnifh himfelf with means for relieving their indigeace and diftrefs. He alfo convened provincial councils and fynods, and obtained their Manion in enaéting and enforcing various ufeful regulations for the goverument of the church. His inceflant labours -and aufterities impaired his feeble conititution, and termi- mated his courfe of aétive and exemplary fervice ati the early mage of 47 years,-in 15345 and pope Paul \V. «bellowed BOR upon him, in 1610, the honours of .canonization. Few faints in the calendar better deferved'this ditin@ion. Bor- romeo’s writings on {ubjects of faith and morals were nume- rous; they were collected in 5 vols. fol. and printed at Milan in 1747... His ** A@a Ecclefie Mediolanenfis’? was publithed in folio, in 1529. Morevi. Nouv. Die. Hilt. Fabr. Bib. Gree. t. xi p. 718. ‘The life of Borromeo was pub- . lithed by Pere Touron, in 3 vols. 12mo. Paris. 1761. BORROMINI, Francis, an Italian archite&, was horn in 1599, at Biffona, in the diocefe of Gomo, and ftudied feulpture firit at Milan,.and afterwards at. Rome. Under the patronage of Maderno, his relation, who was the architect of St. Peter’s, he directed his principal attention -to archite&ture ; and upon the death of Madero in i629, he worked under his fucceffor Bernini; and protected by pope Urban VIII. he was employed about the church of Sapienzia and the Barberini-palaces. At length he becemic the rival of Bernini; and acquired fuch a degree of reputation, that the king of Spain engaged him to furnifh a defiga for the enlargement of “his palace at Rome; and though it was . never executed, he received a liberal recompence in money, and was honoured with the order of St. James. The pope alfo beftowed upon him the order of Chrift,. anda penfion. In this career oF profperity, the extravagance of his tafte in- curred the cenfure of feveral critics; and he was charged, by Beraini, with corrupting the found principles of the art. The clamour againft him prevailed, and his rival ob- tained the direGtion of a building for which he had prepared the defigns; upon which he retired in difguft into Lom- bardy. On his return, he employed himfelf in preparing a fet of grotefques for engraving ; but the mortification he experienced preyed upon his fpirits, and produced occafional ‘derangement of mind; and in one of his paroxy{ms, he feized a {word and gave himfelf a mortal wound, in his 68th year. Borromini affected fingularity, and indulged a capricious and* fantaitic tafle in his defigns and decorations, which was utterly inconfiitent with fimplicity and propriety. Accord- ingly fome have reprefented his ftyle in architeéture as re- fembling the literary ftyle of Seneca, and of the poet Ma- rino. Vain of his own imagined fuperiority, and jealous of his brethren, he declined to concur with them ; and before his death, deftroyed all his defigns, left any other architect fhould pafs them off as his own. His beft:work, among many performances, in churches and palaces at Rome, which blend ftriking beauties with fingularity, is accounted to be the college of the Propaganda. ‘The oratory of the Chiefa Nova, and the houfe of the fathers are alfo admired. D’Argenville. Gen. Biog. BORROWDALE, in Geography, a picturefque diftri& of Cumberland, near Kefwick, fouth of Derwent-lake, com- ‘menacing at the cataract of Lowdore, and {preading its tre- :mendous rocks in a vaft {weep round the head of the lake, at the diflance of about halfa mile from the fhore, which is bounded by meadow-land:to the brink of the water. The afpeét of thefe rocks, with the fragments that have rolled foul their fummits, and which lie on each fide of the road, prepare the curious traveller for the awful ruin to which he approaches in the gorge or pafs of Borrow. dale, that opens from the centre of the amphitheatre, which bounds the head of Derwent-water. Dark rocks yawn at its entrance, and difclofe a narrow pafs, running up between mountains of granite, that are fhivered into almoft ever poffible form of horror, Above, the whole fcene refembles the accumulations of aw earthquake or volcanic eruptions fplintered, shivered, and amaffed in piles over one another, uge cliffs have rolled down into the glen below, where, however, remains a miniature of the moit delightful pattoral Kz beauty BOR - beauty on the banks of the river Derwent. Among the mott itriking of the fells are Glaramara, exhibiting rock upon rock, and Eagle-crag, where that bird till of Jate has been accuftomed to build its neft: but the depredations anally committed on its young, have driven it from the plice. Hence the-pafs extends for a mile over a frightful road, that climbs among the crags of a precipice that hangs over the river, with frequent glimpfes into glens and chaims, feemingly obftruéting further progrefs by fallen fhivers of rock, and at length reaching the gigantic ftone of Boulder, that appears to have been pitched into the ground from the fummit of a neighbouring fell, and in its fhape refembles the roof of a houle reverfed, the fide to- awards the road projefting about 12 feet overthe bale. The dimenfions of this huge mafs are as follow; its length is 62 feet, its perpendicular altitude 36 feet, its circum- ference 89 feet, and it contains 23099 {olid feet; its weight is 1771 tons 13 hundred. The returning traveller is prefented with an opening view over the Derwent lake of the Skiddaw-mountain, and the upper fleeps of Saddle- back obliquely feen towards the eaft, and rearing itfelf far above all the heights of the eaftern fhore. At the entrance of the gorge, the village or hamlet of Grange lics pic- turefquely on the bank of the Derwent, among meadows and woods, and shelters itfelf under the ruinous fell, called Caftle-crag, deriving its name from the caille or fortrefs, which from its fammit once guarded this important pals. Borrowéale abounds in valuable mines, among which fome are known to fupply the fineft wadd, or black lead to he found in England. Thefe mountains alfo furnifh great quantities of iron-{lone, flate, and various kinds of free-itone. Radcliffe’s Journey in 1794, vol. i. p. 350, &c. BORROWSTONNESS, or Bowness, a town of Scotland, in the county of Linlithgow, having a harbour on the fouth fide of the frith of Forth, and furrounded with coal-pits and falt-works, which produce the principal ex- ports of the place. It has a good pier and harbour of late conftruétion: 15 miles W. of Leith and 4 N. of Linlithgow. BORSALO, or Bursa, a town and kingdom of Africa, in Negroland, not far from the fea-coaft, and ex- tending along the northern bank of the river Gambra, as far as Tantagonda. The town of this name is in the middle of the country, about 45 leagues from the coait. In the coun- try which is little known, there is a river of the fame name. BORSELLA, in the Glafs Works, an inftrument where- with they extend or contraét the glafles at pleafure ; alfo fmooth and levigate them. BORSEHOLDER. Sce BorouGn, Head. BORSET, in Geography, an abbey about half a league from Aix.la-Chapelle, celebrated for its mineral waters, of the fame general quality with thofe of Aix-la-Chapelle, and recommended as warm baths in fimilar difeafes, and alfo in dropfical and oedematous cafes. They confilt of the upper and lower fprings; thofe of the former, which fupply the baths, raifing the thermometer to 158°, and thofe of the latter to 127°. They are lefs fulphurous than thofe of Aix-la-Chapelle ; and abound much with felenites, which jncrufts the pipe through which they pafs; and alfo the fides of the bath. BORSIPPA, orBarsira,in Ancient Geography, Semanat, a town of Babylonia, according to Jofephus and Strabo ; reprefented by the latter as confecrated to Diana and Apollo, and placed by M. d’Anville on the eaftern bank of the Euphrates, about the 32d degree of latitude. BORSK, in Geography, a town and diftrict of Ruffia, in the government of Upha, feated on the river Bielaya. N. lat. 55° 20'. E. long. 55° 15’. BOR BORSNA, or Borzna, atown and diftri of Ruffia, in the government of Tchernigof, feated on a rivulet of the fame name, falling into the Defua; 5 miles S. E. of Tcher- nigof, and 548 8. of Peterfburg. : BORSOD, atown of Hungary, and the capital of a~ country of the fame name; inhabited by Hungarians, Sclavonians, Bohemians, and Germans, and furnifhing good wine and grain. BORSOE, a {mall ifland of Denmark, 2 leagues N. E. from Apenrade, on the eaft coaft of Slefwick. BORSTEL, a town of Germany; in the circle of Welk- phalia, and bifhopric of Ofrabruck, 8 miles N. of Furftenau. —Alfo, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Holftein, 14 miles S. E. of Bramttede. BORSTUING, in fchihyslocy, fynonymous with barfling, or barfchling, the common perch, perca fuviatilis. See Marfig]. Danub. BORSUG, in Zoology, the name of the badger, wr/tcs meles, in Poland. The fame animal alfo bears the names of jazevice, koldzixi, and zdik, in that country. BORSZEJOW KA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Kiov; 10 miles W. of Kiov, BORT, atown of France, in the department of the Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Uffel. The place contains 1792, and the canton 6563 mhabitants; the territory comprehends 140 kiliometres, and 10 com- munes: diftant 4 leagues S. LE. from Uflel. BORTHWICK, in Zopography, a parith and village in the county of Edinburgh, Scotland, is noted in the hittoric page for a magnificent caftle which was built here by William I. lord Borthwick, about the year 1430. In its complete ftate it was very extenfive, and confidered almoft impregnable, but Oliver Cromwell laid fiege to it in 1650, and forced the garrifon to furrender. “ It is feated,”? ob- ferves Mrs Pennant, ** on a knowl, in the midft of a pretty vale, bounded by hills, covered with corn and woods; a moit picturefque fcene. It confilts of a vatt {quare tower, go feet high, with f{quare and round haltions at equal diftances from its bafe. The ftate rooms are on the firft ftory, once acceflible by a draw-bridge. Some of the apart- ments were very large ; the hall 40 feet long, and had its mufic gallery ; the roof lofty, and once adorned with paintings. ‘This place was once the property of the earl of Bothwel, who, a little before the battle of Carbur hill, took refuge here with his fair confort.’? The parif contains 200 houfes, and 668 inhabitants. Pennant’s Tour in Scotland, 4to. vol. iii. : BORTZUTIM, a town of 'Tranfylvania, 12 miles N. of Claufenburg. BORUA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alen- tejo, 2 leagues from Villa Viciofa. BORVIASIA, a town of Ruffian Tartary, on the north fide of the Don, 64 miles E.N. E. of Azof. BORYSOW, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Minfk, feated on the river Berezyna, 36 miles E.N. E. of Minfk. N. lat. 54°. E.long. 29° 5’. BORYSTHENES, in dncient Geography, a river of European Sarmatia, forming almo& the whole weftern boundary of Sarmatic Scythia. Its name is faid to be de~ rived from the language of the Sclavi or Slaves, who, in their migration, blended themfelves with the Scythians. It fig- nifies ‘¢ a rampart formed by a foreft of pines,”’ being derived from Jor, a foreft of pines, and /ena,a wall. Asaconfirm- ation of this etymology, it is alleged that the fhores of the Boryfthenes are covered with forefts of pines. Mela, de- ducing his defeription of ‘this river from Herodotus, (1. iv. § 53.) reprefents it as flowing through a country of the fame 2 name, ’ BOS. name, and as the moft pleafant river of Scythia, more gentle its courfe than any other, and affording water more agree- able to drink. He adds, that it enriched many pleafant paf- tures, and that it fupplied very large fihes without bones, It flowed from diftant aad unknown {prings, which lay, accord- ing to Ammianns, (1. xxii. c. 18.) in the mountains ef the Navn, and was navigable through a courfe of 40 days’ fail- ing ; and in this interval received many lavge rivers. After its junctioa with the Hypanis, it Biceaed itfelf into the northern part of the Euxine fea. . It is now called. Dnieper or Ni-per, which fee.—Alfo, a town of European Sarmatia, Stephanus Byz. reptefeats it as a Greek city, being a colony of Milefians, feated near the mouth of the river of the fame name. By fome it was called Bory {thenes, by its inhabitants Olbia, and by Plisy Miletopolis : probably the fame that is now denominated Oczaéow, which fee. : BORYZA, acity ot Pontus, Steph. Byz. BORZA, in Geography, atown of Perfia, in the pro- vince of Aiderbeitzan, 80 miles S. of Tauris. BORZINSKOL, a town of Siberia, on the Argun; 144 miles S E. of Nertchinfk. BOS, in Ansiguity, was peculiarly ufed for an ancient Greek filver com, which was didrachmus, or equivalent to two drachms. Bos, Lamsert, in Biography, an eminent philologift, was born at Worcum, in Holland, in 1960, and became Greek profeflor at Franeker, in the exercife of which office he ac- quired great reputation, and where he died in 1717. His profound erudition is honourably mentioned-by feveral wri- ters, and particularly by Fabricius, and by Hemfterfhufius in his oration “* De jt Grecz preftantia.” His trea- -tife on the Greek ellipfes is held in high eftimation by gram- marians. His other principal works are, ** A new edition, with additions, of the Greek mar of Vilerus ;’’ * an edition of the Septuagint, with prolegomena and various readings,” 2 vols. 4to. Franek. 1709 ; “¢ Thome Magittri ecloge cum notis ;”? “ Exercitationes Philologice,. quibus Novi Federis loca nonnulla illuftrantur,”? 1700 and 1713, Svo.; “Myfterti Ellipfeos Grece expofiti fpecimen;’’ “ Aa- tiquitatum Grecarum defcriptio ;’’ and “ Animadverfiones ad fcriptores quofdam Grecos.” Nouy. Dié&. Hitt. _ Bos, Joux Bartist Du, the fon of a confiderable mer- chant and magiftrate of Beauvais, iu France, was born at that place in 1670, and finifhed his ftudies at the Sorbonne. He afterwards became a diflinguifhed writer, and a member of the French academy. In 1695 he was one of the com- niittee for foreign affairs under Mr. Torcy, and was after- wards charged with fome important tranfactions in Germany, Italy, England, and Holland. After his return to Paris, be was made an abbé, and had a penfion. He was alfo chofen perpetual fecretary of the French academy ; and in this fituation he died at Paris, March 23, 1742. His prin- cipal works are, “ Critical refletions upon poetry and paint- ing ;”’ of which the beft edition is that of Paris, 1740, 2 vols. 12mo.; “ A critical hiftory of the eftablifhment of the French morarchy among the Gauls,” of which the bett editions are thofe of 1743, in 2 vols. 4to. and in 4 vols. 32mo.; “The interefts of England ill underftood in the prefent war,” 1714; “The Riflory of the four Gor- dians, confirmed and illuftrated by medals ;’? and ‘The hiftory of the league of Cambray, formed in 1708, againit the republic of Venice,” of which the beft edition is that of 1728, in2 vols. 12mo. Bos, or Boscut, Jerom, an ancient painter, and en- grarer, was born at Bois-le-Duc, and took pleafure in paint- ing devils, witches, and enchantments. His piftures, dif- tinguilhed by the freedom of his touch, and the ftrength of BOS his colouring, are held in high efimation, thouh, from the nature of the fubjects which he feleGted, they i xcitea degree of horror blended with admiration. The molt remarkable painting of this mafter, among {-veral others of a fimilar kind, in which he indulges a wilduefs of imagination, is.an allegory of the pleafures of the flefh; reprefenting the principal figure, drawa, by mouitrous imagisary forms, preceded by demons, and followed by death. He was alfo an engraver, and the firft artift who attempted to eagrave in the gro- tefque flyle; and he is faid to have been more diftingmfhed by fertility of iavention than by a correct judgment. The two plates, moft deferving of meation, are one reprefeating « St. Chriitopher,”’ carrying the infan’ Jefus acrofs the water and bending under his load; on the left is a hermit, coming from his cell with a lanthorn, and the whole compolition is furrounded with {mall grotefque figures of all fhapes, in the mot ridiculous attitudes; aud another is the “ Lait judg- ment,” in which Chrift appears feated on a rainbow, with two angels on each fide and founding trumpcts, hav- ing ov their labels this infeription, “ Hic eft dies quem fecit; furgite mortui, venite ad judicium ;”” aad at the bottom are {mali fgures of men and devils of all fhapes intermixed. To both thefe prints is affixed his name, “ Bofche.” He died in 1500. Pilkington and Strutt. Bos, Lewts Janssen, or Joun Lewis pe, a painter, was born at Bois-le-Duc, and having received in{tru€tions in painting from the artiits of his native city, he applied him- felf to ttudy after nature, and became eminent for the truth of his colouring, and the neatnefs of his handling. His fa- vourite fubjects were flowers and curious plants, which he grouped in vafes of glafs or cryltal, half filled with water, and to which he gave a peculiarly natural and _pleafing ap- pearance. He alfo exhibited on the leaves of his fubjcéts the drops of dew with fingular tran{parency, and embellifh- ed them with butterflies, bees, wafps, and other infe@s, in a manner fuper*or to that of any co-temporary artifts. In the ftyle of his portraits he was'no lefs excellent than in his compofition of itill life. He died in 1507. Pilkington, Bos, ia Zoology, the Ox, a genus of animals in which the horns are concave, or hollow, turned outwards, lunated and {mooth ; front teeth in the lower jaw eight ; canine teeth or tufts none. ' There are but few fpecies of this tribe that appear to be really diftiné ; but the number of varieties into which they are divided, arifing from the differences of climate, domef- tication, aud other caufes, are endlefs. They are a moft valuable race of animals to mankind, their fleth and milk affording excellent nutritious food: they are ufeful as beaits of burthen ; and their hides ferve many domettic purpofes. The f{pecies are Taurus, or the common ox, which com- prehends the varieties of ferus and dome/licus, Americanus, mofchatus, grunniens,bubulus,caffer; according toGmelin To thefe are added, by later writers, the Bos arnee of Kerr s the Baas of the Cape; with the Dwarf ox of Africa, under the names of Bos barbatus, and pumilus ; which fee. Bos /rrepticeros, Aldrovandus. See Strepsiceros bos. BOSA, in Geography,’a maritime and epifcopal town of Sardinia, fituate on the weftern coaft of the iland, near a river of the fame name. It is defended by a caftle, and has a good fort; diftant 18 miles S.S.W. from Algferi, and 36 S.S. W. of Saflari, to which it is fuffragan, N. lat. 40° 18'.' E. long. 8° 34’. , BOSARA, in Ancient Geography, a towu of Arabia Fee lix, according to Ptolemy. BOSA DDAHEDA, or JESARDECHER, a town of Afia, in the province of Sableftan ; 21 leagues S, of Can- dahar. BOS« BOS EOSBOCK, Bossoc, Bouc prs Bors, and Forest AntitopE, in Zoolegy, the name of Antilope Sylvatica (Giel.) by different writers. See Sytvarica. BOSC, Craupe Du, in Biography, an engraver, was a . hative of France, and being invited to England by Nicholas Dorigny, affifted him for fome time in engraving the car- toons of Raphael ; and afterwards feparating from Dorigny, he undertook to engrave the cartoons for the printfellers. He alfo engraved the duke of Marlhorough’s battles, for which he received 8ol. per plate; and, affifted firft by Du Guernier, asd afterwards by Beauvais and Baron, he com- pleted them within two years in 1717. He then became a ptint-feller, and publifhed, by fubfecription, the tranflations of Picart’s Religious Ceremonies. Asan engraver, he pof- fefled no great merit : his ftyle is coarfe and heavy, and the drawing of the naked parts of the figure in his plates is very defective. However, he engraved from feveral sreat maf- ters. The “ Continence of Scipio,”” from a picture of Ni- cholas Pouffin, in thé Houghton colleétion, is one of his plates. He flourifhed in 1714. Strutt. Bosc, Perer Dy, an eminent proteftant preacher of France, was born at Bayeux in 1623, educated at Montau- ban and Saumur, and in 1642 ordained one of the minifters of Caen. The fame of his eloquence was very extenfive ; and he was warmly folicited by the churches of Charenton and Paris to become their paftor, but he preferred continuing at Caen. His reputation excited envy and alarm ; and he was falfely charged with having ufed offenfive language with re- gard to auricular confeffion, and on this charge exiled to Chalons. But his talents and charaéter were held in fuch high eftimation, that powerful interceflion was made in his favour, fo that he was permitted to return in the fame year, 1664,to Caen. His return was the occafion of very general yejoicing among perfons of all parties; and it was celebrated in a very fingular manner by a Catholic of free character, «who invited two Irancifcans to aa entertainment, and urged drinking to fuch a degree, that one of them died on the fpot. Next day he paid his refpe€ts to M. Du Bofe, aid in- formed him, ‘ that he had thought it his duty to facrifice a monk to the public joy; that the offering would have been more fuitable if it had been a Jefuit, but he hoped it would not be unacceptable, though only a Francifean.”?” M. Du Bofe was feleéted, on account of his diftinguifhed charaer and addrefs, to draw up remonftrances againit the feverities which were exercifed by the Catholics againft the Prote- flants ; and on afl occafions he expreffed fuch loyalty to the king, and fuch a difpoiition to apie to civil authority, that he frequently fucceeded in obtaining relief, and in checking the rage of perfecution. At length, however, viz. in 1665, the violence of the adverfaries-of the Proteftants became irrefiftible, and the parliament of Normandy iflued an arret, which prohibited Du Bofe from the exercife of his miniftry. Upon this he retired to Holland, and difcharged the duties of his minifterial office at Rotterdam, till his death, which happened in3692. During his life he printed ‘two volumes of fermons ;. and after his death, his fon-in-law, M. le Gendre, publifhed a collection of public papers, ‘{peeches, letters on theological fubje&ts, Greek, Latin, and French werles, &c. Gen. Did. sang ‘Bosc, Hiprotitrus, taught anatomy and medicine at Ferrara, towards the end of the 16th century. He wasalfo a-dittinguifhed praétitioner of furgery. His works are « De vulneribus a bellico-fulmine illatis,” Ferrarie, 1596, 4to. He attributes the principal part of the mifchief in gum-fhot wounds to the heat of the ball. “ De lefione motus digitorum, et macie brachii.”” This was publifhed 4y J. Lauterbach, in his Cancilia, at Francf. in 1605, to. BOS « De curandis vulneribus capitis, brevis methodus,” Ferr. 1609, 4to.; ** De faculrate anatomica, leGtiones viij, cum qut- bufdam obfervationibus,”’ 1600, 4to. ; ajudicious and ufeful compendium, interfperfed with fome valuable notes and ob- fervations by the author, Haller. Bib. Anat. et Chirurg. Bosc, or Boscius, Icnatrus, publifhed at Ingold- ftadt, 1580, gto. “ De lapidibus qui nafcuntur in corpore humano ac precipué renibus, ac vefica, et ipforum cura- tione.”? bid. Bi BOSCAGE, denotes a place fet with trees, a grove, or_ thicket. : Boscace, bofcagium, from Ital. ba/co, wood, ina Law Jenfes fignifies maft or fuch fuftenance as woods and trees yield to cattle. NP According to Manwood, to be quit de bofcagio, is to be dilehareed from paying any duty of wind-fall wood in the oreft. Boscace, among Painters, is faid to denote a picture or land{cape reprefenting much wood and trees. , Boscace fometimes denoted a tax or duty jaid on wood brought into the city. oy BOSCAGER, Joun, in Biography, an eminent French lawyer, was born at Beziers in 1601, and removing at an early age to Paris, officiated for his uncle, La Foret, during his ill- nels, as teacher of law, when he was only 22 years old. After having acquired great reputation at the univerfity of Padua, he fucceeded his uncle, and occupied his chair till his death. His mode of inftru€tion manifefted an accurate and compre- henfive judgment; for he reduced all law to certain principles or definitions, from which he deduced confequences, that comprifed all the particulars of each topic. Some Latin treatifes, which he compofed, were tranflated into French, at the requeit of Colbert, and publifhed under the title of * Inflitute of the Roman and French law, with remarks by Francis de Launay,’’ 4to. 1686. Another work was pub- . lithed after his death, entitled, «* De Juftitia et Jure,”? 12mo. 1689. His death ‘happened by a fall into a ditch, from which he could not extricate himfe!f, after he had attained the age of 87 years. Moreri. “te BOSCAN, Mosen Juan Atmocavar,-a reformer of Spanifh poetry, was born at Barcelona towards the clofe of the 15th century. By the advice of Andrew Navagero, ambaflador from Venice to Charles V., he attempted to in- troduce into the Spanifh poetry, which was bef.e harfh and barbarous, the Italian meafures and tafte ; and he was the firft, who, with the affiftance of his intimate friend, Garci+ lafo de la Vega, fucceeded in the attempt. “A colleGion of the woiks of thefe coadjutors was publifhed together in 1544. Garcilafo’s teftimony to his genius and virtue is thus tranflated by Mr. Southey : ; « Then hand in hand A youth approached, with Phebus; in his face The fkilful eye might read benevolence And. wifdom ; he was perfeéted in all The love and various arts of courtefy That humanife mankind; the gracetul port, And the fair front of open mantlinefs 3 Difcovered Bofcan ; and that fire illumed His generous face, that animates his fong, - With never-fading f{plendour there to fhine.”? Bofcan is faid to have poffeffed more learning than tafte, and more tafte than genius. Without being fublime, fome of his turns are neat and ingenious. In profe he tranflated the courtier of Caftiglioni. He died in 1542 or 1543. Moreri. Gen. Biog. , BOSCAWEN, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in Hillfeorough county, New Hamphhire, feated on the weftern - 3 bank > BOs. bank of Merrimack river, above Concord; 4% miles N.W. from Exeter. It contains 110$ inhabitants; and in its vicinity are the Bofcawen hills. ( Pye Boscawen’s [fland, a name given by captain Wallis, in 1767, toan ifland in the Southera Pacific Ocean ; called by the natives, “ Kootah¢.”” It is feparated from Keppel’s ifland, called “* Neootabdotaboo,” by a channel 3 mules broad. They are both fituate in S. lat. 15° 5’. W. long. 173° 8’. Kootahé is very lofty, of a conical form, between two and three miles in diameter, and lies N.E. from the other. Both are populous and fertile. They were diicovered by Schouten and le Maire, May 10, 1616. Schouten, who, after bartering with the natives for cocoa-nuts, in return for nails and beads, was attacked by them from their canoes, called them Traitors’ and Cocoa iflands, in confequence of the tion he met with. Captain Wallis exchanged with the inhabitants of Neootabdotaboo fome nails for fowls, fruit, and one of their clubs. Peroufe faw Keotahe, Dec. 20, 1787, and having examined both the iflands, lay to in a bay upon the weft coaft of the larger divifion of Neootabodotaboo. The natives brought off the fineft cocoa nuts hehad ever feen, with other vegetables, as well as fome fowls and a hog; they feemed to manife‘t no apprehenfion, and traded very freely. They refembled the more fouthern iflanders in every thing, except that their looks indicated a ferocity, like that which charaGterizes their northern neighbours. A rocky bank, two er three leagues N. of Kootahé, was found in 1616, covered with 14 fathoms of water. Miflionary Voyage, Introd. p. 67. BOSCH, Bartuasar Vanpen, in Biography, a painter of converfations and portraits, was born at Antwerp in 1675, and firit ftudied, after the manner of Teniers, thofe fubjects which were apartments decorated with buftos, vafes, pi€tures, and other curiofities ; but in procefs of time he employed his pencil on fubjects of a more elegant and elevated kind, and acquired a fuperior ftyle of performance. He alfo painted portraits with preat reputation, and particularly a portrait of the duke of Marlborough on a horfe, painted by Van Bloemen, His paintings fetched an extravagant price, ex- ceeding that produced by the performances of Teniers or _ Offade, with which they cannot, in reality, pretend to any competition. His pencil is light, his touch fpirited, and his figures, more elegant than thofe of moft of his contem- raries, are drefled in the mode of the time. In fome of is works the compofition and defign, and alfo the a i ing are very good, and the fubjeéts are judicioufly chofen, He died es Pilkincton. : Boscu, Jacos Vanpen, a painter of {till life, was born at Amfterdam in 1636, and painted fummer fruits of various kinds with a neat pencil, and with fuch an exaét imitation of nature, that they appeared delicious, and almoft real. He died in 1675. Ipalesaten: BOSCHADIS, in Zoology, a fpecies of Ecuinor- uyNcHus, that infefts the inteltines of the domettic duck. The neck is filiform, and the probofcis flightly echinated. Goeze Eingew. BOSCHAS, Anas Bofchas, in Ornithology, the Common Mallard, or Wild Duck, the fpecifical diftinétion of which confills in the plumage being of a cincreous colour; the tail feathers (of the male) recurvate; bill ftraight ; collar white. Linn. Fn. Suec. &e. Gaiclia mentions feveral diftin& varieties of this bird, in the Syit. Nat. the charaéters of which are defcribed as follows :—Cirrhata, above grey, beneath white, creft cine- reous ; per/ica, head and upper parts of the neck cinereous, beneath yellowilh; mayor, back footy, Thisis larger than the BOS others, meafuring two fect and a half in length. Gri/ea, en- tirely cinereous, with the legs and bill black ; nevia, with the back black, {potted with yellowith ; aigra, having the head and collar black. The natural hiftory of the wild duck is detailed fo amply by different writers, that nothing new remains to be added by us. Dr. Latham, in particular, has entered at great length in his judicious compilation on this fubjeét. The wild ducks, obferves this writer, are frequent iu mauy parts of England, but no where in more plenty than in Lincoln- fhire, where prodigious numbers, according to Mr, Pennant, are taken annually in the decays, each decoy paying from five pounds to twenty, annual rent. In Somerfetthire the rental of a decoy yearly has been known to amount to ever thirty pounds. With us thefe birds pair in the {pring. They breed in all the low marfhy grounds, laying from ten to fixteen eggs. It is obferved of the young, that they always take to the water as foon as they are hatched. The old birds are very artful. They do.not conitantly build their neit clofe to the water, but many times at a diftance from it; in which cafe the female takes the little brood in its beak, or between its legs, one or two at atime, to the water fide, and going into it herfelf, the young ones follow inftinG@ively. Wild ducks are known fometimes to lay the eggs in a high tree, in the deferted neft of a crow or a magpie. Dr. Latham {peaks of an inflance that took place at Etchingham, in Suffex, in which the female was found fitting upon nine eggs, in an oak twenty-five feet from the ground. The eggs were fupported by fome {mall twigs laid crofsways. In England only a comparatively {mall number of wild ducks are found in the fummer ; becaufe, at that time, they remain in the more northern parts of Europe, and only re- turn to us towards the winter. In France this fpecies is not often feen till the winter ; appearing in OGober, and again departing northward in the {pring. They are caught in that country, as with us, in decoys, the chief of which are in Picardy, where prodigious numbers are taken, efpe- cially on the river Somme. They have alfo another me- thod: afportfman, with acage of tanie decoy ducks, takes his {tation in a certain place, near which, it is conceived, the flock will pafs. If they approach fo near as to allow him to fire, he takes them with little trouble ; but if other- wife, he lets fly one of the tame decoy ducks, then a fecond, and fo on: thefe tame birds entice the wild ducks in {mall parties within reach of the fportman’s fowling-piece, who is thus enabled to kill fix or feven birds at every {hot. They are now and then taken alfo by means of a hook, baited with a bit of fheep’s lights, which, {wimming on the water, the bird fwallows the bait, and hook with it. Divers other methods of catching the wild duck are peculiar to different nations, of which one feems worth mentioning, on account of its fingularity; and thisis the practice in India. The perfon wifhing to take thefe, wades into the water up to the chin, and having his head covered with an empty calabafh, approaches the place where the ducks are ; when they, not regardirg an-object of this fort, fuffer the man freely to mix with the flock; after which he has only to pull them by the leg under the water, one after another, till he is fatisfied; returning as unfufpected by the remainder as when he firlt came among them. This mode of capture is common on the river Ganges, only that the duck-hunters ufe the earthen veffels of the gentoos, inftead of calabathes, Thefe veflels are what the gentoos boil their rice in, and are called kutcharee pots, which, after being once ufed, they look uponas defiled, andin confequence throw them into the. BOS the river as ufelefs. The ducks, from conftantly feeing thefe yeflels foat down the ftream, regard them as little as the calabafhes; and the duck-hunter, concealing his head in one of them, can feize upon them without exciting the leaft fufpicion. A fimilar method is alfo praGtifed in China, andin South America, to take the wild duck. Boscuas, Anas fera five Bofchas mexicana. Brifs. A fynonym of Anas. Clypeata, the Shoveler, var y. See CLYPEATA. Boscuas, Bofchas Bellonii. The Gargazey. Anas QuerqueEnpua is called by this name; both in Gefner’s birds, and the Ornithology of Aldrovandus. BOSCHI, Boscu, or Bosco, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Alexandrin of the Milanete, feated on the river Orbe, five miles E. from Alexandria. : BOSCIA, in-Botany, (in honour of Bofc, author of part of the Zoological and Botanical articles in “¢ Nouveau Dic- tionaire d’Hiitoire Naturelle,” now publifhing at Paris.) Willden. 266. Clafs, tetrandriatrigynia. Gen. Char. Cal. -perianth, four-toothed. Cor. four-petalled. Pericarp, cap- fule, four-celled. ; Species B. undulata, Thunberg, ** Leaves oppofite, lanceo- late, waved.”? A fhrub. Native of the Cape of Good Hope. , Boscia. La Mark (Illuft. Pl. 395.) Clafs, dodecandria monogyniae Gen. Char. Cal. perianth, four-leaved. Cor. none. Stam. filamentslong; anthers didymous. Pi/?. germ on a pedicle, as long as the filaments ; ftyle, none ; fligma pointed. Pericarp, a nut. Seed, one. Species B. A-fhrub. Leaves, oblong-oyvate, alternate, on fhort petioles, itrongly reticulated, coriaceous. Flowers in a terminating corymbus. A native of Africa, in the neighbourhood of Goree, where the negroes eat the kernel of thenut. This plant doés not appear to be known to Willdenow. It will, doubtlefs, foon receive another name, -as Thunberg’s plant feems to have got the firft poffeflion. _ BOSCHIUS, Joun, in Biography, a native of Liege, of confiderable learning and abilities, was invited, in 1553, _to the chair of profeffor of me:licine, at Ingoliftadt, which he held with credit feveral years.” His works are, ** De pefte liber,” publithed originally in German, in 1562, 4to. 5 “Concordia philofophorum, ac medicorum, de humano conceptu, atque foetiis incremento, animatione, mora in utero, ac nativitate,”’ Ingolds. 1576, 4to. and 1588; *¢ Oratio de optimo medico, et medicine aucioribus, inter orationes Ingold{tadienfes.”’ Haller Bib. Anat. BOSCO, in Law. See ATTACHIAMENTA de bofco et inis. fp BOSCOBEL, in Topography,in the parifh of Donnington, in Shropfhire, isa place memorable in Englifh hiftory, for the oak tree, wherein king Charles the Second fecreted himfelf, after the defperate battle at Worcetter. Finding it impracticable either to efcape into Wales, ar to reach the metropolis in fafety, and knowing that many of his enemies were fearching for him, in the immediaze neighbourhood, he was prevailed on by major Carlefs (who accompanied him) to feck prote€tion in a large oak tree. Here they feated -themfelves one whole day, and faw fome of Cromwell’s foldiers feeking for the king in an adjoining wood. After the reftoration, thistree became highly venerated, and nu- merous perfons went on pilgrimage to fee it. A great part of it was cut away, and converted into tobacco. ftoppers, hafts of knives, and other memorials ; and many plants were propagated from its acorns. Its remains are inclofed with a brick wall, theinfide of which is covered with laurel, The 29th of May, the day of his birth, and of his refto- - 256.5 ration, is ftill commemorated in England, by ai annual feftival and holiday; and various claffes of the commu- nity difplay branches, leaves, and apples of the oak tree. Near Bofcobel is Whiteladies, fo named from being a nun- nery of white, or Ciftercian nuns. The ruins of this are {till confiderable, and the church is ornamented with cir- cular arches, &c. Gough’s Edition of Camden’s Britan- nia, vol. it. Carte’s Hiftory of England, vol. iv. Granger’s Biographical Hiftory of England, vol. iii. BOSCOI, or Bosct, in Ecclefiaftical Hiffory, denotes a fpecies or tribe of monks in Paleitine, who fed on grafs, — like the beafts of the field. The word is Greek, £ocxo:, q. d. grazers; formed from Pozxw, pafco, I feed. The Bofcoiare ranked among the number of Adamites, not fo much on account of their habit asfeod. They took no care about provifion; but when eating-time came, or any of them were hungry, went into the fields, with each his knife in his hand, and gathered and eat what he could find. BOSCOLI, Anovrea, in Biography, an hiftorical painter, was born at Florence, in 1553, and educated under Santi di Titi. He was the fir perfon who had a juft notion of the chiaro-{curo, and ufed it fuccefsfuly in the Florentine fchool; where, though it had been happily praGtifed by Giorgione, at Venice, and alfo by Titian, it was aot well underftood before his time. hand, and gave a furprifing force of colour; and beth in defign and compofition the grandeur‘ of his ftile refembled that of his mafter. He ftudied after nature; and in his travels he drew fketches of any particular objets that ftrack him; but purfuing this practice at Loretto, with regard to the fortifications of the city, he was feized by the officers of juttice, and condemned to be hanged; but he happily efcaped, within a few hours of execution, by the interpofi- tion of fignior Bandini, who explained to the chief _magif- trate his innocent intention. He was alfo an engraver ; but the fubjects of his plates are not fpecified either by Marolles or Floreat leComte. He died in 1606. Pilkington. BOSCOVICH, Rocer Josrtrs, ancminent mathema- tician and natural philofopher, was born of very refpeétable parents, in the free city ot Ragufa, on the coaft of Dalmatia, the 18th of May 1711. He was the youngeft of niné children, and his mother lived to the extraordinary age of 103. Six fons received the beft education that their father’s circumftances could afford ; and all of them, particularly the eldeit, who becamea prieft, were diftinguifhed by a happy vein for poetry. Having finifhed his grammatical courfe with applaufe, the young Bofcovich prompted by the example of his brother, in his fifteenth year took the habit of the noviciate, and entered the Jefuits’ college at_ Rome. There the original bent of his genius difcovered itfelf, by the enthufiaftic ardour with which he plunged into the ttudy of the mathematics. His progrefsin that important branch of knowledge was fo rapid as to aftonifh, and foon out-run kis preceptors. Under their inftructton he acquired the elements of geometry and algebra, but was left to the ~ exercife of his own application in profeeuting the higher parts of mathematics. He itudied by himfelf the principles of the differential calculus ; and thus prepared, he began the Principia of Newton, and devoured that immortal work with the moft eager avidity. He was tranfported by the vait difplay of new and {plendid truths which were unveiled ; and while, with the torch of geometry, he traced the fecret links of nature’s operations, and feemed to penetrate the counfels of heaven, he felt his paflion for diftin€tion won- derfully inflamed : nor, in the warmth of his temper, aii 3 he He poflefled great freedom of © compofe BOSCOVICH. he fi the movements of felf-gratulation, which the confcioufnefs of his powers and acquirements excited in his breaft. By his uafion, Noceti, his maiter in philofophy, was induced to reprint a {mall poem on the rainbow, and another onthe aurora borealis, both of which Bofcovich enriched with ingenious notes and illuitrations. ‘The pub- lication of this tract {pread his fame beyond the precinéts of the college, and beyond the Alps. Mairan, whofe opinion concerning the aurora borealis he had efpoufed, noticed it “with loud commendation, in the fecond edition of his differ- ‘tation; and the praifes beftowed by the French philofopher, with the title conferred on him of correfpondent of the Academy of Sciences, could not fail to prove highly grati- fying to his youthful vanity. d After Bofcovich had completed the ufual courfe of phi- lofophy, he was obliged, by the rules of the inftitution, to teach ar and the claflics; but he never loft fight of his favourite ftudies, and he was invited by his mathematical matter, to defend annual thefes, and deliver public diflerta- printed in fucceflion; extended farther his reputation. The firft appeared in 1736, and contained a theory of the folar f{pots, very fimilarto that which was afterwards fo inge- nioufly fupported by profeffer Willon, of Glafgow. It fuppofes the fun to have two atmofpheres, the lower being denfe, and fometimes fprinkled with clouds; the upper rare, and fubje& to variation of height. Next year produced two differtations; one on the tranfit of Mercury, and ano- ther on a remarkable aurora borealis. _ Five years had Bofcovich fpent in the drudgery of teach- ing Latin, and three more were confumed in the unprofitable ftudy of {cholattic theology, when, by a very fingular indul- gence, he was exempted by his fuperiors from the fourth year’s attendance, and permitted to relinquifh that dark and thorny path, and thenceforth employ his talents in exploring Nature’s wide domain. His fituation now, as fupernu- merary prefect of the Roman College, was entirely fuited to his talte. To communicate mathematical inftru€tion was to hima delightful tafk; and he prepared, for the ufe of his pupils, a thort fyftem of geometry, which comprifed all the capital truths of that fcience in fourteen a ae in the feletion of the materials, in their difpofition and arrangement, he exhibited the clearnefs, the’ precifion, and noble elegance, formed after the model of the ancients. He 5 the elements of trigonometry with the fame purity of tafte. But the capital part ot the fyftem, his theory of the Conic Seétions, was reared by repeated efforts, and at diftant intervals, and was not publithed until the year 1755. Bofcovich confidered thefe curves as defcribed in plants and affumed, for his gencric definition, the beautiful pro- of the dircérix, which is common to them all, the parabola being only its fimpleft cafe. In the ellipfe, the ratio of aline, drawn from any point to either of the faci, is toa perpendicular from the fame point to the direfrix, in the ratio of alefs toa greater; in the hyperbola, it is that of a to a lefs. Bat the author did not ftop here; he Fientte invettigated the properties derived immediately from the fection of the cone. He fuppofed it. cut by a moveable plane, and fhowed how the feveral curves would thence be fucceflively produced. The fame luminous idea he trans- ferred to the cylinder, the fpheroid, and the conoids. His imagination loved to contemplate the fine mutation and tranfition of mathematical figure, and to trace the feries of fucceffive, yet apparently conneéted changes, which have fuggelted the Jaw of continuity. Onthat metaphyfical prin- ciple, as clucidated by the transformation of geometrical teci, he ag an exquifite diflertation, Other differtations, Vou. V. tions on fuch ca ay as occalion fuggelted. Thefe being remarkable for their ingenuity, were fucceffively delivered to a crowded audience, at the annual examination of his {chool. Thefe treated on various difficult points i geome oe altronomy, and optics; on ee circles, the nature of infinitefimals, trajeCtories, the inequality of gravity over the earth’s furface, the centre of magnitude, the laws of bodies, living forces, the flux and reflux of the fea, the annual aberration of the fixed ftars, the limits of altronomical obfervations, the ufe of lenfes and dioptric telefeopes, and a new method of employing the obfervation of the phafes in lunar eclipfes, on the determination of a planet’s orbit, by help of catoptrics, and on the atmofphere of the moon, + which he held to be very different from that of the earth, and more analogous to water. In one of thefe differtations he pointed out a miflake of the famous Daniel Bernouilli, who had haitily concluded, that the tides of the atmofphere mult rife higher, in proportion to its rarity, than thofe of the ocean; in another, he fhewed that the quettion, con- cerning the meafure of forces, which then fo vehemently agitated the fcientific world, as it generally happens, was merely a difpute of words; in a third, he fketched the out- lines of that bold ftru€ture, which has obtained fuch deferved celebrity among the learned—his fublime theory of the con- {titution of matter. , While Bofcovich was thus ufefully and honourably en- gaged in direéting the tludies of youth, and enlightening the learned world by his elegant and ingenious writings, the pleafure of his converfation was eagerly courted at feces. In every houfe of note he was always a molt welcome guett, and he reigned in every fociety by the afcendancy of his talents. Before mixed companies he would frecly talk of his own fpeculations, which he had a fingular felicity in rendering intelligible and interefting to the moft ordinary minds; and though, on,thefe occafions, he was not accuf- tomed to conceal his inward fatisfaction, or cecline beftowi upon himfelf the merited encomiums, thefe frequent fallies of vanity feemed to flow merely from the warmth of his character, and were effaced in the general blaze of admiration entertained for his fuperior talents. Nor was his ambition confined within the circle of abitraé& fcience; indulging the excurfive flights of fancy, he often facrificed to the Mufes, He compofed Latin verles, ona great variety of fubjeéts, and which confequently poffefled very different degrees of merit. Every occurrence he was ready to feize, whether public or private, ferious or comic; wars, nuptials, jocular and domettic incidents, were all indifcriminately his theme. He had a wonderful knack in compofing thofe verfes, with a memory not lefs aftonifhing for retaining them; and at the tables of his friends he took pleafure in reciting elaborate paflages. Surrounded by his difciplesand patie admirers, the fort of idolatry which he received appears, however, to have had rather an unfortunate effect on his charaéter, by tempting him to overrate the meafare of his powers, and extent oF his attainments. Once, and once only, he entered the lifts with his illuftrious contemporaries. It was in an- {wer to the queltion, propofed by the Academy of Sciences at Paris, to determine the inequalities produced by the mutual action of Jupiter and Saturn, efpecially near the time of their conjunction. His memoir was returned with much commendation, and very few mathematicians affuredly would have felt themfelves lowered in yielding the premium to the great Euler. But Bofcovich was piqued at what he con- ceived to be an unfair decifion, and would never afterwards engage in any public competition. A philofopher, refiding in Rome, amidft the venerable remains of ancient {plendour, was powerfully drawn to exa- maine thofe monuments. Bofcovich wrote feveral differta- L tions BOSCOVICH. tions on the fubje& of antiquities, two of which were print- ed, and the reft circulatedin manufcript. His zeal, activity, and fondnefs of applaufe, rendered him at all times acceflible, and in a multitude of cafes, hisadvice was ardently fought by individuals. Benedift KIV.a great patron of learned men, and his enlightened minilter, cardinal Valenti, con- fulted him on various important objects of public economy, the clearing of harbours, and the conftruGting of roads and canals. Ou one occafion, he was joined in a commiffion with other mathematicians and architects, invited from dif- ferent parts of Italy, to infpeét the cupola of St. Peter’s, in which a crack had been difcovered. They were divided in opinion; but the fentiments of Bofcovich, and of the marquis Poleni, prevailed. In ftating, however, the refult of the confultation, which was to apply a circle of iron round the building, Poleni forgot to refer the idea to its real author, and this omiflion grievoufly offended the Ragufan geometer. Other incidents had. concurred to mortify his pride: he became at laft difguited with his Gituation, and only looked for aconyenient opportunity of quitting Rome. Whileia this temper of mind, anapplication was made by the court of Portugal to the general of the Jefuits, for ten mathema- ticians of the fociety to go out to Brazil, for the purpofe of furveying that fettlement, and afcertaining the boundaries which divide it from the Spanifh dominions in America. Withing to combine with that object the menfaration of a degree of latitude, Bofcovich offered to embark jin the ex- pedition, and his propofition was readily accepted. But cardinal Valenti, unwilling to forego the luftre reflected by a man of fuch diftinguifhed abilities, commanded him, inthe name of the pope, to difmifs the projet, and perfuaded him to undertake tie. fame fervice at home in the Papal territory. In this fatiguing, and often perilous operation, he was affifted by the Englifh Jefuit, Mayer, an excellent mathe- matician, and was amply provided with the requifite initru- ments and attendants. They began the work about the clofe of the year »750, in the neighbourhood of Rome, aud extended the meridian line northwards, acrofs the chain of the Appennines.as far as Rimini. ‘wo whole years were {pent Th completing tle various meafurements, which were performed with the molt {fcrupulous accuracy. In the in- tervals, while this great work was carrying on, the active difpofition of Bofcovich foughtamufement and occupation in other purfuits. At night he was bufy in drawing out his Elements of Conic Sections ; ard in the mornings and evenings, during his excurfions to aud from the remote fa- tions among the mountains, he compofed on horfeback the greater part of his elegant Latin poem omec/rpfes. This fingular faGt reminds us of what is reported of the late Dr. Darwin, who is fuid to have framed, in his mind, the beautifuland harmonious epifodes of the Botanic Garden, while driving in his chariot, on vifits to his country pa- tients. This important operation of meafuring two degrees on the furface of Italy, is elaborately defcribed by Bofcovich in aquarto volume, written in his ufual diffufe manner, and full of illuftration and minute details. But the book is rendered the more valuable by the addition of feveral opuf- ecules, or detached effays, relating to the fubje&t, and which difplay great ingenuity, conjoined with the fineft geometric tafte. We may in{tance, in particular, the difcourfe on the rectification of inftruments, the elegant fynthetical inveltiga- tion of the figure of the earth, deduced both from the law of attraction and from the aétual meafurement of- degrees, and the nice remarks concerning the curve and the condi- tions of permanent ftability. This laft tra& gave occafion; however, to {ome {tritures from D’ Alembert, to which Bof. covich replied, in a note annexed to the French edition of his works. : The arduous fervice which Bofcovich had now performe was but poorly rewarded. From the pope he received only a hundred fequins, or about forty-five pounds fterling,a gold box, and abundance of praife. | He now refumed the charge of the mathematical fchool, and befides difcharged faithfully the public duties of religion, which are enjoined his order. Atrifling circumftanee will mark the warmth of his temper, and his love of precedence. He had recourfe to the authority of cardinal Valenti, to obtain admiffion into the oratory of Caravita, from which his abfence excluded him, and which yet did afford only the benefit of a free, but frugal fupper. In prefidiug at that focial repaft, the philofopher relaxed from the fevericy of his itudies, and fhone by his varied, his lively, and fluent converfation. He lived in habits of intimacy with his colleagues, and efpecially with his compatriot, Benedi& Stay, known to the learned world by an excellent didactic poem, entitled ‘* Philofophia Recentior,”? and which he elucidated by notes, containing, in a very neat comprefled form, the elements of mechanics. At this timea difpute arofe between the little republic of Lucca, and the government of ‘Tufcany, on the fubje& of draining alake. A congrefs of mathematicians was called, and Bofcovich repaired to the fcene of contention, in order to defend the rights of the petty ftate. Having waited three months. in vain, expecting the commiffioners, and amufed with repeated hollow promifes, he thought it better for the intereft of his conftituents, to proceed at once to the court of Vienna, which then fupremely direéted the affairs of Italy. The flames of war had been recently kindled on the continent of Enrepe, and Bofcovich, like a true courtier, took occatfion to celebrate the firft {ucceffes of the Auftrian arms, ina poem, of which the firft book was prefented to the Emprefs Therefa; but the military genius of Frederic the Great of Pruffia foon turned the {cale of fortune, and our poet was reduced to filence. More honourably did he em- ploy fome leifure in the compofition of his immortal work, «« Theoria philofophiz naturalis reducta ad unicam legem virium in natura exiftentium,’’ printed at Vienna in the year 1758. This he drew up, itis alledged, in the very hort {pace of thirty days, having colle€ted the materials a confi- derable time before; yet we muft regret the appearance of hatte and ditorder, which deforms a production of fuch rare and intrinfic excellence. : After a fuccefsful fuit of eleven months at Vienna, Bof- covich returned to Rome, and received from the fenate of Lucca, for his zealous fervices, the handfome prefent ofa thoufand fequins, or about 450/, Thus provided with the means of gratifying his curiofity, he detired and obtained leave to travel. At Parishe {pent fix months, in the fociety of the eminent men, who thenadorned the French capital; and, during his ftayin London, he was eleGed, in 1760, a fellow of the Royal Society, and he dedicated to that learned body his poem oneclip/es, which contains a neat compendium of altronomy. The expettation of the f{cientifie world was then turned to the tranfit of Venus, calculated to happenin the following year. Bofcovich, eager to obferve it, returned through Holland and Flanders to Italy, and joined his illuftrious friend, Correr, at Venice, from whence they failed to Conitantinople, having, on their way, vilited the famous plain of Troy. In Turkey, he fearcely enjoyed one day of good health, and his life was repeatedly defpaired of by the phyficians. After {pending half a year inthis miferable itate, he returned in the train of fir James Porter, our am- baffador at the Porte; and having traverfed Bulgaria, Mol- davia, and part of Poland, his intention was to penetrate into . *F into Raffi, if the which there prevailed, on the Sudden death of Peter, had not deterred him from bine foot i The diary of his journey, which he publithe in ) and French, is but a poor book, full of pedantry, and patched up of trifling and infipid remarks. Yet fuch were his pride and blind partiality, that he regarded, with the wholefome criticifims to which it Fave occa- fion. vich began his travels at too late a period of life to profit much by them. , At Rome his arrival was welcomed, and he was again ¢onfulted on various plans of public improvement. But in the fpring of 1764, he was called by the Auftrian governor of , to fill the mathematical chair in the univerfity of Pavia. The honours which he received provoked the jea- loufy of the ather profeflors, who intrigued to undermine his . He nil the moft effe€tual mode, however, to filence them, by publifhing his differtations on optics, which exhibit an elegant fynthefis and well-devifed fet of experiments. Thefe effays excited the more attention, as, at this time, the ingenuity of men of f{cience was particularly attracted to the fubjeét, by Dollond’s valuable difcovery of achromatic glaffes. The expulfion of the Jefuits from the dominions cf “Spain prevented Bofcovich from going to Califoraia, to obferve the fecond tranlit of Venus, in 1769, and which expedition the Royal Society of London had ttrongly foli- cited him to undertake. And as his'rivals began now to ftir themfelves again, he fought to difpel the chagrin, hy a fecond journey into France and the Netherlands. At Bruf- fels he met with a peafant, famous for curing the gout, and from whofe fingular {kill he received moft effential benefit. On his return to Italy, he was transferred from the univer- fity of Pavia to the palatine {chools at Milan, and refided with thofe of lis order, at the college of Brera, where he farnifhed, moftly at his own expence, an obfervatory, of which he got fe dire&ion. But he was {till doomed to ience mortification. Some young Jefuits, who acted as his affiftants, formed a confpiracy, and, by their artful reprefentations, prevailed with the government to exclude his favourite pupil and friend from holding a charge of truft. This intelligence was communicated to him at the baths of Albano, and filled him with grief'and indignation. He complained to prince Kaunitz, But implored his prote¢tion in vain. To the governor-of Milan he wrote, that he would not return, _ things were reftored to their former foot- ing. He retired to Venice, where, having ftaid ten months in fruitlefs expeGtation of obtaining redrefs, he meditated {pending the remainder of his days in honourable retirement at his native city of Ragufa. But while he waited for the opportunity of a veffel to convey him thither, he received the affliGting news of the fuppreffion of his order in Italy. He renounced his fcheme, and feemed quite uncertain what he fhould take. Having come into the Tufcan territory, he liftened to the counfels and folicitation of Fabroni, who held forth the profpeét of a handfome appointment in the Lyceum of Pifa. fa'the mean time he accepted the iavita- tion of La Bord, chamberlain to Louis XV.and accompanied him to Paris. ‘Through the influence of that favourite, he obtained the moft liberal patronage from the French mo- narch ; he was naturalized, received two penfions, amount- ing to 8000 livres, or £333, and had an office exprefsly created for him, with the title of Direétor of optics for the marine.”” Bofcovich might now appear to have attained the neon of fortune and’glory ; but Paris was no longer for im the theatre of epplaufe, and his ardent temper became foured by the malign breath of jealoufy and neglet. Such extraordmary favour beftowed on a foreigner, could not fail BOSCOVICH. to excite the envy of the /gavars, who confidered him as rewarded greatly beyond his true merit. The freedom of his language gave offence, his perpetual egotifm hecame difgufting, and his repetition of barbarous Latin epigrams was mott erating to Parilianears. “Belides, the name of a vieft anda jefuit did not new command refpeét; and the fe starhiente of auftere devotion, which he publicly profeffed, had grown unfathionadle, and were regarded as fearcely befitting the charaéter ef aphilofopher. Mirabeau, in his letters ee Praffia, mentidus Bofeovich with a degree of flight bordering on contempt, aid warmly recommends it to his court to invite from Berlin the celebrate1 Lagrange; a mathematician of the very higheft order, and bleffed with the mildelt difpofition. But the geometer of Ragufa was not idle. He applied affiduoufly to the improvement. of aftronomy and optics > and his diligence was evinced by a feries of valuable memoirs. He revifed and extended his former ideas,.and flruck out new paths of difeovery. His folution of the problem to de- termine the orbit of a comet from three obfervations, is re> markable for its elegant fimplicity ; beiag derived from the mere elementary principles of trigonometry. Not lefs beau- ti'ul are his memoirs on the micrometer, and on achromatic telefcopes. But his. fituation had become extremely irkfome; and in 178, he defired and obtained leaye of abfence. To years he fpent at Baffano, in the Venetian ftate, where he ublifhed his opufcules, in five volumes, .4to. compofed -in Fao, Italian, and French, and containing a variety of ele- gant and ingenious difquifitions conne&ted with aftronomical and optical fcience. During that time he lived with his edi- tor Remondini, and occupied himfelé in fuperintending the prefs. After finifhing his taf, he came to Tufcany, and paffed fome months at the convent of Valombrofa, Thence he went to Milan, and iffued a Latin profpeGus, in which he propofed to reprint the philofophical poem of Stay, ea- riched with his annotations, and extended to ten books. But very few fub{cribers appeared ; his opufcules expevi- enced a flow fale; and the imperial minifter neither confulted nor employed iim in fome mathematical operations which were carrying on. Every thing but too keenly reminded him that he was no more a favourite of the Ttalian public. The vifions of glory melted away. This mortifying reflexion preyed upon his fpirits, and made the deeper impreffion, as his health was much difordered by an inflammation of the lungs. He funk into a ftupid, liklefs melancholy, and after brooding many days, he emerged isto a childifh infanity, ° and at laft became furioufly mad. It was truly pitiable to behold a man of his eminent talents reduced to fuch an hu- miliating condition. The Milanefe government provided for his cultedy. During the heat of delirium, he frequently exclaimed, that he would die poor and inglorious. His re- ligious feelings acquired new Pea and he feemed to look forward with anxious hope for that diflinétion in a future world, which he thought was unjuftly denied him in this clouded ftate of exifence. In his fhort lucid moments, or fits of exhauftion, that intervened, he regretted having {pent his time in cusious fpeculation, and confidered the calamity with which he was vifited asa kind of chattifement of heaven for negleGing the fpiritual duties of his profeffion. In this temper of refignation, his impofthume burfl, and he expired on the 13th | Februasy, 1757. He was interred decently, but without pomp, in the parochial church of S. Maria Pe- done, Such was the exit,”’ fays Pabroni, “ of this fub- lime genius, whom Rome honoured as her mailer, whom all Italy regarded as her ornament, and to whom Greece would have erected a ftatue, had fhe for want of {pace been obliged even to throw down forme of her heroes.”’ L2 The BOS The abbé Bofcovich was tall in ftature, of a robuit con- ftitution, with along pale vifage. His temper was open and friendly, but irritable, vehement, and impatient of con- tradiction. James Bofwell, in his amufing Life of Dr. John- fon, incidentally mentions, that the Enelifh moralift chan- cing to meet Bofcovich in London, had a very keen difpute with him in Latin on fome metaphyfical topic. There was much heat on both fides; and the Goliah of literature treated the mathematician in his ufual bearifh manner. Bofcovich was more diftinguifhed by the elegance of his mathematical genius, than for talents of invention. The predileétion he entertained for the geometry of the Greeks, led him perhaps to undervalue the modern analyiis, and ra- ther to negle& the cultivation of the integral calculus, that attonifhing inflrument of difcovery, which is indifpenfable inymaking any preat progrefs in the deeper parts of phyfical and aftronomical fcience. His example, with fimilar ones in this country, fhows the danger of indulging a tafte fo laudable in itfelf, but which has a tendency to circum{cribe the powers of human intellect. The only work of Bofcovich that has appeared in Englith, is his * Elements of the Conic Seétions,’”? which was, within thefe few years, tranflated, abridged, and fomewhat altered by the Rev. Mr. Newton of Cambridge. This little treatife, we are forry to obferve, has not yet received fuch attention from the public as it well merits. For a view of his theory of matter, fee the article CopnpuscuLar PHILosopuy. BOSCUS, in Ancient Law-Writers, fignities a wood of any kind. It is formed from the Greek, So.x», I feed, as ferving for pafture." In which fenfe, do0/cus amounts to the fame with the Italian do/co, and French dois. _ Bofeus is divided into high wood, or timber, called alfo /a/tus,and haut- bois; and coppice, or underwood, /ub-bofcus, or fub-bois. BOSEA, in Botany, (in honour of Bofe, a fenator of pa Linn. 315. Reich. 344. Schreb. 442. Willden. 504. Jufl, 83. Gert. 490. Clafs, pentandria digynia. Nat. Ord. atriplices. Jufl. Gen. Char. Cail. perianth five-leaved, equal ; folioles roundifh, concave, ere¢t, thinner at the edge. Cor. none. Stam. filaments fubulate, longer than the calyx ; anthers fimple. Pi/?. germ ovate-oblong, cufpidate; ftyle none. Pericarp, ‘berry globular, one celled. Sed one, round, acuminate. Eff. Char. Calyx five-leaved. Cor. none. Berry one- feeded. : Sp. B. yervamora. A {mail fhrub. Leaves fimple, al- ternate, petioled, ovate, pointed, entire, {mooth, with fine purple nerves; flowers reddifh, in loofe axillary racemes. Cultivated Ly Mr. Miller before 1728. A native of the Canary iflands. La Marck intimates a doubt whether Sloane’s Jamaica plant be the fame. BOSEN, in Geography, atown of Pruffia, in the province of Natangen, feated on the Satten lake; 50 miles S. of Konigfberg. BOSENBRUNN, atown of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and the Vogtland; 3 miles S. W. of Ocl{nitz. BOSHAM, atown of Abyffinia, near the fource of the river Lebec. N. lat. 7° 40!. E. long. 36° 30’. BOSHOND, in Zoology, (Jachhals vel bofhond). Boffin- guin, p.291: The fpotted hyena, canis crocuta. BOSIO, James, in Biography, a native of Milan, who flourifhed about the end of the 16th century, and being knight fervitor of the order of Malta, conducted its concerns at Rome for a long time with reputation. Difappointed in the expectation of the advancement of his patron, cardinal: Petrochini, to the papal chair, he retired and devoted the BOS remainder of his life to pious exercifes. Asa writer he i¢ known by his voluminous hiftory of the order of Malta, entitled <* Dell’ iftoria della facra religione dell’ iliuftriffima’ militia di fan Gioano Gierofolimitano,”’ 3 vols. fol. printed at Rome, in confequence of the arrangement of two corde- liers, in 1621, 1629, and 1684. This is the fource whence later hiftorians of the order have derived their chief materials, Some idea may be formed of Bofio's underftanding and dif- z pofition, from the veneration which he manifelted to the wood of the real crofs, of which he wrote the hiftory frony its difcovery in the time of Conftantine. Antonia Bofio, the, nephew of the preceding, who was alfo agent at Rome for Malta, publifhed in 1632, the refult of his refearches into the, vaults and catacombs of Rome ina folio volume, entitled «© Roma Sotteranea,”’? a work that contains all the monu- ments and epitaphs which he could find of the firft Chrif- tians. An improved edition was publifhed in Latin hy Paul Aringhi in 1651. Moreri. Nouv. Dict. Hitt. BOSLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- trict of Beaugency ; 2 miles N. of Beaugency, , BOSNA, Serar. See Serajo. Bosna, ariver of Bofnia, which paffes by Serajo, and joins the Save, 50 miles N. of that town. BOSNIA, called alfo Rama, a province of Turkey in Eu- rope, being a part of ancient Pannonia, or of Turkifh Ilyri- cum, and deriving its name from the river Bofna, or from the, people called Boffeni. It is bounded on the north by the river Save, which feparates it from Sclavonia, on the eaft by the Drino, which parts it from Servia, on the weft by the Verbas, Croatia, and Dalmatia, and on.the fouth by a chain of mountains, which feparates it from Dalmatia. It is about 40 leagues long, and 24 broad; and though moun- tainous, it is fertile, more efpecially near the rivers; its. arable land producing good wheat, and its paftures feeding many cattle; its mountains contain fome mines of filver. Its air, foil, produce, Ianguage, and inhabitants, refemble thofe of Servia. Bofnia and Servia were formerly united to Hungary, and governed by their own princes ; but in 1465, the Turks took poffeffion of them; Stephen V. their laf fovereign being taken prifoner by Mahomet II. and flayed alive ; from that time they have been a province of the , Turkifh empire, which appoints beglerbeys and fangiacs over them... Bofnia is chiefly inhabited by Greek Chrif- tians, together with fome Mahometans, Jews, and Catho- lics. Its principal towns are Banjaluka, Orbach, Serajo, and Zwernick. BOSOK, a town of Hungary, 3 miles E. of Baia. BOSON, in Conchology, the turbo muricatus, fo called by Adanfon. BOSOWKA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the alatinate of Braclaw. N. lat..49°20'. E.long. 30°. BOSPHORICUM Marmor, a name given by the an- cients to a fpecies of marble, of a yellowith white colour, with beautiful veins of a fomewhat darker hue ; called alfo, from its tranfparency, phengites. BOSPHORUS, or Bosrarus, formed from sc, bos, and wopo-, paffage, in Geography, along and narrow fea which it is {uppofed a bullock may fwim over; in a more general fenfe, a long narrow fea running in between two lands, or feparating two continents, and by which two feas, or a gulf and a fea, are made to communicate with each other. In which fenfe bofphorus amounts to the fame with what we otherwile call an arm of the fea, channel, or ftreight ; the Italians, faro; the Latins, fretwm, and the French pass manche. F The name o/phorus is chiefly confined to two ftreights, il in . as BOSPHORUS, in the Mediterranean fea, viz. the “ Bofphorus of Thrace,” commonly called the “ Streights of Conftantinople,” or «© Channel of the Black Sea ;” and the “Cimmerian, or thian Bofphorus,” fo called, it feems, from its refem- blance to the Thracian; now more commonly the “ Streights of Caffa,”? which unites the fea of Azof with the Euxine or. Black Sea. ; The origin of the name is better agreed on than the reafon why it was firft given to the Thracian Bofphorus. Nympbhius tells us, on the authority of Accarion, that the Phrygians, defiring to pafs the Thracian ftreight, built a veffel, on whofe prow was the figure ofa bullock, and which was hence called Sx:, bullock; and which ferved them for a ferry-boat.—Dionyfius, Val. Flaccus, Callimachus, Apollo- dorus, Marcellinus, &c. fay, that Io, being transformed into acow by Juno, pafled this ftreight {wimming, which hence was called Bofphorus.—Arrian tells us, thatthe Phrygians were enjoined by the oracle, to follow the route which a bullock fhould mark out to them; and that upon ftirring one up, it jumped into the fea to avoid their purfuit, and fwam over this ftreight. Others fay, that an ox, tormented by a gad-fly, threw itfelf in and {wam over; and others, that anciently the inhabitants of thefe coafts, when they would pafs over, joined little boats together, and had them érawn over by bullocks, &c. Some late writers rather fuppofe Bofphorus to have been fo called, becaufe here was anciently the -beaft-markct. Tournef. Voyag. tom. ii. let. 12. and 14. The “ Thracian Bofphorus,’”’ called alfo the “ Myfian Bofphorus,”’ becaufe the Myfians inhabited the country op- fite to Thrace, conne&ed the Euxine with the Propontis, or prefeat fea of Marmora, and formed a winding channel, feparating Europe from Afia, through which the waters of the Euxine flow, witha rapid and inceffant courfe, towards the Mediterranean. This ftreight has been very minutely defcribed by Dionyfius of Byzantium, who lived in the time of Domitian, (fee Hudfon’s Geograp. Minor. tom. iii.) and by Gilles or Gyllius, a French traveller of the 16th century. On the fteep and woody banks of this channel the ancients profufely feattered a crowd of templesand votive altars, at- tefting the unfkilfulnefs, the terrors and the devotion of the Greek navigators, who, after the example of the Argonauts, explored the dangers of the inhofpitable Euxine. On thefe banks tradition long preferved the memory of the palace of Phineus, infefted by the obfcene harpies, which LeClere con- je€tures to have been only locufts; and of the Sylvan reign of Amycus, who defied the fon of Leda to the combat of the Ceitus. The refidence of Amycus was in Afia, between the old and the new caltles, at a place called Laurus Infana; and that of Phineus was in Europe, near the village of Mauromole and the Black Sea. The ftreights of the Bofphorus are ter- minated by the Cyanean rocks, which, as the poets defcribe them, had once floated on the face of the waters; and were deftined by the gods to protec the entrance of the Euxine againit the eye of profane curiofity. At -prefent there are two {mall iflands, one towards either fhore; that of Europe being diflinguifhed nl the column of Pompey. From the Cyanean rocks, to the point and harbour of Byzantium, the winding roe ys of the eae extends about 16 miles, and its moft ordinary breadth may be computed at about 14 mile. According to the ftatement of Olivier, Travels in the Ottoman Empire, p. 77.) it is nearly 7 (" long, and about 20 miles from the point of the Se- raglio of Conftantinople tothe Cyanean iflands. In its greateft breadth it is not two miles; and in feveral places it is fo narrow, that fome ancient authors fay, that a perfon may hear the birds fing from one fhore to the other, and that two perfons may hold a converfation acrofs the channel. Herodotus, Polybius, and Arrian eftimated its length from the temple of Jupiter to the city of Byzantium at 120 ftadia, or 15 Roman miles, i. ¢. 13 miles 5 furlongs and 191,336 yardsin Englifh meafure. Its breadth was various. At its entrance they reckoned it 4 ftadia, or 805 yards ; and at the other extremity 14 ftadia, or 2825 yards. But. the aneients, as well as the moderns, differ very much about thefe meafures. In certain places its waters formed large bafons and deep bays. The new caftles of Europe and A fia are conftructed, on either continent, upon the Panta tions of two celebrated temples of Serapis and of Jupiter Unius. The old caftles, erected by the Greek emperors, command the narroweft part of the channel, ina place where the oppofite banks advance within 500 paces of each other- Mahomet II.,when he meditated the fiege of Conftantinople, reftored and ftrengthened thefe fottreffes; but he was not ap- prized, that near 2000 years before his reign, Darius had chofen the fame fituation to conne& the two continents, by a bridge of boats, and thus to tranfport 7co thoufand men againft the Scythians. At this place the crufaders alfo entered Afia, when they profecuted the fcheme of refcuing the holy land from the yoke of the Mahometang. At a {mall diftance from the old caftles, we difcover the little town of Chryfopolis or Scutari ; and as the Bofphorus be- gins to open into tle Propontis, it pafles between Byzantium and Chalcedon. The harbour of Conftantinople may be confidered as an arm of the Bofphorus, and in a very remote period obtained the denomination of the * Golden Horny” from the re-’ femblance which the curve it defcribes bears to the horn of aftag, or rather of an ox, with the aoe golden, ex- prefling the riches which every wind wafted from the mott diftant countries into the fecure and capacious port of Con- ftantinople ; which fee. From the mouth of the Lycus, formed by the conflux of two fmall ftreams, and fupplying” the harbour with frefh water, by which the bottom of the harbour is cleanfed, and fhoals of fifth are invited to make it their retreat, to that of the harbour, this arm of the Bof- phorus is more than feven miles in Iength ; the entrance is about 500 yaids broad, and a ftrong chain might be occa- fionally drawn acrofs it, to guard the port and city from the attack of an hoftilenavy. The navigation from the iffue of the Bofphorus to the entrance of the Hellefpont is about 120 miles. See Herrespont, and Propontis. The “ Cimmerian Bofphorus,”” now called the flreights of Caffa, derived its name from the * Cimmerians,”’ a people who inhabited the adjacent country; feparated between Cherfonefus Taurica, belonging to Europe, and the territo- ries of Afia; and joined the Euxine fea, with the Palus’ Mezotis. Its breadth is about 4 leagues. See Sea of Azor. Bospnorus, or Cimmerian Bofphorus, the name of an ancient kingdom, comprehending all the provinces that were fubjeé to the Bofphoran princes, and bounded cn the eaft by Colchis, on the weft by the gulf Carcinites, on the fouth by the Euxine fea, and on the north by the Tanais, where that river falls into the Palus Mxotis; fo that it com- prifed the Cherfonefus Taurica in Europe, and in Afia the whole traét which lies between the Palus: Meotis andthe Evxine fea. Diodorus Siculus (1. xii. ) confines the kingdom of Bofphorus within the BofphorusCimmerius, the boundary of Europe and Afia on that fide; but Strabo (h vii.) extends it to the gulf Carcinites, which, with the Palus Meotis, forms the ifthmus of the Cherfonefus. he chief cities of the Afia» tic Bofphorus were Phanagoria, the metropolis of Bofphorus in Afia, according to Strabo, Cepi, Hermonafla, Stratoclea, Cim- BOS Cimmerium, Sinda on the Palus Meotis, Tanais at the mouth of the river beaving that name, where the city of Azof now ftands, Paniardis, Tyrambe, and Gerafum, called by Ptolemy a Cimbrian village. The country bordering on the Palus Mzotis and the Bofphorus, which was inhabited by the Cimmerii, is reprefented by the ancients. as inhofpi- table, covered with thick forefts and continual fogs through which the rays of the fun eould net penetrate. See Cim- MERI. : The Bofporani were goyerned by thcir own princes in the earlieft times; but the hiftory of them by Trogus Pom- peius is loft, fo that little™ certainty is known conceraing them. The firft recorded in hiftory, and mentioned by Strabo, (1. vii.) was Lucon; and he was fucceeded by feveral others, whofe hiftory is involyed in great obfcurity. The kingdom of Bofphorus, as we are informed by Dio- dorus Siculus, was voluntarily furrendered by Parifides ITT. to Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus, after it had been held by his anceftors for the {pace of 400 years. In the time of the lait Mithridatic war, the Bofporani revolted from Mithridates, and admitted Roman garrifons into the cities of Phanagoria, Theodofia, Cherfonefus, and Nym.- phxum; but upon the death of that prince, the whole country was reitored by Pompey to his fon Pharnaces, whom he honoured with the title of friend and ally of the Roman people. During the civil war between Cefar and Pompey, Pharnaces, net fatisfied with the kingdom of Bofphorus, attempted the recovery of his father’s do- ruinions; croffed the Euxine fea, and reduced Ceolchis, Armenia Minor, and feveral places in Cappadocia, Pontus, and Bithynia. After the battle of Pharfalia, Czfar fent again{ft him a confiderable force under the command of Do- mitius Calvinus; Domitius being overcome in battle, Phar- naces made himiclf matter of the remaining part of Pontus and Cappadocia, and of all Bithynia; but as he was advanc- ing into A fia, properly fo called, Czefar left Egypt, traverfed Syria, and came unexpectedly upon Pharnaces, and gained a complete victory. After this defeat Pharnaces fled to Sinope, and from thence failed back into Bofphorus; where, upon his landing, Afander, whoin he had appointed governor of that country during his abfence, feized and put him to death, and took upon himfelf the title of king of Bofphorus. Cexfar, however, conferred the kingdom cf Bofphorus on Mithridates the Pergamian,in recompence of fervices which he had performed in Egypt. But in endeavouring to fecure the pofleffion of it, he was vanguifhed and flain in battle by Afander, wlio, after his death, held the kingdom without any farther moleftation. Afander, being Bhi oaiy by the emperor Augultus, who gave the command of the Bene rean troops that ferved in the Roman army to Scribonius, ab{tained fram all food, and thus ended his life in the 93d year of his age. Upon his death Scribonius, pretending that he was the grandfon of Mithridates, and marr ying Dynamis, the daughter of Pharnaces, took poffeffion of the kingdom of Bofphorus, but was expelled from it by Polemon, on whom the kingdom had been beftowed by Auguitus. Polemon was fucceeded by his fon Polemon II.; who ex- changed the kingdom, in the reign of Claudius for part of Cilicia. Trajan, as Eutropius informs us, took the king of Bofphorus under his prote€tion; and Lucian tells us, that the Bofporans, in his time, had a king named Eupator; but we have no reeord of the period previous to the divifion oof the Roman empire in which this kingdom terminates. Bosporus, Promoatoryof, was a promontory of Thrace, at the entrance of the harbour of Byzantium, fituate on the Thracian Bofphorus, near the Propontis, and N.W, of the promontory of Chalcedon in Afia Minor, BOS Bospuorus,a city of Chernonefus T'aurica, feated near’ the Cimmerian Bofphorus, and fuppofed by fome writers to have been the fame with Panticapzum, which, according to Strabo, was the metropolis of the European Bofphorus. But Pliny, Eutropius, and Stephanus Byz., fpeak of them as two different cities. Strabo and Ptolemy take notice of Panticapeum, but fay nothing of Bofphorus; but Proco- pius often mentions the latter, but never takes notice of Panticapeum; from which circumttance it has been inferred, that thefe two names belong, at different periods, to the fame city; Panticapeum being its moft ancient name, re- cognized by Pliny, Strabo, and Ptolemy, and Bofphorus the name given to it by Procopius. Pliny, however, fays, that fome perfons called it Bofphorus, aad that, in its origin, it was a colony of Milefians. Bospuorus,a townof India. Steph. Byz.—Alfo, the name of a town placed by Suidas towards the Hellefpont, which was ravaged under the empire of Juftinian. BOSQUET, Francis, in Biography, one of the moft learned prelates of France in the 17th century, was born at Narbonne, in 1605, and educated at Touloufe. Before he affumed the ecclefiaftical profeffion, he exercifed various etvilemployments, viz. thofe of intendant of Guienne and of Languedog, folicitor-general to the parliament of Normandy, and counfellor of fate. But, in 1648, he was nominated” bifhop of Lodeve, and entrufted by the king with the ma- nagement of the national concerns; and in 1657 took pof- feffion of the bifhopric of Montpellier, in which fituation he continued till hisdeath in 1676. He was held in high efti- mation, for his learning, piety, and charity. Asan author, he acquired betimes a confiderable degree of reputation by his Latin tranflation, with notes, of the fynopfis of civil law, compofed in Greek verfe by Michael Pfelius. He alfo wrote a “ Hiftory of the popes, who refided at Avignon,” from 1305 to 13943 and publifhed feveral epiftles of pope Inno- cent IIT. with learned notes. But his principal work was a «¢ Hiftory of the Gallican church, in the reign of Conftan- tine,”? written in Latin, and publifhed with confiderable augmentations in 1636, 4to. but withthe omiflion of fome liberal and fpirited refle€tions on the fi€tions and errors introduced into the early accounts of the Gallican church. He alfo left behind him fome MS. obfervations on the liber= ties of the Gallican church, and fome notes on the canon law. Gen. Did. Bosquert, in Oruamental Gardening, is a term applied to detached clumps or other parts of gardens, pleafure or orna- mented grounds, planted with a variety of deciduous ever- green trees, and fhrubs, and herbaceous perennial flowers, either ina regular or irregular manner. They fhould be laid out in form fuited tothe nature, extent, and particular cir- cumftances of the ground, fo as to produce the greateft pof- fible variety and effect; fome being made circular, others oval or oblong, and with bending {weeps or {wells outwards or inwards, and longer or {maller as may be neceflary. They may be difpofed with the greateft effect on the confines of extenfive lawns, or other open fpaces in grafs; alfo in parks, paddocks, the terminations of fpacious avenues and carrlage ways leading to the houfes, efpecially where of con- fiderable dimenfions, being yaried in fituation, and diltri- buted at fuch diflances as to leave large intervening {paces of open land in grafs, ; In the planting of compartments of this nature, in order to produce the beft effet, much attention fhould be beftow- ed in regulating the fizes of the plants, their fhades, and times of flowering, as well as in the difpofing them inthe order of their different growths, fo that they may rife regu- darly from the fides to the centres, and difplay themfelves in 8 the BOS the beft and moft advantageous manner in their heads and branches. It was formerly the practice to plant trees and fhrubs of the deciduous and evergreen kinds, chiefly toge- ther in feparate patches, but by a judicious mixture of both forts a great richnefs and variety of effeA are produced ; vari- ous forts of tall herbaceous perennial plants, as well as low flowering ones, may be introduced on the fides and edges, fuch as thofe of the golden rod, and other fimilar kinds, with daffodils, violets, polyanthufes, primrofes, and many others of the fame fort. In the lefs extenfive kinds of ornamented grounds thefe forts of bofquets fhould always remain perfectly open and wholly expofed to view, in order that the full variety of the plants may be fhown; but in extenfive parks, and other fimilar grounds where they are chiefly planted with the more pi rte coarfe = trees and fhrubs, they may be in- clofed with open hurdles to defend them from the cropping of cattle or other animals, efpecially until they have ac- quired a fufficiently hardy and large growth. Thefe clumps, after being thus planted, only require the earth among the plants to be flightly dug over inthe autumn, or very early fpring, and once or twice hoed over in the fummer to keep weeds from rifing ; the dead wood and irre- ular branches of the different plants or trees being cut out, eaplesing and removed, to preferve them diftin& and keep them in order. See Crump. When well arranged and kept in neat order thefe forts of bofquets or clumps produce much diverfity and ornamental effet, both ip large gardens and pleafure grounds. BOSRA, in Geography, atown of Arabia Petrza, funk into decay and inconfiderable note, though it is confidered as the capital of the country. It is feated in the midland, on the back of Paleftine, on the other fide Jordan, and about 150 miles from the lake, or fea, of Galilee. See Bosrra. BOSS, or Bosse, in Scu/pture, fignifies relievo, or pro- minency. The word is French, bofe, which fignifies the fame ; whence alfo to embofss. See Emnossino. Boss of a buckler, among the Ancients, the umbo, or op- ¢22-, which juts out in the middle. Boss, among Bricklayers, denotes a wooden utenfil wherein the labourers put the mortar to be ufed in, tiling, It has an iron hook, whereby it may be hung on the laths, or on a ladder. Boss, Gaspar Vanver, in Biography, a painter of fhips, fea-views, calms, and ftorms, was born at Hoorn, in 1634, and manifefting an early genius for the art of painting, ap- plied with affiduity to the fludy and praétice of it, and dif- tinguifhed himfelf by the excellence of his compofition, by a light free touch, by an agreeable tint of colour, and by a very artful manner of handling. His application was fo intenfe as to impair his health, fo that he died much regret- ted at an early age in 1666. Pilkington. BOSSAGE, in Archite@ure,a projecting ftone, laid rough in building, to be afterwards carved into mouldings, capi- tals, arms, or the like. Bossaces, alfo denote ftones which feem to advance be- yond the naked of a building, by reafon of indentures, or channels left in the joinings; ufed chiefly in the corners of buildings, and thence called ruftic quoins. The cavities or indentures are fometimes round, fometimes , fometimes chamfrained, or bevelled, fometimes in the diamond form: fometimes they are enclofed with a ca- yetto, fometimes with a liftel. BOSSCHART, Tuomas Witvenorts, in Biography, 2 painter of hiftory and portraits, was born at Bergen-op- zoom, in 1613, and ftudied at Rome under Gerard Segers, BOS with whom he continued four years. His tafte of defign was fine and correét, his touch free and fpirited, his colour- ri tranfparent and true, and his carnations pofleffed fo much foftnefs and life, that he was thought to approach near to Vandyck in portrait aad hiftory; and his works were eagerly purehafed. His merit recommended him to the patronage of the prince of Orange, in whofe fervice he was employed for feveral years. ‘The large picture of “ War and Peace,” at the Hague, and the “* Marcyrdom of St. George,” in the great church, are much commended for goodnefsof expreffion, forex- cellent colouting,and forbeingexquifitely finifhed. Pilkington. BOSSE, Azsranam, a French engraver, was born at Tours, and flourifhed in 1630. In his performances he fuc- cefsfully imitated the coarfer manner of Callot; and moft of his works are executed from his own defigns. The figures, with which he commonly embellifhed his plates, are drawn in a fpirited ityle, and etched with great freedom. He afterwards retouched the etching with the graver in a bold, expeditious manner. The effect of his plates is clear and pleafing, though his lights are ufually too much feat- tered. He was moit fuccefsfal in {mall fubjects. We have a treatife by him “On the art of drawing ;’? the beit edition of which is faid to be that with the additions and cor- retions of M. Cochin; The fchool of the painter and {fculptor ;” “The workfhop of a copper-plate printer 3”? “The fchool-mafter and miitrefs ;”? and feveral other plates from his own defigns; and alfo, “The hiftory of the Maid of Orleans,” from the defigns of Viguon, &e. &c. Stratt. BOSSEE, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Holftein; 6 miles E. S. E. of Rendfburg. BOSSI/EA, in Botany, Willden. 1242. Clafs, diadel- phia decandria. Gen. Char. Cak bilabiate, upper lip obcordate. banner biglandular at the bafe: keel two-petalled. carp, legume peduncled, comprefled, many-feeded. Species, B. heterophylla. WVentenat. A fhrub two fect high. Branches compreffed. Leaves alternate, fmooth, petioled, the lower elliptic, the upperlanceolate. Pedunéles one-flowered, axillary. Banner and rings yellow. Keel purple. A native of New Holland. ote BOSSINEY, in Geography, an ancient borough of Corn - wall, in England, is reduced from its original coafequence, and now confilts of only a few miferable cottages; yet fome of the occupiers of thele dwellings have the power of eleét- ing two members of parliament. This place, with many. other towns in the county, was made a chartered botandh by Richard earl of Cornwall, brother of Henry IIT.; but the town has never been incorporated. The right of eleGtion is vefted in all perfons who poffefs lands within the borough and live in the parifh, but this number is now reduced te, five or fix. : Boffiney is in the parifh of Tintagel, where are the remains of a caltle occupying a very fingular fituation. The fortrefs ftood partly on the main land and partly on a bold floty pro- montory, which was feparated from the fhore by an im- menfe chafm in the cliff, over which there was formerly a’ drawbridge. What remains on the peniofular part is a cir- cular ruinous wall, which inclofes {ome buildings that ap- pear to have been the keep. Beneathis a paffige through. the rocks, where boats could pafs at the time of high tides. From the extent and charaéter of the ruins it is prefumed, that this fortrefs has been a place of great ftrength and fecu- rity. Itis aflerted by many writers, that it was the birth-place of the celebrated Britifh king, Arthur, but this affertion is not fatisfactorily fubftantiated. See ArtHuR. The bold, ftupendous cliffs about Tintagel, and along the northern woul, Cor. Peri- BOS coaft of Cornwall, cannot fail to excite emotions of admira- tion and terror in the minds of moft {peétators. From Tintagel to Bofcaftle the road winds through vari- ous rocky chaims. The latter village is feated at the bottom of a deep valley, wathed by a {mallinlet of the fea, whilft mountainous eminences encircle it. This place was formerly noted for a caitle, built by one of the Botereaux family; but no fragments are now remaining. Hiftory of Boroughs, vol. 1. 8vo. m ATTHEW, in Biography, an ecclefiaftic dif- tinguithed for his learning and virtues, was born at Verona, in 1428, and educated firft at Milan, and after his admiffion into the congregation of canons regular of the Lateran, at Padua. His merit advanced him to feveral eminent offices in his order; and at Fiefole, where he fuperintended the canonry of St. Bartholomew, he became acquainted with Lorenzo de Medici, who appointed hig: his confeffor; and it was from his hands, and in his church that John, the fon of Lorenzo, afterwards pope Leo X. received the enfigns of the cardinalate. He was offered a bifhopric by pope Six- tus IV. for his fervices in checking the diforders that pre- vailed in the nunneries of Liguria, and the adjacent pro- vinces, but refufed to accept it. After having five times fuflained the office of vifitor, and twice that of procurator- general of his order, he died at Paduain 15°2. Of his works the principal are the following, viz. “ De falutaribus animi gaudiis ;” “De inftituendo fapientia animo ;”” ‘ De tolerandis adverfis ;”? ‘* De gerendo magiftratu ;”” « Deim- moderato mulierum cultu;” and a colleétion of letters and {mall pieces, entitled * Recuperationes Fefulane,’’ printed at Bologna, in 1493, and furnifhing one of the fineft {peci- mens of typography of the 15th century. Gen. Did. “Rofcoe’s Lorenzo de Medici, vol. ii. BOSSON, in Geegraphy, one of the five glaciers of Swif- ferland, that ftretch towards the plain of Chamouny, and “unite at the foot of Mount Blanc. See GLacieEr. BOSSU, Rene Le, in Biography, a polite fcholar and eminent critic, was born at Paris in 1631; and having re- ‘ceived the rudiments of his education at Nanterre, he was admitted a canon regular in the abbey of St. Genevieve, at the early age of 18 years, and purfued the ftudy of philofo- phy and divinity. After having received prieft’s orders, in 1657, he indulged his inclination to the Belles Lettres, and devoted himfelf for feveral years to the employment of teach- ing them. At length he retired to pafs his time in tran- quil ftudy at the abbzy of St. Genevieve ; and in this re- treat, where he was feduloufly employed, publifhed his «¢ Parallel of the philofophy of Defcartes and of Ariflotle,”’ and his more popular ‘‘ Treatife on epic poetry.”” He alfo publifhed a {mall piece in favour of Boileau againft St. Sor- Jin; but the greater number of his compofitions remain in MS. at the abbey of St. John, at Chartres, of which he was made fub-prior in 1677. He diedin 1680. Boffu was dif- tinguifhed by a found judgment, well regulated, but lively imagination, and a mild, benevolent character. His work on epic poetry furnifhes many judicious rules, of which however, Voltaire fays, that they will never make a poet. Tt was left in an imperfect tate ; theauthor having intended to exemplify his rules from Horace and Virgil. The bett edi- _ tion is that of the Tdague, in 1714, with a memoir on the life and writings of the author by father Courayer. Gen. Dia. Bossu, in Geography, an ifland about 3 or 4 leagues N.E. from Trinity Point, on the north coaft of the gulf or river of St. Lawrence. BOSSUET, James Benicnus, in Biography, a famons French divine, celebsated for popular eloquence, for his ta- =’ BOS lents as a controverfial divine, and for his elaborate vindica+ tion of the Roman catholic faith, was born at Dijonin 16215 and having for fome time purfued his ftudies uader the care of the Jefuits, who wifhed him to enter into their order, he was refcued from them by the interpofition of his uncle, and in 1642 fent to Paris to finifh his ftudies at the college of Navarre. As he had devoted himfelf te the clerical profef- fion, theology was the object of his particular attention ; and his favourite author was Auguftin. To the ftudy of polite literature he dedicated a portion of his time; and whilft he was a profefled admirer of Homer, he difapproved the introduGtion of mythology into modern poetry. And though the range of his {tudies was very extenfive, he difs regarded mathematics from a preconceived noiion, that they would not contribute to make him a founder divine, ora more eloquent preacher. The philofophy of Defcartes re- commended itfelf to him by its novelty, and he adopted it, notwithitanding the reproach and perfecution which it un- derwent. After completing his theological courfe, he re- ceived the degree of do€tor of the Sorbonne in 1652, and then removed to Metz, when he was appointed canon of the church.. Here he wrote his firft polemic piece, which was a refutation of the catechifm of a Huguenot minifter of that town, with whom, however, he lived on terms of uninterrupt- ed friendfhip. Upon his return to Paris, his eloquence asa preacher recommended him to reyal patronage. In 1661, he pieached before the king, and his conduct during his re- fidence at Verfailles was fuited to the dignity of his profef- fion. He foon obtained, without any folicitation on his own part, the bifhopric of Condom ; but when he was appointed preceptor to the dauphin, in 1670, he retigned this prefer- ment, and devoted himfelf entirely to the difcharge of the duties of this honourable and imporiant office. In this fitue ation he compofed for the ule of his pupil, his difcourfe on univerfal hiftory, which, notwithftanding fome objeétions that have been urged againft it, 1s confidired as his _princi- pal performance, and much more inftruétive and ufeful than all his theological and controverfial writings. As foon as he had completed the education of the priuce, Lewis XIV. alvanced him, in recompence of his attention to this objeét, in 1681, to the fee of Meaux ; and in this fituation of greater ‘leifure, he employed himfelf in the defence of the church againft both infidels and proteftants. In his polemic writings he difplayed much logical acutenefs and dexterity in illuf- trating the doétrine of the church, and the variations fub- fitting among proteftants ; and he deduced his chief argu- ments in favour of the former, and in oppofition to the latter, from-the antiquity and unity of the churches; the authority of fathers, councils, and popes, during a long feries of ages; the novelty of the pretenfions of the reformers; the neceffity of an umpire in the province of religion for fettling difputes, explaining the {criptures, and maintaining order and peace; and the neceflity of fubmitting to fuch an umpire, in order to prevent that dif-union and variety of fects, each profeffing its right to interpret the divine word, and claiming the honour of being the true church, which difgraced the caufe of the proteftants. The latter were ably defended by the French Calvinifts, and particularly by the celebrated Clande, to whom, in the controverfy, fome even of the catholics have allowed the fuperiority. Leibnitz alfo be- came a party in the difpute between the proteftants and papifts, and recommended, for the fake of urity and peace, mutual conceffions. But Boffuet remained inflexible, and conceded only that the facramental cup might be allowed, as a matter of favour, to the laity. He was, however, no ad- vocate for the infallibility of the pope, or for his aflumed right of depofing kings ; but zealoufly oppofed both thefe . claims, — BOS claims, when urged by Innocent XI. apainft the indepen- dence of the crown, and the liberties of the clergy of France. The confequence of his oppofitton was the lofs of the car- dinal’s hat, which the pope offered him as an inducement to his defifting from profecuting this difpute. Boffuet, not conteat with writing on general fubjets, fuch as the defence of the Chriftian religion, the catholic faith, and the Gallican church, undertook ro refute the notions of the amiable Feneloo concerning quictifm ; cither becaufe he confidered thefe notions as erroneous 2nd dangerous, or becaufe he wifhed to degrade in the gencral eftimation the charaéter of a perfon, whom he reparded asa rival. T'ene- lon complained of the harfhnefs with which he was treated ; and fuch indeed were the impetuolity and zeal with which he entered into this difpute, that being once at court he main- tained his opinion with a degree of ardour, which led the king to fay to him, “* What would you have done, if [had taken part with Fenelon againit you?” Boffuet replied with great {pirit, “I would have fpoken ten times »s loud.” On another occalion, however, he wae lefs difpofed to give offence; for though he had condemned tbeatrical exl:tbi- tions, to which Lewis was addi@ed, vet beiag afked, what he thought of attending them, he replied with a confiderable degree of addrefs, ‘* For it there are great examples, and againtt it {trong arguments.” Of his talents as a {pecker Boffuet exhibited a fpecimen that was much admired, at the eariy age of 16; and as to his ftyle of preaching, it was lofty, free, animated, and energe- tic. As he poffcfled a retentive memory, he feldom wrote down more than the heads of his difcourfes, and fupplied the intervals extempore, but as the refult of previous medi- tation. Hence it happens, that his printed fermons are ra- ther bold and matteriy fketebes than finifhed compofitions ; and however much they have been admired, they are far excelled by the difcourfes of Maffillon and Bourdalove. But his funeral orations are confidered as furpaffiag all others -with refpect to fublimity and pathos. Of the feven which he delivered and publifhed, the three that have claimed pre-eminence are thofe for the queen of England, widow of Charles I., in which is introduced a fine delineation of Cromwell’s charaGter and politics; for the duchefs of Or- leans, fifter to Charles I1.; and for the famous prince of Condé, In the exercife of his epifcopal and pzfloral funétions Boffuet was entitled to great refpe&t and commendation. He was eminently diftinguifhed by bis attention to the duties of his office; by his diligence in communicating in- ftruGtiion to the ignorant, and comfort to the afli@ted; and by the exercife of an exemplary hofpitality to the indigent. In his clerical vifits he paid particular attention even to pea- fants and children. hilft he was thus amiably employed, he clofed a ftudious and dignified life, in the year 1704. It ought to be recorded to his honour, that though he was a zealous advocate for the do¢trines of the church of Rome, he was no friend to perfecution, and exprefled his difapprobation of the Severity exercifed toward the Hugue- nots. Neverthelefs, it does not appear that he ever repre- fented to the king the injuflice, cruelty, and impolicy of this conduct. The behaviour and manners of Boffuetalways commanded refpeét, but they often betrayed haughtinefs, a domineering difpofition, and a high opinion of himfelf; and thewed he had but little of that {piric of mecknefs and gentlenefs, which in thearchbifhop of Cambray was joined to every vir- tue that infpires veneration. The difference of their charac- ters is eafily difcerned in their writings. In thofe of Boffuct, the hig admires vigour Of mind and firepgth of rca- Vor.V. BOS foning ; in thofe of Fenelon, he feels the perfuafive power ariling from the union of a fine genius with genuine beneve- lence. Accordingly, the furmer has been faid to have demonitrated the truth, and the latter to have exhibited the amiablenefs of religion.” Of the works of Boffuet a colleGtion was made in 1543, in 12 vols. 4to, to which was added, a fupplement of 5 vols. 4to.; and the Bzenedi@tines of St. Maur have publiihed 12 vols. of a new and improved edition. He alfo wrote ia Latin a defence of the declaration of the French clergy on ecclefiattical power. Bofluct was a di?inguifhed member of the French academy, into which he was admitted in 167:. Eloge Academique par d’Alembert. Nouy. Dic. Hitt. Moreri. Gen. Biog. BOST, or Bust, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segiltan, or’ Seiftan, feated on the banks of the river Heermund, or Hindmend; diitant about 75 miles S.W. from Candahar. N. hat. 32°30’. E. long. 64° 25. From this town déulfeth Ai Ben Mohammed al Kaicb, ove of the moft illuftrious poets who flourifhed under the dynalty of the Samanides, derived the appellation of d/ Do/ii. Herbelot. BOSTAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Room, feated in a fertile plain of the fame name, watered by the river formerly called ‘ Sarus,”’ znd fur- rounded with mountains, on the northern fide of mount Taurus. The town is {mall; and its inhabitants prefent - a ttriking contrait to the more polifhed natives of Syria. Their common drefs is a fhort jacket and a fringed turban. The women, whofe complexion is fair and florid, wear on their heads flat pieces of metal, fome of filver, and others of copper, according to their rank, which they tie under the chin, and thus fhetter their faces from the fun and rain. N. lat. 35° 12!. E: long. 36° 28'. BOSTANGI-Bascut, or Boflangee Bachi, in the Turhifp Affairs, an officer in the grand feigmor’s houfhold, who bas the fuperintendance of all the gardens, water-works, and houfes of pleafure, with the workmen employed inthem. The pot of boftangi-bafchi, or chief gartlener, isone of the molt confiderableinthe Turkifh court; and his power is very exten= five. He has the emperor’s ear, and on that account is much courted by all who have bufinefs depending at the Porte; he is governor of all the villages on the channel of the Black fea, and has the command of above ten thoufand boitangis, or gardeners, io the feraglio, and other places about Conttan- tinople. He repreffes debauchery, and punifhes theft and other offences. But that which gives him the greatelt eclat is the honour he has of holding the rudder whenever the grand feignior takes his pleafure on the water, and of accom- panying him every where on horleback, whenever he goes out in ftate. This officer is of the number of the four ** Rickab agaleri,” or officers of the conrt, who are obliged to attend the fultan on all folemn occafions; the other three are called “ Buyuk-imbrohor,” or great equerry, “¢ Kurchuk- imbrohor,”’ or little equerry, and_‘ Capidjilar-kiayafli,” or great chamberlain. ‘Ihe boftangees are generally fons of Muffulmans; their pay is tolerably good, and they are almoft all married. They were eftablifhed under the reign of the Grit emperors, and for a long time furnifhed a nurfery of the beft foldiers. Thofe of them who difplayed the greatcit courage and ftrength, and more efpecially the highelt degree of fanaticifm, were transferred to the janizaries. BOSTON, in Geography, is a large commercial borough- town of Lincolathire, in England. it ftands in that divition of the county called Holland, and is nearly furrounded by the fens; the greater part of which having been inglofed aud drained, is now appropriated to arable and meadow M lands, BOSTON, lands, Previous to this great national undertaking, Bofton had loft much of its population and trade; but this event has renovated the town, It ftands on the banks of the river Witham, which empties itfelf into. the fea about five miles eaft of the town. Here is a commodious, well-frequented haven; and formerly a great trade was carried on in the ex- portation of wool: that being prohibited, the merchants were neceflitated to feek for profit in other commodities, and have nearly kept pace in the characteriftic commercial fpirit of the country, by advancing the population, opulence, and trade of Bofton. It is now one of the mofi confiderabie towns and ports in the county of Lincoln; and, befides two weekly markets, has four annual fairs. Bofton, according to Bede, was anciently called Botolph’s town, from St. Botolph, a Saxon, who founded a monattery here, which, according to the fame venerable writer, gave origin to the town. Other writers flate, that the Romans had a ftation here, and in fupport of this opinion refer to fome ancient foundations of buildings, hewn ftones, and urns, that were difcovered here in 1716. This town fent reprefenta- tives to three national councils, 11th, 26th, and 27th of Edw. JIL. and firft returned regular members in Edw. VI.’s time. It was incorporated in the laft year of Henry VIII.’s reign. The number of voters amounts to nearly 200. About the end of Henry I.’s reign, a man, named Robert Chamberlain, with fome accomplices, difguifed in the habits of monks, fet the town on fire in feveral places, for the purpofe of plun-— dering the inhabitants. Chamberlain was taken, and exe- guted, but refufed to impeach his accomplices. The corporation, by whom the town is governed, confifts of a mayor, who is chief clerk of the market, and admiral of the coaft, a recorder, twelve aldermen, eighteen common- councilmen, a judge, and marfhal of the admiralty, a coro- mer, two ferjeants at mace, and other inferior officers. The river Witham is navigable at {pring tides for veflels of ten to. eleven feet water; and many of them are employed in the corn.trade to London. A communication is opened between this place and Lincoln, by means of a canal; and another cut communicates to Sleaford, Horneaitle, &c. Bofton had formerly, befides St. Botolph’s monaftery, a priory, four friaries, and. three colleges. It had alfo two churches; bat chat of St. John’s is entirely deftroyed. The other, dedicated to St. Botolph, is a large, elegant pile of building, with alofty tower, which is juftly admired for the lightnefa, neatnefs, and beauty of its various compartments. In the year. 1309 was laid the, foundation of this ftru€ture, which has fince proved the pride and boaft of the Boftonians. It is 300 feet in height, and is {aid to be the Joftieft tower in England. From its top is a moft extenfive view over the flat fens of Lincolnfhire. The whole height is divided into four compartments, of which the uppermoft is formed into an oétagon-fhaped lanthorn, each fide perforated with pointed arched windows, and filled with mullions and tracery. This is attached to the fquare tower by flying buttreffes, termi- nated by purfled pinnacles. The three other compartments are ornamented with highly decorative windows and tracery; and at each corner are two itrong ornamented buttrefles. The church, though more ancient than the tower, difplays a fine example of Englifh florid ecclefiaftical architeéture. Large in dimenfions, lofty and light in its general character, and richly elegant in the various decorative ornaments of windows, oratories, door-ways, &c. it will be examined with delight by the architectural antiquary. It confifts of a nave, chancel, fide aifles, fouth porch chapels, &c.; and is one hundred feet in width, by three hundred feet in length. In the upper part of the nave are twenty eight pointed: win- . dows, between which are fourteen groined arches, with light fpandrils curioufly moulded, Thefe, with their interfeQtions and emboffments, produce a very beautiful effet, which is improved by the lofty columns and arches that divide the centre from the fide aifles. The general appearance and convenience of Bofton have been much improved within the laft twenty years. Many obitru€tions have been removed, and new buildings ereéted, The market place is fpacious, and is ornamented with a handfome market-crofs. In 1772, the corporation built an excellent fifh-market, which is abundantly fupplied with fea and river fifh. Queen Elizabeth gave the corporation a court of admiralty over all the adjacent fea-coaft. Veffels arrive here from Stanton’s wharf, London, every ten days ; and from Hull and Lynn, every {pring tide. Several foreign fhips trade here in fummer with timber, rye, wine, Svc. Botton is 35 miles eaft of Linccln, and 116 miles N. E. of London. It contains 1252 houfes, and 5926 inhabitants. Hittory of the Boroughs of Great Britain, vol. ti.. Howlet’s Select Views of Lincolnfhire, 4to. Boston, the capital of the ftate of Maffachufett’s, in America, the largelt town of New England, and the fourth in fize and rank in the United States, lies in N. lat. 42° 23' 15”, and W. long. 70° 52’ 42”. ‘This town, together with the towns of Hingham, Chelfea, and Hull, conftirute the county of Suffolk; andit is diftant 61 miles S. by W. from Portfmouth, 164 N. E. from New Haven, 252 N. E. from New York, 347 N.E: from Philadelphia, and 500 N.E. from the city of Wafhington. It is built upon a pe- ninfula of irregular form, at the bottom of Maffachufett’s bay, and is joined to the land by an ifthmus at the feuth end of the town leading to Roxbury. Its length, including the neck, is 3.miles; that of the town itfelf is not quite 2 miles; its wideft part, 726 yerds. ‘The peninfula contains abort 700 acres(fome fay 1coo),in which areabout 2600dwelling-houfes, The number of inhabitants, in 1790, was 18,038; but it has fince been much augmented, fo that in 1800, they amounted to 24,937. The town is interfe&ed by 97 ftreets, 36 lanes, and 26alleys, befides 18 courts, &c. many of which are irregular and incommodious. State-ftreet is very fpacious, and con- necting in a line with Long wharf, where ftrangers ufually land, exhibits a flattering idea of thetown. Botton contains 19 edifices for public worfhip ; 9 for congregatioralilts, 3 for epifcopalians, and 2 for baptifts. The Friends, Roman ca- tholics, Methodifts, Sandemanians, and Univerfalits, have alfo one appropriated to each. Moft of them are ornamented with beautiful fpires, avd furnifhed with clocks and bells. The other public buildings are the ftate-houfe, court-honfe, a theatre, concert-hall, Faneuil hail, gaol, alms-houfe, work- houfe, bridewell, and powder magazine. Franklin place, ad- joining Federal {tre=t theatre, contains a monument of Dr. Franklin, and is reckoned a great ornament to the town. A magnificent ftate-houfe is alfo erefted on the fouth fide of Beacon-hill, fronting the mall, and overtopping the monu- ment on Beacon-hill. The market-place, in which Faneuil hall is fituated, is plentifully fupplied with all kinds of provi- fions, both from the country, and from the ecean, and rivers. The harbour of Bofton is formed by point Alderton on the fouth,-and by Nahant point on the north. It is fuffi- ciently capacious to admit 500 veffels to ride at anchor in good depth of water; but the entrance is fo narrow, as hardly to allow two fhips to pafs a-breaft. It is diverfified with about 4o iflands, the greateft number of which confift of rocks and banks of fand, flightly covered with verdure ; but about 15 of them afford excellent palturage, hay, grain, and agreeable places of refort in fummer to parties of pleafure. At the diftance of about three miles from the town is Caftle- ifland, the fortifications of which, formerly called Caftle- William, BOS William, defend the entrance of the harbour and [ufficiently ifoned for a peace eftablifhment. The light-houfe nds on a {mall ifland at the north entrance of the chan- nel (point Alderton and Nantefket heights being on the fouth), and is about 65 feet high. In fteering for it from ca of the cape; the diflance from cape Cod to the light- houfe is about 16 leagues ; and from cape Anne the courfe is S.W. diftant ten leagues. A cannon is lodged and mounted at the light-houfe, to anfwer fignals. Of the iflands, feven only are within the jurifdiction of the town, and taxed with it; wiz. Noddle’s, Hog, Long, Deer, Speétacle, Governor’s, and Apple iflands. The wharis and quays in Bolton are about 8c in number, and very conve- nient for veffels. Long wharf, or Bofton pier, extends from the bottom of State-ftrect, 1743 feet in a itraight line into the harbour; its breadth is 104 feet, and at the end of it are 17 feet of water at ebb-tide. Adjoining to this wharf on the north, is a covenient wharf, called from its former proprietor, and its form, Minot’s T. Here veffels are fup- plied with frefh water from a well furrounded by falt water, and dug ata great expence. On the north fide Long wharf is covered with large and commodious ftores ; and a canal has been cut, in order to connect this harbour with Rox- bury. : Z Ta approaching Bofton from the-fea, it prefents a beauti- ful and piGturefque object. It lies in a circular but irregular form round the harbour, and is ornamented with {pires, above which the monument of Beacon-hill rifes pre-eminent, bearing On its top a giat eagle, with the arms of the Union ; and on its bafe, a variety of infcriptions commemorating fome of the moft remarkable events in the late war. Beacon-hill is the higheft point of land on the peninfula 3 the common below it contains about 45 acres, retrefhed by perpetual breczes ; and on its ealt fide 1s the Mail, a pleafant walk, about 600 ards long, adorned with rows of trees. Charles river, and eft Botton bridges, are highly ufeful and ornamental to Bofton; and both are ere&ted on Charles river, which min- gies its waters with thofe of Myftic river in Bofton harbour. Charles river bridge conne&s Bofton with Charleftown, in Middlefex county, itands on 75 piers, and is 1503 feet long, and 42 feet broad. Weit Boiten bridge ftands on 180 piers, and is 3453 feet long, and 40 fe-t wide. Both bridges have draws for the admiffion of veffels, and lamps for the benefit of evening paffengers. Bofton has fzven free {chools, f{upported at the public expence, in which the children of all citizens are freely admitted ; and befides thefe, many private {chools. 2 The principal focieties in the commonwealth hold their meetings in this town ; thefe are the Marine Society, Ame- rican Academy of Arts and Sciences, Maflachufett’s Agri- cultural Society, Maffachufett’s Charitable Society, Bolton Epifcopai Charitable Socicty, Maffachufett’s Hiltorical So- ciety, Society for Propagating the Gofpel, Maflachufett’s or «a Sane Society, Medical Society, Humane Socicty, Bolton Library Society, Bofton Mechanic Affociation, So- ciety for the A’d of Emigrants, Charicable Fire Society, and feven refpectable lodges of free and accepted mafons. For the fuppors of the foreign and domettic trade of Bof- ton, which is very confiderable, there are four banks; viz. the branch of the United States bank, the Union, the Maffachufett’s, and the Bofton, banks; the Maflachufett’s bank confills of Boo thares of 500 dollars, equal to 400,000; the capital of the Union bank is 1,200,000 dollars, 400,000 of which is the property of the fate. The principal manufactures of Bolton maa of rum, loaf- fugar, beer, fail-cloth, cordage, wool, and cotton cards, Playing cards, pot and pearl-afhes, paper-hangings, hats, od, the courfe is W.N.W. when within one league | BOS plate-glafs, tobaceo, and chocolate. It has 30 ditftillerics, 2 breweries, § fugar-houfes, and 11 rope-walks, The num- ber of the different ftages that run, through the week, from this town, is upwards of 20; and on the great road between Bolton and New Haven, there are conftantly em- ployed 20 carriages and 100 horfes, For the government of Bolton, nine fele@ men are an- nualiy chofen ; and at the fame time are chofen a town-clerk, a treafurer, twelve overfeers of the poor, twenty-four fire- wards, twelve clerks of the market, twelve fcavengers, twelve conitables, and a number’ of other officers, Befides thofe called “trained bands,” there are four other military companies in Bollon ; wiz. the ancient and honourable artile lery company, the cadets, fulileers, and artillery. The fettlement of Boiton took place as early as the year 1631 from Charlettown. It was called by the Indiaus Shau- mut, and by the {ettlers from Charleltown, Trimountain, from the view of its three hills ; and it derived its prefent name from refp:@ to the Rev. Mr. Cottoh, a mioifter of Boltoa, in England, and afterwards minifter of the firft cburch in this place. In 1727, it was much damaged by an earthquake, and has fince frequently {uffcred feverely by fires, its houfes having been mottly built of wood. ‘The revolution, whence America dates its independence, commenced at Boiton. Morfe. Boston Corner, a tra of land adjoining mount Wafh- ington, in Berkfhire county, and {tate of Maffachufetts, containing 67 inhabitants. Boston, New, a townhhip of Hil {borough county, New Hamphhire ; 12 miles S.W. by W. from Amufkeag falls, 60 miles W. of Portfmouth, and equally diftant N.W. from Botton. BOSTRA, Borsra, Bosra, or Bozrau, in Ancient Geography, one of the principal towns of Arabia, and the capital of a canton or province ealled “ Auranite.”? It was the capital of the ealtern Idumza, and the royal refidence of Joba, the fonof Zerah, duke of Edom; and in {cripture hilftory, it is commonly mentioned as fituate in a wildernefs, becaufe it ftood on the confines of Arabia Deferta. It was, however, in thofe times to which the ancient biblical hiftory refers, a confiderable place ; having been made a Levitical city by Jofhua, and a city of refuge. It is likewife cele- brated by ancient writers and medals; and feveral of its bi- fhops, at a later period, aflifted at fome of the ancient coun- cils. It was-diftant four days’ journey from Damafcus, bad a very itrong caftle, a gate 20 cubits bigh, and one of the largelt bafons or refervoirs in the Levant, Ic waa captured by Alexander the Great, after the battle of Iffus, and he feems to have been much attached to it; but after his death it became fubjeé&t to the Seleucidan kings of Syria, until the time of Antiochus Dionyfus, when it was conquered by an Arabian prince. Under the reign of Trajan, it was fub- jeGted to the dominion of ‘the Romans, At this time it was comprehended in a province of Arabia; and Trajan adorned it with many fumptuous edifices, eflablifhed it as a new city, and gave the inhabitants permiffion to denominate it “ Trajana.”?’ The emperor Septimius Severus enlarged this city, whence fome have regarded him as its founder. This prince, or his immediate fucceflors, conferred upon it the names and honours of a metropolis, Under the reign of Alexander Severus, it was confidered as a place of impart- ance, on account of its fituation on the frontiers of the em- ire; and it was thought worthy of receiving a Roman co- one In honour of Alexander Severus, it aflumed the name of “ Alexandrianna.”? ‘The two principal divinities worlhipped at Boftra were Bacchus and Urania. Bacchus Dionyfus was, according to Diodorus Siculus, the Ofiris of the Egyptians ; and this satr was denominated vo 2 ; y BOS by the Nabataan Arabs in the vicinity of Boilra. Accord- ingly, the inhabitants of this city engraved a figure of their god Dufares on their medals at Bottra. There was alfoa temple of the goddefs Urania, which was engraved on a me- dal of Septimius Severus, and alfo on one of the emprefs Mammeza. The worfhip of Jupiter Ammon, and of Sera- pis, was alfo admitted into Boltra, and they received from the Greeks that of Jupiter Pius or Amicus. The citizens of Boftra regarded Urania as the tutelar deity of their city. The Dufarian games, which were firlt difcovered on medals under the reign of the emperor Philip, were celebrated at Boftra in honour of Doufares, the Bacchus of the Arabians. When Arabia was divided, after the conqueft of it by Tra- jan, Boftra was appointed the metropolis of that part which retained the name of Arabia; and its bifhop afterwards be- came the metropolitan of the ecclefiaftical province. See Bosxa.—Another town of the fame name, but lefs ccle- brated, is mentioned-among the Moabite cities, in Jer. ch. xlviii. v, 24. f BOSTRYCHITES Lapis, derived from fospurxats, LI fold the hair in braids, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome to a ftone fuppofed to contain women’s hair included in it: fome have underftood by it, thofe pieces of cryftal which have accidental foulnefles in them, refembling hair, or pieces of hair, caufed by earthy or metalline matter ; others call by this name thofe German agates, which contain either the conferv or other capillary water plants, or other foulneffes running into their form; the firit of thefe very frequently have the conferve of great length, and yarioufly undulated and turned about, fo as very elegantly to reprefent a loofely flowing lock of hair. Bostrycuires is alfo a name given by fome authors to a fpecies of pyrites, whofe irradiations were fuppofed to imitate hair. BOSTRICHUS, in Entomology, a genus of CoLEoPTeE- nous infeéts dillinguifhed by having the antennz clavated, the club folid ; thorax convex, with a flight margin; head infle@ted, and concealed under the thorax. Gmel. Fabr. &c. The fpecies of this genus are capucinus, flavicornis, clonga- tus, typographus, chalcographus, polygraphus, microgra- phus, bidentatus, fcolytus, crenatus, pygmeus, ligniperda, piniperda, teftaceus, varius, vittatus, minutus, maculatus, pifa{ciatus, limbatus, fufcus, and pepfus. BOSTWICKS, in Geography, a poft-town of America, in Stokes county, N. Carolina, 290 miles from Wafhing- ton. BOSULS, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron; 34 leagues N.E. of Rhodez. BOSWELL, James, in Biography, fon of Alexander Bolwell, lord Auchinleck, one of the judges in the fupreme court of feffion, and jufticiary in Scotland, was born at Edin- burgh, O&. 29, 1740, and received the firft rudiments of education in that city. He afterwards ftudied civil law in the univerfities of Edinburgh and Glafgow ; and during his refidence in thefe cities, he formed an intimate acquaintance with fome Englifh ftudents, which produced a predileétion for their manners, that contributed in a great degree to his future habits and attachments. Ambitious, in early life, of diftinguifhing himfelf by his licerary talents, he was fo for- tunate as to obtain the patronage of the late lord Somerville, of which he always retained a grateful remembrance. In 1760, he vifited London, to which he became much attached, and where he fixed his principal refidence. Here he enjoyed the advantage of cultivating an acquaintance with feveral Peo of literary charaéter, to whom he recommended imfelf by his attention, and by the urbanity of his manners. Although his father had intended him for the profeffion. of the law, his own inclination led him to wifh for a commiffion BOS in thearmy; but he gave up this objc€t in deference to lord Auchinleck’s perfuafion, and at his defire returned to Scot. land; and renewing his attention to the law, purfued a courfe of regular inttruction, and paffed his trials as a civilian at Edinburgh. In compliance with his father’s wifhes, he attended the le€tures of an excellent civilian at Utrecht, in the winter of 1762 ; and afterwards obtained permiffion to make his grand tour of Europe. During his winter’s refie dence at Utrecht, he vifited feveral parts ef the Netherlands, and then commencing his projeéted travels, he pafled from Utrecht to Germany, and purfued his route through Swit- zerland to Geneva; from hence he crofled the Alps into Italy, paying his refpeéts, in the courfe of his journey, to Voltaire at Ferney, and to Rouffeau in the wilds of Neuf. chatel. In Italy, he affociated with lord Mountftuart, to whom he afterwards dedicated his “ Thefes Juridice.’” From Italy he failed to Corfica, and, traverfing the ifland, he obtained the friendfhip of Pafcal de Paoli, in whofe palace he refided during his ttay. From Corfica he went to Paris ; and returning to Scotland in 1766, he focn after became an advocate at the bar in that country. In the famous Douglas caufe, which was at that time a fubje@ of dif- cuffion, he pub.ifhed a pamphlet entitled “* The Effence of the Douglas Caufe,”” which contributed to his popularity. In 1768, appeared bis ‘* Account of Corfica, with Memoirs of General Paoli,”? which was highly fpoken of by Dr. Johnfon, and tranflated into the German, Dutch, Italian, and French languages. His prologue, written in the winter of this year, on occafion of opening the theatre royal at Edinburgh by David Rofs, efq. was flattering to the author, and beneficial to the manager, as it fecured to the latter the uninterrupted poffeffion of his patent-till his death in Sept. 1790. In the celebration of the Shakfpeare jubilee at Stratford-upon-Avon, in 1769, Mr. Bofwell took a confpi- cuous part, appearing at the mafquerade exhibited on that occafion, under the chara&ter of an armed Corfican chief. In 1783, he publifhed his letter to the people of Scotland, which, according to the epinion given of it by Dr. Johnfon, in a letter to the author, ‘¢ contains very confiderable know- ledge of hiftory and the conftitution, very properly produced and applied.”” As this letter was fan¢tioned by the appro- bation of Mr. Pitt, it was foon follewed by another, in which Mr. Bofwell difplayed his ufual energy and political talents. In 1785, he publifhed “ A Journal of his Tour to the Hebrides,” with Dr. Johnfon ; and in the fame year he removed to London, where he was called to the Englifh bar. But his profeffion feems to have been lefs the objet of his attention than the ‘ Life of Dr. Johnfon,”? for which he had been colleGting materials from the commencement of his acquaintance with him in the year 1763, to the time of his death, and which was publifhed in 2 vols. 4to. in 1791. Few perfons can be fuppofed to be better qualified for this un- dertaking than Mr. Bofwell; for he had known, and he had familiarly, and almoft daily, converfed with Dr. Johnfon for more than twenty of the laft years of his life; during which, he was happy in the kind regard and unreferved confidence of his venerable friend, who, as we are informed by Mr. B. himfelf, was fully apprized of his biographical intention, and manifefted no difapprobation of it. Of this work, which of courfe became very popular, 1t will be fufficient to obferve, that it exhibits a faithful hiftory of Johnfon’s life, exempli- fied in a variety of anecdotes, that rendered it equally in- ftruGtive and entertaining. The latt literary performance of Mr. Bofwell was the preparation of a fecond edition of this work. Mr. Bofwell combined, with confiderable intelle&ual powers, a gay and aétive difpofition ; and he often expe- rienced an unaccountable depreffion of fpirits. In one of his gloomy intervals he compofed a feries of eflaye under the title BOS title of the ‘“Hypochondriac,”’ which appezred in a periodical publication about the year 17S2, and which he once thought of colleéting into a volume. Scon after his return from a vifit to Auchinleck, he was feized with a diforder which put an end to his life, in Portland Street, June coth, 1795, in the 55th year of his age. At the clofe of his journal ot the tour to the Hebrides, after having given a {ketch of bis own character, he introduces, not indeed without an apology, the eacomium of Dr. Johnfon, whofe friendly partiality to the companion of his tour reprefents him as one “ whofe acutencis would help my inquiry, and whofe gaiety of con- verfation and civility of manners are fuflicient to counteract the inconveniences of travel in countries lefs hofpitable than we have paffed.”” He lott his wife, to whom he was married in 1769, in the year 1790, and the left him two fons and three daughters. She was a lady, who to the advantages of a polite education united a fuperior underftanding ; and on occafion of her death he honoured her memory with an affeAionate tribute. Brog. Di. - BOSWORTH, Market, in Topography. a town in Lei- cefterfhire, England ; fituated on a bill, and cclebrated in hif- tory as the neareit place of not to the fcene of battle between Richard III. and Henry earl of Richmo-d. The manor anciently belonged to the earls of Leicefter, and by a par- tition came to Sater de Quincy, earl of Winchefter, who, in the reign of king Joha, gave it to Richard de Harcourt, of Stanton Harcourt, in Osfordhhire, whofe defcendant Richard Harcourt, when lord of the town, obtained from Edward I. the privileges of a market (Wednefday) and a fair. The manor continued in this family till Henry VIII.’6 reign, when it came to the marquis of Dorfet; and from him, by the earl of Huntingdon, to fir Wolltan Dixey knight, whofe heirs are, or lately were, owners of it. Bof- worth is 106 miles N.W. from London, and contains 120 houfes and 791 inhabitants. The church is large, contains fome ancient arms and monuments, and has a beautiful {pire ; it had five chapels belonging to it. There ia a free-fchoo!, of which Anthony Blackwall, a learned divine, was matter, and Samuel Johnfon (afterwards LL.D. fo celebrated in the literary world) his ufher. Thomas Simpfon, the ma- thematician, was born here in 1710, who, from indigent circumftances, and the bufinefs of iluff-weaving, acquired fo oF 2 knowledge of mathematics, a: to rank him with the moft {cientific men of the age, and to raife him to the pro- feflorfhip at Woolwich, and F.R.S. He died at Bofworth, 1761. See Simpson. Nichols’s Hiftory of Leicefterhhire, fee Market Bofwarth, et {eq. : Boswoatn, Battle of, in Hiflory. This battle, on which the kingdom of England depended, and which terminated the civil war between the houfes of York and Lancafter, was fought Auguft 22, 1485, ona large flat plain, called Rad- more plain, 3 miles from Bofworth, and 4 miles from Hinck- ley, between Henry earl of Richmond at the head of 6000 men, and king Richard [1]. with an army above double that number: about 100 of the former were flain, and about 4000 of the jatter. The battle, which Jafted little more than two hours, was decided by the death of Richard, as his followers then fought fafety in flight, and left Richmond matter of the field and kingdom. Richard fought with fin- gular intrepidity ; his body, being found among the flain, ‘was ignominioufly thrown acrofs a horfe, and carried to Lei- cefter, where it was interred in the Grey Friars church. ag relics of this battle have at various times been found by digging and ploughing in the ficld. Thefe were {purs, rings, armour, cro arrow-heads, &c. Kmg Ri- chard’s well, aad Crown hill, where Richmond harangued BOT his army, preferve the identity of the place. Henry’s Hitt, of England. BOTABA, in Geography, the name_of one of the La- drones, or Marian iflands. BOTABOTA, in Oraithology, a name given by fome writers to that fpecies.of fea {wallow (Airundo eftulenia). whofe nefts are fo famous for foups in China, and in fome of the iflands in the Indien ocean. See Escutenta Hirunpo. The neits are fuppofed to be reitorative, and greatly pro-« vocative to venery ; for which laft quality it is that the eait- ern nations in general are fo fond of them, Ste Biro’s Nefts. Beaty in Middle Age Writers, a fee paid for wine fold in date, or buts. Wine that tattes of the cafk is called winum botatum. BOTALE Foramen, in Anatomy, an aperture in the heart of a foetus, whereby the blood 1s enabled to circulate, without going into the lungs, or the lett ventricle of the heart. See Fortus, Circuration, and Heart. BOTALLUS, Leowarp, in Biography, an eminent pby- fician of Piedmont, flourifhed about the middle of the 16th century. He was a difciple of Fallopius, and took his de- gree of doftor in medicine at Padua. It appears by his ~ writings, that he was a diligent obferver, and enjoyed a con- fiderabie thare of pra&tice. ‘Chat he was in great eftimation, appears by his having been made in fucceffion phyfician and aulic counfellor to Charles 1X. Henry II. of France, aud to Wiliam prince of Orange. He was alfo fkilled in the prac- tice of furgery, having been initru&ted uader his brother in the camp of the prince of Orange, whom he cured of a wound, in which the carotid artery had been injured. His works are, ‘* De curandis vulneribus f{clopetorum,”? 8vo.. 1560. Venet. This has been frequently reprinted, and con- tinued, for a long time, to be eftcemed the molt ufeful ma- nual tbat had been publifhed on the fubje&. “* Commenta~ rioli duo, alter de medici, alter de wgroti, munere,”” 1505s Lion, 8vo.; in this he lays down rules for the conduct of the phylician, the furgeou, and the apothecary, in their ate tendance upon the fick, But the work by which he is moft known, and which produced an important revolution in the praGtice of medicine, is his ‘* De curatione per fanguinis miflione, de incidende venw, cutis {carifcande, et hirudi- num ‘afligendarum modo,” Autw. 1583, Svo. Though bleeding had always been occafionally ufed in the cure of difeafes, yet in his time it was neatly conttantly fuperfcded by purging medicines, or it was too fparingly ufed, and feldom repeated. Our author made frequent recourfe to it, with complete fuccefs, he fays, in diarrhoea, dyfentery, in fever, the plague, and during pregnancy, in which cafes it was nearly prohibited. Tattered with the fuccefs with which his praétice was attended, he became, as he advanced. in life, more and more bold and free in the ule of the lancet, and has left records of cafes, in which he b!ed his patients ten times, or oftener. He even recommends bleeding in quartan fevers, and in dropfies, ‘The reputation the author acquired, foon procured him profelytes ; aud. bleeding be- came a general remedy all over Europe; but in no countr was it carried to fuch excefs.as in France, where the shite fors of medicine, for their too frequent recurrence to it, were held up to ridicule by Le Sage, in his inimitable novel of Gil Blas. The mania has at length fubfided ; and bleed- ing is now confidered by them as a valuable, but not as an univerfal remedy. The works of Botallus were collected, and publifhed under the title of ‘* Opera Omnia,” in 1660, at Leyden, by I. V. Horne. Haller, Bib.. Med. Pru. et Chirurg. Eloy. Bib. Hitt. BOTANIST; BOT BOTANIST, a perfon who underftands the nature, hif- tory, and diitinétion of vegetales, on fettled and certain principles, and can call every plant by a diftin@, proper, and intelligible name. Linnzi Fundam. Botan, p.i, See Bo- TANY. BOTANOMANCY, formed of Aclasn, herb, and prilia, divination, a {pecies of ancient divination by means of plants, particularly fage and fig-leaves. The perfons who recurred to it, wrote their own names and their queltions on leaves, which they expofed to the wind; and as many of the letters as remained in. their own places, were taken up, and being joined together, contained the required an{fwer. BOTANOPHILI, among the writers on the fabje& of vegetables, thofe who have treated of them, not as botanitts, on their natural and eftablifhed diftin@tions, but in regard to different operations, as gardeners, phyficians, é&c. BOTANY, is that branch of natural hiftory which re- _ lates to what 1s ufually called the vegetable kingdom, the fecond of the three grand affemblages into which all ter- reftrial objeéts are divided. Its name, Sorzen, is the Greek word for grafs, and is derived from the verb fox, or Secxs, which fignifies to feed; becaufe grafs is the chief food of thofe animals which are moft ufeful to man. By a procefs not uncommon in language, its meaning has been extended to the whole vegetable creation; and, by a familiar figute of fpeech, it is now employed to denote the natural hiltory ef plants. i Botany, as a {cience, is not confined to the defcription and elaffification of plants, as ignorance has often been pleafed to -reprefent it, but comprehends many other important particu- lars. “Its various obje&s may be conveniently arranged under the following general ‘heads. I. The terminology, or defcription and nomenclature of -the feveral parts of a plant which are externally vifible. If all natural objects were fimple in their form, it would not be eafy to diftinguifh one from another; nor would it be -poflible to defcribe them, fo as to give a clear and precife idea of them, Hencea boundlefs variety, conneéted with general refemblances, is wifely and benevolently made their univerfal charaéter. Every plant-is compofed of feveral parts, which differ from each other in their outward appearance, and which cannot fail to ftrike ‘the moft carelefs fpeétator. Many of them alfo are themfelves compound, and are obs -vioufly capable of being divided into fubordinate parts. The firlt grand divifion, adopted by mott botanifts, is into the rest; the body of the plant ; and the frudification. The Jaft, or fomething equivalent to it, is effential to all plants ; the firft is vifible in almoft atl; and the fecond is not wanting io many. The root is ftated by Linneus to confit of the radicle, and the defending caudex. The radicle is that fibrous part which draws nourifhment from the earth, and in many plants conftitutes the whole of the root. The dfeending caudex is properly part of the ftock, or body of the plant, which ex- tends itfelf below the furface of the ground, as the afcending ‘caudex rifes above it. That the afcending and defcending caudex have precifely the fame nature is evident from the well-known fa&, that if a young tree be inferted, what was before the root will produce leaves, while the former ftem throws out radicles, _ Roots are divided, according to the term of their duration, into annual, biennial, and perennial. "The annual and giennial produce flowers and fruits only once, and then foon die; the former pafling through all the ftages of vegetable life in one feaien ; the latter throwing out root-leaves the firft year, but fot completing the fructification till the next, ‘The perene 8 BOT tial root has within itfelf a principle of continued life, and gives being to new flowers and feeds, year after year, to an indefinite length of time. Of the roots that are called perennial, fome are truly, others imperfe@ly fuch. In the true perennial root, the defcending caudex and the radicle preferve the fame individual organization, and increafe in fize as long as the plant continues to flourifh. The imper- fe&tly perennial, are the bulbous and the tuberous, which perifh themfelves, after producing the bulbs, the tubers, or the tubercies, which are to be the parents of future plants, See Root, Caupex, Burs, Tuer, and Tusercve. The dody of the plant {prings from the root, and is termi- nated by tire fruétification. It is called by Linneus the Lerd, and, according to him, confifts of the truné, the eaves, the fulchra, props or fupports, and the bybernacula, or buds; all which will be explained under their refpetive articles. The fru@ifcation 13 a temporary part of the vegetable, de- figned to perpetuate the {pecies, by producing a perfeét feed, ia which is contained the rudiment of a plant, fimilar to that by which it was generated. Its effential parts are the famen and the fifi; the former correfponding with the male, and the latter with the female, in the animal kingdom. The ftamen confifts of the filament and the anther; the piftil of the germ, or feed-bud, the ftyle, and the ftigma. They are generally protected by two coverings; the outward called the ca/yx, and the inward the corol/a; but in many ‘kinds of plants, either one or the other, and, in fome, both of them are wanting. The piftil, in the laft ftage of its growth, is the parent of the feed, or feeds, which are either naked, or enclofed in a pericarp, or feed-veflel. The receptacle or bafe on which the fruétification is fituated, is commonly confidered as one of its parts; and conneéted with it there is in many plants a vifible ne@ary, or honey-cup. See the articles FructTiricaTion, STAMEN, Pisrittum, CAatyx, Corotta, Sekp, Pericarr, RecerTacye,.and Honey. Cup. II. The claffification or arrangement.- A knowledge of the different parts of a plant muft necefs farily be gained before it can be defcribed. But amidft the numerous vegetable produtions of even a fingle country, this, of itfelf, would avail but little. To give a peculiar name to every individual, would be a labour which no inven- tion or diligence can perform ; and, if accomplifhed, would produce a burden which no memory can fuitain. It is ne- ceflary, therefore, to purfue refemblances and differences through a number of gradations, and to found on them primary and fubordinate divifions; either afcending from particulars to generals, or defcending from generals to parti- culars. The former is the method in which {cience of every kind is flowly formed and extended ; the latter, that in which it is moft conveniently tavght. The number of ftages through which thefe fubdivifions fhould be carried, is either not pointed out by nature, or enovgh of nature is not known to fix them with precifion. They differ, therefore, in different fyftems, and, unfortunately, correfponding ones, have not always been called by the fame names. Linnzus has employed four principal divifions, which he has called claffes, orders, genera, and /pecies 3 occafionally introducing an intermediate one between the order and the genus, and an- other between the genus and the {fpecies. A Species confifts of individuals, refembling each other in the form, pofition, proportion, and general appearance of their feveral parts, produced from fimilar individuals, and having a power to produce other individuals of the fame kind ; or, as it is concifely defined by Juffieu, it is a perennial fucceffion of fimilar indfviduals, deriving their origin from a __ fuccefive ee _ BOTANY, facceffive generation. Thefe individuals are not, indeed, exaly like each other in every minute refpe@t; fuch a per- fe& conformity does not ex*ft in any two individuals, either of animate orinanimate organized nature. But the difference between thofe of the fame {pecies, though fufficiently difeern= ible by the eye, cannot eafily be expreffed in words. With a ftrongly marked refemblance in all thcir parts, there is a ve son variation in their outline, and other particulars; o that no two individuals, lying one upon the other, will en- tirely correfpond. They are formed after the fame model, not caft in the fame mould. In the general, an accurate defcrip- tion of all the parts belonging to any individual, will difcri- minate the whole {pecies. There are, however, fome fenfible qualitics of importance enough to be diftinguifhed by proper names, which are, in many cafes, too uncertain to enter intoa {pecific character. Of thefe, fize, colour, fmoothnefs, or hairinefs of furface, and luxuriance of one part at the expence of another, are the chief; and they are owing either to difs ference of foil, climate, particular expofure, and other acci- dents; or, to artificial cultivation, the mof abundant fource of perpetual varieties. A genus is an aflemblage of {pecies, connegted with each other by one or more common characters, but ftill preferving their {pecific diftinQions. An order is a fimilar aflemblage of genera. A clafs bears the fame relation to its orders; and as it ftands at the top of the {erice, it feizes the molt general and moft widely diffufed refemblances, and comprehends the greateft number of particular differences. A natural arrangement of the f{pecies, genera, orders, and claffes, free, in every inftance, from heterogeneous combina- tions, and difturbing no real affinities, isthe ne plus ultra of claffification. It is a confummation devoutly to be wifhed; it is the point of perfe€tion which every naturalift fhould la- bour to approach, though what no one can expec actually toreach. To have formed the idea is no {mall advance in the progrefs towards it, and implies a very confiderable ac- quifition of knowledge. Moft of the fytlems which have hitherto been propofed, are profeffedly artificial; that is, founded on a few parts of a plant, with little or no regard to the reft. The calyx, the corolla, the fexual parts of the fruétification, and the mature fruit, have, each in their turn, been feleGed for this purpofe by different fyftematic writers. A flight fketch of fome of the principal fy{tems will be found below in the hiftory of ee and a fuller explanation will be given, with critical remarks, under the article Crassirication. But, as the fyftem of Linnzus is that which has been adopted in this work, we fhall now briefly illuftrate its general principles. In this fyitem, the fru@tification has been juftly confidered of the firft confequence. The charaéters of the claffes, orders, and genera, are accordingly taken entirely from it. In the greater number of plants, the parts of fruCtification may be readily difcerned by the neked eye, or with the affiftance of a common lens; but there are a/fo not a few in which they have not been fatisfaGtorily difcovered, or are too minute to be defcribed with fufficient accuracy, for the pur- pofe of fyftematic arrangement. In moft of thofe whole parts of fru@tification have been clearly afcertained and diftin@ly defcribed, the ftamens and piltils are. inclofed within the fame envelope; or, at leat, are abfolutely contiguous; but, in fome, they are contained in feparate flowers, or placed at a diftance from each other. In both cafes, there is much variety with refpe& to their number, pofition, and other circumftances. On thefe diftinGions the diftribution into claffes and or- ders is founded. The charaMters of the clafles are taken ex- clufively from the flamens ; thofe of the orders, either from the ftamens or the piitils, but moft generally from the piftils. The firft eleven claffes, with the exception of the fourth and fixth, regard fimply the number of the flamens, and de- rive their names from the Greek word asp, which ligtifies a male, or hufband, compounded with the numerals, rale:, alone, or one; dua, two; cps, three; sépa, four; rere, five; et, fix; exla, feven; cxb, eight; ava, nine ;‘dexa, ten 3 dadixx, twelve. Clafs, 1. Monandria. Flowerswith 1 ftamen 2, Diandria. - - -, 2 flamens. 3. Triandria. - - - 3 ftamens. 4. Tetrandria. - - - qgitamens, all of thefamelength. 5. Pentandria. - - - 5 ftamens. 6. Hexandria. - -> © Oftamers, all of the famelength, 7. Heptandria. - z 8. Otandria. - - - 7 ftamens, - 8 ftamens. - g ftamens. - 10 ftamens, . Enneandria. - 10. Decandria. 11. Dodecandria, - - 12 ftamens. The twelfth and thirteenth claffes are called, from the general number of their ftamens, icofandria and polyandria (sixoos, twenty, wodus, many); but their real charafter de- pends entirely on the part to which they are attached; for there are icofandrious plants which have more, and polyan- drious ones, which have fewer than twenty {tamens. 12. Icofandria.” Flowers with about twenty ftamens at- tached to the calyx, or fometimes, in part, to the corolla. 13. Polyandria. Flowers moft commonly with more than twenty f{lamens, attached to the receptacle. The fotrteenth and fifteenth claffes have always two ftamens fhorter than the reft. Their names are taken from the number of thofe which are longer, compounded with the Greek word évvzuss, power, implying a fuperior rank or dignity. 14. Didynamia. Flowers with two longer ftamens. 15. Tetradynamia. Flowers with four longer {tamens. The next three claffes are determined by the union of the filaments, or lower parts of the ftamen, into one or more bundles or brotherhoods. Their names are derived from the Greek word «3:Afos, brother, compounded with the numerals, one, two, and many. 16. Monadelphia. hood, 17. Diadelphia. 18, Polyadelphia. brotherhoods. _In the nineteenth clafs the anthers, or fuperior part of the ftamens, are united, and compofe a hollow cylinder, through which the ftyle of the pittil paffes. It is called fyngenetia, from the Greek work cvvyecis, to denote the union of the re which poffefs the power of rendering the pi(til fer- tile. (19. Syngenefia. Anthers united. The twentieth clafs is called gynandria, from yun, female, and eynp, male; it is diflinguifhed by the attachment of the ftamens to the pillil itfelf, and not, as in other flowers, either to the receptacle, calyx, or corolla. 20. Gywandria. Stamens on the piltil. The twenty-firlt and twenty-fecond claffes confitt of plante which have the ftamens and piftils in feparate flowers, grow- ing from the fame or from different roots. Their names are derived from cos, a houfe, compounded with the numerals, one and two. ve) Filaments united into one brother- Filaments forming two brotherhoods. Filaments forming more than two 21. Mo- BOT AY. - a1. Moncecia. Stamijniferous and piftiliferous flowers on the fame plant. 22. Dicecia. different plants. The twenty-third ¢lafs has been formed for fuch plants as have fome flowers with both ftamens and piftils, and others with only ftamens or piftils. It is called polygamia, from wohvs, many, and yey0s, marriage, implying a diverfity in the mode of connection between the ftamens and pittils. Staminiferous and piltiliferous flowers on The twenty-fourth” and laf clafs eomprehends all the plants which have incon{picuous flowers, and of which the fruiification is confequently, in a great meafure, unknown, It derives its name from xjux705, ~private, and yowo;, mar riage. 24. Cryptogamia. Flowers inconf{picuous. The principles on which the clafles are formed in the fexual fy{tem, will be diftin@ly {een in the following fynoptic table. SYNOPTIC TABLE or tus LINNZZAN CLASSES. Stamens and piftils not we | ted in any of their parts. 23. Polygamia. Different difpofitions on the fame plant. Stameng and pittils in the fame flower. / Flowers r piftils united ing fome of their parts. | | | | ent flowers. he in differ- : | | | \{carcely vifible, fo that their fru€tification has not been diftinGtly deferibed - - - = = After thefe twenty-four claffes, the palmi are placed in the way of append'x, becaufe their fruétification has not hitherto been fufficiently defcribed. By attending to thefe few fimple and eafy characters, the fe tanical {tudent may readily find out under what clafs he is to look for any unknown plant, the name of which he is de- 4 Relative length not regarded. of equal length of unequal lengths, | two always fhorter, Stamens and by their filaments < Nyticae tae = ite eee. dem as L ( united, and attached to the piftil - - + - S+amens and. { taminiferous and piftiliferous flowers on the fame plant - - - ftaminiferous and pittiliferous flowers on diflerent piants - - Lperfea and imperfe& flowers on the fame or different plants = - f 1ftamen - + - - 1. Monandria. | 2ftamens - - - - 2. Diandria. | gftlamens - - - - 3. Triandria. sg ftlamens -.- - - 5§.Pentandria. , 7. Heptandria. 8. OGandria. g. Enneandria. 7 ftamens - « = = Sftamens - - = = 3 gftamens - - =< = 10. Decandria. 11. Dodecandria. io ftamens - - - - 12 flamens -s - -° - about 20 ftamens attach- } 12. Icofandria. ed to the ca'yx Icofandria generally more than 20 attached to the rcp} 13. Polyandria. { tack. - - + - 4. Tetrandria. 6. Hexandria. 4 ftamens - = = = 6 ftamens - = - - j 2 long, 2 fhort - - 14. Didynamia. 4long, 2 fhort - - 15. Tetradynamia. 16, Monadelphia. ° 17. Diadelphia. (into one brotherhood - | into two brotherhoods ei atthe two bro- 2 18, Polyadelphia. 19. Syngenefia. 20. Gynandria. 21. Moneecia. 22. Dicecia. 23. Polygamia. 24. Cryptogamia, firous to learn. clafs it belongs. The orders of the firft thirteen claffes are founded entirely on the number of the piftils; and are called monogynia, digynia, trigynia, &c. from yun, female, or wife, compounded, asin the namesof the clafles, with the Greek numerals. The ftylee He is next to inquire to which order of the BOTANY.: fiyles are to be counted from the bafe, and not from the upper pert, which is often divided into two or more feg- ments, without deftroying the monogynous character of the » Mow When the flyles are waating, ihe number of figmas etermines the order. 2 In the clafles didynamia and tetradynamia, none of the g have more thao one ftyle ; the characiers of the or- ders are therefore taken from the pericarp, The clafs didynamia has two orders ; the firft is ciflin- guithed by its naked feeds, inclofed, till ripe, in the perma- nent calyx inflead of a pericarp. Its name, gymnofpermia, ig derived from yuysos, naked, and ow:p.x, feed. ‘The fecond has its feeds in a pericarg, end is called angio. fpermia, from ayysoy, a veel, and onze. The ciafs tetradynamia has ailo two orders, diftingu’fhed by the form of the pericarp ; the firlt called filiculofa, from filicula, a little pod; the fecond, fiiiquofa, from filiqua, a - See Sinicuta, and Smiqva. In the clafles monadelphia, diaccIphia, and polyadelphia, the orders are denominated from the number of the ftamens, triandria, pentandria, &c. In the clafs (yngenefiz, the orders are more complex. They are fix in number; the fir five are diltinguifhed by the epithet polygamia, intimating that the flowers are com- pound, and confit of numerous florets, or little flowers, feated ona common receptacle, ~ {n the firit order, polygamia zqualis, all the florets are equa'ly pofleifed of famens and pittils. In the fecond, polygemia fuperfina, the florets of the difk, or central part ot the compound flower, have both ftamens and piltils; thofe of the ray or circumference have only piltils, bat the latter, as well as the former, produce fertile feeds. Inthe third, polygamia fruftranea, the florets of the disk have both ftamens and pillils ; thofe of the ray, neither one sor the other, or only abortive prttils. Io the fourth, polygamia neceflaria, the florets of the difk have efficient ftamens, but abortive piltils ; thofe of the ray, fertile piftils impregnated by the ftamens of the difk. Tage fifth, each floret has its own calyx, in addition to that which furrounds the common receptacle, and forms the whole iato one compound flower. Vhe fixth doffers from the reft in having only fimple flowers, referred to this clafs on account of the union of their anthers. It has been lately abolifhed by the general confent of botanuifts, and the plants formerly included in it have been referred to the clafs pentandria. Io the claffes movecia and diccia, the orders have the fame names as the preceding claffes, and are diftinguifhed by the number of the {tamens, or by the union either of the fila- ments orof the anthers, or by the attachment of the flamens tothe piftil. The orders of the twenty-third clafs are denominated from the number of houfes or plants on which the feveral kinds of flowers are found. In the order moneccia, there are fome flowers with ftamens and piltils, and others that have either only ftamens or only pitti. on the fame plant. Inthe order diecia, they are perfe&, and only ftaminiferous “ arate and only pifliliferous flowers on two dilting& mdi- ots. In order trieecia, the different kinds of flowers are diftributed among three diftin& individual plants. nen clafs. cryptegamia is divided into four great fami- ; a. Fihees, or ferns. 2. Mufci, or mofies. Vou. ve 3. Alge, which term ‘properly implies fea-weeds; but befides thefe, it contains feveral numerous terre(trial genera, which ought to conftitute a dillin& order. 4. Fungi. : When the order to which a plant belongs is afcertained, its genus is next to be inveftigated. The chara@ers of the genera are univerfally taken from fome part of the fru@tifca- tion, and are advantageoufly exhibited in fynoptic tables, which wil be found under the names of the claffes ia their proper places. 3 lif. The fynonyms of plants; or the names by which they are diftinguithed in the writings of profefl.d botaiits and others, from the earlieft times to the prefent. Ic is evident, that a multipiicicy of names for the fame plant is unavoidable in common hfe; but it may be thought not likely that feientifc men fhould willingly increafe the number, ‘This. however, is the natural confequence of a gradualimprovement in knowledge. As genera were formed, and fpecies accurately diftinguithed, it became neceffary to invent generic and {pecific names. As generic characters were fettled with greater precifion, former difpofitions were neceflarily changed, and many plants of courfe appeared under a different generic appellation. The nomenclature of the early botanitts has, therefore, inthe natural courfe of things, become obfolete; and, to avail ourfelves of their ob- fervations, it-is neceffary to know what they called the va- rious plants which haye fince received new names. To form an accurate collection of fynonyms is a vork of great diffi. culty and labour, which has exercifed the diligence and dif. cernment of all who have entered deeply into the fubje@, and is ftill far from complete. It is much to be lamented that the perplexity has been greatly increafed by the licentious caprice of even good botanifts. Linnzus himfelf has fomes times departed from the nomenclature of his predeceffors without any good or apparent reafon. f In a work like the prefent, intended for oceafional con- fultation, peculiar attention ought to be paid to this per- plexing part of fcience ; and we efteem it incumbent upon us to {pare no pains in collecting, not only the fynonyms of the moit eminent botanifts, but a.fo the vulgar Engiith names of indigenous plants, as well as thofe given by, unfcientific nurferymen and gardeners to exotics. IV. The fenlible qualities of plants, or the different manner in which they feverally affeét the organs of fiche, {mell, tafte, and touch. Of thefe, colour is the moft general and the mot @rikine, The colours of plants are indeed fo wonderfu'ly diverfitied, and fo conttantly meet the eye, whenever it is dive&ed to the face of nature, that they contribute, more than any other quality, to the beauty of the creation. They are too fubjeét to accidental variation, to be fafcly employed as fpecitic cha racters ; but they are in many cafes fo nearly uniform and conftant, that they ought not to be entirely negleGted. Ip is not poffible, indeed, to do more than exprefs a few leading diftigétions. In the defeription of their minute fhades, and gradual approximation to a kindred tmt, the powers of language utterly fail. The prevailing colour of vegetables, confidered in theit appearance as a whole, is green; but this green is not, perhaps, precifely the fame ius any two fpecieé of plants, or in different parts of the fame plant, or even in the fame part of the fame plant in different ftages of its growth. All that can be done is to point itout generally, by tating its relation to white or black, or by fixing ape the colour of fome well-known plant, or other natural fubftance, not asa mark of identity, butas a {tandard of comparifon, Thos we {peak of light green, and dark g'cen, of apple green, and olive green, &c. N The The colours of plants are divided by Linnzus into Hyaline, with the tranfparence either of water or of glafs. : White, either cream-coloured or fnowy. Cinereous, cither grey, livid, or lead-coloured. Back, either dark or jet black. Yellow, cither fulphur, flame, or copper-coloured. Red, either crimfen, f=th-coloured, or {earlet. Purple, more or lefs approaching to violet. Bue, Green, % is {carcely neceflary to obferve, that this enumeration is ‘very imperfeét.’ Tne different parts of plants have molt commonly their appropriate colour. Roots and feeds are frequentiy black, the pericarp rarely, the corolla fearcely ever, The fem, the leaves, and the calyx are generally green, the corolla very-feldom. The filaments and the piftil are often hyaline. ‘lhe anthers are often yellow, as is alfo the corolla, efpecially in autumnal flowers. Vernal corollas and {weet berries are frequently white. Red is common in fummer flowers, and fubacid berries growing in the fhade. Blue is not uafrequent in corollas. The prifmatic colours afford fome fixed points of compa- rifon in the defcription of colours; but there is no fimilar natural ftandard for the diferimination of odours and taftes. However fcanty and obfcure the vocabulary of the former may be, that of the latter is, therefore, fill more fo. The fenfe of fmelling and the fenfe of tafte have an evident and in- timate conneétion with each other. Herbs and fruits that are grateful to the palate have almolt always a pleafant {mell ; but the reverfe does not equally hold; an agreeable perfume does not, in all cafes, warrant the expeGation of delicious food. Every plant has an odour and flavour peculiar to it- felf, and differing from all others in kind as well as in ftrength. They are difcriminated, according to the manner in which they affei the fenfe, by a few general expreflions, which have little or no preeife meaning. Odours are, Ambrofiac, or mufky, as in {weet woodruff (afperula odorata) and mufk geranium. Fragrant, as in jeflamine and violet. Aromatic, as in cinnamon, faflafras, and cloves. _ Unpleafantly ftrong, as in garlic and herb robert (gera- nium robertianum ). Stinking, as in elder (ebulus) and ftinking “may-weed (anthemis foetida). Naufeous, or difpofing to vomit, as in hellebore, afara- bacca, and coloquintida. Sharp, as in muftard. Faint, as in primrofe and lilac. ‘Taltes are, Sweet, as in fugar-cane and fig. Acid, as in tamarind and lemon. Fat, or oily, as in frefh almonds and olives. Salt, asin falfola, and other maritime plants. Bitter, asin wormwood. Altringent, as inthe fruit of the quince. This kind of tafte is either auftere, partaking a little of the acid, as ia unripe fruits, or acerb, rough, partaking more of the bitter, as in the common floe. Vifcous, as in the fruit of the common jujube (rhamnus zizipbus). It produces only a flight fenfatton on the pa- late. ; Acrid, as in garlic. It is fometimes eaultic, as in the ber= ries of daphne mezereon. ee and infipid, as in farinaceous feeds, and feveral kinds of bark. § BOT ART: Watery; as in cucumber and lettuce, Naufeous, as in tobaeco. Plants aff-@ the touch, as they are flefhy or membranougy -foft er harfh, fmooth or rough, filky, hairy, or prickly, &c. E . V. The anatomy of plants, or defcription of the different vifible parts of which their fubftance is compofed. Thefe are, ¥. The epidermis, or thin cuticle which invefts the whole of the plant. ; 2. The cellular or revicular fubftance, which appears in- the young fhoot of a tree after the epidermis is {tripped off, 3. The /ider, inner or true bark. 4+ The albarnum, or bla, improperly called by Englif dealers in wocd, the fap, a ring of imperfe& wood between- theliber. and the true wood. 5. The lignum, or true wood, confifting of concentric flrata or rings. 6. The pith, a fpungy fubhance inclofed in a longitudinal canal, which coniftitutes the Innermoft part of the plant. ‘9. The medullary produGions, or filaments proceeding from the pith, and croffing the flem in a radiate direétion, as far as the cellular fubttance, 8. The medullary appendices, filaments placed between the medullary produétions, and reaching no farther than the wood. g. The trachea, or air-veffels. to. The /ap-veffels, and 11. The veflels which fecrete the peculiar juices of the lant. VI. The phyfiology of plants. A plant, like an animal, is a very compound, organized, living being, in which various operations, both chemical and mechanical, are continually carrying on, from its firft pro~ duGtion to its final diffolution. ‘It fprings from a feed fertilized by the pollen of its parent plant. It takes in foreign fub{tances by its inhaling and abforbent veffels. It elaborates and affimilates to its own fubitance thofe parts of them that. are nutritious, and throws off the reft. It fecretes a variety of fluids by the means of glands, and other unknown organs. It gives that motion to its fap on whiclz the continuance of its life depends. See the articles Puye s1oLocy of Plants, VEGETABLE, and VEGETATION. VII. The purpofes to which different plants are applied, either as articles of food, ingredients in the compofition of medicine, or materials and inftruments in the ufeful an& elegant arts; the foil and fituation in which they are. ge- nerally found, and which are mott favourable to their growth; the time of the year in which they open their flowers, and ripen their fruit, with many other incidental particulars, are properly within the province of the botanift. But, as a bo- tani{t, he is concerned with nothing more than the fimple facts. The beft methods of cultivating fuch as are raifed im confiderable quantities for the fpecial ufe or amufement of man ; the theory of their nutritious or medicinal properties ; and the manner in which they are to be prepared, fo as. to effe& the intended purpofes ; are the province either of the farmer, the gardener, the phyfician, the chemift, or. the artift. But as they cannot, in this work, be conveniently introduced under their re{pective fciences, they will generally be annexed to the botanical details. of each particular lant. VIII. The hiftory of botany. : In all ages of the world, vegetables have been a principal article of human food. We can, therefore, fcarcely doubt, that fome intimations of the kinds which are molt proper ait va if : : BOTANY. this purpofe, muft have been given to our firft parents by immediate revelation from their Creator. Such intimations, however, would be no more than was abfolutely neceffary to pteferve them from dying by famine, on the one hand, or by the deleterious effe&s of poifonous plants on the other. They would extend only to a few falutary roots, herbs, and fruits; and agreeably to the general economy of human life, all farther acquifitions in knowledge would be the refult of occafional experiments and flow experience. A knowledge of the various fpecies would then gradually increafe, and fome genera! diftributions would f{pontaneoufly offer them- felves to notice. A woody trunk would foon be diftin- gvifhed from an herbaceous ftem. A tree and a fhrub, an annual anda perenniai herb, would not long be confounded with each other. The- molt ftriking differences in the form and confiftence of the fruit would aifo be readily obferved. Mofes, as appears from the firlt chapter of Genefis, was vainted with three characteriftic divifions: graft, of which the feed was probably for fome time overlooked or difregarded ; herbs, which bear their feed in a dry pericarp or feed veffel; and ¢reer, with all other vegetables, which have their feed inclofed in a pulpy or fome other catable fubftance. And itis worthy of remark, that in the grant of vegetables to man for the purpofe of food, only the two latter are mentioned ; the firft being referved for ‘the beafts of the earth, and the fowls of the air, and every.thing that creepeth on the earth.”? Among thefe a fele&tion would foon be made of {uch as were moft grateful to the palate, and the other fénfes. Whatever were the Dudaim which Rachel begged of the fon of Leah, and which our tranflators have abfurdiy rendered mandrakes, it is certain, from the fong of Solomon, that they were a kind of fruit which gave a pleafant {mell. Solomon is celebrated for his knowledge of plants: bucail that we know of itis, that he fpake of them from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyflop that groweth on the wall. It could not, moreover, be very long before the early race of mankind began to perceive that fome vegetable udtions are mildly nutritious, and others actively me dicinal. In the frequent {carch after new viands, which the reftlefs curiofity and craving defire of diverfified gratification, natural to man, would induce him to make, he would find fome that produced violent effects on his bodily frame, and relieved or removed diforders, which are always the ‘ fources of pain, and often the forerunners of death.”” This would give a new direction to his inquiries, and would prefent the vegetable creation to him in a more interelting point of view. Pain is, in all cafesy fo difficult to be borne, that whatever promifes to diminifh it, is fought for with unwearied affiduity. The knowledge of medicinal plants was, therefore, re- rded as a highly valuable attainment many zges before ee themfelves were made the obje&s of a diftin& fcience. any long continued the humble but engaging handmaid of furgery and medicine. The balm of Gilead borea high price in the eflimation of a Jew, becaufe it was flrongly and rapidly affociated with the idea of a phyfician. In Homer, Patroclus ftaunches the bleeding wound of Eurypylus with the juice of a bitter root, the virtucs of which he had learned from Achilles, and Achilles from Chiron. The power of the moly, ufed a3 an internal antidote again the incantations of witchcraf, is likewife celebrated by the fams poet ; and the knowledge of it is faid to have been owing to the interven- tion of a god. That great honour .was obtained by an acquaintance with the medical properties of plants, in the heroic ages, is evident from the encomium giyen to the wife of one of the herces whom Neftor boaits of having flain in bis youth; OE rere Oasumne ndy ora tpePeatupticn x Boy.” « Who knew the virtues of each earth-bora herb.” Ata much later period, we fhall {earch in vain for any information concerniug the botany of the ancients, except in their medical writers. Hippocratea, the oldelt of thofe of whom we have any remains, and who flourithed at the bepinning of the Peloponnefian war, of courfe makes mention of the plants which were then employed in the cure of difeafes; but he gives only their names, with their real or fuppofed fanative qualities. Ariitotle, who hved about half a century after, and whofe comprehentive sgenius left fcarcely any thing unexplored, could not overlock fo ob- vious and attra@live a purivit: but the two books now ex- iting which bear his name, are of fuch it ferior merit, that they are generally thought to be fpurious, Theophraftus, the difciple of Ariftotle, is the firf profeffed writer on plants, whofe works have incontefliby-defcended to modern tines. He was acquainted with about five hundred, and bas left defcriptions of them, with flight» philofophical fketches relating to fome cf their molt promicent diftin@ions. But his defcriptions are fo vague and imperfect, that, in moft cafes, it is difficult, in many impofiible, to determine what plant he intended. And he has made only a rude attempt to divide them into grand families, either by their fize and texture, as trees, fhrubs, and herbaceous plauts, or by the ufes to which they were then commonly applied. From tke age of Theophraftus to that of Diofcorides and Pliny, there is an interval of 400 yeats. Diofcorides was a phylician, and wrote entirely as fuch. He has enumerated about Goo plants; but his account of them is fo brief and indeterminate, that, in a botanical view, they are of little value. Nor, in this refpe€, is Pliny entitled to much greater praife. During the dark ages which fucceeded the downfal of the weftern empire, almott all the knowledge on this fide of the Indus was confined to the courts of the Malometan caliphs. The Arabian and Moorifh phyficians cultivated the art of medicine with no inconfiderable degree of fuccefs, and tranflated the beft Greek writers on the {ubje& into their own language. But in the inveftigation of plants, they were not much, if at all, fuperior to their mafters. We are, however, indebted to them for the knowledge of fenna, -caffia fiftula, manna, tamarinds, rhubarb, and fome other medical drugs, which {till keep a place in the Materia Medica. At the revival of literature in the weft, the ancients were truly confidered as the depofitaries of nearly all the know- ledge that then exifted. It f{-emed, therefore, as neceffary as it was natural, that their writings fhould, fora time, be exclufively ftudicd. For what fleps towards a tarther progrefs could be advantagcoufly 1aken, till what was already done was clearly afcertained ? As a general idea, it was a good one: but its application to natural biftory was unfortunate. For in this branch of knowledge the an- cients had done nothing to much purpofe. The lovers of botany, however, buoyed up by vain expeAations, devoted themfelves diligently to the ttudy of Theophraftus, Diofco- rides, and Pliny; and much time was idly fpent in endea- vouring to find, on the welt of the Adriatic, all the plents which haye been mentioned by thofe authors. Commen- tators fuccecced commentators ; conje&ture fuperfeded con- jeCture: till at length a few intelligent’ minds, weary of fruitlefs attempts, perceived the folly of ftudying a feience in the imperfeé& remains of two dead languages, when they might have free accefs to the fair and legible characters of a book always open, and inviting their regard by incou- tellible marks of unerring knowledg¢ and wildom, Na Gefner, BOTANY. Gefner, in particular, the greateft naturalift whom the world had feen fince the days of Ariftotle, cultivated both zoology and botany, with a zeal which has never been furpatled ; with a difcernment and good fenfe which till then had never been known. He has the glory of having firlt difcovered the expedience. of dividing plants into clafles, genera, and fpecies, and the neceffity of taking the diftin- guifhing charaéters of each divifion from the flower end fruit. ee died of the plague in 1565, at the early age of fifty. Ciufius, who was his contemporary, and many years his furviver, engaged in the ftudy of plants with equal ardour, but not with equal talents for juft arrangement. He diftri- buted them chiefly according to their fize, their general habit, and their other fenfible qualities, At this time alfo flourifhed Dr. William Turner, wko may, be accounted the father of Englifh botany.- It was he who firft gave names to many Englifh plants; and much praife is indifputably-due to him for bis diligence in ex. amining, and judgment in difcriminating, different {pecies : but with refpe& to arrangement, he was far inferior even to Clufigzs; for he has difpofed his piants in the alphabetical order of their Latin names. The firft part of his Herbal was printed at London in 1551; the fecond at Cologn, 15625 and the third, dated Welles, in 1564. Itis in the black letter; and contains figures_of mott of the plants. In the fame period lived Dodoneus, or Dodoens, who began to publifh in 1552; and in 1583 collected all his works into one volume, which he quaintly called, “ Stir. pium hifloriz fex Pemptades,” becaufe each larger divifion confifts of five books. This work is the foundation of Gerard’s Herbal, fo well known in England, and fo long regarded as a ftandard book by the merely Englith botanical fludent. It was publithed in 1597, and comprizes the whole vegetable kingdom in three books. The firft contains the grafles, grain, rufhes, reeds, flags, and bulbous-rooted plants; and exhibits a re- markable approximation to the arrangement of a very mo- dern fyftem, founded on natural affinities. It was fuygetted, however, by a regard not to the monocotyledinous character of the feeds, but to the fimplicity and general form of the leaves. The fecond includes all herbs ufed for food, for medicine, or for their beauty and elegance. The third is a motley aflemblage of trees, fhrubs, fruit-bearing plants, refins, gums, rofes, heaths, moffcs, mufhrooms, and fea-plants. It was left to the judgment of Czfalpin to begin to execute what the penetrating mind of Gefner had firlt con+ ecived ; the arrangement of the whole vegetable creation in a regular fyftem. His diftin@tive charaéters are taken from the different appearances of the fruit, fometimes modified by the confideration of other-parts; and though it cannot boalt of being the belt in theory, or the molt eafy in practice, it poflefles great merit as the firft «flay in a dif- ficult and important undertaking. Czfalpin is particularly worthy of regard, as the firlt writer who has diftin@ly men- tioned the true difference of {exes in plants. He died in 1603. The laft of the writers of this period are the two Bauhins. Joho, the eldeft, was the friend of Gefner, and travelled with him into aly ; but, though ardent in his love of planta, he had no turn for fyftematic arrangement, and added nothing to botany, contidered as a fcience. He wrote a general hiflory of plants, which was publifhed in three folio volumes, but not till 1650, 27-years after his death, Gafpard, his brother, was much his junior in years, but far exceeded him in the greatnefs of his conceptions, and the extent of his fervices to their favourite purfuit. The publie cation of his * Pinax Theatri Botanici,” in 1623, makes a new era in botany. This immenfe work, the fruit of forty years’ labour, threw over the fubje&, as it then ftood, a clear. and corfpicuous light, and fhewed at one view the information which had been given by a multitude of feattered authors. It afforded a refting-place, a kind of fixed point, from which new excurfions were to be made, and new atchievements were to be attempted. But though he fmoothed and fhortened the way for others, it muft be acknowledged of him, as well as of his brother, that he added little to what had already been done. Many acceffions were foon after made to the number of known plants, by the labours of Pona ard Zanoni in Italy, of Johnfon and Parkinfon in England, of Hernandez, Pifon, and Marcgrave in South America, and above all, of Rheede, who, in bis ‘* Hortus malabaricus,” brought to light about 800 plants, natives of the Eaft Indies. But botany, as a fcience, made little progrefs for nearly half a century 3 when Morifon, Ray, Rivinus, and Tournefort, all nearly at the fame time, dire€ted their attention to the ciaffification of plants, and inveltigated the true principles on which it ought to be formed. Morifon, in a fecond edition of Bruyner’s “ Hortus'regius Blefenfis,”” publifhed at Paris in 1669, gave the rudiments of an.arrangement, founded-on the fruit; and alfo afferted, that the chara&ters of the genera fhould be taken from the fame part: but in his hiftory of plants, printed at Oxford in 1680, he did not ftriGly adhere to his own principle. His fyitem was quickly fucceeded, and its fame nearly eclipfed, by that of the im- mortal Ray, the outlines of which were tirft given, in 1682, in the ** Methodus plantarum nova fynopticé in tabulis exhibita: cum notis generum tum fummorum tum fubal- ternorum charatterifticis.”’ The principal aim of this great naturalift was to preferve the natural families of plants, as they are connected by a fimilarity of fru@tification and general habit. Influenced by the latter confideration, he re= tained the ancient divifion of the vegetable kingdom into trees, fhrubs, and herbaceous plants; making no alteration, except in clafling with the latter what are generally called fuffrutices or under-fhrubs. This fyftem he afterwards improved and brought nearer to a natural arrangement; but he ftill left the charaéters of his genera in a great degree indeterminate, and governed by no fixed principle. The time was not yet come for taking this farther ftep towards the perfeGtion of the fcience. The claffification of Rivinus, derived from the ftructure of the corolla, was firft made known to: the world in 1690. It is more eafy in praGtice than either of the former, but does more violence to the order of nature. It muft, however, be mentioned, to his honour, that he was the firfl who per- ceived the propriety of not feparating trees from herbaceous plants, ‘They are accordingly blended together in different parts of his fyftem. As Morifon foon yielded in celebrity to Ray, fo Rivinus gave way to Tauris only by Ray, the glory of England. His elements of botany, in which the primary divifions are taken from the corolla, and the fecondary ones from the fruit, were pub- lifhed in 1694. His arrangement, indeed, is not unexcep- tionable ia all its parts, but its imperfections arife from the defe€ls of his pzinciple; and though he did not define his genera in plain and appropriate terms, it is evident that he had formed juft ideas of them in his owa mind. The fame of thefe two great men, who had done fo much in promoting the progrefs of true fcientific botany, obftruéted, for a. comfiderable time, its farther advancement. It was vain for botanifts to contend, either in England or France, ort, the glory of France, and equalled . onee—gtus » ed BOTANY. Frases, with the eftablifhed reputation and authority of their refpectively favoured countryman. Several other fyfems were formed about the fame time, among whom Boerhaave in particular had great merit; but none ot them found many profelytes, or could boatt of long duration, The firft publi- cations of Lieneus made their way flowly, and with much difficulty. In England, fo late as the year 1762, Mr. Hodfon was the firft who publifhed a national Flora, ar- ranged on the principles of the Linnzan fyftem. In France, owing to the perfonal antipathy of Buffon, the ideas of the learned Swede met with much greater and more pointed oppofition: but they found an early advocate in the duke de Noailles ; and, in 1765, the claffification was adopted in the * Flora Monfpeliaca,”” of profeffor Gouan. The diflinétion of fexual parts in plants had been dif- covered, and pretty gen¢rally admitted, before the time of Linneus: bet he was the firft who made it the bafis of an artificial fyitem. The firft fketch of his * Syftema Nature,”” was publifhed in 1735; and the “ Fundamenta Botanica,” in 1735. In 1737 they were followed by the “ Critica Botanica,” ‘ Genera Plantarum,” Hortus Cliffortianus,”’ « Flora Lapponica,”? and “Methodus Sexualis.” In 1751 appeared his great and moft finifhed elementary work, the “ Philofophia Botanica ;” and in 1753, the firft edition of the “ Sp-cies Plantarum,”” which completed his fyftem, by extending it to the loweft divifion under which individual plants are colleGtively arranged. In his ‘* Genera Planta- rum,” he -had given a diftinGnefs and precifion to generic chara@ters, which they had never before received ; and-in this laft publication he conferred the fame obligation on the fpecies; with the addition of trivial names, confifting of a fingle word, inftead of the tedious /f-cific names, as they were called, by which the converfation of botanilts had till then been burdened and embarraffed. This innovation was at firft violently condemned by a few difciples of the old {choo's, from an apprehenfion that it would be unfavourable to the recollection of fpecific diftinétions; but its obvious conve- nience has long gained it univerfal currency. Notwithftanding the fuperlative merit of Linnzus, he found 2 rival and an iipoler in Switzerland, as well as in France. The mighty genius of Haller could not conde- feend to walk in-the trammels of another man. In his hiltory of the plants of Switzerland, ftyled by the very able and judicious prefident of the Linnzan fociety, one of the molt excellent and complete Floras the world ever faw, he has adopted a method depending chiefly on the number of the flamens, combined with the divifions of the co- rolla. But his fyftem is now little talked of, and lefs ftudied. Linneas devoted the greateft part of his life to the con- ftruétion and completion of a fyftem confeffedly artificial ; but he was neverthelefs fully fenfible, that the perfection of the feience requires an arrangement founded folely on natural affinities. The idea of fuch an arrangement had been con- ceived, and partly executed, by feveral of his predeceffors. The improved fyltem of Ray, im particular, is a noble eflay towards pe? the whole vegetable creation into fix natu- ral families. other diftributions are only proofs of the prefent defective ftate of knowledge, and are to be employed merely 23 helps for the attainment of a confummate fy{tem. Linozus has accordingly left what he calls fragments of a natural order, without pointing out their peculiar diftinguith- ing chara¢ters; and the fubftance of his letures on natural orders has been publifhed, fince his death, by his pupil Gifcke, in which the omiffion is, in fome degree, remedied; though, at the fame time, it is ftrenuoufly maintained, that fuch cha- raters as fhalk be at once completely comprehenfive, and exclufively difcriminating, are, in the nature of things, abfo- lutely impoffible. > Adanfon, a French traveller in Africa, has alfo attempted to form natural families of plants, not from the confideration of any particular part, but of all, without exception, from the root to the feed. But, independent of a multitude of other objeGtions, it labours under the infuperable impediment of having the diltin@tive chara@ers of each family drawn out to the length fometimes of four or five pages, without being capable of an abridgment. The moft fuccefsful attempt of this kind is that of Anthony Lawrence de Juffieu, the illuftrious nephew of three illuftri- ous brothers, who have been all diflinguifhed for their attach- ment to botany, and for their eminent fervices to it. The outlines of this fyftem were ftruck out by Bernard de Juflieu, demonftrator in the royal gardens at Paris; but owe their prefent more mature form to the fkill and perfevering appli- cation of his nephew, who fucceeded him in his office. It is founded firft on the number of the cotyledons‘of the feed ; next, on the infertion of the ftamens with refpe& to tbe pif- til, whether immediately on the receptacle, the calyx, or the piftil itfelf; or mediately, by the means of the corolla, fimilarly fituated ; and fo on, from the effential to the non- effential, from the more to the lefs important parts, in a de- fcending progreffion, to fuch as are the molt variable and of the leait value. A methodical difpofition of plants, from the charaéter of the fruit, has lately been publifhed by Gertner, a German botanift, who has laboured in this effential part with greater diligence and accuracy than any other writer. But notwithtanding the acknowledged merit of thefe effays, the Linnzan ftill continues the prevailing fyftem, to which all the new genera, conftituted for plants fince difeo- vered, are regularly referred; and it is to the advantage of the fcience, that it fhould, for a long time yet to come, pre- ferve its afcendancy. It is capable, indeed, of many improve~ ments; but fuch improvements fhould be flowly and cautioufly propofed, always keeping in view an approximation to a na- tural order. Moft of the projeéts, which have hitherto been formed for this purpofe, betray more rafhnefs than acute dif- cernment, more love of innovation than capacity for removing real imperfetions. While they feem to acquire greater fim- plicity, they become aétually more artificial, and more vio- lently deftroy the conneétion of natural affinities. The de- falcations of the refpeAable Thunberg have not been gene- rally admitted; the additional ones of Gmelin have been almoft univerfaily condemned ; and Willderow, the laft and beft editor of the Species Plantarum, has rettored all the ejefted claffes. Dr. Smith, with his ufual judgment, has only expunged the order monogamia from the clafs /yngenefia, and retained in the clafs polygamia only fuch plants as have an effential difference in the ftru€ture of their perfect and imperfe& flowers. See the article Crassirication of Plants, where the different fyftems will be detailed and examined. See alfo the Bibliotheca Botanica both of Linnzus and of Haller; La Marck’s Preliminary Difcourfe to the botanical part of the French Encyclopedia; Dr. Smith’s Introductory Ad- drefsto the Linnzan Society; Dr. Pulteney’s View of the Writings of Linneus; and his Sketches of the Progrefs of Botany in England. Borany Bay, in Geography, a capacious bay on the ealts ern coaft of New Holland, {o called by captain Cook, who anchored there on the 20th of April 1770, from the great - number of plante which were found in its vicinity by fir Jofeph (then Mr.) Banks, and Dr. Solander, The land on the fea-coalt is moderately high, aud nearly level, but in general BOT ‘ general higher than it is in the interior parts, and covered with fteep rocky cliffs near the fea, which refemble a long ifland lying clofe under the fhore. “The harbour lies about the middle of this land; and, in approaching it from the fouth, is difeovered before the fhip comes a-breaft of it; but from the north it is not difcovered fo foon. About the head of the harbour, there are large banks of {ard and mud, on which are great plenty of water-fowl, and large quantities of eyfters, mufcles, cockles, and other fhell fifh, which fupply the natives who gather them by means of their little canoes in fhoal-water, with the principal means of their fubfiftence. From the report of Cook, who carefully examined this coaft, and took poffeffion of -it inthe name of the king of Great ‘Britain, it was thought to be a delirable fituation for a fet- tlement ; and accordingly it was propofed, at the clofe of the American war, to tranfport felons thither, who were fentenced to this kind of punifhment. This plan was adopted in 1786; and the firft fhip failed from Spithead in January, 1787, and arrived thither in the fame month of the following year. It appeared, however, from the report of Cook and other navigators, that it was fubjed to the inconvenience of a great fearcity of water, and on the arrival of the firft fet- tlers, that it afforded advantages fer the eftablifhment of a * colony much inferior to fuch as they expected to find ; the foil being f{wampy, water fcarce, and the bay itfelf incon- venient for fhipping, on account of the thallownefs of the water, and its expofure to the eafterly winds: and it was therefore refolved by governor Philips to transfer it to ano- ther inlet, about 12 miles farther to the north, called Port Jackfon, on the fouth fide of which, ona {pot called Sydney Cove, this fettlement is now fixed. For a further account of the fettlements, and of the country, fee New Hoxvanp. ‘Two French hips, called the Aftrolabe and Bouffole, which left France, onva voyage of difcovery, under the command of M. la Peyroufe, in 1785, arrived in this bay in the begin- ning of the vear 1758 ; and during their ftay, tather La Receveur, who had come out in the Aftrolabe, as a natu- ralift, died of the wounds he had received in a confli& with the inhabitants of Mafuna, one of the Illes des Navigateurs, at which they touched... A monument, bearing an in{crip- tion, was erected to his memory, but was foon deltroyed by the natives. Bat governor Philips caufed the infcription to be engraved on copper, and nailed to an adjacent tree. _ Bo- tany bay liesin 5S. lat. 34°, and E. long. 151° 21’. . Borany /fland, an ifland in the Southern Pacific ocean, near the coalt of New Caledonia; fo called by captain Cook from the number and varicty of plants it afforded. S. Jat. 22° 26 go". E. long. 167° 16! 45", BOTARGO, a fort of faufage, made of the milts and rofe of the mullet-fifh, much ufed on the coaft of the Medi- terraneao, as an Incentive to drink. The manner of pre- paring botargo, as praGiifed at Martegues in Provence, is deferibed by Mr. Ray. The mallets, mugiles, are taken in «* burdigoes,”? which are places in the fhallows inclofed, with hedges of reeds. The male mu!lets are called “alletants,” the female ‘‘ boter,”’ of the roes or {pawn of which the botargo 4s made thus :—They firit take ont the [pawn entire, and cover it round with falt for four or five hours; then they prefs it a little between two boards or ftones; then they wafh it, and at laft dry it ig the fu for thirteen or fourteen days, taking it inat night. Ray Trav. p. 396, feq. The methed of making the botargo, in the towns of Kof- low and Kaffa, in Crim Tartary, on the coalts of the Black Sea, where the mullet abounds, is as foilows : — Immediately after the fifh fpawns, the fpawn is put whole into a ftrong brine, and flightly fimmered ; when it is thought to be fuf- ficiently done, it is put into pots, and covered with melted bie oe wax, to prevent it from fpoiling ; and it will then keep for along while, and may be conveyed to very diftant coun- tries. The people of Provence call it bou-argues. The belt is brought from Alexandria and Tunis. There is alfo a manu- faGure of it near Marfeilles. It is much vfed throughout all the Levant, and ufually eaten with olive-oil and lemon-jutce. BOTARISSAS, Svrinfios five Botariffas, Bell. Aq. one of the fynonyms of gadus ‘ota, called allo claria fluviatilis by the fame author; by the Englifh cel-pout, er burbot. See Lora Gapus. BOTATRISSA, in Ichthyology, fynonymous with bofa- riffas, cel-pout, and gadus lota, Sec BoTARIssAs, and Gapus, Lora. BOTAURUS, in Ornitholosy, a {pecies of AnpEA, with a {mooth black head ; body above cinereous and fufcous, va- riegated ; beneath rufous; lore and orbits naked and yellow ; throat white, ftreaked with black, and reddifh. Gmel. This is botaurus major of Briffo2, and grand butor of Buf- fon ; greater fpeckled, or red heron of Ray and Willughby¢ - greater bittern of Latham. Ardea botaurus is a native of Italy; length three feet nine inches ; the bill is yellowifh ; irides yellow ; feathers on the head and breaft long and flowing. BOTE, Bora, in our old Law-Books, fignifies come penfation, fatisfaétion, or amends, for any injury done. See Estovers. : Hence man-bote, fatisfa@tion due for a man flain. In king” Ino’s laws it is declared what was the rate ordained for this offence, according to the quality of the perfon flain. - Hence alfo dstele/s (charter of Hen. I. to Thomas, arch- bifhop of York), where no judgmant or favour will acquit aman; as, v. gr. for facrilege, &c. And hence our com- mon phrafe fo Soot, {peaking of fomething given by way of compenfation. Bore, cart, fire-bote, hay-bote, houfe-bote, Lin-bote, plough bote, theft-bote. Sze the adjectives. : BOLVEFEUX, in Gunnery, are flicks two or three feet long, avd an inch thick, {phic at one extremity, to hold an end of the match twilted round it, for fring the cannon. BOTENALKAITOS, a far in the conttellation Cetus, called alfo BaTENKETOs. BOTERNHOFEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, inthe duchy of Holftein, 9 miles S.S.W of Nordorp. BOTEROLL, in Heraldry, is the tag of a broad-{word {cabbard, and by the French heralds efteemed an honourable bearing. | BOTERVIGIE Van Boer, in Zoology, ( Cons glaucus, Linn.) is deferibed under this name by Rumphius. BOVESCART, in Ancient Englifh Writers, the fame with boatfwain. : BOYTESDALE, in Geography, a market-town of Suf- folk, in England, is feated near the borders of Norfolk, on the turnpike road which leads frem that place to Bury St. Edmund’s. It was formerly called Botolph’s- Dale, from a chapel dedicated to that faint in a valley. This facred {truciure had long continued in a ftate of dilapidation, but Thomas Holt, efg. and fome neighbouring gentlemen, raifed a fubferiptior, and had it properly repaired and fitted up for its original deftination. ‘This town enjoys the advantage of a free grammar fchool, which was founded and endowed by the eminent fir Nicholas Bacon, who was created the firlt ba- renet of Eagland. He alfo bequeathed other legacies to the town ; and the fchool has been fince enriched by the donations of other perfons. Botefdale is annex~d to the rectory of Red- grave, the church of which is highly interetting to the hilto- rian and antiquary, from its inclofing the monuments and remains a SOF . remains of fir Nicholas Bacon and his lady, alfo enother magnificent one for lord chief jultice Holt. The latter is faid to have colt 1500/,. and the former (executed by Nicho- Jas Stone) 220/. Both thefe illnfrious men’ were fucoef- fively poffeffed of the lordthip of Redgrave, where the abbot of Bory had previoufly «his faireft country-feat.’” The fine old manfion has been freeeeded by a modern building ; and the place, now poff-iled by a defcendant of chief juttice Holt, is confidered ‘* one of the fineft in the county”? of Suffoik. 2 , Botcfdale has a weekly market on Thurfday, and two annual teirs. It coytaias only 65 honfes, and 536 inhabit- ants, of which eumber,222 are employed in manufa&ures, From Norwich it 1s 27 miles, and from London 86 miles N.E. Gough’s Camden, vol. ii. Magna Britannia, vol. iv. BOTETOURT, one of the American counties in the flate of Virzinia, fituate between the Alleghany and Blue ridge ; its chief town ts Fincaftle. The county is 44 miles Jong and 40 broad; and contains 8482 free inhabitants, and 1343 flaves. LOLH, Jousx, in Biography, an emivent landfcape painter, was born at Utrecht in 1610, and, after having been the difciple of Abraham Bloemart, went for improve- ment to Rowe, where he refided many years; dire&ting his attention to landicape, in which he attained to high per- fe&tonu. . H's model was the flyle of Claude Lorraine; and fome of his performances are, mentioned in competition with thofe of Claude. The warmth of his fkies, the judi- cigus and reguler receding of the obj-&s, and the fweetnefs of his diftances, afford a pleafure fuperior to that produced by the worksof almof any other artift. His tints are fo admirably formed as to exprefs not «nly the light of the morning breaking from behind ail!s and woods, and diffufing awarm giow over the whole face of nature, and alfo the ferting of che fun with its tinze in the clouds, but even the different hours of the diy. By his colouring he obtained the diitin@ion of being called © Both of Italy.”?> Wehave alfo by his hand a fet of ten land{capes, which are etched io a flight, free, mafterly ftyle. He loft his life by ac- cidentally failing into acanal at Venice in 1650. Pilkington and Strutt. Botu Axpzew, brother of the former, and difciple of Bloemart, accompanied him to Rome, and applied to the - fiudy of figures, in which he imitated the ftyle of Bamboc- cio with great fuccefs. - The two brothers mutually affifted each other ull the death of John; andthen Andrew return- e4 to his own country, where he painted fometimes portraits, and fometimes land{capes, in the manner of his brother, and alfo converfations, and players at cards, in the manner of Bemboecto; and where he died in 1656. Andrew Both alfo etched fome few plates ina free, mafterly ftyle, re- fembling that of Oftade, viz. fix {mall upright plates of * Dutch merry-making,” to which he affixed his name; * St. Antony praying with a feull before him,’” and “ St. Francis with a crucifix before him,’’ its companion, Pilk- ington and Strutt. Boru, in Geography, a river of Germany, in the circle ef Bavaria, which runs into the Inn, near Scherding. Botu-fbeets aft, in Sea Languagr, expreffes the fituation of a hip failing right before the wind. BOTHAGIUM, Bornace, or Booruace, cultom- ary dues to the lord Of the market, for the liberty of pitch- ing and ftanding of booths. BOTHENA, Boruna, or Boatuna, in the Scotch Law, rs ie or field wherein cattle are inclofed, and fed. The word is alfo written Jarthena ; formed from the ancient Scottith bush, a flock of theep. Boruena is alfo ufed for a barony, lordhip, or fheriff- BOT dom. In which fenfe it is ordained by fatute, that the king’s moot or court of each bothena, that is, each fheriif- dom, thal! be held within forty days. BOTHFELD, in Geograply, a diftri& of Germany, in the baillwick of Calenberg, confilting of five villages, of which Bot} f-ld is parochial, BOTHMAR, a county of Germany, in the principality of Ze-l!, and 7 leazues W. of it; fituate on the Reufe. BOTHNIA, East, Ofer bottan, Lat. Ojro-bothnia, a province of Sweden, fituated on the eaft fide of the gulf of Bothnia, whence it derives its name, is bounded on the north by Swedith Lapland, on the eaft by Ruffia, on the fouth by Finland, to which it properly belongs, and on the weft by the gulf of Bothnia. Itsextent has not been accu- rately afcertained; by fome it has been’ computed to be about go Swedith miles long, and 40 broad; and by others. its length has been eftimared at 66 Swedifh miles, and irs. breadth at 12. It is feparated from Ruffia and Finlandy properly fo called, by a chain of hif3, which runsalong its eaft fide. Thefle mountaios fupply large rivers, of which fome difcharge themfelves into the White fea, and others into. the gulfsof Bothoiaand Finland. ‘The country, efpecially on the fea coaft-towards the fouth, is lowand marfhy 5 however, the indultry of the inhabitants has made it pro- du@tive of corn, though the cold and frott often difappoint their hopes, and feveral tracts of land lie wafte. It abounds with wood, andits lakes and rivers yield plenty of ith. Some of the rivers are faid to have furnifhed pearls. The in-- habitants derive their chief fubfiftence from agriculture, graz= ing, burning lime and tiles, and making pitch and tar. They alfo employ themfelvee in fifhing and hunting, fhip-building,. and the manufa&iure of wooden-ware. Thole who inhabit. the rocky iflands near the fea-coalt fpeak the Swedifh lan- guage, but thofe of the inland parts ufe that of Finland.. The number of inhabitants iseftimated at about 80,000, wha are feattered over 28 parifhes, 19 of which are occupied by Finns, and nine by Swedes, and which are under the jurif-- diGtion of the bifhop of Abo. The commodities furmfhed> by this country for exportation are timber, butter, cattle, fifh, oil, pitch, tar, &c. aft Bothnia is divided into three parts. or lehns, which are under one governor. Its chief towns: are Cajanaor Cajaneborg, Utea, Braheltad, Gemla-Carleby, Ny-Carleby, Jacobftadt, Waifa, and Chriftineftadc. Boruntia, We/, a province of Sweden, lying on the weft fide of the gulf of Bothnia, and hounded on the north and weft by Lapland, on the fouth by Angermanland,.and on- the calt by thegulf of Bothnia. That part of this province which is inhabited extends from the frontiers of Angerman- land to the church of upper Tornea, and is computed to be about 58 Swedith miles in length, and from 16 to 18 miles in breadth. Off the coaft of this provirece are feveral plea-- fant iflands, and its interior has feveral forefts, with lakes, andrivers. It has alfo excellent paltures. among the moun- tains, the fummit of which fupplics therein-deer with mofs. The foil 18 tolerably fertile, and produces corn, which is fown late, and ripens in fix, feven, or eight weeks, but which is often injured by the fudden frolts of July. ‘This province has feveral mines of copper andiron, The inhabitants are celebrated for their hardinefs and valour; they fubfift by agriculture, grazing, hunting, and fifhing ; and even in fruits ful years mix their corn with chaff and pulverized pine bark, with which they make their ‘ ftampe brot,’? or pounded- bread. They traffick in beams, deal-boards, and other tim. ber, fhingles, tar, fulted and {moke-dried. falmon and other fith, wild fowl, venifon, common train-oil, tallow, butter,- and cheefe; and alfo in fables, and {kins of blue and white foxes, ermines, bears, wolves, martens, hyenas, beavers, andrein-deer. “Thefe commoditics are carried by them, Bie . only BOT only to other parts of Sweden, but over the mountains to Norway, and through extenfive deferts to Ruffia. It is Gividedinto four vogteys or inferior governments, contains _ two provincial jurifdiGtions, and, with regard toits ecclefi- aftical ftate, belongs to the fee of Hernofand. The princi- pal.towns are Umea, Pitea, Lulea, and Tornea. Borunta, gulf of, one of the branches into which the Baltic is divided ; the other being the gulfof Finland. The former is feparated from the Baltic by the ifles of Aland, is bounded on the eaft, weft, and north by the Swedith domi- nions, and extends between them, from Aland to Tornea, about five degrees and a half in latitude, or about 127 leagues from north to fouth, and from 18 to 35 in breadth from eaft to weit. , BOTHNICUS, in Entomology, a-fpecies of Cayproce- PHALUS, Chry/omela bothnica of Lioneus. The colour is deep black, with a longitudinal redline on the thorax. In- habits Sweden. BOTHOA, or Boroua, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the north coaft, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Guingamp; the place contains 2021, and the canton 7554 inhabitants; the territory com- prehends 2074 kiliometres, and 8 communes. BOTHWELL, an ancient barony and parifh of Scot- land, which includes an area of about 82 miles in length by 4miles in breadth. ‘The bridge in this parifh, which croffes the Clyde river, is memorable for an engagement fought on the fouth fide of it, June 22, 1679, between the roy- aliits, under the duke of Mcnmouth, and the prefbyterian infurgents. In this fatal confli€t the latter were defeated, with the lofs of 400 flain, and 1200 taken prifoners. Here are the remains of a caiftle, which appears to have been formerly of very large dimenfions. It is frequentiy men- tioned in the annals of Scottifh hiftory.. Sir John Sinclair’s Statiftical Account, vol. xvi. BOTTI, in Geography, atown of Siberia; 32 miles S. of Orlenga—Alfo, a town of Siberia, 76 miles N.E. of Nertchinfc. BOTICUM, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia Mi- nor, in Phrygia, which had a marih that produced falt, Steph. Byz. BOTISAS, a name given in Spain to a fmaller fort of alearrazas, or veffels ufed for cooling water; the larger fort being calledjarras. See ALcarRrazas. ; BOTISTMENT, in Geography, the name of a mountain in the fouthern part of the ifland of Madagafcar. BOTLAN, At Moxurar Ben Hassan, Ben Azoun, or D’Exsn Bortan, in Biography, a Chriftian phyfician of Bagdat, the contemporary and antagonift of Ebn Rodwan. Tt is faid that Botlan, in order to be perfonaliy acquainted with his adverfary, made a voyageinto Egypt, A. D. 1047. On leaving Egypt, he went to Conttantinople, where he liveda year. He is the author of the following works, viz. «¢ Kenafch,” ora compendium of medicine, for the ufe of the convents; InttruGions how to buy flaves, and to make profit of them ;”? ** Tables of health; ** Of the difeafes of phyficians;” ‘‘Introdu@ion to the art of me- dicine;”? ** Devat et athebbai,”’ or the religion of phyfici- ans; and ‘* Of the cure of a child who had the ftone.?? D’ Herbelot. BOTNA, or Kauzen, in Geography, a river of Eu- pees Turkey, which runs into the Dpieper, near Ben- er. BOTOL, or Borex Tabago-Xima, Tabaco-Xima, or Fabaco-Sima, the name of two iflands in the Chinefe feas, fituated at the diftance of about 5 leagues from the { uth point of Formofa, and.on the fame parallel. The great uland, at its fouth-eaft point, is placed, by captain Marc. BOT hand, in N. lat. 22°3'. and E. long. 121° 34'; by Dali rymple’s chart, in N. lat. 22°.6' 30%. E. long. 121° sol. ; by La Péroufe, in N. lat. ‘21° 574 Evlong. 121° 52’. 5 by Chanal, in N. Jat. 22°3’. E. long. 121° 54" and by G, Robertfon, in his table of pofitions, in N. lat. 22° 6!. E, long. 121° 41'45%. This ifland is fufficiently elevated to be feen ata diftance of 15 leagues, when the fky ‘is clear; it is about 4 or 5 leagues in circumference ; and itis well peopled with inhabitants, as Marchand obferved fires blazing-doring the night , and La Péroufe, on approaching very near to it, diftinguifhed three extenfive viileges within the fpace of a league. tion, taken between the water’s edge and its fummit, which appeared to be crowned with treesof the largeit fize. The declivity of the {pace between thefe foreits and the beach is very rapid. It was covered, fays: La Péroufe, with the moit beautiful verdure, and in many places cultivated, though furrowed by the torrents'that defcend from the mountains: The {mall ifland of the fame name, the only one, probably obferved by lord Anfon, the other being very often’ covered with fogs, lies to the fouth by eait of the great one, in N. lat. 21° 57’, and E. long. 121° 56’, on the fame parallel with the middle of the great ifland, according to Dalrym- ple’s chart; but on the parallel of its fouth-eaft point, ac- cording to that of La Péroufe. It is fomewhat lefs ele- vated than the larger ifland, (not half fo high, fays La Pé.’ roufe,) but,’ however, fufficiently lofty to be feen at the diftance of 10 or 12 leagues. Thefe two iftands are fepa- rated by a channel half a league in width; and both fhores, as well as the channel, appeared to Marchand, equally free’ from rocks or fhoals. On the fmall ifland La Péroufe perceived fome little verdure anda few bufhes; but he fays, thatitis neither inhabited nor habitable. if there be any anchorage at the great ifland, it is ex- tremely near the coaft, Marchand’s Voyage, vol. il. p. 60, La Péroufe’s Voyage round the World, vol. ii. p. 9.° Eng. Ed. BOTONE’, in Heraldry. See Cross Borone’. BOTONTINI, in Middle Age Writers, denotes mounts * or hillocks, raifed to ferve as land-marks, or boundari-s of grounds, ‘The word is alfo written botontones, botones, and* bodones. Du-Cange Gloff. Lat. . BOTOTOE, in Ornithology, a name given by the people of the Philippine iflands toa beautiful bird of the parrot kind, but of what {pecies is rather uncertain. [tis defcrihed’ as being fmaller than the common parrot, and the plumage’ totally ofa fine blue colour. Itagrees with the blue para- keet of Otahcite, Pfittacus Cyancus, and may very. poffibly © be the fame. BOTOVSKATA, in Geography, a town of Ruffian Tar- tary ; 20 miles S.S.W. of Koperik. BOTRIA, in Botany, Bofe, in Nouveau DiGtionaire d’hif- . Gen. Char. . toire naturelle. Clafs, pentandria monogynia. Cal. perianth, bell-flaaped, five-toothed. Cor. petals five, fharp-pointed, flefhy, recurved at the point. Svam. filaments five, flat, attached to the claws of the petals. if. germ. fuperior. Stigma feffile, concave. Per. a berry with one feed. There is only one fpecies koown, which is a climbing fhrub, with {cattered heart-fllaped, three or five-lobed, veined, ; crenulated, villofe leaves; and {mall reddifh flowers on com- mon axillary peduncles, which terminate in tendrils. founden the coalt of Zanguebar, where it is efteemed a diuretic. is given in cafes of pleurify, inflammation, and abfeefs. BOTRO, in Geography. See Bourros. BOTRODUS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Spain. in Celtiberia, mentioned by Martialin his epigrams, BOTRYITES, in Natural Hiflory, a ftone of the gem | kind, It is very woody from about one-third of its eleva-'” He adds, that’ Tt is” Its berries are eaten ; and a decoétion of its root —— BOT kind refemdling a branch of young grapes. The word is formed from Boryus, a grape. In Englith writers, it is fome- times called the grape-itone. Boraryrtes, or Botrites, alfo denotes a fort of burnt cad- mia, found fomewhat in the form of a bunch of grapes, ad- hering tothe upper parts of furnaces, where that mineral is calcinated. It differs from the placites, which is that ga- thered on the lower partsof the furnace; though Schroder ives a different diltin&ion, viz. into botrites, found in the middle of the furnace, placites in the upper, and oftracites in the lowett part. ‘ BOTRYLLUS, (botryllus conglomeratus), in Zoology, the name of alcyonium conglomeratum of Gmelin in Gertn. ap. Pallas Spic. Zool. BOTRYOIDES, in Nataral Hifory, a fpecies of Ma- prepoga, having thick, faitigiate, obtole, cluftered branches, with reticulate, craggy undulations. Habitat. unksown. Deferibed in Solander and Ellis’s Corallines. BOTRYS, iv Ancient Geography, a city of Pheenicia, near the coaft and fouth of the river Eleutherus, mentioned by Piiny, Mela, and Polybius. According to the latter (lib. v.) it was built by Ethbal or Ithobal, who reigned at "l'yre in the time of Ahab, about the year 923, B.C. Ste- hanus Byz. thinks that this was the city which is cal'ed by Sedan (xxi. 36) "N95, Letfr, and by the LXX Becag, and enomerated among the 48 cities which were afligned to the Levites. Thiscity, in Chriftian times, became an epifcopal fee, and its bifhop, Porphyry, afliited at the council of Chal- eedon, held A. D 4438. BOTT, among Bone lace Weavers, a kind of round cuffion of light matter placed on the knee, whereon they work or weave their lace with bobbins, &c. Among the French the dott, called oreiller, is a little fquare wooden frame or defk, covered ordinarily with green fluff. Bort, in Entomology. See Botts. BOTTENSTEIN, or Pottenstetn, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Franconia, and buhopric of Bamberg ; 22 miles E.S.E. of Bamberg. BOLTER, Hewry, in Biography, a learned phyfician of Amersfort, profeffor of medicine in the univerhty of Marpurg, publifhed, in 1621, “ Epiftola de expurgatione empyematis,” 4to. and in 1646, * De {corbuto traétatus,”’ gto. Lubeck. Hiller Bib. Med. BOTTESDALE., See Borespate. BOTTESTANO, a town of Germany, in the county ef Tyrol; 1c miles S. of Bruneck. BOTTIA, or Botriza, in Ancient Geography, a coun- try of Macedonia, in the neighbourhood of Thrace. Its limits are not afcertained by the ancient geographers, who mention it. Herodotus places it at the towns of Ichnx and Pellz. , BOTTLE, a {mall veffel proper for holding liquors. Lhe word is formed from butellus, or botellus, uled in bar« barous Latin writers, fora leffer veffel of wine; being a di- minutive of bota, which denoted a butt or caflc of that li- uor. It is evidently derived from butte, botic, buta, buticula, icella, which occur in the middle ages. We fay a glafs bottle, a ftone bottle, aleathern bottle, a wooden bottle, a fucking bottle. Of glafs bottles, fays Beckmann (Hift. of Inventions, vol. ii. p. 124.), nO mention occurs before the 15th century: for the “ Amphorz vitrez diligenter gyp{atz” of Petronius, (Sat. c. xxxiv. p. 86.) to the necks of which were affixed labels, expreffing the name and age of the wine, appear to have been large jars, and to have formed part of the many _— articles by which the voluptuary Trimalchto ‘OL. Vv. BOT withed to diftinguith himfelf. It is, however, fingular, that thefe convenient veflels were not thought of at an earlier pe- riod, efpeciaily as among the {mall funeral urns of the ancients, many are to be found which, in fhape, refemble our bottles. Mr, Beckmann conceives, that ke difcovers the origin of our bottles in the figure of the Syracufan wine-flefks. Charpen- tier (Gloff. Nov. i. p. 1182.) cites, from a writing of the year 1387, anexpreflion which feems to allude to one of our giafs bottles; but this, attentively confidered, refers mercly to cups or drinking glafles. The name boutiaux, or boutilles, occurs in the French language for the firft time in the 15th century ; but if it were more ancient, it would prove nothing, as it fignified originally, and {till fignifies, veflels of clay or metal, and particularly of Jeather. Such veflcls, filled with wine which travellers were acenflomed to fufpend from their faddles, might be ftopped with a piece of wood, or clofed by means of wooden or metal tops ferewed on them; and fuch are {till ufed for earthen pitchers. We fhall here add, that floppers of cork muit have been introduced after the invention of glafs bottles. Ino 1553, they were little known ; and their introdu@tion into the fhops of the apothecaries in Germany took place about the end of the 17th century. Before that period, they ufed ftoppers of wax, which were more troublefome and more expenlive. % The anciert Jewifh bottles were cags made of goats’ or other wild beafts’ fkins, with the hair on the infide, well fewed and pitched together ; an aperture in one of the ani- mal’s paws ferving for the mouth of the veffel. Calmet. Bottles of this kind are mentioned in {cripture, and called eexot; and they were ufed for carrying water through the de- ferts of Arabia and other countriee, where {prings and ftreams are fcarce. Such bottles, indeed, have been in common ufe both in ancient and modern times. They are mentioned by Homer, Od. 2.77. Il. T. 246, and Od. E. 265. Salluft fpeaks of them in Bell. Jug. 96; where he fays ‘* Ex cori utres uti fierent curabat ;” 2. ¢. He provided bottles made of fkins. That the ancient Romans were acquainted with oat-fkin bottles is alfo evident from two lines of Virgil [Gay ii. v. 383, 384.) \ “ Inter pocula !wti Mollibus in pratis unGtos faliere per utres.”” From the circumitances here alluded to we may infer, that thefe were leather bottles, which were oiled on the outfide to make them more flippery, and more likely to occafion the fall of thofe that hopped upon them. Horace (1. ii. Sat. ii. v. 68, 69.) mentions greafy water, which was eiven to his guefts by Nevius, a man of a parfimonious difpos fition. ‘I'hus, Neque ficut fimplex Nevius, un@am Convivis prebebit aquam. Vitium hoe quoque mag- pum.”” This “ aqua un&a’”? has pnzzled commentators; but it probably reters to an oilinefs, which the water contra@ed by being fetched in unclean leather bottles. Thole, however, to which the fame appellation of bottk¢ is applied in our tranf- lation of the Old Teftament, are expr: {fed by different terms in the original ; and they were made of varicus forme, and confifted of different materials. ‘Thus, in Gen. xxi. 14. the * bottle” of water, given by Abraham to Hagar for herfelf and Ifimael, is in the original Pyyapy, chemeth, which denotes an earthen pitcher; and it appears from Habbakuk (chap. ii. v. 15.), that they weie accuflomed to drink our of thefe chemeths. Sir John Chardin, however, {vppofes that the bottle given to Hagar was a leather one. The * bot. tle”? of wine, which Samucl’s mother brought to Eh, (1 Sam. i. 24.) is called 95}, nudel, and was probably an earthen jar or jug; and the a. word is alfo ufed 1 Sam. ¢ SS. Js BOT x. 3. and 2 Sam. xvi. 1. But the term, tranflated “ earthen bottle,” in Jerem, xix. 1. is DADA, dalek. A very dif- ferent word is ufed in Judges iv. 19. to fignify the veffel out of which Jael gave milk to Silera, it is called 35N3; naud, which, having fome reference to moift or oozing, was probably made of goat-fkin, or the fkin of fome animal, and, being conftantly kept full of milk, was preferved in a pliant ftate. The fame word is alfo ufed to denote the bottle in which Jeffe fent wine by David to Sau!, 1 Sam. xvi. 20. Naud is alfo ufed to expres the bottle into which the Pfalmiit defires that his tears might be collected, Pf, lvi. 8.; and that to which he refembles himfelf, Pf. cix. 83. He fays “* 1 am become like a bottle in the fmoke,”’ i. c. like a bottle kept in the tents of the Arabs, blackened with {moke. To the meannefs of fuch a drinking veffel as a goat-fkin bottle, as well as to the blacknefs contraéted in the Arab tent, the Plalmilt probably refers; and it wasa moft natural image for him to ufe, driven from among the veffels of filver and gold in the palace of Saul, to live as the é\rabs cid, and confequently to be obliged frequently to drink out of a fmoked leather bottle. ‘The word ufed by Job (ch. xxxii. 1g.) inthe plural, is FAN, abuth; and as SJIN: aub, fignifies, in general 10 {well or diftend, it is pro- perly ufed to exprefs a fkin bottle, which would be made to iwell by the liquor poured into it, and which wou'd be more diftended and enlarged, till they would at laft burit, if they had no vent, by the fermentation of the liquor as it advanced towards ripenefs. Hence we perceive the propriety of put- ting new wine into new bottles, &c. according to the ap- propriate allufion inthe gofpels (Matt. ix. 17. Mark, i!. 22. Luke v. 37, 38.), which being moilt and flrong, would refift the expanfion, and preferve the wine to due maturity ; whereas old bottles of this kind, being dry and more brittle, would be in danger of burfting, and were beft adapted to receive old wine, the fermentation of which had ceafed. Thefe leather bottles are fuppofed, by a facred hiftorian, not only to be frequently rent, when grown old and much uled, but alfo to be capable of being repaired (Jofh. ix. 4.). Modern travellers, as well as ancient authors, frequently take notice of thefe leather bottles. The Arabs, fays fir John Chardio, and all thofe who lead a wandering life, keep their water, milk, and other liquors, in thefe bottles, the manner of repairing which he alfo defcribes. ‘They ferve, according to this writer, to preferve their contents more frefh than in any other way. They-are made, he fays, of goat-fkins: when the animal is killed, they cut off its feet and its head, and in this manner they daw it out of the flkin without opening its belly. They afterwards few up the places where the legs were cut off, and the tail, and when itis filled, they tie it about the neck. Thefe nations, and the country people of Perfia, never go a journey without a fmallleather bottle of water hanging by their fide like a fcrip. The great leather bottles are made of the flcin of an he-goat ; and the {mall ones, that ferve inftead of a bottle of water on the road, are made of a kid’s fkin. In {peaking of the Perfians, the fame traveller fays, that they ule leather bottles, and tnd them ufeful in keeping water frefh, efpe- cially :f people, when they travel, take care tomoilten them, wherever they find water. The evaporation thus furnifhed ferves alfo to keep the water cool, He fays, that the dif- agreeable tafte of the leather is taken off, by caufing it to imbibe rofe-water, when it is new, and before it is applied to ufe. Formerly, it is faid, the Perfians perfumed thefe leather veffels with maftic, or with incenfe. From him alfo we learn, that they put into thefe goat-fkin and kid-fkin vef- {els every thing which they want to carry to a diftance in the Halt, whether dry or liquid; they are thus preferved BOT frefher thanif they were conveyed in boxes or pots; the ants and other infeéts are prevented from getting among them; and they are thus kept free from duft; ard for thefe reafons butter, honey, cheefe, and other {uch aliments, are inclofed in veffels made of the fkins of thefe animals. Accordingly, the thiags, particulariy the balm ard honey, which were fomewhat liquid, that were carried to Jofeph as a prefent, (fee Gen. xit. rr.) were probably inclofed in little veflels made of kid-fkins. Homer aifo refers to this mode of preferving various kinds of provifisa in leathern veffels. Od. B. 354. ' The bottles made of {kin refemble the ‘*Girba,”? de- fcribed by Mr. Bruce, in his Travels through Abyfliaia, vol. iv. p.334- ‘+ This,” he fays, ‘is an ox’s flin fquared, and the edges fewed together very artificially by a double feem, which does not let out water, much refembling that upon the. bet Englith cricket balls. An opening is left in the top of the girba, in the fame manncr as the bung- hole of a caf. Around this the {kin is gathered to the fize ofa large handful, which, when the girba is full of water, is tied round with whip cord. hele girbas generally contain about 60 gallons each, and two of them are the load of a - camel. ‘They are then all beimeared on the outfide with greafe, as well to hinder the water from_oozing through, as to prevent its being evaporated by the a€tion of the fun upon the girba, which, in fa, happened to us twice, fo as to put us in imminent danger of perifhing with thirft.”” Glafs bottles are better for cyder than thofe of ftone. Foul glafs bottles are cured by rolling fand or {mall fhot in them; munity bottles, by boiling them, Bottles are chiefly made of thick coarfe glafs; though there are likewife bottles of boiled leather made and fold by the cafe-makers. Fine glafs bottles covered with ftraw or wicket, are called Jiaf)s, ox betteés. The quality of the “glafs has been fometimes found to affe€&t the liquor in the bottle. Mem. Acad. Scienc. 1704. i sca E, is alfoa meafure at Amfterdam, the fame with the mingle. Bortre, blue, in Botany. See Cenraurea Cyanus. Borrre, mofs. See SPLACHNUM. ' Borrre, white. SeeCucuzatus Benen. Bortcve-head, a {pecies of whale. Bott e-nofé, in Natural Hiftory, a name given by the Englith to various animals ; the cachalot is called the bottle- nole ; foalfo any of the whale tribe diltinguifhed by the gibbofity of their fnout. In fome parts of England the anas aréica of old writers is called the bottle-nofe. BOTTLING, or Borretine, the operation of putting up liquors in bottles corked, to keep, ripen, and improve. The writers on good hufbandry give divers rules concern- ing the bottling of beer, cyder, and the like.» The’ virtues of Spa, Pyrmont, Scarborough, and other waters depend on their being well bottled and corked, otherwife they lofe both their talte and {mel!. To preferve them, it is necel- fary the bottles be filled up to the mouth, that all the air may be excluded, which ts the great enemy of bottled li- quors. ‘Thecork is alfo farther fecured by a cement. Some improve their boitled beer, by putting cryftals of tartar, and wine, or. malt {pirits; and others, by putting fugar boiled up with the efflence of fome herbs and. cloves, into each bottle. Cyder requires {pecial precautions in the bottling ; being » more apt to fly, and burft the bottle, than other liquors. The belt way to fecure them, is to have the liquor tho- roughly fine before it. be bottled. For want of this, sane eave ee ee atta bi > rele Spc 0 ede ae Wg 2 BOTTOM. leave the bottles open a while, or open them after two or three days bottling, to give them vent. If one bottle break, through fermentation, it is beit to give them all vent and cork them up again. Mean cyder is apterto break the bottles than rich. Some foak the corks in f{calding water, to render them more pliant and ferviceable. See Cypsr. Another particular to be obferved is, to lay the bottles fo as that the liquor may always keep the cork wet and fwelled. Something alfo depends on the place where the bottles are fet, which ought to be fuch as expofes them as little as poflible to the alterations and imprcflions of the air : the ground is better for this purpofe than a frame; fand better than the bare ground; and a running water, or a Spring often changed, bet of all. To haften the mpening of bottled liquors, they are fome- times fet in a warm place, or even expofed to the fun, when a few days will bring them to maturity. BOTTOM, the loweit part of a thing as contradiftin- guithed'from the top. Hydroftatical writers fpeak of the preffure of fluids, on the bottom of veffels ; in which cafe, the law of gravitation is, that the altitude remaining the fame, the preffure will be at the bottom, ©M. Leibnitz-has aflerted, that a body, in falling through a fluid, does not prefs on the bottom, that is, does not increafe the preffure on it; which is found to be falfe. Phil. Tranf. N° 351. p. 570. A.D.S..an. 1692. - 16. y When water beils, the bottom of the veffel is found con- fiderably colder than it was fome time before boiling ; info- much that the hand may bear it in the former cafe, not in the latter. Hift. Ac. Sc. ann. 1703. p. 29. See Bortine. Bottom, in Navigation, denotes the ground or furface of the earth under the water. They fay a rocky, fandy, gravelly, clayey bottom; a bottom with good hold, with a bad hold, &c. The bottom of the fea, Ray obferves, is level, i..¢. the defcent from the fhore to the deep is equable and uniform : but the bottoms of fome feas are found higher than thofe of others. Count Marfigli has.made divers inquiries into the ftru€ture of the bottom of the fea, and its beds of ftones, falt, bitumen, &c. Ray, Wifd. of Creat. part i. p. S4. See Sea. Over the natural bottom of the fea is formed an accidental bottom, by the mixture of different matters, fand, fhells, mud, &c. flrongly compaéted by the glutinous quality of the fea-waters, almo't to a degree of petrifaction. Thefe incruftations being neceffarily formed in ftrata, there are fome places wherein the fifhermen can diftinguith the annual augmentations. “Hift. Acad. Sc. 17 10. Bottom of a Ship, that part of a thip below the water. This is aifo cailed the quick work: and that above the water is called the dead-work. As the good or bad qualifications of a thip, with regard to failing, feering and ttaying well, veering, carrying fail, ftowing her cargo, carrying her guns, &e. depends, in a great meafure, upon the form of the bottom, every attention ought, therefore, to be paid to this particular point ; and hence the method of conftructing the bottom of a thip, fo as to anfwer any intended purpofe, is the niceft and moft difficult part of thip-building ; tothisarticle the reader is referred. That a fhip may fail well, it is nec {lary to give her a long floor, with little rifing both fore and aft, and the capacity of the fore-body equal, or nearly fo, to that of the aiter- In order to makes thip fteer well, the after-part of the bottom mult not be fuil; the wing-tranfom carried pretty high ; the fathion-preces well-formed, and not fall below the load-water line; the mid(hip-frame carried well forward ; to diaw more water aft than at ‘the ftem ; a confiderable rake forward ; but the ttern-poft to be nearly perpendicular to the keel ; and the upper works to be tight and as low as poflible. That a fhip may carrya prefs of fail, the floor-timber mut be fat and long ; the lower futtock full; upper futtock nearly flraight ; the breadth to be thrown out aloft; the main breadth carried high; the upper works light ; and hence, the centre of gravity low. To makea thip keep a good wind, and drive little to.lee- ward, requires a confiderable iength of kecl, with refpe@ to her breadth ; a deep hold, and, confequently, a fhort floor. timber, with a confiderable rifing. In order that a fhip may carry her guns well above the water, fhe muit have a long floor-timber, and not much rifing ; a full midfhip-frame ; .a low wing-tranfom ; and light upper works, - To obtain the preceding properties, very oppofite rules mult be followed ; and hence it appears to be almo® im- poffible to conftru& a thip fo as to be pofleffed of them all. The body, however, mult be fo formed, that as many of thefe properties may be retained as poflible ; always obferv. ing to give the preference to thofe which are moft required. Ifit is known what particular employment the fhip is wanted for, thofe qualities then are to be principally adhered to, which are moft effentially necefflary for that employment. Bottom, Copper, a practice row become pretty general in Britain, of covering the bottom with fheets of coppers which accelerates the failing of a hip, prevents the bottom from being worm-eaten, and keeps it long clean. It jis, therefore, neceflary, that fhips making long voyages, fhould be coppered. Borrom, Double; a thip of this kind was conftruéted by fir William Petty in the year 1663; which was found to fail confiderably fafter than any of the fhips with which it had an opportunity of bring tried. Her firft voyage was from Dublin to Holyhead ; and in her return, fhe turned into that na-row harbour againft wind and tide, among rocks - and fhips with fuch dexterity as many old feamen confeffed they had never feen the like. This veffel, with feventy more, were loft in a dreadful tempett. Bottom, Foul, that is, when the bottom of a fhip is cos vered with fheli-fifh, weeds, &c. This greatly retards the rate of a fhip, and prevents her from fteering and working ; and, befides, proves fometimes fatal. An inftance of this happened to a large built fhip from Africa, in this foul con+ dition, that could not be fleered into Liverpool, but was loft, entirely owing to her bottom not being ferubbed during the voyage. very poffible means ought, therefore, to be ufed to keep the fhip’s bottom clean. For this purpofe, a cafke fcrubber has been found to anfwer with fuccefs when at ans chor, and in calm weatheron the open ocean. This ferubber- is made of elm, about an inch thick, and a foot broad, the middie part of the frame jufl to fit a ten gallon cafk, that was Jathed to the battons at each end, and the long {quare {paces on each fide of the call were filled with birch-broom tuff, which projected about fix inches without the frame, and wedged fait towards the ends, with long wedges againtt boards that flide with {mall tennons at each end in a groove, to keep the birch falt and firm. Two of thefe were con- neéted together by iron-work, having a joint, that they may the more naturally ply to the curved or rounding parts of the thip’s bottom. In ufing this ferubber, a block was faftened under the bowfprit end, and another on the driver boom, rigged out right att; a fingle block is reeved in thefe blocks, aud made falt to ‘iat and jult long enough 2 te BOTTOM. to veer and haul the ferubber along the bottom fore and aft, clofe tothe keel. Another rope is bent to the lower part of the fcrubber, and hauled tight under the bottom, and made faft to the infide of the boat’s main-thwart, the upper part of the ferubber being even with the water’s edge, at midfhips, on the other fide. The people are then ordered to walk fore and aft with the rope to the {crubber, till it comes to the water’s edge both ways, the boat moving the fame way with the fcrubber, the people in her helping, by pufhmg their hands againft the fhip’s fide, till the firf depth is thought to be clean enough; then the people in the boat haul by their rope the ferubber a depth lower, by which, and the empty éaikes, it is confined and prefled to the bottom, at the different depths, till it is {crubbed down to the keel; and even the keel itfelf, by the rope going fore and aft under it. Bortom, Hogged, a concave keel by which the fheer of the fhip is apparently broken. Ships with long itraight floors are moit liable to this defe&t, either from accident, in taking the ground, improper ttowage of the cargo, or other- wife. To prevent this, Mr. Hutchinfon advifes to build fhips with their floors and bottoms lengthways, to form an arch with tbe projecting part downwards, which will na- turally not only contribute greatly to prevent their taking damage by their bottoms hogging and {training upwards, either aground or afloat, but will, among other advantages, be a help to their failing, fteering, ftaying, &c. This curved bottom is one of the principal properties of the life- boat. Bottom having feveral keels, which, upon account of the very different form of the bottom from the common form, requires a particular defcription. This is a propofal of Thomas Gordon, efq. of Premnay, in his Principles of Naval Archite&ture,” printed at Aberdeen in the year 1784, in order to unite the feveral properties of fhips, which has hitherto beea deemed impraéticable ; fuch as to make a fhip fail well, draw little water, keepa good wind, &c. For this purpofe the bottom, fays Mr. Gordon, fhould be formed quite flat, and the fides made to nfe perpendicular from it, without any curvature; which would not only render her more fteady, as being more oppofed to the water in rolling, but likewife more convenient for ftowage, &c., while the fimplicity of the form would contribute greatly to the eafe and expedition with which fhe might be fabricated. Though diminithing the draught of water is, ceterts paribus, undoubt- edly the mof effe€iual method of augmenting the velocity with which veflels go before the wind, yet, as it proportion- ably diminifhes their hold of the water, it renders them ex- tremely liable to be driven to leeward, and altogether inca- pable of keeping a good wind. This defect may, however, be remedied, in a fimp!e and effe€tual manner, by proportion- a'ly augmenting the depth of the keel, or, as fo large a keel would be inconvenient, on ntany accounts, proportionally in- crealing their number ; as, in place of adding a keel cight feet deep to a veflel drawing fix feet water, to affix to differ- ent parts ef her flat bottom, which would be well adapted for receiving them, fix different keels of two feet deep each, at equal diftances from each other, with proper intervals be- tween 5, which will be found equally effeétual for preventing thefe pernicious effe&ts. Thus then it appears, that a veffel drawing. eight feet water only, keels,and all, may be made to keep as gooda wind, or be as little iiable to be driven to leeward, as the fhaspeft built veflel of the fame length drawing fourteen, nay twenty feet or upwards, if a,few more keels are added, at-the fame time that fhe would be little more refifted in moving in the line of the keels, than a veflel drawing fix feet only. ‘Thefe keels, belides, would ttrengthen the veflel confiderably, : would render her more fteady, and lefs liable to be overfet, and thereby enable her to carry more fail, &c. WVeflels of this kind would likewife be well qualified for lying in docks and harbours when dry; and though the very quickelt failers of any, might be navigated in the fhalloweft water ; from which latter cireumftance many important advantages would refult, as running little danger from fand-banks, rocks, &e. being capable of riding in many bays, and entering many harbours, rivers and creeks inacceffible to others, whether as an afylum, or for the purpofes of trade or war ; for bombarding, or making defcents on an enemy’s coatt. By enlarging, perhaps doubling, the breadth of fhips, and forming thcir bottoms flat, and well furnifhed with keels, they mutt, in the firft place, become much fteadier, fo as to carry their guns well, roll little, if at all, and be enabled to carry greatly more fail, and that ina better direGtion ; at the fame time that they would be in no danger of being dif-, matted or overfet, unlefs the mafts were of amoftextraordinary height indeed. Secondly, that they could carry more guns: on their bow and ftern, would have little or no occafion for ballaft ; and if any was ufed, would incur lefs danger upon its: fhifting. Thirdly, that there would be much more room upon deck, as well as accommodation below, the breadth being fo much increafed without any diminution of the- height above the load-water line, and without occafioning any neceflary augmentation in the number of men for work- ing the veffel, &c. Thefe are the principal advantages of a fhip of this conftru€tion; Mr, Gordon, however, proceeds to enumerate othere. : Botrrom with fliding keels. See Suir with fliding, eels. Borrom, /fagged, the keel having a convex curvature. Long ftraight-fioored fhips are moft liable to be fagged, as: wellashogged. This defect arifes, in a great meafure, from loading the fhip with a weighty cargo, as lead,. iron-ore,: ftones, &c. and ftowing it in the main-body. of the fhip. This fagging of the bottom has, from experience, been found: to increafe the velocity ; but, on the othershand, the fhip is- generally in a leaky condition. The principal method of remedying this defect, is to diftribute the cargo more equably, fo that the upward and downward: preflures may nearly: counterbalance each other. This may be accomplifhed by. means of a form-gage; for an an account of whieh fee that article, Bottom, ¢o prevent from being worm-eaten. One of the belt remedies hitherto difcovered for preventing worms from deftroying the bottom of a fhip, feems to be the coal-tar, in- vented by the earl of Dundonald, and manufaGured at Cul- rofs in Scotland. By many comparative.trials, by finking, piles of wood for fome confiderable time in the water, fome of which were payed with coal tar, and the others with com- mon vegetable tar; it was feund that, in thofe payed with coal-tar not the leaft appearance of the worm could be traced,” the tar ftill remaining black and {mooth upon the wood, which, on being cut, emitted a ftrong fmell of the tars whereas, the other piles were. obferved to be full of worms. Some proofs of the efficacy of this tar will be inferted under the proper article. A mixture of the oil-of the cocoa-nut with lime has alfo . been ufed to pay the bottoms of fhips, in order to exclude worms. Borrom.is alfo ufed to denote. a whole. ship, or rather veflel. In this fenfe we fay Englifh bottoms, foreign bottoms. By the act of navigation, certain commodities imported in foreign bottoms, pay a duty called petty cuflom; from which they are exempt, if imported in Englith bottoms. Borrom \ BOT Borrow is alfo ufed for what remains at the bottom of a veffel. In this fenfe, Paracelfus calls the fediment of urine, Borrom-Sfonz, a kind of iron-ftone, or ore, in the Staf- ford(hire mines. Botrtrom-Nails. See Nart. . BOTTOMRY, in Navigation and Commerce, is a con- tra, in the nature of a mortgage of a fhip, on which the owner borrows money, to enable him to ft out the fhip, or to purchafe a cargo for a voyage propofed ; and pledges the keel or dottom of the thip (partem pro toto), as a fe- curity for the re-payment. It is moreover ftipulated, that if the hhip be lolt, in the courfe of the voyage, by any of the perils enumerated in the contrac, the lender alfo hall ‘lofe his money ; but if the fhip fhould arrive in fafety, then he fhall receive back his principal, and alfo the intereft agreed upon, generally called the “‘ Marine Intereft,” how- ever this may exceed the legal rate of intereft. The perfon of the borrower, as well as the fhip and tackle, if they are rive fafe, are anfwerable for the money lent, and the ma- rine intereft. But if the loan is not upon the fhip, but upon the goods and merchandize, which mutt neceflarily be fold or exchanged, in the courfe of the voyage, then enly the borrower, perfonally, is bound to an{wer the con- tra@; who is therefore, in this cafe, faid to take up money at “* Re/pondentia.”” Bottomry is a loan upon the fhip, and refpondentia upon the goods. However, in the letter cafe, the perfonal refponfibility of the borrower is not always the only fecurity of the lender. If the money be lent for the outward and homeward voyage, the goods of the bor- rower on board, and the returns for them, either in moncy, or in other goods, purchafed with the proceeds of them, are liable to the lender. The money is to be repaid to the lender, with the marine intereft, upon the fafe arrival of the fhip, in the one cafe, and of the goods, in the other. Such are the leading circumftances that difcriminate thefe two contraéts ; in all other refpets, they are nearly the fame, and are governed by the fame principles. This ind of contraét by bottomry, or rather refponden- tia, was known ‘to the Romans; they denominated it, pauticum foenus,” or “ contradtus trajeAtitie pecuniz ;’” and it is treated of, both in the Digelt, and the Code, # De nautico foenere.”? They called the fum lent, ‘* pecu- ma trajettitia,”” perhaps, becaufe the borrower was accuf- tomed to take the money on board with him in fpecie, in ordcr to employ it in trade, in the courfe of the voyage ; which money was to be repaid, after a fortunate voyage, with a ftipulated intereft, called “ periculi pretium ;”’ and fometimes, “ ufura maritima,’’ or * ufura nautica ;’”? but it was lent on this condition, that if the fhip fhouid be loft, by the of the fea, in the courfe of the voyage, the lender fhould lofe both pritcipal and intereft. Bottomry effentially differs from a fimple loan: becaufe, in a loan the moncy is at the rifk of the borrower, and muft be paid at all events; but in bottomry, it is at the rifk of the lender during the voyage. Accordingly, upon a loan, the legal intereit only can be referved; whereas, upon bottomry, any intereft may be legally referved, which is agreed upon between the parties. he contra&ts of bottomry and infurance refemble one another in feveral particulars; the lender and the infurer are alike liable to the perils of the fea; the former receives the marine iotereft, and the latter the premium, as the Saige of the rifk, which of coorfe varies, according to the ength, and danger of the voyage. The perils to which both are expofed, commence and terminate together. The marine, aid: alfo the premium of infurauce, are not due, if BOT no rifk be run, though this be prevented by the voluntary act of the borrower. Thefe contra&ts, however, materi- ally ciffer in a variety of refpets. In bottomry, the lender {upplies the borrower with money, to purchafe the goods that are rifked ; but an infurer furnifhes no part of the pro- perty infured. The lender, in taking on himfelf the rifk of the goods, does not contra& any obligation to the bor- rower; a lofs by the perils of the fea does not make him a debtor to the borrower, but only prevents the borrower from becoming his debtor; whereas, in cafe of lofs, the infurer becomes a debtor to the infured, to the amount of fuch lofs, not exceeding the fum infured. In cafe of fhip- wreck, the lender, by the general law, has a /ien onthe effects faved, to the extent of the fum lent, andthe marine intereft, to the exclufion of the borrower 3 whereas, an in- fured perfon has an interelt in the effeéts faved, in common with the infurer, fo far as he was uninfured. The lender is not liable for particular average; but the infurer is liable for this, unlefs he be exempt by exprels ftipulation. By the claufe, ‘“ free of average,’? infurers may be ex- empted from general average; but, in a cafe where the lender is liable by law to general average, fuch a claufe would be illegal and void. If the voyage be divilible into- feveral diftin&t rifks, the premium of 5 le may be ap- portioned to each, and there may be a return for fuch as have not been begun; but in bottomry, if the rifks be once commenced, and no lofs happen, the marine intereft muft be paid entire. j ‘This coatra& is eminently ufeful in a country, where per-- fons in trade have not capital fufficient to carry on their foreign commerce ; and by means of it a kind of partnerfhip is formed between the lender and the borrower, in which one fupplies money, and the other fkill, experience, and a {pirit Lee map! in which one rifks the perils of the fea, and the other compenfates him by a fhare of the profits of the adventure. But in other refpe&ts this contract bears no- refemblance to a partnerfhip, as it has no community of ca- pital nor any community of lofs. Formerly contraéts of this kind were more common in this country than they are now; becaufe the immenfe capitals engaged in every branch of commerce [uper{ede the neceflity of fuch loans. On this account money is. now feldom bor rowed in this manner, unlefs it be by the mafters of foreign fhips, who, being in our ports, need pecuniary affiftance to refit, to pay their men, to purchafe provifions, &c. or by. officers and others belonging to fhips engaged in long” voyages, who are allowed to trade to a certain extent with the profpe&t of great profit, but without capitals of their own; in this cafe, though it now feldom occurs in this coun- try, they take up money on refpondentia to make their in- vellments. This contra&, required to be always in writing, -is fome~ times made in the form of a deed poll, called a * bill of bot- tomry,”’ executed by the borrower; fometimes in-the form of abond or obligation, witha penalty. But whatever may- be its form, it muft contain the names of the lender and the borrower, thofe of the fhip and mafter; the fum lent, with the ftipulated marine intereft; the voyage propofed, with the duration of the rifk: and it muft alfo fpecify, whether the money be lent on the fhip, or on the goods on board, or on both ; together with any other ftipulation agreed by the parties to be introduced into the contract. It is alfo effential to this contraét, that the marine intcrelt be exprelsly referved in it. Concerning the parties in this contract we obferve, that any perfon, who is capable of contra&t, may lend money on bottomry. Any perfon, who has a velted affiguable pro- perty BOTTOMRY. 4 perty in a fhip or cargo, may borrow money on bottomry or refpondentia, to the extent of his intereft. ‘whe contract itfelf feems to have originated from the praGtice of permitting the matter of 2 fhip, ina foreign country, to hypothecate the fhip, in cafes of neceffity, for the purpofe of raifing money to refit; and, indeed, it is neceffary for the fafety of the fnip, and in order to enfure the fuccefs of the voyage, that the mafter, in the abfeice of the owners, fhould have this power, implied by the marine law in his appointment. However, with refpe&t to the purpofes of this contraét, he pofleffes no fuch power, till he becomes atually mafter, or as fsr as this bufinefs is concerned, till after he fets fail. Hence, if he borrows money on bottomry in the place where the owners refide, without their exprefs authority, the a& can only concern himfelf, and affe& his own intercft on board. In a foreign country, and in the abfence of the owners, the mafter cannot raife eny money on bottomry for any debt of his own, but merely for the ufe of the fhip, in cafes of ne- ceffity ; and this neccffity muit appear in the written contract, or elfe the lender will have neither a /en on the fhip, nor an aGtion again{t the owners; the mafter alone being liable. Never helefs the lender is not bound to look to the application of the money, but may have his action againft the owners and his /ien on the fhip, without being obliged to prove that the money was properly applied, unlefs indeed he be an ac- complice in any fraudulent mifapplication of it; in which cafe the owners may impeach the contract upon that ground. As an infurance upon any trade with the enemies of the ftate in time of waris void, the lending of money upon bottomry is illegal. As to the articles hypothecated, they may he the body, ‘tackle, furniture, and provifions of the fhip, the whole or any pait of the cargo, or both fhip and cargo. On refpon- dentia, indeed, money may be borrowed without hypothe- cating any thing ; and the borrower may take money on board with him in fpecie, for the purpofe of employing it in trade, during the courfe of the voyage. But it is eflen- tial to the nature of the contract, that the money lent, or fome equivalent to it, be expofed to the perils of the fea, at the rifk of the lender. The fame reafons of policy which forbid gaming infurances, equally apply to wagers in the form of bottomry loans. The mifchiefs likely to refult from this praGlice have been reftrained by our legiflature. Ac- cordingly the ftatute 16 C. II. c. 6. re-enacted and made perpetual by 22 C. II. c. 11. § 12. after reciting ‘ that matters and mariners of fhips, having infured, or taken upon bottomry, greater fums of money than the value of their ad- venture, do wilfully caft away, burn, or otherwife deftroy the fhip under their charge, to the great lofs of the mer- chants and owners,’ enaéts, for future prevention of the fame, “thet if any captain, mafter, mariner, or other officer belonging to any fhip, fhall wilfully caft away, burn, or otherwife deltroy the fhip to which he belongs, or pro. cure the fame to be done, he fhall fuffer death as a felon.” When this {pecies of gaming came into ufe in England, and perfons borrowed money “ on the voyage,” as it was called, without any interefl in the fhip or cargo, which they could hypothecate, the ttatute 19 Geo. II. c. 37. § 5. dire&ted, that upon Eaft India voyages the money fhould only be lent ov the fhip or goods on board, with benefit of falvage to the lender. ‘As many Britifh fubjects, in the reign of George I. fitted out thips, and clandeftinely traded to the Eaft Indies under colour of foreign commiifions, the ftatute 7 Georl.c. 21. § 2. made to reftrain thefe pra@tices, and to prote€t the monopoly of the Eaft India company, de- clares, ‘* that all contra€ts and agreements, made or entered into by avy of his majcfly’s fubje€ts, or any perfon or per- fons in truft for them, for the loan of any money, by way of . bottomry, on any fhip or fhips in the fervice of foreigners, . and bound to, or defizned to trade in, the Eaft Indies, fhall - be void.”” This claufe exprefsly, and in the moft unquali-, fied terms, reftrains the lending of money on bottomry, on any fhip or fhips in the fervice of foreigners. But whether a fhip, the property of Britifh fubje&s, fitted out by them,, and jaden with their merchandize, can be faid to be’in the. fervice of foreigners, merely becaufe fhe is furnifhed with a commiffion from a foreign ftate, isa queftion upon which there has not yet been any judicial decifion, Freight may , be both infured and hypothecated upon a bottomry con-; traét. Seamen may borrow money on any goods which they have on board; but with refpe& to their wages, they can neither infure them nor borrow money upon them, As to the rate of marine intereft, Juftinian, who, in ordi- nary cafes prohibited the centefima, or one per cent. per month, or 12 fer cent. per annum, allowed it in this contraét, and forbade any higher intereft. But in mcdern times, when commerce is carried on between countries remote from one another, it is impoffible to fix any precife ftandard by which this may be regulated. The pete of marine intereft, however exorbitant it may feem, is allowed by courfe both of law and equity ; nor can it be deemed ufury, provided the, money lent be dond fide put in rifk. ‘This intereft com- mences with the rifk, and alfo terminates with it. But if the time of the contract be a fixed period at a itipulated rate, and the voyage be performed within that peried, the marine intereft for the whole period will be due; but if the voyage exceed that period, the rif of the lender will ceafe, and the debt become obfolete, though the voyage fhould not be ended. The rifk alfo will ceafe, if the fhip has been pre- vented by unavoidable accident from performing her voyage within the time limited. -Upon the ceffation of the fea-riflc, if the borrower delays the payment, common intereft begins to run on the principal, exclufive of the marine intereft,, “ ip/o gure,’”? without any demand. ; ‘The perils of the fea, which conftitute the rifk of the lender, comprehend all thofe accidents and misfortunes to which fhips at fea are liable, and which no human forefight or precaution can prevent. Accordingly contraéts on bot- tomry and refpondentia exprefsly provide, that ‘if, in the courfe of the voyage, and within the time:prefcribed, an utter lofs of the fhip by fire, enemies, men of war, or any, other cafualtics, fhall unavoidably happen,”? the bond fhall, be void, and the borrower difcharged; fo that the perils are nearly the fame with thofe to which the under-writers upon a policy of infurance are liable. A lofs by pirates, though not ufually expreffed in fecurities of this kind, is included in the rifk. Nothing, however, but a total lofs will difcharge the borrower; and the obligation remains, notwithftanding, any damage which the goods may fuftain by the perils of the fea; nor is there any deduction on account of fuch damage. In this refpect the lender on bottomry is ina bet- ter fituation than aninfurer, who is obliged to indemnify the infured, to the extent of the fum infured, from all damage. arifing from any of the perils againit which the infur- ance is made. No capture or detention, that does not. amount to a total lofs, in a cafe of infurance, can difcharge the borrower. Lord Mansfield, in delivering the opinion of, the court, in a cafe of this kind, faid, ** It is:clear, that by the law of England, upon a bottomry contraG, there is neither average nor falvage.”? But the lender is not liable for lofs proceeding from the internal defect of the thing that is hypothecated, unlefs by exprthe lender liable for every lofs not occafioned by the a& of the borrower. Nor is the lender liable for any lofs by -fmuggling, which occafious a forfeiture of the fhip, anda ,confifcation of the goods, {unlefs he was privy to it. In England, if the money were lent to be employed in a trade , paners by law, the contra& would be void; and the fum ent could never be recovered from the borrower, even thouzh ro lofs had happeced. ‘The lender, like an infurer, is ouly an{werable for lofles that happen within the time and place of the rifk, {pecified in the contra@;, and, there- fore, if the thip deviate from the voyage, without neceffity, neither the lender nor the infurer will be liable to any lofs that may afterwards happen. (SeeIxsurance.) If the fhip be preffed into the king’s fervice, this will excufe a de- viation; but if the borrower allege a deviation; this mutt be explicitly denied. A change of the fhip, without neceflity, difcharges the lender. Money is generally lent for the whole voyage, outward and homeward; or for either fepa- rately; or fora limited time. The contrat ufually {peci- fies the commencement and end of the rifk ; and any misfor- tune, happening before or after, is at the rif of the bor- rower. If the voyage be defcribed in the bond, but the _ time of the commencement and end of the rifk be not {peci- fied, the rifk, as to the fhip, fhall commence from the time of her fettiog fail, and continue till fhe anchors in fafety at -her port of deftination; and as to goods, from the time of their/being thipped till they are fafely landed. When the lean upon goods is both for the outward and homeward voyages, the lender continues liable to the mfk, during the -homeward voyage, on the goods by which thole have been . replaced on which the money was lent. Between infurance and bottomry there is this difference ; . that an infurer, independently of previous ftipulation to the contrary, is liable to the charge of particular average, whereas, a lender withovt exprefs ftipulation is exempt from it: but, by the general law of merchante,.in cale of grofs or general average, the lender thall contribute to dif. charge the borrower; and it is maintained by fome writers, @hat the matere and object of the bettomry contraGs feem to require, that the leader thould be liable for general aver- age. Lord Mansfield, however, as we have already ob- ferved, ise of “opinion, that, by the law of England, there is nether average nor falvage upon fuch contracts; and in this opinion lord Kenyon concurs. But ferjeant Marbhall obferves, that he has not been able to difcover any de.aded cafe, or authority ia the law, to warranc this dac- trine. He aliodifients from another learned writer, (Park, ) who thinks, that the flat. 19 Geo. Il. c. 37. §.§-- which wides, that cle benefit of faivage fhall be allowed to the ender, on Eaft Indja voyages, conclulively proves, that there was neither average nor falvage upon bottomry con- traéts at common faw.. Mr. Marthell is of opinion, that this ftatute has. not introduced any sew principle into the law, cither of infurance or bottomry contraéts;, but merely reftored them to their original and proper ufe, from which a fpirit of gaming had perverted them. Nogtcan he admit, that, becaule the ftatute gives the benefit of falvage to the lender upon Eaft India voyages, he was not therefore en- titled to this at common law... But admitting this-to be the _ cafe; does it hence follow, that he was not lable to general BOT averagéxt common law? The ffatute makes no mention of general average. It has been determined, however, that if an iafurance be made in England, upon a refpondentia in- terel, upon aforeign fhip, and it appears that the lender is liable, by. the law of the country, to which the fhip belongs, to contribute to a gencral average, the under-writers upon the policy will be liable for fuch contribution. As the flatute 19 Geo. II. c, 17. gives the benefit of falvage to lenders on bottomry, and ref{pondentia fecurities, reftricted to Eaft India voyages, it has been a fubje& of inquiry, whether, before that act, the lender upon any voyage was entitled to the benefit of falvage. _ By the ge- neral law-of merchants, the event upoa which the borrower is difcharged, is-the total lofs of the fhip or goods, upon which the money. is lent, in confsquence »f the perils men- tioned in the contrat. The borrower is bound to pay principal and marine intereft, provided the fhip or goods, on which the money is lent, arrive at its deflined port, however damaged or depreciated, by the perils of the fea; neverthelefs, if part fhould be captured or loft, the bor- rower is only bound to pay in proportion to what remains. If the fhip be loft, and the goods faved, the contract re- mains in force, and the borrower becomes liable, provided avother fhip can be procured to convey the goods to the place of their deftination, But for the expence of this other veffel, the lender is accountable ; and if no other can be procured, the borrower will be difcharged, on account- ing to the lender for the proceeds of the goods faved. By the law of England, according to the opinion of lord Mansfield, already cited, ‘¢ there is neither falvage noraver- age upon bottomry contraéts:”? however, without the be- nefit of falvage, this contraé mutt partake, ina great de- gree, of the nature of a wager, even when the money is lent upon goods on board, of equal value.. In cafe ofa total lofs-of the fhip, the lenderlofes all, though all the goods are faved: Blackit. Comm. vol. ii. p, 457. Mar- fhall on the [.aw of Infurance, vol. ii. b.ii. p. 632. Bortomry, Jill of, is acontraét between two perfons, the one: borrowing, and the other lending a {um of money, by which the borrower, fetting forth his intention to makea voyage in a certain fhip therein named, acknowledges the re- ceipt of a certainfum of money from the lender, on this condition, that if the fhip does happily perform her voyage, without any difafter by enemics or otherwife, then he is to reftore that fum to the lender, with an additional fum, therein expreffed, for the intere(t, within a certain time after his return; but that if the fhip be loft, or taken by enemies - or pirates, then the perfon of the borrower to be for ever difcharged, avd the lender to bear the lofs. For the form of fuch a bill by deed, and when the thip is to go to feveral ports, fee Marfhall’s T'reatife on the Law & Infurance, vol. ii, Appendix, p. 718. See Borromay. BOTTONI, Acsertus, in Biography, of an illullrious family, originally from Parma, was born at Padua, inthe early part of the 16th century. Afcer pafling through the ufual fehoo! education, in which he dittinguithed hinflf, he applied to the fludy of medicine, took the degree of Doétor, and was foon after advanced to the chair of pro- feffor in that faculty, which he filed many years, with fin- gular credit. He died at avery advanced age, in 1546, Jeaving. behiad him, Haller fays, an wmmenfe properiy. He publithed, ‘* De vita confervanda,”” Patav.. 1582. 4to. ‘6 De morbis muliebribus,” 1535, reprinted in the colleQions of Bauhine and of Spachius, ‘* Methodi medicinales dux, in quibua legitima medendi ratio traditur.”’ Francof 1594. 8vo. For the titles of other publications by this author, lec Flaller Bib. Med, Eloy. Dict, Tutt, Bortoniy, BOT Bortox1, Dominique, the fon of Nicholas Bottoni, e celébrated philofopher and phyfician of Lentini, in Sicily, horn the 6th of O&ober 1641, received his education under ‘Peter Caftello. In 1658, he was admitted to the degree of doétor in medicine, 2nd was foon after made phyfician to the marquis De Villa Franca, viceroy of Sicily, phyfician to the royal hofpital of Meffina, and fuperintendant of the phyficians there, with a penfion of 50 crowns per month. “He afterwards enjoyed a fimilar fituation under the viceroy of Naplee. In i697, he was made correfponding or hono- rary member of the Royal Society of London, to which “he had previoufly fent his ‘* Idea hiftorico-phyfica de magno trinacriz terre motu,’? which is publifhed in their tranfac- tions. We have alfo by this writer ** Pyrologia topogra- phica, id eft, de igne differtatio, juxta loca, cum eorum de- {criptione,”” Neapoli, 1692, 4to. “ Febris rheumatice ma- lignz, hiftoria medica,” Meflina, 1712, Svo. ‘ Preferve falutari contro il contagiofo malore,” Meflina, 1621, 4to, He died about the year 731. Eloy. Dié&. Hitt. BOTTONO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the ‘duchy of Parma; 9 miles S.S.E. of Parma. BOTTRYS, in Botany. See CHENoPopDiuM. BOTRYTIS. See Byssus. BOTTS, in Zoology, bots and horfeworms. See Ors- tTRus genus, and fpecies Equi, Bovis, Hamorruoipatis, Vererinus, Ovis. Thefe are a peculiar kind of grub, found not unfrequently in the ftomach of the horfe, of a cylindrical figure, pointed at one extremity, and ob- tufe at the other, and befet every where with numerous rigid fpines. There are at leaft two different kinds inha- biting the ftomach of the horfe, which at length produce, on their arriving at maturity, a two-winged infeét of the ‘fly kind. Befides thofe of the horfe, there are others of a diftin& kind, but belonging to the fame family, which live in their grub ftate under the fin of the backs of oxen, the deer, and the rein-deer ; and others, again, occupy for a dwelling the frontal cavities of the head of the fheep, and cells at the bafe of the horns; and others inhabit alfo the fame fituations in ‘tthe deer. They exift on the pus and lymph they create on thefe membranes by their irritatiofi; and when full fed, they fall to the earth, and undergo the ufual transformations of other infects. : The inacceffible fituations of thefe animals in their Jarva ‘ftate, and the impoflibility of rafing them out of thofe fitua- tions, has been the caufe, probably, of their biftory having fo long remained in the greatelt obfcurity. They have been generally confidered by the vulgar as true worms of the inteftines, and fimilar in their origin to other worms of the inteftinal canal, than which nothing can be ‘more untrue. The following is a concife detail of what is at prefent Known refpeéting them ; the account purfuing nearly the order in which the difcoveries have been made. The firft who Jaboured to unveil the hidden and extraordinary economy of thefe animals was Vallifnieri, an Italian of Padua, and the pupil of Malpighi. Before his time, the moft abfurd notions pre- vailed refpeGiing them. ‘The Romans, who had feen them ‘hanging to the extremity of the rectum of the horfe, be- lieved them to be pieces of the inteftine itfelf torn away by the worms and animals exifting within them: and Ve- getius has thus defcribed them; ‘* Hujufmodi paffionis fig- num eft (morbus coriagino{us,) cum invenitur humor in ano fabe coz fimilis: eft namque fanies ex illis- vulneribus que bettiole intrinfecus fecerunt.’? Vallifnieri, in his firft eflay, defcribed the changes of the oefrus bovis ; giving indifferent ‘figures of them, and tracing them fromthe back of the ox BOT to the perfe& ftate of a fly. This eflay was publifhed foon after the year 1700. Indeed, all that is known refpeQing them-was difcovered within the limits of the laft century. The next effay developes the hiftory of the ocfrus ovis, or of that infe&t which is found infefting the nottrils and cavi- ties of the face of the fheep; and ina fubfequent volume (ed. Venezia, vel. ii. p, 1633.), he publifhed his obfervations on the botts of the,horfe. He was embarraffed by the great difference he found in the appearance of the botts of the fto- mach; and hardly knew whether to attribute it to a differ~ ence of fex, of feeding, or of their being two diftinét kinds, which fubfequent difcoveries have fully confirmed to be the cafe, His figures of themare very obfcure, and ill exprefled, fo much fo that it requires an eye accuftomed to the appear- ance of thefe infects, at all to identify them. They are, however, without doubt, defigned to reprefent the ve. equi and ce. hemorrhoidalis. The next labourer in this obfcure path of natural hiftory, was the celebrated Reanmur, vol. iv. p. 503. of the “ Me- moires pour l’Hiltoire des Infectes.”” He repeated all the experiments of Vallifnieri refpeéting the above three fpecies, and fully confirmed all he had faid refpeGting them ; ac- companying his account with ample details of their ap- pearance and hahits, and his detcriptions with much better reprefentations of them than his predeceflor. Ma- dame de Breauté, an abbefs, in whofe praifes he fufficiently eniarges, at length furnifhed him with an opportunity of getting the /arve of the oc. bovis from fome of the cows be- longing to her convent; and on them he made his obferva- tions. Among other remarks, in this interefting memoir, he mentions, that by a fingular chance he obferved a line of {mall air-bubbles arranged alozg the fide of the infe&t, and placed oppolite to the {piracula, being entangled in the pus, which every where covered its furface, and correfponding in number and pofition to thefe openings; which would feem_ to prove that thefe fpiracule are defigned, not for the ad- miffion of air, as is generally conceived, but in reality for its exit; the air being received by a cartilaginous tube open- ing at one end of the infe&t, viz. that extremity which is placed next the external opening of the fkin, and which be- comes the tail part of the future infect, the larva being, in reality, inverted in the abfcefs. He very candidly obferves, however, that he could not force any air through thefe aper- tures, by holding the larva under water, and comprefling it with the fingers, Heaifo noticed, that the opening in the fkin, through which the larva breathes and evacuates, is confiderably enlarged about the period of its exit, by the animal raifing itfelf in the abfcefs, and preffing againit it; and after fome days of this difcipline, the aperture being enlarged, he works him- felf through by fucceffive efforts, and falls to the ground. This excellent obferver particularly mentions alfo their launching themfelves from the back of the arimal at an early hour of the morning in preference to any other part of the day. ° The perfe& infe&, he obferves, could not be induced to take any kind of food or nourifhment, though he prefented it with a great variety; a circumitance, indeed, that is not fo much to be wondered at, fince a large fhare of the infe& world appear to pafs the laft ftage of their lives, not only without food, but without organs for receiving it. Gene- ration would appear to be the leading purpofe of this ftate of their exiftence. It is particularly worthy of remark, as it may be the means of exciting thofe who may be poffeffed of the oppor- tunity to farther refearch, to make mention of the recitals given by this celebrated obferver in another memoir (vol. v. - p: 66.) BOTTS. “sp. 86.}, where he deferibes the larve found in the cavities ‘of the face of the itag; and it is evident that they are widely different from thole inhabiting the fame place in the fheep, or indeed from any other fpecies at prefent known. ‘He did not fucceed in his attempts to breed the fly from thefe larvz ; and we are therefore in the dark reipecting this infe&t ; and, unlefs it be the oeffrus na/alis of Linneus, which, on feveral accounts. it does net appear probable that it is, it muft be a new fpecies. : Reanmur feems fully to have believed the abfurd doGrine -Of Vallifnieri, that the parent fly entered aétually into the nofirils and fauces to depofit its eggs, of which we fhall have eceafion to fpeak hereafter more: particularly. Next to the works of Reaumur, in this line of refearch, follow the writings of baron De Geer, who has followed and confirmed the difcoveries of Vallifnieri and Reaumur, without adding any thing of importance to their obferva- tions. He feems alfo to entertain, without hefitation, the opinion of Vallifnieri, that the ocfrus equi enters the rectum to depofit its eggs. We find, however, that he was aware that Lisneus, under the title ez. Lowis, had confounded two diftine {pecies. He alfo erroneoufly appears to have confidered the oe. bovis and Aemorrhoidalis as one {pecies, being deceived by the circumftance of their defcription, which, as to colours, is very fimilar. Lianeus next, by the extraordinary concifenefs of his writings, feemed to fatirize the erormous details in the na- tural hiftorians of the preceding age, whofe works were rapidly becoming tee voluminous even for perufal. On moft ccafions he brought what wes important to be known avithin the narrow limits ef a few Latin phrafes well ex- prefied. He marfhalled, for the firft time, the f{cattered amembers of this extraordinary race under the common fa- mily title of-ceffrus. | He, however, was only acquainted with five fpecies, all European ; bovis, tarandt, hemorrhoi- dalis, nafalis, and ovis. His {pecitic characters are very appropriate ; and we {hall have occafion, in enumerating the {pecies at prefent known, at the conclufion of this general account, to give them nearly as he had done. Fabricius next added to this family three more fpecies ; the oc. buccaius, oc. pecorum, oc. trompe. Defcribing from cabinets, without entering into their hiftory, has been the fource of the greateft confufion. His oe. witu/i is a mere wariety of the equi ; and the Linnzan dovis, which is the commoneft {pecies, feems to be altogether omitted in his enumeration. Gmelin next occurs; and, collating from all quarters, without any acquaintance with the animals themfelves, has added three more f{pecies, which he believes to be new, from the works of profeffor Pallas. ‘Thefe are indicated by the names of antilopa, fafeiculofus, aud hominis. The Emopean fpecies, efpecially thofe that infeft our cattle, horfes, and theep, in Great Britain, being the moft interefting, we fhall proceed to illuftrate the moit curious eircumftances of their hiftory, and barely mention the names of the reft, and the animals and country they inhabit. Linnzus, through the whole courfe of his life, had never met with the true fly produced by the ox-bot, but had con- flantly taken a diffimilar one which infefts the horfe for it, Indeed, this infe& is truly rare. Vallifnieri had never feen but one, and that was mutilated. Reaumur, with un- common pains, had raifed two or three to the perfeét {late of a fly, cad informs us, that to effect his purpofe more com- pletely, he employed acow-herd to colleé& tor him, promi- ng him the price of half a day’s labour for each he fhould Breg 5 but out of thicty procured by this means not onc . Vor. V lived. The cow-keeper, no doubt, too eager for his re- ward, had preffed them with his fingers from their fitua- tions under the fkin, before they were perfeétly ripe and full fed; in which cafe they would certainly all perifh, even though within a day of this period. There is only one good {pecimen of this infect that we know of in England, even at this time, which is in the col- leGion of Mr. Thomas Allen, and was taken from the back of a cow near Hampton court. By rare chance we took another of thefe in che Alps, between Salanche and Bonne- ville, after obferving it to fettle on fome dung that lay in the road where fome cattle had recently pafled, and which, on our return through Germany, we prefented to the venerable and very refpectable profeflor D. Schreber of Erlang, the intimate friend and pupil of Linneus, who, we were fur- prized to find, till that time had not feen it. Nothing is, however, more eafy than to procure thefe infe&ts by the fimple means we formerly ufed, and the de- tail of which may not be unacceptable to the public, efpe- cially to thofe who wifh to fee them from curiofity, or from a defire to procure them for their cabinets, During the lat- ter months of the fummer, at which time thefe larve are moit frequently found of a mature age, and ready to quit their habitations, which is difcoverable by the fuperior fize of the tumor, and by the increafed diameter of the external opening in the fkin ; feleGting fuch as thefe, the hairs are to be removed with a pair of fciffars to fome little diftance from the tumor, and a piece of leather thickly {pread with pitch, through the centre of which a hole is cut, and into this is inferted a {mall gauze pouch or bag ; the pitched leather is now placed on the fkin, to which it readily adheres, and the infect, when it falls from the abfcefs, is caught by the bag, where, as it cannot efcape, it remains till removed by the perfon who looksafter them. ‘Three larvz, procured in this way, produced two flies in very good condition: one fled away during fome experiments tone we were making with its the other was given to Mr. Allen, as above ftated, after draw- ings had been made of it for the ufe of the Linnean fociety. e are now under the neceflity of adverting to a {mall communication fent to the Linnzan fociety by the writer of this article, in the year 1796, and publifhed in the third volume of their Tranfaétions, p. 289, as this memoir con- tains fome farther obfervations and difcoveries than thofe which had fallen within the notice of Vallifnieri and Reaumur, we {hall briefly extract from them what is new or ufeful. Page 291. “ The larva of the oeffrus bovis is very unlike the other larvz of this genus, fo much fo that I did not imagine, till I had procured the fly from it, that it was the larva of an oeffrus. It neither poffeffes the aculei, the lips, or the marginal feta, which are the prominent characters of the larva of the oe. equi and hemorrhoidalis. When young, the larva is {mooth, white, and tranfparent ; as it enlarges, it becomes browner ; and about the time it is full grown, it is totally of adeep brewn colour, having numerous dots on its furface, difpofed in tranfverfe interrupted lines pafling round the fegments. ‘Two diftinét and different kinds of lines are feen on each fegment ; the uppermolt of them is narrower, and confifts of larger dots. Underneath thefe there is 2 broader line, and the dots fmaller. The firft are ealily feen, by ufing the lens, to be reat hooks bent upwards, or towards the tail of the infeét ; and on examining the broader line of {mall dots, with a tolerably powerful magnifier, they were found alfo to be real hooks turned in an oppofite direction to the former, that is, downwards in the abfcefs, and to- wards the head of the infect, ‘his fingular arrangement of books round the body of the larva, in this initance, ferve the purpofe of legs in other larvie, enabling it to move shout P m BOTTS. in the-abfcefs at pleafure, and to crawl out of it when ripe, and renders the ufe of the tentacula, obfervable at the {mall end in the other fpecies, not neceffary in this. “ Thefe hooks, being ereted by the muicles of the kin, according to the feries of them ufed by the larva, it appears to be raifed or depreffed in the abfcefs ; and by this motion, and the confequent irritation, a more or lefs copious fecre- tion of pus is produced for the fuftenance of the larva. The chryfalides continued in that ftate from about the latter end of Jane till about the middle of Auguit, when the fly, fore- ing open a very fingular marginated triangular lid, or ofer- culum, at the {mall end, made its appearance. « Although its effects on the cattle are fo often remarked, yet the fly itfelf is rarely feen or taken, as the attempt would be attended with confiderable danger, if in purfuit of the oxen. The pain it infli€ts in depofiting itseggs, appears to be very fevere. When one of the cattle is attacked by this fly, it is eafily-known by the extreme terror and agitation of the whole herd. The unfortunate obje@ of the attack runs bellowing from among them to fome diftant part of the heath, or the.neareft water. ‘The tail, from the feverity of the pain, is held with a tremulous motion ftraight from the body ; and the head and neck itretched out to the utmoft. The reft, from fear, generally follow to the water, or dif- perfe to different parts of the field. « Whien the oxen are yoked to the plough, the attack of this fly is attended with real danger to the drivers: fince they become perfeétly uncontrolable, and will often run with the plough direéily forwards through the hedges, or what- ever obftruéts their way. , « There is provided, on this account, to many ploughs a contrivance immediately to fet them at liberty. The fingu- lar fcene attending the attack of this fly on the herd, has often been the fubjeét of poetical defcription ; no one has, however, more naturally or elegantly delineated it than the bard of Mantua : “ Eft lucos filari circa ilicibufque virentem Plurimus alburnum volitans cui nomen afilo Romanum eft, oeftron Graii vertere vocantes : Afper, acerba, fonans: quo tota exterrita fylvis Dilfugiunt armenta; furit mugitibus ether Concuflus, fylveque, et ficci ripa Tanagri.” Georg. lib. iii. ver. 146—151. « The ftrongeft and healthieft beafts feem conftantly to be preferred by this fly ; and their pofleffing them in their backs is confidered’as a criterion of goodnefs with the dealers in cattle ; and the tanners obferve, that their beft and ftrong- eft hides have the greateft number of bot-holes in them. «© The whole of this family of infeéts appear to have a flrong diflike to moifture ; fince the animals find a fecure re- fuge, when they get into a pond or brook, where the other flies which annoy them, follow without hefitation, but the oeftri rarely or never; and during very cold, rainy, or windy weather, they are not to be feen. : «« Among the country-people, the larve of this infe& are commonly known by the name of warbles, wornuls, or wormuls, or more-properly bots.’? We now tranferibe from the above memoir what is moft worthy of notice refpecting the oefrus equi, or large horfe- bot. «¢ Thefe larve attach themfelves to every part of the fto- mach, but are in general moft numerous about the pylorus, and are fometimes, though much lefs frequently, found in the inteftines. They hang moft commonly in clufters; being fixed by the fmall end to the inner membrane of the éto- mach, where they adhere by means of two{mall hooks ortenta- cula. When removed from the ftomach, they will attach themfelves to any loofe membrane, and even to the fkin of the: hand ; for this purpofe, they draw back their hooks.almofs entirely within the fkin, till the two points of thefe hooks come clofe to each other; they then prefent them to the membrane, and keeping them parallel till it is pierced through, they expand them in a lateral direétion ; and af- terwards, by bringing the points downwards, or towards themfelves, they include a fufficieat piece of the membrane with each hook, and thus remain firmly fixed, for any length of time, without any farther exertion from the animal. «< All thofe bots which feed on the mucous membranes lining the canals of the body, are provided with thefe tenta- cula; whilft thofe which inhabit beneath the fkin, will be found univerfally without them. The oeltrus of the fheep has them alfo, but ufes them only in paffing over the membranes on which it lives, making them a fixed point to which it draws up its body, and thus fecures its paflage along thofe fmooth and lubricated furfaces of the noftrils. ‘«¢ The larva of this bot, when very young, is of a cylindri- cal figure, of a pellucid ruby red, and appears without {pines to the fegments. As it acquires an increafe of fize, it af- fumes a more flattened appearance, becomes whiter; and the fpines, which are tipt with black, become very vifible, being placed in double lines, and are dire&ted towards the tail, or truncated end of the larva. ‘‘ Their food is probably the chyle, which, being nearly pure aliment, may go almoft wholly to the compofition of their bodies without any excrementitious refidue ; though, on diffeétion, the inteftine is found to contain a yellow or greenifh matter, which is derived from the colour of the food, and fhews that the chyle, as they receive it, is not perfectly pure. ei « The flownefs of their growth, and the purity of their food, mult occafion what they receive ina given time to be proportionably {mall; from whence probably arifes the ex= treme difficulty there is found in deftroying them by any medicine or poifon thrown into the ftomach. Opium, to- bacco, or the draftic purgatives, which often bring away in - abundance the-common worms of the inteftines, produce lit+ tle or no effeét on thefe. ‘© On opening the body of the bot, and removing the ge= Jatinous matter, the air tubes are feen, and feem of a f{plendid filvery colour, glittering very beautifully, as though they were injected with the pureft mercury; they remain diftended by their own inherent elafticity, and are filled withair ta their minuteft ramifications. ; «« Refpiration appears to be the office of thefe air-canals, which are the lungs: of the larva; and, confidered in this point of view, they are much larger than the refpiratory organs of any other animal, which is the more extraordinary if the refpiration of animals be for the prodution of anima heat ; this being unneceffary to larvee, that are fupplied fo abundantly with it from the high temperature of their refi- dence in the living ftomach. Nor can thefe organs be formed for the purpofes of the future infect, fince they cannot bé deteCted in either the chryfalis or fly. One fhould almoft, from this circumftance, be led to fufpect that the refpiration of animals was more intimately connected with the reception of food, and the converting it into living matter than any other defign. Though it would alfo appear, that the im- — purity of the airin the ftomach, and its cafual fupply might render thefe larger refervoirs neceilary. eg “ The larve of the large horfe-bot attain their full growth about the latter end of May, and are coming from the horfe from this time to the latter end of June, or fome- times later. On dropping to the ground, they find out 4 fome BOT TS. _ fome convenient retreat, and change to the chryfalis; and - «in about fix .or feven weeks, the fly appears; {eription of which, fee the conclufion. . , - _ The mode purfued by the parent fly, to obtain for its » young a fituation in the ftomach of the horfe, is truly fin- ~~ and is effected in the following manner. When the emale has been impregnated, and the ergs are fufficiently matured, fhe feeks among the horfes a fubje& for her pur- . pofe; and advancing on the wing, fhe holds her body nearly .. upright in the air, and her tail, which is lengthened for the »purpofe, curved inwards and upwards. In this way, fhe ap- « proaches the part where 'the defigus to depofit the egg; and ufpending herfelf for a few feconds before it, fuddenly darts -upon it, and leaves the egg adhering to the hair; fhe hardly , to fettle, but merely touches the hair with the egg aheljanth onthe-projeéted point of the abdomen. The egg . is made to adhere by means: of a glutinous liquor fecreted with it. She then leaves the horfe at a {mall diftance, and prepares a fecond egg; and Pome herfelf before the part, depoiits it in the fame way: The liquor dries; the egg be- ecomes firmly glued to the hair; and this procefs is repeated ‘by various flies, till four or five hundred eggs are fometimes «placed on one horfe. ‘ «© The horfes, when they become ufed to this fly, and find it does them no injury, as the tabaniand canopes, by fucking their blood, hardly regard it, and do not appear at all aware of its infidious objec. ~ “© Theinfide of the knee is the part on which thefe flies are mott fond of depofiting their eggs, and, next to this, on the fide and back part of the fhoulder, and lefs frequently on the extreme ends of the hairs ofthe mane. But itis a fac&t worthy of attention, that the fly does not place them pro- mifcuoufly about the body, but conftantly on thofe parts which are moft liable to be licked with the tongue ; and the ova, therefore, are ferupuloufly placed within its reach. Whether this be an a& of reafon or inftinG, it is certainly a very remarkable one ; and one fhould fufpeé, if it was the latter, it ought to direét the performance of the act in one way only. « “ Whichever of thefe it may be, it is without doubt, one of the ftrongeft examples of pure inftin@, or of the mot circuitous reafoning, any infect is capable of. The eggs thus depofited, I at firit fuppofed were loufened from the hairs by the moifture of the tongue, aided by its roughaefs, and were conveyed in this way to the ftomach, where they were hatehed: but on more minute fearch, I do not find this to be the cafe, -or at leaft only by accident; for when they have remained on the hairs four or five days,they become ripe, after which time the flightelt application of warmth and moifture is fufficient to bring forth in an inftant the la- tent Jarva. At this time, if the tongue of the horfe touches theegg, its operculum is thrown open, and a {mall adtive worm 1s produced, which readily adhere} to the moift furface _of the tongue, and is fromthence conveyed with the food to the ftomach. * T have often clipped off with a pair of {ciffars fome hairs, with the eggs on them, from the horfe; and on plac- ig them in the hand moiftened with faliva, they have hatched in a few feconds. At other times, when not perfedily ripe, the larva would not appear, though held in the hand, under the fame circumftances, for feveral hours 3 a fufficient proof that the eggs themfelvés are not conveyed to the flomach. «¢ It is fortunate for the animals infefted by thefe infects, that their numbers are limited and kept within bounds, by the hazards they are expofed to. I thould fufpeét near a huntired are loft for one that arrives at the perfect ftate of a fly. Theeggs, in the firft place, when. ripe, often. hatch _ of themfelves 3. and the larva, without.a nidus, crawls about r the de- tillit dies; others are fubje& to be wafhed off by the water, or are hatched by the fun and moitture thus applied toge- ther; when in the mouth of the animal, they have the dread- ful ordeal of the teeth and mattication to pafs through; and on their arrival at the ftomach, they may pafs, mixed with the mafs of food, into the inteftines; and when full grown, on dropping from the anus to the ground, a high road or water may receive them; if on the common, they arein danger of being crufhed to death, or of being picked up by birds, which fo conftantly for food attend the foot- fteps of the cattle. Such are the contingencies by which nature has prevented the too great increafe of their num- bers, and the total deftruétion of the animals they feed upon.” Thave once feen the lasvz of this oeltrus in the ftomach ofanafs. Indeed, there is little reafon to doubt their exift- ence in the ftemachs of all this tribe of animals. The perfeét fly but ill fuftains the changes of weather ; and cold and moiiture in any confiderable degree would pro- bably be fatal to it. Thefe flies never purfue the horfe into the water; this averfion, I imagine, arifes from the chillnefs of the atmofphere over that element, which is probably felt more exquilitely by them, than by other flies, from the high temperature they had been expofed to during their larva ftate. ‘he heat of the ftomach of the horfe is much greater than that of the warmetft climate; being about 102° of Farenheit ; and in their fly ftate, they are only expofed to 60°, or from that to about 80°, in very warm weather. Such a change, if fuddenly applied, would in all probability be fatal tothem; but they are prepared for it, by fuffering its firft effets inthe quiefcent and lefs fenfible ftate of a chryfalis. I have often feen this fly in cloudy weather, and during the night time, folditfelf up with the head and tail nearly in contaét, and lying apparently in a torpid fate, though in the middle of the fummer, I neyer obferved thefe bots hanging to the extremity of the re€tum, previous to quitting it, as the hemorroidalcs, ar {mall horfe-bots, are feen to do, Whether thefe bots canat all eXift in the ftomach of a carnivorousanimal, Tam not affured. I gave upwards of a hundred eggs, proved by trials to be ripe, and containing a living caterpiliar, to a cat in milk at various times; and on deftroying her, at the end of two months after the firft portion had been given, I could difcover no traces of ther in the ftomach or inteltines. ; I gave fix of the larve of the great horfe-bot, recently taken froma dead horfe’s ftomach, and perfeétly alive, to another horfe, in a ball made of meal, in the centre of which they were inclofed: their effects on the ftomach were not noticeable by any external indications ; 27 of them were the next day exhibited to a horfe with the farcy, without their producing any fenfible effec. ; Of the veffrus hemorrhoidalis, or {mall horfe-bot. The larva, or grub, producing this infect, is in molt refpe&s like the pees occupying the fame fituation alfo in the flomach of the horfe : it is ealily diftinguifhed by its {maller fize, and being nearly or quite deftitute of f{pines, on leaving the rectum ; when full grown, it affumes a reddifh green colour, and in about two days becomes a chryfalis. None of the larvae of this family’ of infeéts appear to change their fkin, which at length becomes alfo the thell of the aSey fall : when fqueezed, they forcibly contraét them- felves into a {maller fpace, and become very hard, It is probable they in this way refift the violent preflure they mult occafionally fuftain from *the weight of the food, ahd the *- actions of the ftomach, and in pafling through the inteftines and the {phin¢ter ani. ‘ : ; Pig After BOTTS. After remaining in the chryfalis ftate abeut two months, ‘the fly appears. See the defcription at the conclufion, and the ficure of it in the plate. «It feems hitherto to have been univerfally believed among naturalifts, that the female fly enters the anus of the horfe, in a very extraordinary manner, to depofit its eggs. Reau- mur received the idea of Vallifnieri, and Valli{nieri of a Dr, Gafpari, whofe obfervations I fhould fufpeét originated from feeing the hippobo/ca equina teazing the horie, as is very commonly feen ; and its getting within the reftum was merely, it is probable, fupplied by his fancy and imagina- tion. The objeétions to an idea of this fort ave thefe, ad- mitting there was any good foundation for {uch a fuppofition ; that the anus is rather clofed than opened by any irritation externally applied ; that the fly would be crufhed in at- tempting to pafs the fphin@er of a horfe’s rectum; and haying no means of holding, while depofiting its eggs, it would be quickly forced out with the dung; and it is evident, that the whole of the ova, to the amount of fome hundreds, muft all be depofited in one horfe, as it is im- poflible, if the fly furvived, it could undergo this punifh- ment a fecond time; for the heat and moifture of the rectum would at leaft deftroy its wings, and prevent its attaining a fecond time this fituation. « I mention thefe objeGtions, not as they merely relate to this {pecies, but that it may not be credited of the nafalis, or indeed of any of them, that they really enter the body of the animal, to obtain for their young a fituation there. « Thave not feen any writer who has conjectured the real mode in which this fly depofits its ova; which having difcovered by repeated opportunities of witnefling it, I can {peak of with certainty. “‘ The part chofen by this infeét for this purpofe is the lips of the horfe, which is very diftrefling to the animal from the exceffive titillation it occafions: for he immediately af- ter its touch rubs his mouth againit the ground, his fore legs, or againft a tree ; or if two are ftanding together, they oiten rub themfelves againft each other. « At the fight of thie fly the horfe ajpears much agitated, and moves his head backwards and forwards in the air, to baulk its touch, and prevent its darting on the lips; but the fly, watching for a fayourable opportunity, depofits its eggs from the point of the abdomen, and he continues to repeat his attacks on the lip, till the enraged animal en- deavours to avoid it, by galloping away to a diftant part of the field. If it then continues to follow, or teaze him, his lait refource is in the water, where the oeftrus is never obferved to purfue him. « The teazing of other flies may fometimes occafion a mo- tion of the head fimilar to this; but it fhould not be miftaken for it, as it is never in any degree fo violent as during the attack of the oeftrus. « At cther times I have feen this fly get between the legs of the horfe whilft he is grazing, and then make his attack on the lower lip. | The titillation occafions the horfe to ftamp violently with his fore-foot againft the ground, and he often ftrikes with his foot as though aiming a blow at the fly. They alfo fometimes hide themfelvesin the grafs ; and as the horfe ftoops to graze, they dart on the mouth or lips, and are always obferved to poize themfelves during a few feconds in the air, while the egg is preparing on the point of the abdomen. «© When feveral of thefe flies are confined in a clofe place, they have a particularly ftrong fufty fmell, fuch as we feel when animals are confined in a clofe place: and I have obferved both fheep and horfes, when teazed by them, to Jook into the grals, and fmell to it very anxioufly ; and if by thefe means they difcover the fly, they immediately ture afide, and haften toa diftant part of the field. “ The eggs of this {pecies appear of a darker colourthan the former, and are provided with a petiolus, or foot-ftalk from the {mall end, the oppofite being obtufe, and provided with an operculum ; it is alfo ribbed in a tranfverfe dire@tion, un-- like the-eges of the preceding fpecies. 3 “ Our anceftors imagined that poverty or bad food engen-- dered thefe animals, or that they were the offspring of putrefaction. In Shakfpeare’s Henry the Fourth, part rift, the oftler at Rochefter fays, *¢ peas and beans are as dank here as a dog, and that is the next way to give poor jades; the bots ;” and the miferable nag of Petruchio is faid to be- fo «« begnawn with the bots.’”? . When the animal is kept from food, the bots are allo; and, it is natural to fuppofe, are then the moft troublefome ; whence arofe the idea, that poverty or bad food could engender them. * Of the seflrus veterinus. This infe&t was known to Linneus, who gave it the name of na/alis, from an idea of its entering the noftrils of the horfe, and depofiting ics, eggs in the fauces: “* Habitat in equorum fauce per nares intrans.”? Linn. Syft. Nat. 2. p. 969. which as it could not well do without deftroying its own wings, is probably as much a fable as the “ miré per anum intrans,’’ of the pre- ceding fpecies. We have feen four chry/alides of this fly, which were uniformly found under the dung of horfes, which leads to afufpicion that they alfo inhabit the ftomach of this animal. The larva is at prefent unknown; but if it inhabited the fauces of the horfe, it would produce fuch troublefome fymptoms as could not eafily efcape the notice of thofe whofe bufinefs it is to attend to the difeafes of cattle. Such a difeafe has, however, never been defcribed ; nor after an extenfive opportunity, both in the dead and living fubje,. have I ever feen a bot in the fances of the horfe.. Perhaps the bots of the ftomach, having crawled to the fauces in fearch of food, after the death of the animal. might have given rife to thisidea: they may have even accidentally bred there ; for there is little room to doubt, that thefe animals can live in any part whatever of the alimentary canal, or the paffages leading to it. For a figure of this fly, fee alfo the plate of the oe//ri. “ Of the ocfrus ovis. About the middle of June I pro- cured fome full-grown larve of the oefrus ovis, from the ins fide of the cavities of the bone, which fupporits the horns of the fheep. ‘They are nearly as large as thofe of the large horfe-bot, of a delicate white colour, flat on the un- der fide, and convex on the upper, having no {pines at the divifions of the fegments, though provided with two curved hooks at the fmall end. The other extremity is truncated, with a {mall prominent ring or margin, which feems to ferve the fame pnrpofe, though in an interior degree, as the lips of the oe. equi and hemorrhoidales, by occafionally clofing over, and cleaning the horny plate of refpiration. this margin opens, after clofing over the plates, a flight {nap is fometimes heard, from the fudden admiffion of air. «¢ When young, thofe larve are perfeQly white and tranf- parent; except the two horny plates, which are black: as they increafe in fize, the fegments of the upper fide become marked with two brown tranfverfe lines; and fome {pots are obfervable on the fides. ‘* They move with contiderable quicknefs, holding with the tentacula as a fixed point, and drawing up the body towards them. Onthe underfide of the /arva is placed a bread line of dots, whjch, on examination with glaffes, appear to be rough points, ferving, perhaps, the double purpole of affifting their paflage over the {mooth and lubricated fur~ faces When * a ee Eee * se BOTTS. faces of thefe membranes, and of exciting alfo a degree of enone in them where they reft, fo as to caufe a fecre- a of lymph or pus for their food. *T have moftly found thefe animals in the horns and frontal finufes ; though I have remarked that the membranes lining thefe cavities were hardly at all inflamed, while thofe of the max lary finufes were highly fo. From this I am led to fulpe& they inhabit the maxillary finufes, and crawl, oa the death of the animal, into thefe fituations in the horns and frontal fiaufes. « The breeds of thefe, like the oc. Jovis, do not appear confined to any particular feafon ; for quite young and full- grown larve may be found in the finufes at the fame time. « Whea full grown, they fall through the noftrils to the ground, and change to the pupa ftate, lying on the earth, or adhering by the fidé to a blade of grais. The fly burits _the fhell of the pupaia about two months. The figure is given in the plate ; and its defcription at the conclufion. “ The manner in which this {pecies depofits its ova, which we have often feen, has not, we believe, ever been def- cribed ; nor is it ealy to fee, though ftanding clofe to the animal at the time, exaGly in what way this is accomplifhed, owing to the obfcure colour and rapid motions of the fly, and the extreme agitation of the fheep; but from the mo- tions of the fheep afterwards, and the mode of defence it takes to avoid it, there is little doubt that the egg is depo- fited in the inner margin of the noitril. «© The moment the fly touches this part of the fheep, they fhake their heads violently, and beat the ground with their feet, holding their nofes, at the fame time, clofe to the earth, and running away, earneftly looking on every fide, to fee if the fly purfues: they allo may fometimes be feen fnelling to the grafs as they go, left one fiould be lying in wait for them; which if they obferve, they gallop back. or take fome other direétion, as they caunot, like horfes, take refuge in the wattr: to defend themfelves againft its attacks, they have recourfe to a rut, or dry duity road, or gravel-pits, where they crowd together during the heat of the day, with their nofes held clofe to the ground ; which renders it dif- ficult for the fly, who makes his attacks on the wing, to get at the noftril. _ # LT imagine the softril, from repeated attacks of the fly, and the confequent rubbing againft the ground, becomes highly irritated and fore ; which occafions their touch to be fo much dreaded by the theep. From the difficult and very precarious mode thefe flies purfue, aod alfo the hemorrhoidalis, in depofiting their eggs, they cannot fucceed in depofiting but a few in each fheep ; whereas, on the contrary, if they actually entered thofe cavities of the face to effect it, they mutt depofite them all, and in one fubjecét, the impoffibility of which is already ftated. ' “ General obfervatians on the ocfri. Taving traced thefe feparately through their various changes, and mode of propagation, it may not be improper to confider their good or Fi effets on the animals that are fubjeét to them. « Though the attention of naturalifts is at prefent occupied with the formation of a nomenclature, and defcriptions, to eyery obje& of natural hiftory, yet this purfuit, though difficult, and highly important, is not fo much the ultimate aim of this {cience, as a knowledge of their economy and properties; 2s it is from thofe we are taught the molt effectual means of avoiding the confequences of the in- jurious, and of protecting fuch as can be ufefully applied to the purpofes of mankind. If after mature inquiry, the exifieace of the ocitri fhould be proved, in a greater degree, i injurious, than beneficial, by any fervice they can afford, their numbers might be confiderably reduced, and a total extirpa- tion of fome of the f{pecies would not, I am difpofed to be- lieve, be altogether impracticable in our infular fituation, « The injury derived from their depredations is principally felt by the tanners, whofe hides are often fo perforated by thefe animals, as to be confiderably damaged ; and fome- times the lofs of a horfe or fheep may be ocealioned by the exiftence of the other f{pecies. «© If it were defirable to leffen their numbers, the follow- ing, I apprehend, would be the moft fuccefsful means. The larve of the oe. bovis, or ox bot, which breeds in the backs of the horned cattle, is fo confpicuous, that it is more eafily deltroyed than the others: the injection of any very corrofive liquor into the finus would kill it ; or by. pundturing the larva with a hot needle, through the aper- ture in the fkin, or even by fimple preffure, they may be deftroyed, afterwards extracting them, or leaving them to flough away, which I have often obferved they do, when crufhed by a blow from the horn of the beaft, or by any other accident, without the leait injury to the animal. A man employed for this purpofe might, in half a day, deftroy every bot on a large common, the beafts being fuffered to pafs by him one by one. “In refpeét to the great and {mall horfe-bot, thofe who have horfes which have been much out to grafs the pre- ceding year, in countries where thefe flies are prevalent, might confiderably diminifh their numbers, by examining the horfes occafionally for the bots, during the f{ummer months; when they will be found hanging to the extremity of the rectum, where they remain, efpecially the hemorrhoidalis, for fome days before they fall to the ground. “ The deftru€tion of a fingle one, at this fcafon of the year, is not only the death re individual, and its effects, but the almoft certain deftruétion of a numerous family. «‘ Tam induced the more particularly to recommend atten- tion to this circumftance on another account, which is from the neceflity there is of preventing the irritation which this animal occafions to the anus of the horfe, which at times is highly troublefome. If the horfe is ufed on the road, while the bots are adhering to this part, the irritation becomes particularly diftrefling, and caufes him to move very auk- wardly and fluggifh, as though tired ; and, if feverely beaten, he foon relapfes again into the fame awkward way of going; and as this generally happens during warm weather, it is attributed to mere lazinefs, and fevere correétion follows, but to no purpofe, of which we have two or three times been an eye witnefs; but, on the removal of the bot, the cure is inftantaneous. “ There is no medicine at prefent known that will detach them from the ftomach, or inteftines, though there are not wanting abundance of infallible noftrums oh this purpofe among the very numerous profeffors of horfe medicine. Aa eafy and effe€iual mode for the oe. equi, is to deftroy the eggs which are depofited on the hairs, and are readily feen and removed by a pair of fciffars, or a brufh and warn water. “ In the fheep, it would be much more difficult to pre- vent or deftroy them by any of thefe means, particularly if they are fituated in the maxillary finufes; as, in this cafe, even trepanning them would be infufficient, as they would probably lie concealed in the convolutions of the turbinated bones. “ Perhaps the removal of the fheep to a diftant pafture, during the months of June and July, whilft the greateft part of the bots are yet on the ground, inachryfalis flate, and not bringing them on fuch ground again, till the fetting on 1 8 es of winter, would be the means of deftroying them molt effectually ; and this procefs, repeated for two or three years fucceffively, in places where they are particularly trouble- fome, might prove eventually ufeful to the farmer: the Lap- landers, we learn from Linnzus, migrate annually with their rein-deer, on account of the bot which infefts ¢hem. On the other hand, notwithftanding the apparently un- .neceffary exiftence and cruel effects ae the oefri, they are probably not altogether without an ufe, or were defigned by Providence to add, without a recompence, to the nume- rous fufferings of thefe laborious and inoffenfive animals. “ miles in length by 50 in breadth. This ifle was nominally fubje& to the king of Ternat; but in 1660 the Dutch built a fort in the bay of Cagele, or Cayeli, at the north-eaft end of the ifland, where the natives, who profefs the Mahometan religion, have a mofque, whole roofs, gradually arifing in a regular gradation one above another, prefent a very agreeable appearance; and though they burned the exterior woods, they feem to have improved the induftry of the inhabitants. This ifland rifes fuddenly from a deep fea, being encompaffed as with a wall. Part of its northern coaft is inhabited by a people who are BOU fub;e&s of the Dutch company, and are goveraed by 'theit “© Oran-cayos,”” who have each a “ dap,” or deputy under them. The interior parts, which confit of mountains {fo lofty, that they may be fometimes defcried at the diftance of 28 ageee are the haunts of the “ Alforefe,” or wild mountaineers. The fouth coaft is now deferted, on account of the continual invafions of the Papuas, The coaft, to the eatt of the village of Cayeli, is watered by a number of {mall ftreams; but to the north-weft there is a very conti- derable river, called by the natives ** Aer-Beffar,””. which difcharges itfelf into the road-ftezd. This river is very deep, and for fome diftance from its’ mouth more than 70 feet broad. On its borders is found the beautiful thrnb, known by the name of ‘ Portlandia grandiflora.” The pebbles rolled from the mountains bythe rivulets arefragments of “quartz,” mixed with mica. Birds, efpecially parrots, are fo numerous, that the ifland probably derives from this circumftance ité name, which fignifies in the Malayan language, a bird. The woods afford abundance of deer, goats, and wild boars. The civet weafel is found in this ifland, and the curious hog called babirouffa. A green ebony, and a kind of iron-wood, arementionedamong the trees, and feveralotherkinds of wood, proper for inlaid work, much valued by the Chinefe, and others ufeful for dyeing; and it is not improbable that the clove, and perhaps the nutmeg, defy, in the receffes of the mountains, the wild avarice of man. The fago tree grows here in great abundance, fupplying the inhabitants with the ee means of their fubfiltence, as well as an article of exportation. The ‘“ Cayou pouti,” of the Malays (Melaleuea latifolia) grows in great abundance upon the hills; and from this is obtained, by diftillation, a great quan- tity of the oil of cajeput. According to aftronomical ob- fervations, made by thofe who enbefielle the voyage in fearch of la Péroufe, at the village of Cayeli, its latitude was 3° 20' 54" S. and longitude 127° 21’6" E. The dip of the magnetic needle was 20° 30’.. Its variation, obferved on board, was 0” 54! E. The higheft point indicated by the thermometer (Reaumur’s) on board was 23%, and on fhore 25° 3,ths. The mercury in the barometer varied only from 28 inches 1 line to. 28 inches 2 lines. The time of high water on the full and change days was three quar- ters after eleven; it then rofe to the perpendicular height of 6 feet. Voyages in fearch of la Péroufe, drawn up by M. Labillardiere, vol. ii. p. 308, &c. Eng. ed. Bowro, is alfo a {mall ifland, north of the ifland of Sumatra; 5 leagues N. E. of Acheen. BOURON, a town of European Turkey, in Romania, the fee of a Greek bifhop, feated’ on a lake of the fame name, and 15 miles diftant from the coaft of the Archipelago. BOURRE, in Ornithology, According to Salerne, the common or domeftic-duck is called dourre in Normandy, and the ducklings dourret. Bovrre, in Zoology, is alfo a word in ufe in France to exprefs the hair of feveral quadrupeds, fuch as the ox, the buffalo, the horfe, flag, &c. Thus alfo they have the dif- tinétion of bourre de laine for the woolly kinds, and dourre de foi for that of a filky texture. BOURRE’, Fr. the air of a dance fo called, is fuppofed to come from Auvergne, in which province it is {till in ufe. The tune is in common time, and begins with an odd crotchet. Roufleau. BOURRERIA, in Botany. See Enreria. BOURRIQUE, in Zoology, fynonymous with ance, the the-afs. . BOURSAULT, Epme, in Biography, a French dra- matic writer, was born in the province af Burgundy, * 1638; and by fingular a though his edweation wa: 2 rothe BOU altogether negleGed in his youth, attained to a very-accu- rate acquaintance with the French language. - After his fet- tlement at Paris, he was employed by the king in compofing a work for the Dauphin, entitled “« The true Study of Sove- reigns,” which was fo well received, that the author would have been appointed fub-preceptor to the dauphin, if he had underftood Latin. For a weekly gazette in verfe, with which he amufed the-court, he obtained a penfion; but, on account of an imprudent attack upon the Capuchins, a com- phaint was lodged againft him by the queen’s Spanifh con- feffor, who belonged to that order, and in confequence of ic, his gazette and penfion were fuppreffed, and he himfelf was in danger of being confined in the baftile. Ina fimilar gazette, he afterwards introduced a fatire on the prince of Orange, which political confiderations induced the court to fupprefs. At length, however, he was appointed receiver of the tallies at Montlucon, where he died in 1701. As a writer for the flage, Bourfault was diftinguifhed by his talents for agreeable ridicule, united with good fenfe, and alfo by an harmonious verfification, as well as a ftyle that was eafy and adapted to his fubjeéts. His “* Efope a la Ville,” and-«* Efope a la Cour,’’ itill -retain their reputa- tion on the theatre.: “An attack upon Boileau, by way of retaliation for fome perfonal refle&tions in this author’s fatires, prevented the introdution of his piece in one act, entitled ‘* La Satyre des Satyres,”? on the ftage; but it was afterwards printed with a preface. Some years afterwards, Bourfault, by his polite attention to Boileau, conciliated his friendfhip, and induced him to infert fome other name ter- minating with au/f, in his fatires. Bourfault alfo wrote tra- gedies and operas; and his dramatic works were publifhed in 1746, under the title of «* Theatre de Bourfault,”’ in 3 vols. 12mo. His letters, mifcellaneous pieces, and ro- mances, are new forgotten.” Nouv. Dia. Hift.— BOURSE, in Ichthyology, in the ifles of France and Madagafcar, the common name of all the fifhes of the TeTropon genus. In’the French American colonies, balifie vieille (baliftes vetula) bears the fame name. Lace- pede likewife afligns the word dour/e as a {pecific name to a new fpecies of baliftes defcribed by Sonnerat, the firft dorfal fin of which has three rays; the fecond is fpotted; tail forked; and below the eye a black lunated fpot. BOURSIER, Lawrence-Francis, in Biography, an eminent theologian and metaphyfician, was bornat Ecouen, in the diocefe of Paris, in 1679, and entered into the Sor- bonne in 17¢9, where, in 1711, he obtained the degree of do&or. As he devoted himielf co ftudy, he refufed feveral benefices which were offered to him; and, at the age of 31, acquired great celebrity, both as an eloquent writer, and profound reafoner, by a work entitled « The Adtion of God on the Creatures,”? or ‘ Phyfical Premotion proved by reafoning,” 2 vols. 4to. and 6 vols. 12mo. This work was highly extolled by the Janfenifts; and Voltaire {peaks of it (Age of Lewis XIV.) as deeply argumentative, learned, and fometimes extremely eloquent. It involved him in a controverfy with the famous Malebranche. He was alfo the author of a memoir prefented to Peter the Great by the doors of the Sorbonne, concerning a propofed union between the Ruffian and the Latin churches, which originated froma conference held by the author with the ezar, on his vifit to the Sorbonne. His other works, which were numerous, chiefly related to the difputes that fubfifted in the Gallican church. In 1729, he was one of many doors who were expelled the Sorbonne; and from this time he was under a neceffity of fecuring: his perfonal liberty by living in privacy. He died at Paris in 1749. Nouv, Dic. Hit. 6 BOU BOURSIRES, in Entomology, the cancer Jairo. Rochef. Ant. 1. ¢. 21. —See Larro. BOURTANG, in Geography, a town and fortrefs of Groningen; 12 miles $.S.W. of Winfchotten. BOURTH, a town of France, in the department of the Eure; 2 leagues N.W. of Verneuil. BOURTHES, a town of France, in the department of the Straits of Calais, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Boulogne; 4 leagues S.E. of Boulogne. BOURTRY, or Borro, a village of Africa, in the kingdom of Anta, on the Gold coait, feated on a {mall river, at the foot of an eminence, on which the Dutch have built an irregular and mean fort, of an oblong form, divided into two parts, each defended by four fmall pieces of cannon. The fort was built by one Carolus, in the fervice of the Dutch, who afterwards pafled into the pay of France, and obtained that privilege from the king of Anta, on acknow- ledging his fuperiority by a flight tribute. This fort is called Badenftyn; its batteries command the village of Bourtry, which has no other commerce befides the gold trade carried on with the negroes of Adom. The inhabit- ants are of a mild and gentle difpofition, much attached to the Europeans, whom they confider as their protectors. In 1708, the Dutch concerted a plan for forming fugar plan- tations, which alarmed Sir Dalby Thomas, then the Englifh governor at cape Coaft, who reprefented to the Royal Afri- can company the danger of permitting the Dutch to exe- cute a fcheme which would diminifh the value of the Britifh colonies in the Weft Indies. Thefe fugar-plantations, the plan of which was thus counteraéted, never anfwered the great expectations of the Dutch. BOURY, in Zoology, a {pecies of ox, that inhabits Madagafcar. It is of the fize of a camel, of a {nowy white colour, and, like that animal, has a protuberance on the back. Boury is the name by which this kind is called by the natives. BOUSCH, or Boucn, in Geography, a town of Upper Egypt, fituate about a quarter of a league from the weft bank of the Nile, and 4 miles N. E. of Benifouef. The houfes are built of brick, and the roofs are elevated in the form of pigeon-houfes. The inhabitants occupy the ground- floor, and the pigeons the firft; a pra¢tice which is general through the reft of the Thebais. Thefe houfes, which make fome figure at a diftance, exhibit on entering them only tokens of wretchednefs in the midft of an abundantl rich country. In this town is occafionally held a confide- rable market for cattle and provifions. The canal of Boufch formerly poured its waters into the river for fix months of the year. At prefent it conveys them through the whole year into the lake Mceris, which does not receive a fufh- cient quantity by Jofeph’s canal, half choaked up as it is, to admit of its reftoring any to the Nile. BOUSIER, of the French Entomologifis. See Corris. BOUSKAVIR, in Geography, a river of Perfia, which difcharges itfelf into the Perfian gulf,near Bender Rik. BOUSSAC, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri&t, in the department of the Creufe, 6 leagues N.E. of Gueret. The place contains 586, and the canton 7787 inhabitants ; the territory includes 3374 kiliometres, and 17 communes. BOUSSANGES, a town of France, in the department of the Herault; 6 leagues N. of Bezicres. BOUSSIE RE, a town of France, in the department of the Doubs, and:chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of Befancon; the town contains 347, and the canton 7025 inhabitants; the territory comprehends 135 kiliometres, and 25 communes, BOU8SU, BOU BOUSSU, 2 town of Frauee, in the department of Je- mappe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Mons; ‘the town contains 1882, and the canton 13,571 inhabitants; the territory-includes 824 kiliometres, and 13 communes. BOUSTROPHEDON, compounded of fxs, bullock, and cyte, J turn, in Literature, is ufed in {peaking of the ancient method of writing among the Greeks, wherein the lines were continued forwards and backwards, like the fur- ws io hing. : a c. 17. Eliaca) mentions feveral ancient infcriptions written in this manner: the laws of Solon are alfo faid to have been thus written; which, as the author laft cited explains it, is when the fecond line is turned on the contrary fide, beginning at the end of the former, thus: EK AIOS AP VOsINUX ‘ Potter. Arch. Gree. lib. i. cap. 26. tom. i. BOUT, in Ornithology. Under this name Buffon de- {cribes two birds of the CroTorH#aGa genus; namelyC. ani, as le petit bout de Petun; and C. major, as le grand bout de P. tun. . . BOUTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in Libya Interior, near the fource of the river Cinipha, accord. ing to Ptolemy. : } BOUTADE, in Mufe, an irregular flight or movement without art or ftudy. oat The word was alfo formerly ufed for a /olo on the visl di gamba, thus called as being fuppofed to be extemporary. Richelet {peaks of a dance called boutade, invented by the famous Bocan, in the reign of Lewis XIII. fo called from the brifk humourous manner of its beginning; but now out of ufe. ; BOUTAEL, in Jchthyology, the local name of a certain kind of fith, that is faid to inhabit the lakes, ponds, and ftanding waters in the Eaft Indies, where it is alfo called the Neegen.cogen. Ray defcribes it under the name of /ampetra Indica. It is conje&tured that this muit oe to the lam- ‘romyzon genus, from the accounts of authors who or pa of it;. but whether really fo, or not, it is difficult to determine BOUTAN, in re ig See Booran. : BOUTANT, in Archite@ure. An arc boutant is an arch or buttrefs, ferving to fuftain a vault; and which is itfelf fuftained by fome ‘tes wall, or maffive pile. The word is French, and-comes from the verb douter, to but, or abut. i f A pillar Bow axt is a large chaio or pile of ftone, made to fupport a wall, terrace, or vault. A ; BOUTE, in the Manege. A horfe is called bouré, when his legs are in a ftraight line from the knee to the coronet ; fhort-jointed horfes are moft apt to be dousé. BOUTKOUJA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ghilan; 120 miles N.N.W of Rethd. - BOUTON, or Booron, one of the Molucea or rather Celebefian iflands, in the Indian fea; fituate about 12 miles to the fouth ealt of Celebes. It is a large and woody ifland, and is a kingdom of itfelf, to which the neighbouring iflands belong. heking of Bouton is in alliance with the Dutch company, who pay him a yearly {um of 150 rix-dollars, or 2i. 14s. 6d. fterling, in new Dutch coin, upon condition, that he fhould not only permit the extirpation by the com- any of all the clove-trees in this aad the neighbouring Wands, but alfo efit them in effecting it. For this pur- pofe, the company annually fend out 2 ferjeant, who is ityled the * exzirpator,”” and who goes through all the woods in the iflands, and caufes all the clove-trees which he meets BOU with tobe eut down. The king of Bouton is obliced to provide for him guides and interpreters, and alfo velfels, if he fhould need them. But as this contraé& has-not been regularly fulfilled, the government in India has thonght pro- per to withhold this pecuniary allowance, at Jeait for one qos in order to induce this jrince to adhere more rigidly to is contract, and to be more ative in affilting the company to deftroy this rich produétion in his country, for the benefit of Amboyna and Banda. The paflage between Bouton and the Toucan-beflis is the fecond dangerous part of the navi- gation for fhips going to the Moluccas or Spice iflands ; the other being that of the « Budgeroons.”” The former channel is, indeed, wider than the latter, being about 4 leagues in breadth from the neareit part of Bouton to the meena of the Toucan-beffis; but the dauger is of lon- ger duration, on account of the numerous {mall iflands that form the clutter called the « Toucan-beflis;?’ all of which are either conneéted or furrounded by rocky thoals, over and between which very rapid currents fet ftrongly to the eaftward: betides, a large and dangerous flat, called the “ Hoefyzer,” or horfe-fhoe, lies one and a half or two leagues fouth of them, upon which many veflels of the com- pany have been wrecked. In the narroweft part of the paflage is alfo a bay running into the land, weit and north, into which veflels are in danger of being driven by the cur- rents which fet into the bay, if the point oppofite Toucan- beffis be approached too near in calm weather. From this bay there is no_efcape till the welt monfoon fets in again ; and fome of the company’s fhips have been under a neceflity of remaining in it for five or fix months. From this cir- cumftance, the navigators have given it the name of “Dwaal,’? or Miftake-bay. The principal town of this ifland is Calla- fufurg, feated about a mile from the fea, on the top of a hill, and furrounded by walls. The inhabitants are fmall, but well-fhaped, and of a dark olive complexion, Their houfes are erected on poftss and their religion is Mahometa- nifm. Stavorinus’s Voyages to the Eaft Ind. vol. ii, Pp: 300, S. lat. 5°. E. long. 123° 301. Bouron de Camifolle, in Conchology, a trivial name ia France for frochus Jabio of Linneus. Bovron de la Chine, the Linnzan trochus niloticus. Bouton de Rofe, a f{pecies of Buixa, ornamented with red bands, dulla aplufire of Linneus. Bouton terreflre, the common name of a terreftrial fnail, figured by D’Argenville. It is the Aclix rotundata of Lianzus. BOUTONNE, in Geo raphy, a river of France, which runs into the Charente, 2 leagues eaft of Rochfort; paffing by St. Jean de Angely, and navigable to that town, BOUTS-Rimes, a popular term in the French Poetry; fignifying certain rhymes, difpofed in order, and given toa poet, together with a fubjeét, to be filled up with verfes ending in the fame words and the fame order. The inven tion of the bouts-rimes is owing to one Du Lot, a poet, in the year 1649. In fixing the bouts, it is ufual to chufe fuch as feem the remoteft, and have the leaft conneétion. Some good authors fancy that thefe rhymes are of all others the eafieft, that they affift the invention, and furnih more new thoughte than any others. Sarrafin has a peer on the defeat of the bouts-rimes. The academy of Lanter- nifts, at Thouloufe, have contributed towards keeping in countenance the bouts-rimes, by propofing each year a fet of fourteen, to be filled up on the glories of the grand mo- narque the viétorious fonnet to be rewarded with a fine medal. An inftauce hereof may be given in the following one, filed up by P, Commire; Tout BOU Tout eft grand dans le roi, V’afpeét feul de fon bu/le Rend nos fiers ennemis plus froids que des glacons. Et Guillaume n’attend que le tems des moiffons, Pour fe voir foccomber fous un bras fi robu/le. Qu’on ne vous vante plus les miracles d’ Augufle; Louis de bien regner lui fercit des legons : Horace en vain P’egale aux dieux dans fes chanfons : Moins que mon heros il etoit fage et jufte, Se. BOUTSALLICK, in Ornithology, fynonymous with cuculus fcololopaceus, which fee. BOUTTONNEE, Fr. in Heraldry, is applied to the feed of a rofe, when reprefented of a different colour from the flower; which the Englifh call /eeded: e.g. rofe gules feeded. BOUVERET, in Ornithology, the French name of /oxia aurantia. BOUVERON. Under this name /oxia lineola is de- fcribed by feveral French writers. Briflon, however, calls it petit bouvreuil noir d’ Afrique. BOUVIER, the name of motacilla nevia. Salern. Orn. BOUVIERA, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome wri- ters to a {mall frefh-water fifh, found in the clear ftreams of France and Germany. The French call it douviére. It alfo bears the name of bubulca. This is cyprinus amarus of naturalifts. BOUVIE'RE, the common name in France of cyprinus amarus. BOUVIGNES, in Geography, a town of the Nether- lands, in the county of Namur, feated onthe Meufe. Near Bouvignes, which was formerly furrounded with a wall, and had a ftrong cattle, are the remains of an ancient city, called « Chivremont,”’ the inhabitants of which committed many depredations, and defended themfelves with valour againit Charles the Simple, in 922; againft Otho, in 939; and againft Bruno, archbifhop of Cologne, in 960. But it was at length taken and deftroyed, in 992, by Notger, bifhop of Liege. It is diftant 4 leagues S. from Namur. BOUVINES, or Ponr-a-Bouvines, a village of Flan. ders, feated on the river Marque, 3 leagues S.E. of Lille, where Philip Auguftus obtained a great victory over the emperor Otho in 1214. BOUVREULL, in Ornithology (Buffon, &c.), loxia pyr- rhula of Linnzus and other fyftematic writers; and dulfinch of the Englifh. Bouvreuil, in a more general fenfe, implies all the birds of the Loxia genus. BOUXIERES-aux-Dames, in Geography, a town of Frauce, in the department of the Meurthe, 1 league N. of Nancy. . BOUXWILLER, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Saverne; 6 leagues N.W. of Strafburg. The town contains 2700, and the canton 12,264 inhabitants; the ter- ritory includes 105 kiliometres, and 21 communes. BOUZANNE, a river of France, in the department of Indye, which rifes near Aigurande, 7 leagues fiom Argen- ton, and difcharges itfelf into the Creufe, near Clufeau. BOUZDOGAN, 2 town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro- vince of Natolia; 24 miles N.W. from Mogla. BOUZE, a town of France, in the department of the Cote d’Or, and chief place of a canto, in the diftri& of Beaune; 1 league N.W. from Beaune. ; BOUZEK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Caramania; 32 miles E.N.E. of Kir-thehr. BOUZILLE’,.a town of France, in the department of the Maine and Loire; 1 league S.E. of Ancenis. BOUZILS, a town of France, in the department of Vendée, and in the diftriét of Montaigu; 5 miles fouth of it. BOW - BOUZKIR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Natolia; 30 miles S.S.E. of Beifhehri. BOUZOLS, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Loire; 1 league S. of Puy-en-Velay. — BOUZONVILLE, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriG of Thionville, and 5 leagues S. of it, feated on the Nied.. The town contains 1400, and the canton 12,749 inhabitants; the terrritory comprehends 190 kiliometres, and 40 communes. BOW, Arcus, a weapon of offence, made of wood, horn, or other elaftic matter; which, after being itrongly bent, by means of a ftring faftened to its two ends, in returning to its natural ftate, throws out an arrow with great force. The bow is the moft ancient, and the moft univerfal of all weapons; and has been found to obtain among the moft barbarous and remote people, who had the leait communica tion with the reft of mankind. Its invention was afcribed by the ancients to Apollo, and was faid to have been firlt communicated by the primitive inhabitants of Crete: Hence, even in latter ages the Cretan bows were famous, and preferred by the Greeks to all others. Some, however, rather chofe to honour Perfes, the fon of Perfeus, with the invention; while others afcribed it to Scythes, the fon of Jupiter, and progenitor of the Scy- thians, who were not only excellent at the bow, but by many reputed the firft mafters of it. (Potter’s Arch. Grec. &c.) Allthefe different tales, however, ferve but to fhew that its antiquity mutt be referred to the remoteft pe- riods of hiftory. The earlieft inftance in the Old Teftament, where the ufe of the bow. is implied, is in that remarkable paflage where Hagar and’ her fon, driven from the houfe of Abraham, wander in the wildernefs of Beer-fheba, Of Ithmael it is faid (Gen. xxi. 20.), “ And God was with the lad, and he grew, and dwelt in the wildernefs, and became an archer.”? The conneétion of which with the fifth preceding chapter (xvi. 12.) implies an earlier praétice with the bow than any that can poffibly be adduced from the profane hiftorians. The overthrow of Saul was particularly owing to the Phi- liftine archers. (1 Sam. xxxi. 3.) and (2 Sam. i. 18.) David, we are told, who fucceeded him, ‘ bade them teach ° the children of Judah the ufe of the-_bow: behold it is writ« ten in the book of Jafher.’” The practice of the bow indeed, at this time, appears to have been fo general, that it was not unfrequently made ufe of as a figure of fpeech. Mrael, when bleffing his fons, (Gen. xlix. 23, 24.) fays of Jofeph, “ The archers have forely grieved him, and fhot at him, and hated him. But his dow abode in ftrength, and the arms of his hands were made ftrong, by the hands of the mighty God’of Jacob.’ The companies that came to David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 2.) “ were armed with dows, and could ufe both the right hand and the left.””_ Its earlieft application was un- doubtedly ‘to the purpofes of food : and accordingly, when Tfaac fent Efau to the foreft, he faid, ** Take, I pray thee, thy weapons, thy quiver, and thy éoqw, and go gut to the field, and take me fome venifon.’’ The fabulous writers of antiquity affert, that Teutarus, a Scythian, firft gave Hercules a Scythian bow and arrows (Lycophron, Caflandra, v. 56.); and Theocritus mentions it by the name of the Mzotian bow. - From the Scythians, it was derived to the Grecians, fome of whofe ancient nobility were inftructed by the Scythians in its ufe, which in thofe days pafled for a moft princely education (Potter, Arch. Grec. tom. ii. 1. iii, cap. 4. Aguin. Lex. Milit. ii. 260). The Scythian was diftin- 7 guifhed t BO W. ifhed from the Grecian dow, as well as on ee of eens other nation, by the fingular incurvation of its fhape, whic was fo cart 8 es half-moon or femicircle (Amm. Marcellinus, l. xx.) ; whence the fhepherd, in Athenzus, being to defcribe the letters in Thefeus’s name, and ex- pre each of them by fome appoiite refemblauce, com- pares the third to the Scythian bow, meaning not the more modern chara¢ter of 2, but the ancient C, which is femi- circular, and bears the 3d place ia CHCEVC. ‘ Among the ancients, the bow-{tring, called spyuci, was made of horfe’s hair, and thence called era ; though Homer’s bow-{trings are frequently made of hides cut into {mall thongs ; whence sefo Bonz. ‘The uppermott part of the bow, to which the tring was faftened, was called x2pa, being commonly made of gold, and the laft thing towards finifhing the bow. Ys , The Grecian bows were frequently beautified with gold or filver; whence we have mention of aureus arcus; and Apollo is called apyvperofo:. But the matter of which they were ordinarily compofed, feems to have been wood ; though were anciently, Scythian like, made of horn, as appears from that of Pandarus in Homer (lliad. 3. v. 105. Potter Arch. Grec. tom. ii. cap. 4.) Till the fecond Punic war the Romans had no bowmen in their armies, but fuch as came with their auxiliary forces. (See Potter, ut fupra). The bows of the Arabians, who attended Xerxes’ expe- dition, werelong, flexible, and crooked, (Herodotus Polymn. @xix.) The BaGtriansalfo had their bows and arrows (Ibid. met and among the Indians they are {till retained. “In drawing the bow, the primitive Grecians did not pull back their hand towards their mght ear, according to the fathion of modern ages, and of the ancient Perfians ( Proco- pius de bello Perlica, 1. 1. ); but, placing their bows dire&tly before them, returned their hand upon the right breaft (Euftathius, Iliad. 3. p. 344. &c.). This was like- wile the cuftom of the Amazonian women, who are reported to have cut off their right breafts, left they fhould prove an impediment in fhooting. : moft barbarious nations often excel in the fabric of the particular things which they have the reatelt neceffity for, in the common offices of life. The Laplanders, who{upport themfelves almoit entirely by hunting, have long had an art of making bows, which we, in thefe improved parts of the world, have never arrived at. Their bow is made of two pieces of tough and ihong wood fhaved down to the fame fize, and flatted on each’ fide ; the two flat fides of the pieces are brought clofely and evenly together, and then joined by means of a glue made of the feales of perch, which they have in great plenty, and of which they make a glue fuperior in ftrength to any which we have. ‘ * The two pieces, when once united in this manner, will never feparate, and the bow ip of much more force to expel the arrow, than it could poffibly have been under the fame dimenfions, if made of fh Bais piece. Having thus traced the early hiltory of the bow, and evinced its general ufe, we now come to its sl as incipally confined to England. The bows in ufe have fe of two kinds ; the common or Jong-bow, and the cro/s- bow: but as the Saxon bow appears to have differed from them both, our readers may not be difpleafed to read the defeription of it feparate. Its particular ufe among. the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes has been already mentioned : their fill, however, does not appear to have been extended beyond the purpofes of procuring food or paftime : and the reprefentation of a Saxon bow, asgivenim an ancient MS, of . wy 7 the tenth century. (MS. Cott, Claud. B. iv.) fhews it was made very different from what one might expeét in a military weapon: the {tring not being faftened to the extremities, but fuffered to play at fome diftance from them.’ In fize too it was a mere toy, compared with the /ong-bozw of fucceed- ing ages.« (Strutt’s Sports and Paftimes, p.39.) he hiftory of the Lone-bow has been already detailed, under the head of ArcuHery. We have here little elfe to add, than that a variety of ats of parliament, pafled in dif- ferent reigns, tended much to the encouragement of thofe who ufed it. In 1482 (12 Ed. IV. c.ii.), four bow-ftaves were ordered to be imported, with every ton of merchandize, from Venice; and by other aéts, pafled in the firtt of Richard ITI. the fixth of Henry VIII. and the thirteenth of Elizabeth, ten bows for every butt of malmfey. Malm. fey or Tyre wine, at that time came chiefly from Crete, which then belonged to the Venetians; and the price of bows, it appears, had rifen from 4os. to $l. a hundred (Archzol. vol. vii.) Inthe 38th of Henry VIII. the price of a yew-bow was reduced to three fhillings and four pence. - Ibid.) In the ages of chivalry its ufe was confidered zs an effen- tial part of the education of a young man, who withed to make a figure in life: and even the ladies, as in later times, partook of the amufement. It is faid of Margaret the daughter of Henry the VII. that when fhe was on her way + to Scotland, a hunting party was made for her amufement in Alnwick park, where fhe killed a buck with an arrow. (Leland’s Colle&. vol. iy. p. 278.) And the ufe of the bow was more than once practifed by queen Elizabeth. The ladies, howeyer, might probably have ufed the crofs-bow. James I. iffued one or two commiflions for the preven- tion of enclofures in the grounds which had formerly been ufed for the praétice of the bow: agreeably to which, the archers’ grounds in the immediate neighbourhood of London were reduced to the fame ftate they were in in the beginhing of the reign of Henry VIII. (Strutt’s Sports and Paitimes, p. 14.) ‘ Among the ancient charters preferved in the Britith Mufeum (Rol. ix. 8.), is a petition of the bowyers, flet- chers, arrow-head-makers, and ftring-makers, dated 1635, requefting the king to appoint Richard Adames and Jeffery le Neve to put in force the ftatute of the thirty-third of Henry VIII. It was referred by the king to the privy council ; and a commiiffion, the original of which, with the broad feal annexed, is in the fame colleétion (xii. 68.), was afterwards direéted to “'Timothie Taylor, John Hobart, Henry Hobart, and Jeffery le Neve for the maintenance of artillery, archerie, and /hooting in long-bowes, to enforce an a&t of the thirty-third of Henry VIII. that all perfons under 60 years of age fhould ufe and exercife in fhooting in long-bowes ; and that men children, from 7 to 17 years of age, fhould be inftruéted in the fame.” This, it feems, was one of the laft a@s by which public. encouragement was given to archery. The great body of the people, from the improvements that had been made in military taétics, were not likely to fupport the commiffioners in what was now propofed : and the troubles which were rifing turned the attention of the legiflature to mofe ferious objects. fcham ('Toxophilus. 157 tefioe} fays, it was,neceflary for the archer to have a bracers or clofe fleeve, to lace upon the left arm, that the how flring, when loofed from the hand, might not be impeded: to thie was to be added a /Laoting glove, for the protection of the fingers; The bow, he tells us, fhould be made with well-feafoned wood, and formed with great exatnefs, tapering from the middle towards oy cid. BOW. end. Bows were fometimes made of brazil, elm. afh, and feveral other woods; but eugh, or yew, had the fancuon from general experience of fuperiority. The marks ufually fhot at by the archers for paftime were “ butts, prickes, and roavers.”? The duit was a level mark, and required a ftrong arrow witha broad feather. The pricke was “amark ot compafs,” but certain in its diftance ; and to this mark a ftrong {wift arrow, with a middling-fized feather, was belt fuited. The rozver was a “* mark of un- certain length.”? And thus were they filled in the different kinds of fhooting. The two ends or extremities of a bow, to which the flring is faftened, are called its horns, cornua. And the ftrength of a bow may be calculated on this principle, that its /pring, i, e. the power whereby it reftores itfelf to its natural pofition, is always proportionate to the diftance or {pace it 1s removed therefrom. The cross-bow,or Arbalet (fromarbalefia, i.c. arcu balifia, a bow with a fling), confifts of a fteel bow, faftened upon a ftock, and is difcharged by means of a catch or érigger’, which probably gave rife to the lock upon the modern mufket. Bayle, explaining the difference between teftimony and argument ufes this fimile: ‘* Teftimony is like the fhot of a lJong-bow, which owes its efficacy to the force of the fhooter; argument is like the fhot of a crofs-bow, equally forcible whether difcharged by a dwarf ora giant.” The invention of crofs-bows is faid by ancient writers to have come from the Sicilians. They made both great and {mall bows. The great ones, drawn on wheels, as our can® non are, thtew darts three cubits long; while thofe of the {maller kind were carried by foot-foldiers, the lengthof whofe quarrels was fearce acubit and an half, The larger oves were called bali/fle, of which, as Livy informs us, there were no Jefs than three and thirty at the fiege of Carthage, befide fifty-two of a fmaller kind (fee Barista); and Jofephus mentions forty at the fiege of Jerufalem. Vegetius fays, that the balifta difcharged arrows with fuch rapidity and violence, that nothing could refift their force. And Athe- nus tells us, that Agefiftratus made one of little more than two feet inlength, that fhot darts almoft five hundred paces. (Rollin’s Arts and Sciences, vol. ii. p. 52. Crofs-bows were firft ufed in England by the Normans, at the battle of Haftings; anda quarrel, or bar-bolt, from _one of them, was the immediate caufe of Harold’s death. That they were afterwards adopted among our military wea- pons, is evident from the continual recurrence of balifiarius in the Domefday Survey. In the reign of Stephen, 1139, the fecond council of Lateran prohibited their ufe; and fome hiftorians affert, that they were not again ufed in this country tillthe reign of Richard I., whofe death, occafioned by one, was confidered as a judgment on his impiety : but Fitzftephen, who wrote his Hiftory of London about 1180, in the reign of Henry IT., fays, the fkaiters of the metro- polis moved fafter than the pilum balifle; which feems to im- ply that both the crofs-bow and itsufe were known. From the death of Richard I. till the fplendid vittories of Edward IIT. we hear little of the crofs-bow as a military weapon. Its ufe appears to have been principally confined to the fieges of fortified places and to fea fights. In 1346, at the battle of Crefly, a large body of Genoefe foldiers, who were particularly expert in the management of the crofs-bow, were in the fervice of the French. At the comméncement of the action, a fudden fhower wetted the ftrings, and prevented the archers from doing their ufual execution. But in England, after the reign of Henry III., its ufe fcems.to have been ftudioufly difcouraged. The Englifh found the long bow a more effe&ual weapon; though the French, even in the reign of Henry V., after the Enghiflt bow had fo often proved fuperior in execution, to the great coit of their countrymen, were ftill attached to the crofs« bow; and Henry V. as duke of Normandy, confirmed the charter and privileges of the dalifarii, who had long been eftablifhed as a fraternity at Rouen. Their ufe, under our two laft Henrys, has been already no- ticed as frequently forbidden ; and by the ftatute of the 25th of Henry VIII. a penalty of ten pounds was infli€ed on every one in whofe houfe a crofs-bow might be found. From this time they feem to have been chiefly ufed for killing deer {fee Shak{peare’s Henry VI.), till, in 1627, they were again ufed by the Engtith as a military weapon, in the expedition to the ifle of Rhee. (Gent. Mag. vol. liv. R268) ; , The crofs-bow is of a moft inconvenient form for carriage, even with the modern improvements; and in cafe of rain could not be eafily fecured from the-weather. After the firft fhot, moreover, it could not be re-charged under a confi- derable tine, whilft the bolts are alfo heavy and cumber- fome. The Englifh long-bow, onthe otherhand, together with the quiver of arrows, was ealily carried by the archer, as eafily fecured from rain, and re-charged almoft inftanta- neoufly. It isnot therefore extraordinary, that troops, who folely ufed this mott effectual weapon, fhould generally ob- — tain the victory, even when oppofed to much more nume- - rous atmies. (Barrington’s Obf. on Archery, Archzol. vol. viii.) The reach of the crofs-bow was confined; that ~_ of the long-bow more extenfive: although when the armies’ - were oppoied at no confiderable diftance, the quarrels of the. poe might poflibly be poured in with the moft regular effect. Bow, or Stratrorp-Le-Bow, in Geography, is a vil- lage of Middlefex, in England, feated on the river Lea, at the diftance of about two miles eaft from London. The vil- lage has no particular claims to public notice, but from its ancient bridge, which croffes the river Lea at this place. This ftru€ture is faid to have been the firft arched bridge ereéted in England. Stowe, Leland, and fome other anti- quaries, concur in afcribing its firft building to Maud, or Matilda, the queen of Henry I. ; and thence fome writers coincide in the-current tradition of its being the moft ancient arched flone bridge of this country. The faithful Stowe re- lates, that Matilda had been “ wafhed inthe water, in pafling this dangerous forde ;”” and to provide againft fuch accidents in future, caufed this, and another {maller bridge to be ereted, ‘arched like a bow,”’ which, he farther obferves, “was a rare piece of worke; for before that time the like had never been /ten in England.”? An old bridge of three arches {till occupies the place of the original ftru@ture. Through this place, and over this ford, pafled the ancient Roman road, called Watling-ftreet, from Londinum (Lon- don) to Camelodunum (Colchefter). From this arched bridge, and the name Séreet-ford, this place evidently derives its name. ; At a fhort diftance northward, are the Temple-mills, which anciently belonged to the knights Templars, and af- terwards to the knights of St. John of Jerufalem. In the year 1720, they were ufed for brafs works, but are now ap- propriated to the manufacture of fheet lead. (Lyfon’s Envi- rons of London, vol. iii. p. 489.) Bow, a {mall market town of Devonhhire,in England, feat- | ed on the banks of one of the branches of the river Taw. De- prived of the advantages of manufacture, and fituated at a di- ftance from the great turnpike road, this place is faft finking into decay, and at prefent confifts of only 162 houfes, moft of which * ; BOW. whi occupied by the peafantry. Yet here is a fmall eccoe: on Thurfdsy, and it has two annual fairs. A few blackfmiths, carpenters, and fhoe-makers, are the rincipal tradefmen of the place. It is 188 miles W. of Tiaiea'. the parith contains 677 inhabitants. * Bow, an ifland in Lough Erne, county of Fermanagh, Ireland, on the northern part of the lake, and one of the largeft in it, being three miles long, and one and a half broad. It is well wooded, and contributes much to the beauty of the lake. Jt is about 35 miles from Enni- ao an ifland in the South Pacific Ocean, about 10 leagues in cireumference. S. lat. 18° 23’. W. long, 140°. Bow, atownthip of America, in Rockingham county, New Hampfhire, teated oa the weft bank of Merrimack river, fouth of Concord, and 53 miles from Portfmouth ; ining 568 inhabitants. ae. & Mufe, denotes a machine that ferves to play, or ive the found to, viols, violins, and or ePeunsals of ind, by drawing it gently over the itrings t iereof, faa Y onfitts ° three peed the firft is the ftick, or wood, to which the hair is faltened; the fecond is compofed of about eighty or an hundred horfe-hairs, or filaments of fitk ; the third isthe nut, a fort of half-wheel, which ferves to keep the hairs in the due degree of tenfion, _ , The ancients do not appear to have been acquainted with bows of hair; in lieu of thefe they {truck their initruments with a ple&trum ; over which our bows have great advantage, giving long aad fhort founds, and other modifications, which a pleétrum cannot produce. Pm ~ Bow, in Trade and Manufadures, denotes a flexible in- ftrument confifting ofa piece of feel or iron, to the two ends of which is faitened a cat-gut, ufed by fmiths, watch- makers, and other artificers, for the piercing and turning of ivers forts of works. ; oth is more peculiarly called a drill-bow. Tt is fometimes alfo made of wood, whalebone, and the ) in Mofaic have a fort of bow made of a piece af lithe wood, with abrafs wire faftened to the ends of it, which ferves to faw hard and precious itones. Letter- cafters have alfo a bow wherewith to keep the matrix even. See Founpery. of Bow, among Builders, denotes a beam of wood, or brafs, with three long fcrews, that govern or direct a lath of wood or fteel to any arch ; chiefly ufed in drawing draughts of fhips, and projections of the fphere, or wherever it is re- quifite to draw large arches. — : Bow, in Navigation, an inftrument formerly ufed for obferving the altitude of the fun, in order to determine the i the fhip. . ; aT hie ‘ome confifts of the five following parts; viz. firft. an arch, or portion of a circle, capable of containing upwards of ninety degrees, whence the name of the inftru- eat 3 fecond, a ftraight rod or bar, equal in length to the radius of that circle of which the arch isa portion ; and three vanes, called the fight, Shade, and horizon vanes. The arch of the bow is divided into go degrees, and numbered from the top downwards ; and thefe degrees are fubdivided into halves, quarters, or tenths, &c. according as the fize of the inftrument will admit; but the common me- thod is to divide the degree into three equal parts, and by means of concentric arches and diagonal lines, the fubdi- vifions may be carried as low as two minutes, One end of the radius or ftraight bar is put into a per- foration in the arch at 45 degrees; and the horizon vane, Vet. V. having a narrow flit in it, through which the horizon is te be feen at the time of obfervation, is to be put upon the other end of the radius. The fhade vane, which is fome- times fitted up with a convex lens,is placed on the arch above 45 degrees ; and the fight vane, having a fmall perforation, through which, and the flit in the horizon vane, the fight is to be direGted to the horizon, is put on the arch below 45 degrees. Thefe two vanes are moveable upon the arch. The manner of ufing this inftrument is as follows : 1. To obferve the meridian altitude of the fun with the bow. With the latitude of the fhip by account, and the fun’s declination, find the eftimated meridian altitude, which will be equal to the fum, or difference, of the complement of the latitude of the thip by account, and the declination of the fun, according as they are of the fame, or of a contrary de« nomination. Then place the fhade vane to any whole degree, as much above 45 degrees as amounts to nearly half the eltimated meridian altitude, and the ficht vane is to be placed as much below 45 degrees. Now let the obferver look to the oppofite point of the horizon with refpeé to the fun, and held the bow vertically, and in fuch a manner that the horizon may be feen through the flit in the horizon vane, the eye being placed at the fight vane; then, if the bright folar {pot, from the lens in the fhade vane, is upon the flit in the horizon vane, the fight vane is in its proper place ; if not, the fight vane is to be raifed or deprefled accordingly: con- tinue obferving in this manner, until the fun has attained its greateit altitude ; andthe de rees, and parts of a degree in- tercepted between the fiducial edges of the two vanes, will be the fun’s meridian altitude: and hence the true latitude of the fhip may be found as ufual. When the fun begins to fall, that is, when the altitude diminifhes, or the fun is patt the meridian, the folar {pot will appear above the flit in the horizon vane, that flit and the horizon being in one. 2. Lo obferve the altitude of the funy when off the meridian, by the bow. x Let the altitude of the fun, at the time of the obfervation, be eftimated ; then place the fhade vane to any whole degree, as much above 45 degrees as is about half the altitude by eftimation ; and move the fight vane upwards or down- wards, until the folar {pot is upon the flit in the horizon vane, at the fame time that the horizon is feen through the vane ; and the intercepted degrees and parts of a degree upon the arch, between the fight and fhade vanes, will be the altitude of the fun. Bow, in Ship-building, that circular part of a fhip in which the ftem is in the middle, and its extremes near the foremoft part of the fore-chains. A proper form of a bow is of the utmoft confequence. A veffel with a fharp bow will, ceteris aribus, fail fatter in {mooth water than one with a full bow; et ina high fea, fhe will plunge and dive greatly more, and thereby diminifh her rate of failing. A proper medium he- tween thefe two extremes; confiftent with the form of the thip, is, therefore, to be employed. M. Bouguer has paid very particular attention to this fubje & 3 and he has givena fet of tables, deduced from algebraic formulz, for the con- ftruétion of bows that will meet with the leaft refiftance, and that will have the greateft velocity, or of fuch as will render a fhip more capable of carrying fail, and at the fame time will divide the fluid with the greater facility ; alfo, of the greater motion which, he fays, differs in fome cafes from that of the greateft velocity. M. Bouguer obferves, that it is very doubtful whether that figure, which meets with the leak refiftance in dividing the water, may be the moft adyan- tageous to acquire the anaet degree of velocity; for it is J pofiible BOW poffible that a bow which meets with alittle more refiftance may render the hip capable of carrying a proportionable quantity of more fail, although the two bows, which may be diftinguifhed by naming the one that of the leaft refift- ance, and the other that of the greateft velocity, fhould have fuch an affinity to one another, that one fhould, in a great meafure, partake of the moft effential properties of the other. M. Bouguer alfo obferves, that a bow which meets with the leaft refiftance ina direét courfe, not only meets with the leaft refiftance in oblique courfes, but the veiffel has alfo the additional property of driving the leaft to lee- ward ; which isa double advantage gained, by forming the bow fo as to give it that figure which will be the lealt op- pofed in moving through any medium. Bow, Bold, a full high bow. Bow, Lean, a fharp bow, having little bearing or fup- port, fo that, ina rough fea, a veffel with a bow of this kind-is apt to pitch greatly, which retards her rate, and alio to fhtp much water. Bow, Starboard, that part upon the right-hand fide of the ftem, to a perfoa on deck looking forward; and that part upon the left hand fide is called the /ardoard bow. ; Bow, Weather, is that part of the bow towards the wind when a fhip is clofe-havled : and the other partis called the tee bow. ‘ Bow, On the, an expreffion nfed to denote the pofition of any obje@, as a fhip, the land, &c. appearing in the dire&tion of fome particular part of the bow. If the fhip is failing dire&tly towards the dbject, it is faid to be right-a-head; if . not, the objeé is faid to be on the flarboard, or on the /ar- board bow ; or it is faid to be on the weather, or on the kee bow. If the objet is in the direCtion of any particular part of the veffel, with refpe¢t to the obferver, as the cat- head, &c. it is then faid to be right over the cat-head. The pofition of an obje€f, with refpe& to the courfe of the fhip, may be eftimated by the intercepted portion of the horizon between them ; and in this cafe it may be exprefled either in points of the compafs, or in degrees, but the former is moft commonly ufed. Hence, if from a fhip running N. by W. with her ftarboatd tacks aboard, a light or fail was obferved to bear N. W. by N. it would be faid to bear two points upon the lee bow. ‘hen the angle, contained between the object and the fhip’s courfe, is greater than four points, it is ufual to exprefs the bearing from the beam ; thus, in place of faying that an object bears fix points on the larboard bow, it is expreffed to bear two points before the beam. Bow-dearer, an under officer of the foreft, who is to ob- ferve and take notice of all manner of trefpafs, againft vert er venifon ; and to attach, or caufe to be attached, the of- fenders in the next court of attacliment. Bow-compa/s. See Compass. Bow-dje, a new kind of fearlet-red, fuperior to madder, But inferior to the true f{carlet-grain, for fixednefs and dura- tjon. It was brought into England, and firft practifed at the village of Bow, near London, by Kephler, a Fleming, in the year 1643 ; whence its name. In the year 1667, another Fleming, named Brewer, invited to England by Charles If. with the promife of a large falary, brought this art to great perfeGtion. Thefe accounts, how- ever, and the names of the perfons, are extremely dubious. Anderfon’s Commerce, vol. it. p. 77. . Beckmann’s. Hitt, Envent. vel, il. p. 206, Bow-legged, in Surgery. See Banpy-ligs. Bow-net, or wheel, an engine for catching fith, chiefly \obfters and craw-fifh, made of two round. wicker-bafkets,. BOW é pointed at the end, one of which is thruft into the others, at the mouth is a little rim, four or five inches broad, fomewhat bent inwards. Itis alfo ufed for catching fpare rows. Bow, rain. See Ratn-bow. Bows of a faddle, are two pieces of wood laid archwife, to receive the upper part of a horfe’s back, to give the fad= dle its due form, and to keep it tight. ; The fore-bow, which fuftains the pommel, js compofed of the withers, the breafts, the points, or toes, and the — corking. The hind-bow bears the tronflequin, or quilted roll. _ The bows are covered with finews, that is, with bulls piz- zles beaten and fo run all over the bows, to make them — ftronger. They are likewife flrengthened with bands of iron, to keep them tight. It is on the lower fide of the bows that the faddle-firaps are nailed; the ufe of which is to make faft the girths. Bow-piece, a gun, or piece of ordnance placed in the bow. 2 ; ' Bow-grace, or Boun-grafe, a frame or compofition of old ropes, or junks of cables, ufed to be laid out at the bows, ftems, and fides of fhips, to. preferve them from bodies or fields of ice, when in high latitudes where thefe are ex pected. Bow-faves. See Garsuine of bow-faves. Bow-faw. See Saw. ; BOWDOIN, in Geography, a townthip of America, in Lincoln county, and diftri& of Maine, on the north-eaftern bank of Androfcoggin river; diftant from York, north- eafterly, 36 miles, and from the mouth of Kennebeck river 6 nfiles, and 166 N. E. from Bofton. It contains 126e inhabitants. BOWDOINHAM, a townfhip of Lincoln county, and diftri& of Maine, feparated from Pownalborough eait, and Woolwich fouth-eaft, by Kennekeck river. It hes 171 miles N. E. from Bofton, and contains 792 inhabitants. - BOWED, in Botanys (arcuatus) bent like a bow ; a term exprefling the dire&tion of filaments, and the figure of a le- gume. It is employed alfo by Gertner, to denote that figure of the cotyledons which is found in fome of the legu- minofe and filiquof, in canella, myrtus, cyftus, {corpiurus, &c. and that figure of the embrio which occurs in allium, inorea, afparagus, &c. BOWEL-GattueEp,-m Ferriery, denotes a laceration oc- cafioned by the tightnefs and heat, or friGtion, of the girths, juit behind the elbowsof the fore-legs, and is foon hardened and obliterated by two or three applications of a foit fpunge, impregnated with common vinegar. BOWELLING, exenteratio, the a& of pulling out the entrails of an animal. Bowelling makes part of the progrefs of embalming. Bowe tine is alfo a part of the punifhment of traitors in England, who are to have their bowels ripped open, torn fo:th, and burnt beforethem. radioni, fu/pendio, decolla- tioni, exenterationi, S&F quaterizationt adjudicavit. Knyght: fub. Edw. Ti. in the fentence of Hugh Spencer. BOWER, Arcuisatp, in Bidgraphy, a native of Scot- land, was born at or near Dundee in 1686, educated in the- Scots college at Douay, and admitted, in 1706, into the fociety of Jefuits at Rome. After fome varieties of fitua- tion and employment, during the fucceeding interval, he at length, viz. in 1723, fettled at Macerata, where, according to his own account, he performed the office of counfellor to the Inquifition: conceiving difguft, as he flates the fa@, at the enormttics committed by this tribunal, or, as his enemies affert; ate . W BOWER. affert, charged with incontinence, he removed, in 1726, to Perugia, and fecretly made his efeape to England. Of the eireumi{tances attending his efcape he has given a very ample account; but his written documents and oral teltimony have been found to differ in feveral particulars from each other, and of courle his integrity was not only fufpected but re- roached. Soon after his arrival, he was introduced by De. Afpiawall to Dr. Clarke and to Wuhop Berkeley, from jntercourfe with whom, added to. his own reading and rea- foning, he obtained, as he fays, the fulleft conviction that many of the favourite doctrines of the church of Rome were not only repugnant to feripture and reafon, but wicked, dlafphemous, and utterly inconfiftent with the attributes of the deity. Under the impreffion of thefe fentiments he svithdrew himfelf from the Romith communion, and aban- doned the order with which he had been connected. His mind feems at this time, according to his own account, to have been in a ftate of fcepticifin and indecifion on the fub- ject of religion; and though he continued a Proteftant for ‘about fix years, he connected himfelf with no particular de- nomination of Proteftant Chriitians. At length, however, he conformed to the church of England, alleging that this church was “ as free in her fervice as any reformed church from the idolatrous practices and fuperititions of popery, and lefs inclined than niany others to fanatici{m and enthufiafm.” By the recommendation of Dr. Goodman, phyifician to king George I., he obtained patronage in the family of lord Aylmer, and was entrulted with the education of two of his lordthip’s children. By lord g\ylmer, he was introduced to ‘lord Lyttleton, who contidered him as a kind of religious confeflor, and remained his active friend and zealous adyo- cate, even when he was deferted by almoft every other perfon of any dittinguifhed reputation. Whillt he lived with lord Aylmer, he formed a conne Mr. Bowyer had been always fubje& to a bilious colic, and for the lafi ten years of his life he was afflicted with the palfy and the ftone: and yet he retained, to a great » a remarkable cheerfulnefs of difpofition ; and his faculties, though fomewhat impaired, enabled him to derive great fatisfaGtion from the converfation of bis literary friends, to purfue a courfe of incefflant reading, which was his principal amufement, and to correét the learned works, efpecially the Greek books, which were printed at his prefs. Within a few weeks before his death he funk under his maladies and the progrefs of decay, and at length terminated a life of fingulsr reputation and ufefulnefs, on the 18th of November, 1777, in his 78th year. His numerous pub- licatiops afford ample evideuce of bis talents and learning, and he was honoured with the friendfhip and patronage of many of the moft diftinguifhed ornaments of the age in which he lived. Asa learned printer he had no rival for more than half a century ; and he was no lefs diftinguithed by his moral qualities than by his mental abilities and lite- raty attainments. - Of his ‘regard to religion, both in the principles and practice of it, his whole life afforded un- gueftionable evidente ; his probity was inflexible; the promptitude with which he relieved every {pecies of dif- trefs marked the benevolence of his mind: and his modetty ‘in endeavouring to conceal his bencfactions refleéts great ho- nouron bis memory. Although his literary-avocations and natural temper induced him to feclude himfelf very much from the world, and from intercourfe with.any pevfons befides men of letters, he was reckoned to poflefs an excel- Jent talent for difcriminating tbe real charaéters of man- i BOX kind. Inthe decline of his life, and: in his teftamentary arrangements, he feems to have been influenced by a regard to twe great objects; one was to repay the benefactions which had been conferred on his father at a time when he eculiarly needed affiftance, and in this refpeét he mani- fted a very amiable difpofition; his other obje& was to be himfelf a benefactor to the meritorious in his own pro- feffion. A tranfcript of his will, if our limits would admit of it, would bear ample teltimony to the laudable views by which he was actuated ; and we have been induced to en- large in our account of him fiom real refpect to his memory. After liberally providing for his only furviving fon, by his firft wife, (for he was twice married, ) and allotting various bequefts to his relations, executors, private friends, and his father’s benefa&tors ; he appropriated feveral fums to “ the benefit of printing,’’ particulary with a view to the relief of aged printers, compofitors, or preflmen, and to the encou- ragement of the journeyman compofitor, whom he particu- larly deferibes, and who is required to be capable of reading and conftruing Latin, and at leaft of reading Greek fluently with accents; thefe latter bequefts he committed to the direction and difpofal of the malter, wardens, and affifants of the company of itationers. Mr. Bowyer was buried, agreeably to his own direction, at Low-Layton, in Effex, and a neat monument was erected, at the expence of his fucceflor Mr. J. Nichols, to his father’s memory and his- own, upon which is a Latin infcription written by himfelf. A butt of him is placed in Stationers’ hall, with an En- lifh infcription annexed to it, in his own words ; and be- ides this there are alfo a good portrait of his father, and another of his patron Mr. “Nelfon;. all prefented to. the company by Mr. Nichols. Biographical and literary anec- dotes of William Bowyer, printer, F.5.A., and of many. of his learned friends,’? by John Nichols, his apprentice, partner, and fucceffor. 4to. 1782. BOWYERS, artificers whofe bufinefs is. to: make: bows. In which fenfe, bowyers ftand diftinguifhed from fletchers. who made arrows. The bowyers’ company was incorporated in 1620, and confifts of a mafter, two wardens, twelve affillants, and thirty on the livery. See Company. BOX, in its moft general acceptation,.is ufed to denote a cafe for holding things; of which there are feveral kinds, as a falve-box, pyxis unguentaria, that ufed by furgeons to carry with them. Box is fometimes alfo ufed fora kind of meafure, though variable according to the commodity. Thus the box of quickfilver contains from one to two hundred weight ; of prunellas, about fourteen hundred ; of rings for keys,, two. grofs, &e. Box, m Botany. See Buxus. Box, African. See Myrsine. Box, coachs a place under the eoachman’s feat, wherein he puts what may be wanted for the fervice of the coach or horfes. Box, dice, a narrow deep cornet, channelled within, where- in the dice are fhaken and thrown. ‘This anfwers to what the Romans called friti/lus ; whence crepitantes fritilli, and, in Seneca, refonante fritillo. The fame author alfo ufes concutere friullum, hguratively for playing. Befides the fritillus, the Romans, for greater fecurity, Lad another kind of dice-box, called pyrgus, and fometimes /urricula, It was placed immoveable in the middle of the table, being perfo- rated or Open at both ends, and channelled alfo within: over the top was put a kind of funnel, into which the dice were caft out of the friti/lus 3 whence defcending, they fell through the bottom oa the table; by which all practifing on BOX en them with the fingers was effetually prevented. For want of fome contrivance of this kind, our fharpers have opportunities of playing divers tricks with the box, as palming, topping, flabbing, &c. Hyde. Hift. Nerdilud. G5: ps 275. 200 Box iron, a kind of cafe wherein the heaters are inclofed for ironing linen. Box-money, at Hazard, is that which is paid the box- keeper, or him who furnifhes the box and dice. Betters have the advantage over calters,as they have “no box- money to pay, which at long run would beggar the mott fortunate player. Hence fome gametters will never caft, to fave the expence of box-money. Box of a plough, a name’ by which the farmers call that crofs-piece in the head of the plough, through which the {pindle of the two wheels paffes, and to which are faftened the two crofs-flaves, ferving, by their holes, to regulate the height of the beam, the tow-chain below, the ftake which fupports tlie bridle-chain above, and the gallows behind, into which are fixed the wilds with the crooks of iron, for the drawing of the whole plough along. This part of the plough is placed crofs-wife with the beam, and ftands much below it, and not far from the ground. See Provcn. Box of a rib-/aw, two thin iron plates fixed to a handle; in one of the iron-pJates is an’ opening to receive a-wedge, “by which it is fixed to the faw. Box, firong, a coffer of iron, or of thick wood, fecured with iron plates, and a lock with feveral bolts, difficult ‘either to be opened or forced; chiefly ufed for putting money in. k Box the compa/s, in Sea-language, to repeat the oppofite oints of the compafs alternately. Thus, N.S. N. by E. S. by W. N.N.E. S.S.W. &e. Box of the compa/i, the {quare wooden box which con- tains the mariner’s compafs; in the conftruGtion of which no iron work is to be ufed. Box of a watch, the cafe or cover, Box of a wheel, the aperture wherein the axis turns. Box-puceron, in Entomology, among old writers, the coccus befperidum, an infe& that infefts the box, in common, with various other evergreens. See Hesperipum. ‘The word puceron, and baflard puceron, appears to have been formerly applied indifcriminately to feveral diftinét genera of infe&s ‘that infeft plants, as thofe of the cynips, aphis, thrips, and others. Box-thorn, in Botqny. See Lycium. Box-tree, fand. See Hura. Box-hauling, in Secaman/bip, a particular method of veer- ing a.fhip, when the {well of the fea renders tacking im- practicable, or when there is not room to veer by the common method of filling the head, and fhivering the after- fails. ‘This operation is performed by putting the helm hard a-lee, which brings the fhip’s head to windward ; the ‘after-fails, particularly the main-fail, mizen, and mizen ftay- ‘fail, are to be hauled up; as foon as the fails begin to fhake, haul in the weather-head braces, and the lee-fore, and fore-top bowlines; the fhip’s head will then fall off, which, together with the aétion of the water upon the rudder, by the fternway fhe has acquired, will bring her round until the wind is right aft; when her fternway will have ceafed, and then the helm is to be put hard a-weather: in the mean time the after-fails are to be braced up, which -will greatly affift in bringing the fhip round; the main-fail, mizen, and mizen ftay-fail are to be fet, the head-yards ‘braced up, as the fhip comes to the wind, and the helm fhifted to its proper pofition. Box-hill, in Geography, near Dorking, in Surrey, Eng- land, received its name from the great number of box-trees ' BOX which ornament its fhelving fides and fummit. Many of thefe are faid to have been planted on the fouth fide of it by the celebrated earl of Arundel, in the reign of Charles I, Since that period they have proved highly beneficial to the proprietor, and tothe public. * Formerly,” fays Mr. Gilpin, “the fhips from the Levant brought fuch quantities of this wood in ballaft, that the trees on this hill could not find a purchafer ; and not having been cut in 65 years, they were growing in many parts cankered. | But the war having diminifhed the influx of it from the Mediterranean, feverat purchafers began to offer for this native wood; and in the year 1795, fir Harry Mildmay put it up to auétion, and fold it for the immenfe fum of twelve thoufand pounds.” This hill, and the neighbouring eminences, on which the box-tree flourifhes in fuch profuiion and perfeétion, fhould be confidered as making a part of the natural hiftory of Britain. The extenfive profpects commanded from this place, combining with its fingular and beautiful feenery, frequently excite the attention and admiration of travellers. In its immediate vicinity are feveral elegant: villas, and the river Mole, which runs under ground for fome diftance, winds its flow waters beneath the precipitous fides of this hill. Gilpin’s Obfervations on the Weftern Part of England, 8vo. 1798. Manning’s Hittory of Surrey, fol. vol. i. 1804. BOXBERG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and the Palatinate; 34 miles E. of Heidelberg. BOXBOROUGH, a townfhip of America, in Middle- fex county, and ftate of Maflachufetts, containing 387 inha- bitants; 30 miles N. W. from Bofton. BOXERS, a kind of athlete, who combat or contend for victory with their fits. See ATHLETZ. is Sf _ Boxers are the fame with thofe who, among’the Romans, were called pugiles. The ancient boxers contended with fuch force and fury, that they frequently dafhed out one ano- ther’s teeth, broke their bones, and killed each other. The ftrange disfigurement thefe boxers underwent were fuch that frequently they could not be known, and rendered them the objects of many railleries. In the Greek antho- logy, there are four epigrams of the poet Lucilius, and one of Lucian, wherein their disfigurements are pleafantly enough expofed. Anthol. Gree. lib. ti. Ep. 1, 2, 3. 10. 14. Boxes, ina play-houfe, are little apartments behind and afide of the pit. We fay, the front boxes, the ftages boxes, &c. Boxes of the pump. See Pump. BOXFORD, in Geography, a {mall townthip of Ame- rica, in Effex county, Mailachufeets, feated on the S. EF. fide of Merrimack river; 7 miles W. of Newbury port, and containing 852 inhabitants. BOXHORNIUS, Mark Zuertus, in Biography, an eminent philologift, the fon of James Zuerius, was born at Bergen-op-Zoom, in 1612, and aflumed the name of his maternal grandfather, Henry Boxhorn, a convert from popery, and minifter of Breda. At Breda, where he was educated, his proficiency in literature was fuch, that at the age of 17 years he publifhed fome Latin poems that were well received, and at the age of 20 he was editor of fome learned works. In 1632, he became profeffor of rhetoric in the univerfity of Leyden. Deelining to ac- cept the invitation of queen Chriftina to an honourable office in Sweden, he fucceeded Daniey Heinfius in the pro- fefforfhips of politics and hittory, both which departments he occupied with great honour to himfelf and benefit to his auditors. His literary career, however, was terminated by death, in 1653. His works were numerous and curious, He publifhed, in addition to his juvenile labours as an editor, notes . bs _ mentioaed author. * BOX notes upon Juftin, Pliny’s Fpiftles, ard Tacitus, and a = ah upon the Lite of Agricola,” by. the lait In a work written by him on fe tion of printing, he endeavoured to eftablifh the claims as alte aeabea to thofe of Mentz. He alfo wrote a Latin account of the fiege of Breda... Among his political pieces are enumerated his defences of the liberty of navigation claimed by the Dutch, a fhort account of the Durch conititution, and a vindication of the rights of Charles II. to the Englith throne. He wrote * Critical and hiftorical differtations on the antiquities of Gaul and Scythia ;”? and ‘* Sacred and prophane hiftory from the birth of Chrilt, to the year 1650,”? in one volume 4to. His account of learned women never appeared. His let- ters, and his Latin and Greek poems, were printed after his death. Gen. Did. , ; ; BOXING, the exercife of fighting with the fifte, either raked or with a ttone or leaden ball grafped in them: in which f{enfe boxing coincides with the pugillaius of the Ro- mans, and what, on our amphitheatres, 1s fometimes called trial of manhood. When the champions had cOaspas, or balls, whether of lead or ftone, it was properly denommated cfas- poraxiay Potter, Arch. Gree. lib. ii. cap. 21, vol. i. : The ancient boxing differed from the pugna cafluum, in which the combatants had leathern thongs on their banda, and balls, to offend their antagonifls ; though this diftinc- tion is frequently overlooked, and fighting with the ce/lus ranked as part of the bulinefs of the pugiies. We may dif- tinguifh three fpecies of boxing ; viz. where both the head and hands were naked; where the hands were armed and the head naked; and where the head was covered with a kind of cap called ampHotipes, and the hands alfo fur- nifhed with the ce/lus, which fee. ; : Boxing is an ancient exercife, having been in ufe in the heroic times, before the invention of iron or weapons. Ac- cordingly we find in the Latin and Greek poets, feveral deferiptions of this rudett, and moft dangerous of the gym- naflic combats. In Homer, we have that of Epeus and Eurialus; in Theocritus, that of Pollux and Amycus; in Apollonius Rhodius an ‘account of the fame battle; in Virgil that of Dares and Entellus; and in Statius, and Valerius Flaccus, are relations of feveral other combatants. Diofcor. Idy!. 22. Argonautic. 1. 2. éneid. 1.1. The- ecritus, 1.6. Argonaut. |. 4. ‘ Thofe who prepared themlelves for it, ufed all the means that could be contrived to render themfelves fat and ficihy, that they might be better able to endure blows: whence corpulent men or women were ufually called pugiles, accord- ing to Terence: ‘* Siqua eft habilior panio, pugilem effe aiunt.”’ M. Burette has given the hiftory of the ancient puzilate, or boxing, with great cxa€tnefs. Mem. Acad. Infcript. tom, iv. p. 353, &c. The athletz fometimes came immediately to blows, and began with charging in the moft furious manner. Some- times whole hours paficd in harafling and fat-guing each other, by a continual extenfion of their arms, rendering their mutual blows ineffectual, and endeavouring by this mode ot defence to keep off their adverfaries. But when they fought with the utmoft fury, they aimed chiefly at the head and face, which parts they were molt anxious to de- fend, by cither avoiding or catching the blows that were aimed at them, Whena combatant threw himfelf with all his energy up -n another, they had a furprifing addrels in avoiding the attack, by a nimble turn of the body, which caufed the incautious adverfary to fall, and deprived him of the victory. Notwithftanding the ferocity with which the combatants contended, they were fometimes fo exhuuled Vou. V. BOX by the duration of the combat, as to be under the neceffity of making a truce, upon which the battle was fufpended for fome minutes, which were employed in recovering from their fatigue, and rubbing off the fweat with which they were bathed. They then renewed the fizht, till one of them, by letting fail his arms through weakaefs, or by {wooning away, indicated that he could no longer {upport the pain and fatigue, and delired quarter, which was con- fefling himfelf vanquithed, ; This art, adapted, as one might conceive, only to a period of barbarilm, bas in modern times been almott appro- priated by the Englifh ; and about half a century ago it formed a part of the exhibitions at places of public amufe- ment. It was enconraged by the nobility, and ever toler- ated by the magiftrates. Before the cftablifhment of Brovghton’s amphitheatre, a booth was creed at Totten- ham court in London, the proprietor of which, Mr. Geo. Taylor, invited the profeffors of the art of pugilifm to dif- play their fill, and the public to attend their performances. The entrance money, amounting fometimes to 100 or 1sol, was fhared among the performers, in fuch proportion, that the victorious champion had two-thirds of it, and the van- quifhed one-third; and in fome cafes both had an equal fhare. When complaints were made by the nobility and gentry of the inconventence attending the exhibitions ia Taylor’s booth, they prevailed on Mr. Broughton, at that time of rifing fame in the clafs of pugilifts, to build a place better adapted for the purpofe. A fubfeription was railed, and, in 1742, a building was ereéted behind Oxford road, and denominated * Broughton’s new Amphitheatre.” In this building there were, befides a ftage for the combatants, feats correfponding to the boxes, pit, and galleries in other theatres. In procefs of time, the public tale was res fined and improved, fo that exhibitions of this kind ceaf-d to be popular, and funk into negleét. At a later period, the death of one of the combatants ferved to render them ftill more difreputable, and unworthy of any patronage and en- couragement. Inftances, however, are often occurring of the renewal of thefe contefts; but they are now fo dif- graceful in the public eftimation, and fo much reftrained and prohibited by the interference of the magiftrates, that they are attended by few perfons above the lowett clafs of the community, whenever, by eluding notice, they happen to take place, : Boxinc, an operation in failing, fomewhat fimilar to box-hauling. Ic is performed by laying the head fails a- back, to receive the greateft force of the wind iv a line per- pendicular to their furface, in order to bring the fhip’s head back into the line of her courfe, after fhe had inclined to windward of it, by negleét of the perfon at the helm, or otherwife. But fhould a thip be taken flat a-back, or through neglect, in not timely boxing her off, it fhould caufe the wind to be broad upon the other bow, and it thould be the with of the officer to have her upon the fame tack as before, then furl the helm over to that fide, which juft before was the weather; brail up the mizen, and mi- zen -ftay-fail; raife the main-tack and theet, and {quare the after-yards. In this fituation of the helm and fails, fhe will pay round off upon her keel; and when fhe has brought the wind aft, and gathered head-way, fhift the heim. The wind round upon the other quarter, haul aft the mizen and mizen ftay-fail fheets, brace up the after. yards, get on board the main tack, and haul aft the thet. As the comes to, right the helm, and trim fharp as before. Boxine, in Ship-luilding, uke proje€tion left on the haule-pieces, in the wake of the haufe-holes, where the planks do not run through. x Boxine BOY Boxine is alfo ufed for the tapping of a tree, to make it yield it3 juice. The boxing of maple is performed by making a hole with an axe or chiffel into the fide of the tree, about a foot from the ground ; out of it flows a liquor from which fugar is made. Phil. Tranf. N° 364. See Marre, Breepinc- Bircu, and Sap. BOXMEER, in Geography, a town of Germany, fitu-~ ate on the weft fide of the Meufe, on the frontiers of the duchy of Gueldres: 8 leagues E. of Bois-le~Duc, and 4 S.S.W. of Cleves. BOXTEHUDE, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Bremen, feated on the river Efte or Effe, navigable for boats to the Elbe. It is fubje& to the Danes; 14 miles W. of Hamburg. N. lat. 53° 40!. E. long. 9° 355! BOX TEL, a town of Brabant, feated on the Dommel, and furnifhed with fluices ; 5 miles S. of Bois-le-Due. N. lat. 51° 30! EB. long. 5° 15! BOY-Bisuopr, in Antiquity. See Bisuop. Boy, St. in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of Catalonia; 6 miles S.W. of Barcelona. BOYAR, or Borar, a term ufed for a Ruffian Jord, or grandee. According to Becman, boyars are what, in other countries, are called the upper nobility; he adds, that the czar of Mufcovy, in his diplomas, names boyars before way wodes. It has not yet been fatisfaftorily determined, what the ancient boyars were; whence they derived their defcent; and how they maintained their dignity; and whether this ignity was conferred by the fovereign ; whether it attached to birth, or whether it fprung from the rank and import- ance which they brought with them into the country. If we confider them as the privy counfellors of the fovereign, then their precedence ariles merely from their office, or they mutt have poflefled it by their birth. But it has been likewife affirmed that the boyars, now in general the moft confiderable of the Ruffian nobility, came from abroad, were forung from foreign anceftors, and brought their nobility into the empire with them. However, future refearches are neceflary for obtaining fatisfation, with regard to thefe queltions. During the Tartarian and Mongolian fovereign- ty no trace of them is found; and even curing the reign of czar Ivan Vaffillievitch I. no fuch title zppears, though it feems to have arifen at that time, or very foon after it : for under the czar [van Vaffillievitch I1., the boyars had already endeavoured to colle a confiderable force ; but were much overawed by that monarch. In the fuc- ceeding period of diftraétion, eccafioned by the afpiring views of the patriarch and kis fuperior clergy, the boyars feized the favourable opportunity of extending their power. I: is alfo probable, that perfons of refpetable birth from other countries, occupied high ftations in Ruffia, and on this account, as well as from the privileges brought with them, enjoyed great authority; and hence all boyars, 2. e, the fuperior officers, might take occafion to afflume a confequence, which they afterwards, as opportu- nities occurred, endeavoured to enlarge. Although the boyars are always mentioned in hiftory as perfons of diftinc- tion, yet the fame hiftory alfo informs us, that they re- ceived their dignity from the fovereign alone, that ic was entirely perfonal, and that it was not tranf{mitted by inheritance from father to fon. Accordingly, it depended on the will of the monarch, whether he would have many or few boyars: and, therefore, they can never be con- fidered as native privileged deputies of the people, nor as perfons who could reftrain the power of the fovereign, or BOY refit him in the undue exertions of it. In fome cafes, however, they ufurped an authority to which they had no jutt pretenfions, and then brovght great diftrefs upon the empire. At the drawing up of the ulofhenie, or old law of the land, they, as well as the clergy, were confulted : but probably only as privy counfellors, und¢r which de- {cription they were generally noticed in the ukaffes. How- ever, in order to prevent any further ufurpation and mif- takes, an edi& was iffued in 1701 by Peter I., that they fhould no longer be mentioned at all in the ukailes. From® the authority they poffeffed, and with a natural defire of extending it, it may be reafonably prefumed, that they took a lead in the ele@tions of the fovereign princes, if they were not tlie prime managers of them ; they without doubt thought themfelves the firft perfonages after the fovereign and the privileged reprefentatives of the people, efpecially of all the reit of the nobility ; and this feems to be the reafon why the latter are not named among the eleGtors. The boyars, in early times, when wars were frequent, befides having a fhare in the election, were commanders of the army, as well as the minilters and counfellors of the prince. The directing fenate in the Ruffian government, inftituted by the empe- ror Peter I. about the year 1711, and raifed to the rank of the fupreme college of the empire, confilted at firft of g boyars; and feems to have been created in the place of the old boyars. The boyars before his time fat at the helm of ftate in the capital, and officiated as viceroys in the pro- vinces, deciding, commanding, and acting according to their own humours. But he abrogated the court of boyars, called ‘¢ Boyarfkoi dvor,”? which had hitherto conftituted the miniftry of the czar or tzar, and without whofe confent nothing could be enaéted, infomuch that all the decrees of government began with thefe words, “ By command of the tzar, and with the approbation of the boyars;”? and fubftituted the fenate in its room. Writers are not agreed as to the precife meaning of the word * boyar,”’ or ‘* boy= arin.” In the di&tionaries it is made to denote a lord, a perfon of quality, or a nobleman. Sometimes it peculiarly denotes a foldrer. In the Ruffian language, “ boyarin”’ fig- nifies a gentleman, a perfon of diftinction, or a matter of © a family: and the Ruffian peafant ufually ftyles his noble- man, even though he has neither rank nor eftate, boyarin, or contra¢tedly, barin, and his fpoufe, boyarina. Hence the tafk-fervice, performed by the boers to their lord, is called ** boyarfcht{fchina.’? Tooke’s view of the Ruffian Empire, vol. it. BOYAU, in Fortification, a branch of the trenches; be- ing a ditch covered with a parapet, which forms a communi- cation between two trenches ; it runs parallel to-the de- fenfive works of the body of the place, and ferves as a line of contravallation, to hinder the fallies of the befieged, and alfo to fecure the miners. When it isa line or cut, that runs from the trenches to cover fome {pot of ground, it is drawn fo that it may not be enfiladed, that is, that the fhot from the town may not fcour along it. BOYCE, Dr. Wixtiam, in Biography, organift and compofer to his majelty, was a mufician to whom our choral fervice is greatly indebted, not only for his own excellent choral works, but for the well feleGted, correct, and fpendid edition of our cathedral mufic, which he publifhed in three volumes, large folio, upon the plan, and at the recoms mendation of his mafter and predeceflor, Dr. Greene, to whom he ferved an apprenticefhip. This eminent profeflor (Boyce) was born at Joyners’ hall, in the city, of which his father was houfekeeper, and with whom he refided during celibacy. When he becamea family= man, his refidence was in Chancery-lane, to the end of the reign . BOY reizn of his late majefty George II, about which time he re- moved to Kenfington Gore, where he ended his daysin 1779. He was educated at Sr. Paul’s {chool, and began his mutical career asa chorifter in that cathedral. When he loft his treble voce, he was bound apprentice to Dr. Greene, then organilt of the metropolitan church. The matter and fcholar feemed worthy of each other, living in the utmoft cordiality and friendfhip; the matter loving the pupil, and the pupil ho- neuring and refpecting the maiter, to the end of their lives. In 1734. he was a candidate for the place of organilt of St. Michael’s church, Cornhiil, with Froud, Young, James Worzan, and Kelway. But though he was unfuccefsful in this application, Kelway having been eleGed, yet he was appointed, the fame yeer, to the place of organift of Oxford chapel; and, in 1736, upon the death of Weldon, when Kelway, being eleéted orzanift of St. Martin’s in the Fields, refigned his place at St. Michael’s Cornhill, Boyce was not only eleét-d organift of that church, but organilt and com- poler in the chapel royal. The fame year he fet ‘* David’s’ Lamentations over Saul and Jonathan,” which was performed at the Apollo Society. About the year 1743, be produced his ferenata of * Solo- mon,” which was not only long and jultly admired, as a pleafing and elegant Compofition, but ftill affords great de- light to the friends of English mufic, whenever it is per- formed. His next publication was ‘ Twelve Sonatas or Trios for two Violins and a Bafe,”? which were longer and more generally purchafed, performed, and admired, than any productions of the kind in this kingdom, except thofe of Corelli. They were not only in conftant ufe, as chamber mufic, in private concerts, for which they were originally defigned, but in our theatres, as aét-tunes ; and public gar- deus, as favourite pieces, during many years. In 1749, he fet the ode written by the Rev. Mr. Mafon, for the inftallation of the late duke of Newcattle, as chan- cellor of the univerlity of Cambridge, at which time he was honoured with the degree of doétor in mufic by that univerfity. Soon after this event he fet the ‘ Chaplet,’’ a mufical drama, written by the late Mr. Mendez, for Drury-lane theatre, which had a very favourable reception, and long run, and continued many years in ufe among the ftock pieces for that theatre. Not long after the firft per- formance of this drama, his friend Mr. Beard brought on the fame ftage the fecular ode, written by Dryden, and ori- ginally fet by Dr. Boyce for Hickford’s room. or the Caftle concert, where it was firft performed, in {till life. This piece, though lefs fuccefsful than the * Chaplet,” by the animated exertions of Mr. Beard, was many times exhibited before it was wholly laid afide. Thefe compofitions, with occafiona) fingle fongs for Vauxhall and Ranelagh, diflemi- nated the fame of Dr. Boyce throughout the kingdom, asa dramatic and mifcellaneous compofer, while his choral com- pofitions for the king’s chapel, for the feaft of the fons of the clergy at St. Paui’s, and for the triennial meetings at the three cathedrals of Worcefter, Hereford, and Gloucef- ter, at the performances in all which places he conttantly prefided till the time of his death, eftablifhed his repu- tation 28 an ecciefialtical compofer and able mafler of har- mony. Dr. Boyce, with all due reverence for the abilities of Handel, was one of the few of our church compofers who neither pillaged nor fervilely imitated him. There is an ori- ginal and fterling merit in his produ@ions, founded as much on the ftudy of our own old matters, a3 on the beft models of other countries, that gives to ajl his works a peculiar ftamp and charaéter of his own, for flrength, clearnefs, and B..0.Y, facility, without ‘any mixture of ftyles, or extraneous and heterogeneous ornaments. On the deceafe of Dr. Greene, in 1757, he was appointed maiterof the king’s band, and, in 19758, on the death of Travers, organilt of the chapel royal; of which he had fuc- ceeded Weldon, in 1736, as compofer; fo that he enjoyed three honourable appointments at once, which ufed to be fupplied by three feveral profeffors. The gout put an end to the exiltence of this worthy man, and excellent compofer, at theage of 69. He was fucceeded in the chapel royal by Mr, (afterwards Dr.) Dupuis, and, as a mafter of his ma- jefly’s band, by Mr. Stanley. BOYD, Marx Avexanper, a defcendant of the an- cient family of this name in Scotland, was born in Gallo- way In 1562, and placed for education at Glafgow, under the care of his uncle, the archbifhop. But being of an un- governable and turbulent temper, he quarrelied with his preceptors, deftroyed his books, and renounced the purfuits of literature. He then fought to puth his intereft at court ; and when all the endeavours of his friends to ferve him in that fituation proved ineffetual, they fent him in a military capacity to the wars of the United Provinces, witha view of reftraining the violence of his temper. From hence he foon removed to Paris, and loft his whole {tock of money by gaming. ‘The diftrefs that enfued feems to have brought him to reflection, and he determined to apply to literary ftudies. Accordingly he repaired to Bourges, and attended the lectures of the fanious civilian Cujacius. To this emi- nent profefflor he recommended himfelf by peculiar attention and refpedt, and by adopting his tafte in Latin poetry ; and thus he acquired a fondnefs for the antiquated ftyle of Ens nius, and of the older Latin poets. From Bourges he wag driven by the plague to Lyons, and thenceto Italy. On the renewal of the civil wars in France, he removed thither, and bore arms with reputation in the royal caufe; and after a variety of adventures he returned to his native country, where he died in 1601. ‘he talents and performances of Boyd have been much over-rated ; and he has been reprefented as another ‘ admirable Crichton.” But though he poffeffed a vigorous and verfatile genius, he never acquired, probably on account of his indolence and diffipation, any kind of dif- tinguifhed excellence. Befides feveral manufcripts which he left behind him, on political, critical, and poetical topics, his ** Epiftole Heroidum,” and his ** Hymni,” were pub- lifhed in the ‘* Delicia Poetarum Scotorum,” printed at Amiterdam,” in 2 vols. 12mo. 1637. His ‘“ Epiftol” were infcribed to James VI. of Scotland, or James I. of England, whom he reprefents as fuperior to Pallas in wil: dom, and Mars inarms. As to the charaéter of his poctry, it confifts in an imitation of the worft manner of Ovid ; end his hymns, which have no tin¢ture of devotion, are poems to which he has anneked the title of fome flower or herb, the qualities of which he has defcribed. Bifhop Tanner iv forms us, that, befides his epiftles and hymns, he publifhed two books of “ Epigrams.” Biog. Brit. BOYDELL, Joun, a liberal patron of the arts, andian honour to his country, was born at Dorrington, in Shropthire, on the 19th of January 1719. His father, who was a land- furveyor, intended his fon for his own profeffion; and, had it not been for one of thofe little accidents which often deters mine the path that men are deftined to walk, he had wafted that life, which has been fo honourable to himfelf, and be- neficial to this nation, in meafuring and valuing the deres of Shropthire fquires, and the manors of Welch baronets. Fortunately for himfelf and the arts, a trifling incident gave a different direGion to his mind, and led him to aim at the delineation of {cenes more piéturefque than the ground. K2 plans BOYDELL. plans oF houfts, boundaries of fields, or windings of obfcure roads. While he was yet very young, chance threw in his way ‘ Baddeley’s Views of different Country Seats ;”? and among them was one of Haward

3 y ws Profeffors, {chool-malters, tutors, &c. - 6c0,000 Retail trades, not immediately connected ge with foreign trade or any manutacture Various other profeffions and employmznts 2,000,000 Male and female fervents - - » 2,000,000 Total - £. 130,570,000 If the total expenditure be eflimated at 125,860,000l, which has been deduced from a minute, and, perhaps, as accurate a ftatement of particulars as the fubje@, admitting of various conjcctures and pre{umptions, allows, the difference between this expenditure and the general income fhews the annual gain of the country, or the fum applicable to the extenfion of commerce, the refervation of a greater quan- tity of foreign articles, the increafe of {hipping and buildings, agricultural or mechanical improvements, or other augmen- tations of the general ftock. On introducing the income-tax, Mr. Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer, gave the following eftimate of the annual in- come of Great Britain; Tao" ick es ish pie one- 2 r 20,000,c09"» The tenants’ rental of land, deduing two-thirds of the rack-rent = - Sionaeee aoa ial Pat 4,000,000 The produce of mines, canal naviga- 7 tions, &c. deduSting one-fifth - ‘t OMIT The rental of houfes, deduéting one fiith 5,000,000 The profits of profeffions - - - 2,000,000 The rental of Scotland, taking it at aneided one-eighth of that of England - 520005 The income of perfons refident in Great Britain, drawn from poffef- 5,000,000 fions beyond the feas - - - The amountof annuities from the pub- lic funds, after dedu@ing one-fifth 12,000,000 for exemptions and modifications - The profits on the capital, employed $4,000,000 in our foreign commerce = - 3 The profits on the capital employed ir domettic trade, and the profits of {kill i 28,000,000 and indultry = - - < E Total - £-102,000.000 As one of the principal fources of the wealth of Great Britain confifts in its manufa€tures, it may not be improper to give a brief ftatement of them; refervitis a more copious detail for other articles in this diftionary, undér which they will feparately occur. The woollen manufaGure deferves to be firft mentioned, becaufe it is the moft ancient, and, ina variety of refpe€ts, the moft important ftaple of the country. In an examination of the principal woollen manufa@urers by a committee of the houfe of commons not long ago, the quantity of wool grown in this country was eltimated at 600.000 packs of 24olbs. each, which, valued at rl. per pack, amount to 6,600,000l.: and though the increafe of value of manufactured wool is various, and depends on its quality, yet it was ftated, that the total value of the wool manufacture in this country amounts to 19,800,cool. But the calculation fuppofes, that the number of fheep, in 17915 was 28,800,000, which exceeded the truth at that time, and much more fince that period ; and it was formed upon an unufually high price of wool. But the eftimate will be much lefs objeGionable, if it be formed on 500,000 packs at rol. 108, per pack, and thus the value of the wool will be 55250,000l., and its manufactured value wiil be 15,750,000). The average value of woollen goods exported for 1797, 1798, and 1799, is 6,104,2111. which, as the cuftom-houfe values of goods exported are much below their real value, requires an addition of about 25 per cent. and thus it be- comes 7,630,263). The valne of goods retained for home con- fumption wall be nearly equal to that of fuch as are exported ; and, therefore, the whole value of the manufacture appears to be about 15,260,ccol. and may be taken, at a medium, between this fum and that before (tated, at 15,500,000l. Dedudting 10 per cent. on the co't of the goods, for the profits of the manufacturer, with intereft of his capital, there will remain 14,090,909!. for the colt of materials and wages of labour: and as the value of the wool is about §,250,0001.; the amount pf workmanthip, or the wages of all the perfons employed in this manufeGure, is 8,840,g09].; and the whole number of perfons employed, averaging their wages at 8s. each per week, does not exceed 425,043). The value of the leather manufaéture may be ftated at 10,500,0¢el. from which deduting 954,545]. for the pro- fits of the capital, and 3,500,000l. for the colt of the raw Xx 2 article, BRITAIN. article, there will remain 6.045.455]. for the wages of perfons employed in it, which, allowing to each 25]. a year at an average, makes the number employed 241,818. The eotton manufacture was formerly inconfiderable, in comparifon with i's prefent ftate. The total quantity of catton wool imported into England, on an average of five Fears, ending with 1705, was 1,170,881lbs.; and fo late as the year 1781, it amounted to only 5,101,g20lbs. But this manufa&ture was fo much extended, that before the commencement of the laft war the confumption of cotton wool amounted to upwards of 30,000,o0olbs. per annum. During the years 1796, 1797, 1798, and 1799, the annual import, at an average, was 30,434,000lbs.; the value of which, when manufactured, cannot be lefs than 9,500,000l.; and if we dedu& from this fum 863,636l. for profits of capital, at 10 per cent. and 3,804,250l. for coft of the raw material at 2s. 6d. per pound, there will remain 4,832,114]. for wages, which, divided at the rate of 15]. per annum for each perfon, on account of the-number of women and children employed, makes the whole number 322,140 perfons. The filk manufaéture has of late years experienced little flu€tuation; the average of raw and thrown filk imported for three years preceding the 5th of January, 1797, was 883.438lbs.; =nd the ufual quantity cannot be ftated at lefs than Goo,0colbs. the value of which, when manufaQured, is about 2,700,0col. The coft of the filk, averaging that of the raw and thrownat 28s. per pound, amountsto1,260,000l., and the profits of the manufacturer to 245.4541. at the rate of 10 per cent. on the coft when manufactured. The num- ber of perfons employed in this manufa¢ture has been ftated at 200,000 and upwards ; but there is reafon, fays Mr. Grellier, to believe that it does not exceed 60,000 of all de- fcriptions. The linen manufaQure of Great Britain is chiefly confined to Scotland, though fome branches of it are carried on in Manchelter and other parts of England. The total quantity of Britifh linen exported during the years 1797, 1798, 1799, was 50,451,000 yards; and if the quantity retained for home conf{umption is not greater than the export, the value of the whole muft be at leaft 1,600,000l.; and that this does not exceed the truth is probable, if the yearly value of the whole manufa€ture in Great Britain, with the thread and other branches of the flax trade, is {tated at 2,000,000]., and the number of perfons employed at 60,000. The hemp manufaGture at prefent exceeds 1,500,cool., but it is Icfs in time of peace; and the number of perfons employed is probably not lefs than 35,000. The paper manufaéture has of late greatly advanced. About 100 years ago, the paper made in this country was almolt wholly the coarfe wrapping paper, aud for a long time the fuperior kinds were for the molt part imported ; but the export is now confiderable. ‘The annual value of the manufacture, at the prefent high prices of the article, eannot be lefs than goo,oool.; and the rumber of perfons employed is 30,000, ‘The glafs manufa@ture has of late very much improved and increafed ; fo that it may now amount to 1,500,000), and the perfons employed in it are about 36,000. The potteries and manufa€ures of earthen ware and por- celain have rapidly advanced during the prefent century, in confequence of the improvement they have received, and the introdu@tion of many new and beautiful wares both for our own ufe and foreign markets. We are particularly indebted to Mr. Wedgwood, ‘‘ for convertisg clay into gold.” The annual value will probably not be over-rated at 2,000,000l., and the number of per{sns employed at 45,000. The iron manufa@ure is fupplied partly by the produce of our own mines, and partly by thofe of other countries. With refpeé& to the firlt it is faid, the total produce of pigs iron in Britain does not at prefent exceed 100,000 tons , and reckoning on an average, that 33 cwt. of crude iron produces one ton of bars, and that the manufacture of malleable iron amounts to 35,000 tons per annum, this branch will require 573750 tons of crude iron; and the value in bars at 2ol, a ton is 700,000l.; the remaining 42,250 tons, caft into cannon, cylinders, machinery, &c. at 14l. a ton, is worth 591,500]. The fupply of foreign bar-iron is chiefly obtained from Ruffia and Sweden ; aad the quantity imported, on an average of 12 years, has been 44,135 tons, worth, at 221, per ton, 970,970l., which, together with the former fums, amounts to 2,262,4701. Some years ago, the value of the iron manufacture was cftimated at 8,700,0c0o0l. ; but if this fum fhould appear too high, we may include tin and lead, and the value of the whole will probably amount to 10,000,000l., and the number of perfons employed ta 200,000. The copper and brafs manufa¢tures are now eftablifhed in this country. ‘Till about the years 1720 or 1730, moft of the copper and brafs utenfils ufed for culinary and other purpofes in this country were imported from Hamburg and Holland, being procured fram the manufaGtories of Gers many : and even fo late as the years 1745 and 1759, copper tea-kettles, faucepans, and pots of all tizes, were imported in large quantities. But by the perfevering indultry, capi- tals, and enterprifing {pirit of our miners and manufa@urers, thefe imports have become totally unneceflary ; fo that the articles are now all made here, and far better than any other country can produce. The difcovery of new copper-mines in Derbyhhire and Wales, about the year 1773, contributed to the extenfion of the manufa€ture in this country ; and it appears to be {till increafing, notwithftanding the late great advance in the price of copper. The value of wrought copper and brafs, exported during the year 1799, was 1,222,187l.; and there is reafon to believe- that the whole value of thefe manufaGtures at prefent is.at leaft 3,500,000h, and the number of perfons employed 60,000. The fteel, plating, and hard-ware manufaQtures, including the toy-trade, have been of late much extended, and may probably amount in value to 4,000,cool., and the perfons employed to at leaft 70,000, It is acknowledged, that many of thefe eftimates muft be effentially defective, from the want of public documents re- fpeéting many important branches of trade. However, they ferve to fhew, in a general view, the relative extent of our principal manufa€tures, as in the following fummary : Annual Value. Perfons empleyed. Woollen - - £. 15,500,000 425,043 Leather - - 10,500,000 241,818 Cotton - - 9,500,006 322,140 Silkve ac. ae = . 2,700,000 60,000 Linen and flax - 2,000,000 60,000 Hemp - - 1,500,000 35,000 Paper - ° goo,coo 30,000 Glafs - - - 1,500,000 36,000 Potieries - . 2,000.000 45,000 Tron, tin, and lead I0,000,0c0 200,000 Copper and brafs + 3350C;0C0 60,000 Steel, plating, &c. - 4,000,000 70,000 £,- 63,600,000 1,585.0co To the above enumerated manufa€tures of greater import- ance, we might have added thofe of hats, horn, ftraw, &c. which taken together are of very confiderable amount, and employ a great number of hands. ‘here are alfo fome, which, though not generally included among the manu- 2 factures, BRITAIN. faGtores, partake of the nature of thefe, and might not im- be claffed with them. To thishead we might refer aa, nt branch of exportation, or that of beautiful prints, which this country is in an eminent degree in- debted to the late alderman Boydell. Grellier, Month. Mag. Jan. rSor. The commerce of Great Britain extends through the eaft- erm and weftern hemifpheres of the globe, by means of the capital and credit of the country, the {kili and ioduitry of its artizans and manufa@turers, the number of its fhips and the charaéter of its feamen, and the enterprifing fpirit as Value of Import wellas eflablifhed reputation of its merchants. The num. ber of regiftered veffels belonging to the Britifh dominions, and employed in trade in 1802, was 20,568, their tonnage 2,128,055, and the number of feamen navigating the fame, 154,530. In 1503. the number of veffels was 21,445 ; their tonnage 2,238,249; and the number of men 155,445 3 being an increafe of 877 ships, of 110,194 tons, and of 915 men, The following table will exhibit a complete view of Bri- tifh commerce folely from the port of London, for one year ending Jan. 5, 1795, fince which the commerce has increafed. Value of Exports from the Port of London, Names of the Countsies. into London. te Foreign Parts. Britith Foreign Manufactures Merchaudize. moh te di #. wh ad. BH de Treland Spats te wth S, 2,209;501 3 4 168,687 18 3 914352 4 4 Britih Wek Indies - - 6,072,117 5 0 2,249,043 13 11 579.453 6 0 Congqnered Iflands afntite 1,226,064 13 § 260,976 of 110,817 18 o Britith American Colonies - 397,412 18 Oo 654.842 19 4 251,551 6 2 Guernfey and Jerfey - - - 91,936 1t 2 12,001 13 10 21,616 16 8 Gibraltar 2 2 - 12,947 16 8 83,473 14 11 69,315 2 8 Honduras Bay - - - 14,696 4 2 2,029 18 11 2,550 16 2 South Fifhery . = : 197,680 8 6 ar 6° 8 —— —, Afia, including Eaf Indies - 8,916,950 2 10 3:398,680 1 4 185,190 16 o frica : - - - - 66013 8 4 99,593 12 9 188,743 16 6 Turkey - - - - 641,860 19 2 32,005 12 0 123,770 7 2 Streights - - - - 8,399 14 0 —_- —_ —_—— Venice Fe = . - - 82,107 16 o 6,203 17 11 16,305 7 2 Italy - = = - at lz 2 goraEs oO 80,980 18 9 340,786 o § Spain 6225. - 1,070,697 18 o 205,096 4 4 265,169 3 4 Portugal - - - - 644,600 3 8 182,780 6 2 119,813 12 6 Madeira - - - - 7.479 16 § 27,998 6 10 6,886 18 2 Canaries - ty ANS She 6,763 19 I0 20,116 18 4 oh eel ee Pranbe Ss ts: rh 2 Mite arte 1430 6 8 3.216 5 3 63,625 10 6 Anftrian Flanders - . - 1373249 5 0 129,413 9 7 887,642 18 10 Holland - - - wi OSy203,5050°3 6 114,458 3 9 1,968,687 3 4 Germany - - - - 14,089,307 19 4 1,044,634 18 o 6,176,100 14 8 Pniffia - - - - 190,657 3 2 54,380 14 0 272,719 17° 4 Poland © ~ . 2° «= 104,978 10 4 7,022 11 Io 57:007 2 4 Sweden SN atelttagitis 262,727 3 4 33845 5 6 LIU,45714 4 Ruffia - - - - 43,269,688 9 6 95519 8 8 491,244 9 2 Denmark and Norway - 166,356 1 © 1475340 O11 5453509 19 8 Greenland . - = 9926,759011. '2 —_ -— — —— United States of America = 811,511 18 8 2,251,280 12 I 429,248 7 8 Florida - - - 16,239 16 o 38,067 0 3 8,855 0 o Foreign Weft Indies = - = + 56,240 2 0 1,767 13 10 60 00 Prize Goods - - - 1,572,868 8 8 Included in the ac count of each country, 29,706,476 17 4 11,396,539 13 8 14,208,925 14 6 RECAPITULATION. The aggregate value of goods imported into I.ondon in one year a 29,706,476 17 4 Bnitith manufaGtures exported £11 Foreigo merchandize, do. Value of goods imported in upwards of 9002 coafting veflels, averaged at 5ool. each. Value of goods exported coaftways, in about 7000 veffels, at 10001. cach, 5 Total amount of property fhipped and unfhipped in the river Thames, in the courfe of a year, eflimated at 3396,539 13 8 14,208,925 14 6 - 25,605,465 8 2 4,500,000 0 o 7;000,000 0 Oo 11,500,000 0 © } 66,811,942 5 6 If BRIT li we add to this eftimate, the accounts belonging to the other ports of Briftol, Liverpool, &c. the account muft be enormous. From the ftates of North America are chiefly imported tobacco, rice, indigo, timber, hemp, flax, iron, pitch, tar, and lumber; from the Weft Indies, fugar, rum, cotton, coffee, ginger, pepper, guaiacum, farfaparilla, manchineal, mahogany, gums, &c. ; from Africa, gold duft, ivory, gums, &c.; from the Eaft Indies and China, tea, rice, {pices, drugs, colours, filk, cotton, faltpetre, fhawls, and other produéts of the loom; from our remaining fettlements in North America, furs, timber, pot-alh, iron; and from the various ftates of Europe, numerous articles of utility and of luxury. Pickerton’s Geog. vel. i. p. 100. For other particulars relating to Great Britain, fee Con- STITUTION, Dest, Funp, Partiament, REVENUE, ke. &c. See alfo Exncranp, ScoTLanp, and WALEs. Britain, in Hifory. It will be mot fuitable to the plan of this work, to divide the hifttory of England into {feveral branches, each of which may be confulted under the pro- per heads. Thefe divifions will be,—the hiltory of the ifland anterior to the Saxon invafion, which will be the fubje& of the prefent article ;—the hiftory of the Saxon oftarchy from the invafion of the Saxon tribes to the period of the Norman conqueft, which will be introduced under the word Saxons ; —the hiltory of England from the Norman conqueft to the acceflion of James I., for: which fee the article ENGLAND ; —and the hiltory from that period to the prefent times, which will be inferted under the fame head. Scorianp, Irevanp, and Wates, will be feparate fubjeéts of hiftory ; and their tranfa€tions, fo long as they continued independ- ent nations, may be fought for under their refpe€tive names. So much as is neceflary to be known of the hiftory of the other Britith ifles, will be found under the articles of He- BRIDES, J/le of Man, Orxneys,andSuerianp. Thefe different topics will comprife all thet is material in the hif- tory: of the Britihh ifles, It would give us very little trouble to ftate the hiftory of Bnitain anterior to the Saxon invafion, if we could adopt the account fo popular among our ancettors, and give the fictions of Jeffery of Monmouthia place in our authentic annals. But Jeffery’s hiftory, though fupported by the belief of moft of the men of learning in the fixteenth century, by many in the feventeenth, and by fome in the laft, eannet for a moment be fuffered to rank m our eftimation as true hiftory. We need not combat the tale by a profound difquifition : it has the merit of difercditing itfelf by its abfurdities and impro- babilities ; and we might difmifsit into oblivion without ano- ther fentence, but that the public may be curious to know what fort of fiction it was, which-was capable of interefting our anceftors fo much, and of feducing fo many learned men to patronize and-defend it. After fettling /Eneas in Italy, marrying him to Lavinia, and killing Turnus, in exact conformity to Virgil, Jeffery gives him one Sylvius for a grandfon, whofe friends, the magi of the day, oblige with a prophecy, that his wife was pregnant with a fon, who would detftroy both his father and mother, and after travelling over many countries in banifh- ment, would at laft arrive at the higheft pitch of glory. This lucklefs lad was Brute, who killed his mother in his birth, and, at 15 years of age, compieted the predition by deftroying his father. Being expelled Italy by his kinfmen for the parricide, he weot to Greece, and found the Trojans kept in flavery by one Pandrafus, whom the author compli- ments with the title of king of the Grecians, but whom no Greek hiftorian bas ever acknowledged. Brute afiembled the Trojans from all parts, and fent a letter to this Pandra- fus, affuring him that the Trojans would rather live after the AIN. manner of wild beafts on flefh and herbs with liberty, than enjoy the greateft luxury under his flavery, ng Pandrafus was furprifed.at this meffage ;. but he was igs norant that he had to do with a hero whom his hiftorian had determined to make.an infellible conqueror. It was, theres fore, in vain he befieged a town called Sparatinum, the fitus ation of which only Jeffery knew, but with which he has forgotten to acquaint us; for though he outaumbered the Trojans fo much that their brave commander dreaded a pitched battle, yet Brute contrivesa ftratagem to enter their camp at night, deceive the watch, and kill them all in their fleep. He accomplifhes all this as eafily as he conceived it. Pandrafus is taken prifoner ; his army annihilated. A con- fultation is held to conlider what is to he done with the cap- tive ; and asit is arule with Jeffery to detail the very words of every converfation, the fpeeches are again recited at full Jength ; and Pandrafus is liberated on condition of giving Brate his daughter Ignoge for wife, with plenty of geld; filver, fhips,.corn, wine, and oil, and alfo permiffion to re« move tofeme other country. With bis new wife and 324 fhips, and after many f{woons on the part of Jgnoge, and many kiffes on the part of Brete, « which he ceafed not till fhe grew weary of crying, and fell afleep,’’ he fet fail, and two days afterwards came to an un- inhabited ifland, in which was a convenient temple of Diana, and a itatue of the goddefs, that kindly gave anfwers to alk who confulted her. In_.fix very pretty lines, which Milton thinks too good for the age of the tranflator, he afks her whither they were to go, though a reafonable man would have formed fome notion of that before he had fet out, and not have trufted to the vague chance ofa deferted ifland and a prieftlefs oracle. After repeating the words exaétly nine times, and walking four times round the altar, and laying bimfelf before it upon the fkin of a white hart, he fell afleep. About the third hour of the night (for Jeffery is very particular in circum ftance, though the incident is placed about 2000 years bes fore him), about the third hour of the night, “ the ufual hour for deep fleeps,”? apparitions, and vifions, the goddefs in perfon appeared tothe Trojan, and in eight lines as har- monious as his own, informs him that beyond Gaul there was an ifland in the Weft, formerly occupied by giants, but then deferted, where he fhould found another Troy, anda race of kings by whom ail the world fhould be fubdued. With this anfwer, but without being made much wifer by it, for Brute knew as much about Paradife as about Gaul, they put to fea again in a weftward courfe, and in 30 days came to Africa, being ignorant as yet whithertofteer. At lait they reached the ftreights of Gibraltar, after great danger from pirates where their fhip had nearly been overturned by thofe fea-monfters called Syrens. However, they made a fhift to efcape, and costrive by advancing ftill to the weft, for no retrogade courfe is mentioned, to get into the Tyra rhenian fea, though, unfortunately for accurate geography, this fea, inftead of being near Spain, or beyond it, is in the dire&t centrary courfe, becaufe it wafhes the lower part of Italy. Bet be this as it may, here they pickup fome Tro- jans, whole general was Corineus. This was a very modcft man, but withal fo courageous, “ that if he encountered with any giant, he would immediately overthrow him, as if he had been a child.” From this Tyrrhenian fea they reached the Loire, as fud- denly as if Jeffery had fuppofed they were clofe together. In vain all the kings and princes of Gaul united againit the in- vaders; for they, whom fome pirates had greatly endan- gered, and fome Syrens had nearly drowned, now defeat all the confederated Gauls, burn their cities, lay waite their fields, and make “* difmal flaughteramong the people, being unwilling BRITAIN. unwilling to leave fo much as one alive of all that wretched pation.” After thefe humane exertions, *‘ they build towne, as Homer teftifies,”” in fome work to Homer and to us equally unknown ; and then doubting if it were prudent to fight there any more, they fail to Britain, the promifed land, and arrive at Totnefs, A new train of miracles begins; and, indeed, a little im- picty isexhibited by Jeffery, for the goddefs told Brute, thet this ifland had formerly been inhabited by giants, but was now deferted ; yet, in contradiétion to the divine affertion, the daring monk, in his fixteenth chapter, peoples it, though thioly. with giants ftill. However, at their coming, away fly the giants to their caves, to the great difcontent of Corineus, “* to whom it wzs the greateft poffible diverfion to encounter then.” To in- dulge his favourite inclination, he begs ‘* the county of Cornwall for his fhare, becaufe the giants were in greater number there, than in all the other provinces.”? Brute obliges him: and an opportunity foon arrives to make Co- rineus very happy. « Among the reft there was one deteftable monfter, named Goemagot, in ftature 12 cubits (or about 18 feet high), and of Fach prodigious ftrength, that at one fhake he would pull up an oak, es if it had been an hazel wand. One day, when Brute was at Totnefs, this fellow, and 20 more of his companions, feli upon the new-comers, among whom they made a dreadful Aaughter.’? This was precifely what Cori- neus wanted ; for as the other twenty were foon difpatched, Brute ordered “* Goemagot to be preferved alive, out of a dcfire to fee a combat between him and Corineus, who took valt pleafure in fuch rencounters.”” * Overjoyed at this, Corineus threw atide his arms, and challenged the giant to a wreftling match ;”? but a Cornifh hug from the Goliah of Cornwall foon broke three of Co- rineus’s ribs, which, we are very circumftantially told, were two on his right fide, and one upon his left. But this acci- dent, inftead of difabling, “ enraged Corineus to fuch a des gree,’’ that theugh never mentioned but as a mortal man, and of mortal fize, he feized hold of this tremendous giant, « threw him over his fhoulders as if he had been a hare, ran with him as fait as he was able for the weight to the next fhore, nay, got even up to the top of a very high rock. and there hurled down the favage monfter into the fea.’’? ‘The sy where he fell,” adds Jeffery, ‘“ is called Goemagot’s cap to this day.” The above circumftances prefent a faithful abridgment of the firit fixteen chapters of this ancient hiltory. ‘The firfl patrons of “ The Britifh Hiftory,” defended all its ftory. The later advocates allow it to contain a few hyperboles, but warmly maintain that it ought not to be wholly rejected on this account. But, unfortunately, the whole biltory is in this ftrain; of this only a few more brief fpecimens need be given. rennus, who befieged Rome at the head of the Gauls, when Camillus and the geefe faved the capitol, was, accord- ing to this hiftory, a Briton; and his brother Belinus, then king of Britain, was withhim. Conan, king of Armorica, wanting wives for his foldiers, afks the king of Cornwall for fome, who fends him 11,000 daughters of his nobility, and 60,000 of a meaner fort. The greater part of thefe are drowned; the reft are murdered. The magi commanded Vortigern to find a youth who had never had a father, and Merlin is accordingly brought, whofe mother had a miracu- Jous conception from a demon. The king cannot build a tower, becaufe it is {wallowed up as faft as it is raifed. Merlin foretells, that there is a pond deep under the ground, which occafions it, and that at the bottom of it are two hol- low flones, in which two dragons are afleep, Uther Pen- dragon, to gratify his paffion for Igerna, is transformed by Merlin into the figure of her hufband. ‘To crown the whole, Cadwallo being toffed on a certain ifland, and longing for venifon, his fervant Brian goes im fearch of fome, but finding none, he cuts out a piece of his own thigh, which he roafts upon afpit, and carries to his mafter as venifon!!! What- ever may have been the prejudices of former times in favour of the book, every reader will now treat it with derifion, though he may not chufe to adopt the quaint phrafeology of the Dutchman, who called it a‘ groote, grove, lange, dicke, talteliicke, ende unbefchaemte logen,” which in plain Engiifh is, a great, heavy, long, thick, palpable, and fhamelefs lie. The account of Brutus and his ‘Trojans having colonized _ Britain was in exiftence before Jeffery. It appears in Nen- nius, who lived about, or before, the ninth century : his pre- face ie a triumph to the advocates of the Trojan, becaufe it announces that he had taken ¥is hiltory not only from the Roman annals, the chronicles of the holy fathers, and the hittories of the Scots and Saxons, but alfo from the tradi- tions of his anceftors, and from the monuments of the an- cicnt inhabitants of Britain. On infpe&ting his hiftory, it is curious to remark ta what fources he refers his feveral in- cidents. The tale of Brutus is from the annals of the Romans; and his genealogy up to AZneas, thence to Noah, and thence to Adam, was furnifhed to the chronographer by the traditions and writings of thofe who firft inhabited Bri- tain. Unfortunately for the tale, no Roman annals that we know of have fan€tioned the biftory of Brute; and we may be allowed to deny that the Druids bad any acquaint- ance with the Jewifh feriptures. Of other romances on this remote part of our hiftory ; the difhoneft forgery of Annius of Viterbo, who made cer= tain annals of Berofus, and others, in which Samothes, the fon of Japhet, is faid to have led a Celtic colony into Bri+ tain; of Albion, a giant, who was fent after Samothes to give it a name; of the vifits of Hercules and Ulyfles; of Albina, the princefs of Syria, and her thirty filters, coms mitted to the mercy of the fea for murdering their hufbands, who were thrown providentially on England; of Celto, the daughter of Britannos; of Britannus, the grandfon of Ne~ meth, who brought a colony here out of Ireland, and of fuch hke wild and abfurd inventions, we need only fay that they are fit to clafs with the hiftory of Jeffery, and may be permitted to repofe in oblivion, as proper companions to his Brute and Corineus. To the fame grave may be configned all thofe writers who have wafted their time in deriving the Britons from Japhet, from Gomer, from Javan, from Thi- ras, from Afkenaz, er from Shem. Such derivations are aa unreafonable as the f{peculation of the man who affirmed that the earth was divided between the three fons of one father as a typical reprefentative of the divine Trinity. The only accounts that can be fully relied on for the early hiflory of the European nations, are thofe which the Roman and Grecian writers have tranfmitted to us. Even their ftatements frequently demand our criticifm, but we molt dig for truth in their mines. From the extent of geographical knowledge which Homer ° difplays, we might not unreafonably expc& to find fome allufion to the Britith iflands io his works; but although he mentions with familiarity Italy, Sicily, Greece, Theflaly, Epirus, with fome adjacent countries, and by Strabo and later authors, has been thought to allude to Spain, no other part of Europe is eshiciy commemorated in his Epopeas. One of the oldeft Greek books which contains any allu- fion to the Britifh iflands, is the Argonautica afcribed to Orpheus, The 5 tata perfon of this name lived antes rior BR TATEA TAN: rior to Homer; but the poems that pafs under his name, are by Suidas and Stobzus attributed to a man whom they call Orpheus the younger, and whom others name Onom2- critus. He has been referred to the times of Pififtratus, or about 560 years before Chrift. This poem is curious as a fpecimen of the geographical opinions which the author and his cotemporaries entertained of the weftern part of Europe. It was a voyage from Thef- faly to Colchis on the eaftern part of the Euxine. But the part mott intcrefling to us, is the manner in which thefe ad- venturers are {tated to have returned home; for, inftead of tracing back thir courfe to Colchis, the difference of which was comparatively {mall, they failto the Palus Meotis, or Sea of Afoph, thence up the lands to the northern ocean, and after circumnavigating Europe, arrived at laft at their deftined port. So little was Europe known at this early period, that it was fancied to ‘have been poflible to have failed from the Euxine fea into the Hyperborean ocean. Whoever reads this compolition, from verfe 1053 to 1295, though he may be entertained with the romantic fable of the Macrobians, who are feated in the icy ocean, and who, after living 1000 years in the molt active exertions of witdom and juftice, void of labour and law, fink from unin- terrupted felicity, into a gentle, but perpetual fleep ; yet he will need no further evidence to convince him, that the author was wholly ignorant of the continent of Europe. It is indeed fingular, that he mentions the ifland Iernida, which is prefumed to be Ireland, and which the Argonauts pafs with apprehenfion in their voyage from the North fea. But this is not mentioned with the accuracy of a man who knew what he was writing about, or elfe Britain, and not Ireland, wou!d have been commemorated ; for though Camden thinks that the ifland next mentioned under the name of Ilaxnocay, or Piceis Obfitam, was Britain, this cannot be the fa&, becaufe, after they had left Iernida, they were tofled by a furious tempeft for twelve days before Lynceus dif- cerned the ifland Ilsvxneccav. It is remarkable, that in oppo- fition to all the mythologifts, the author makes this ifland in the Atlantic to have been the refidence of Ceres, and the place from which Proferpine was carried off by Pluto. With equal peculiarity he makes anotherifland ia the famefea, which he calls avzoscy xspocv ; and which Camden, by a ftrange error, thought to be the fame as the former, though three days fail from the habitation of Circe. The geographical mittakes of this author are worthy of notice, becaufe the man who afpired to write in the celebrated name of Orphens, is not likely to have been the mott ignorant of his contempora- ries. About 450 years before Chrift, Herodotus, the father of hiftory, flourifhed. Greece was then fo deftitute of know- ledge, that, like many of his countrymen who pofleff-d acti- vity and energy of intellect, he travelled to Tyre, Egypt, and Affyria, in fearch of the information which thefe coun- tries in his days almoft exclufively poflcfled. His compo- fition feems to indicate that he made geographieal fubjects a principal objeé&t of inquiry; and he fought for it at thofe places where it was molt likely to be obtained. The fitua- tion of Greece, which on its ealtern fide lies parallel with Afia Minor, and had frequent intercourfe with Egypt, Pho- nicia, Sicily, and that part of the Italian penin{ula which now compofes the kingdom of Naples, introduced him to an acquaiatance with the three continents. It is therefore, if any where, in his works, that we may reafonably expe& to find the moft accurate colleGion of the faéts which were then known concerning the population of Europe, and of the Britifh iflands. ~ But when we take up the hiftory of Herodotus, which gained the Olympic laurel, we perceive that no regions were at that time known, (with only one exception, which we fhall hereafter notice, ) except thofe which military horrors had explored. He is accurate about the tribes or nations that {warmed round the weftern fhores of the Euxine from the modern Conftantinople to the fea of Afoph, becaufe Darius had profecuted a wild expedition againft the Scy- thians who dwelt there. But the hiftorian fails where the Perfian defpot was checked; or, if he indulges fome hafty excurfions beyond, it is only to repeat tales fo abfurd, that the credit of bis whole hiftory has been impeached from his Scythic reveries. In other parts of the world, wherever the nations warred whofe tranfactions he records, he.feems anxious to be minute and faithful; but every other country which the glitter of arms had not revealed, he did not con- defcend, becaufe he was unable, to defcribe. It is, perhaps, from this circumftance, that when we turn from Greece, and the adjacent kingdoms, and extend with national partiality our view weftward over the regions, now divided into Spain, France, Germany, the Northern empire, and the Britifh iflands, we find the hiftorian lamenting, but ingenuoully confeffing, the penury of his information. *¢ T have nothing certain to relate concerning the weftern boundaries of Europe. I know as little of the iflands called Caffiterides, from the tin which is thence imported among us; and though | have diligently inquired, yet have 1 never feen any man who by his own experience could in- form me of the nature of that fea which bounds the extre= mities of Europe; however, it is certain that amber and tin come from its remoteft parts.’? The ignorance of Herodctus muft have been the ignorance of his age; for it feems to have by no means proceeded from his neglect of inquiry. ‘ Europe has not been fully difco- vered by any man; and we have no account whether it be bounded on the north and eaft fide by the fea.” About 120 years after Herodotus, the preceptor of Alexander flourifhed, who reigned for fo many ages in Eu- rope the monarch of metaphyfics. A treatife has been preferved to us, which ts ufually attributed to him; but te which his right has been difputed by men whofe erudition is formidable enough to leave the queftion undecided, even by thofe whom their arguments may not convince. If the circumftance that afferts the claim of Ariltotle appeared un= fatisfactory to the two Scaligers, toCafaubon, Salmafius, Me- nage, Voflius, and others, we cannot but be, at leaft, doubt- ful on the fubje&. By thefe gentlemen it has been given to Theophraftus, or to Anaximenes of Lampfachus, or to the ftoic Pofidonius. But whether the book ** De Mundo” be the compofition of Ariftotle, or of fome of his contem- poraries, or of his immediate fucceffors, or even of later writers, it is, under every opinion, a proper fubje& for our pre- fent confideration. It feems to bea phyfiological account of the univerfe; but it alfo contains a very rapid and concile furvey of the geography of the world. 1f it was written in the age of Anitotle, it will thew how little the geographers of thofe times knew. If it be of later date, it wiil prove that lapfe of time gave no increafe of knowledge, After a finguiar conjecture, which Columbus has fince happily demonttrated to be juit, that beyond the Auantic there were other continents, fome larger, fome {maller than our own, he defcribes the coats which the ocean, as he thought, wafhed; and after conducting the fea from the weftward through the ftreights of Gibraltar to the Propon- tis, he {tates its progrefs from the eaftern regions. Ie tells us, that it comes towards the Gallic gulpb, and thence to the columns of Hercules. : “ In this fea aretwo iflands, called Gp:lomxes, wrCsev xx Iipvwy larger than thofe we named above. They are directly above the Celts.” Thefe ¥ BRITAIN. Thefe curious paffages deferre a moment’s confideration. Of Eu this geographer knew that the northern parts were inhabited by the Scythians, and the weltern by the Celts; and that beyond the Celts were two iflands called Bretanikai, whofe names were Albion and Hierna. This is the earlie& author in which the Britifh iflands are explicitly named. , That the Britith iflands were known to the ancient world long before the time of Cxfar, may be inferred from the paffuze in Polybius, which mentions them. This author lived about 200 years before the Chriftian era. He enjoyed the confidence of Scipio and Lelius; and when he deter- mined to write hiltory, he made many journics to the parts which he intended to defcribe. In the latter part of his third book, he promifed to write concerning the Sprtlavxar meus, the Britifh iflands, and the making of tin. Unfortunatsly for our curiofity, this trea- tife has not reached us. It is certain that he compofed it, becaufe Strabo mentions his dilcuffions concerning Britain. Three other Grecians alfo wrote concerning Britain. Thele were Pytheas, Dicwarchus, and the celebrated Eratolthenes, who ali lived anterior to Polybius, aod whofeopinions about our ifland Polybius compared and difputed. Thus we find that Britain was an ifland which had ob- tained much notice among the Grecians. Wemay alfo rceive, from fome intimations of the claffical writers, that the Britith iflands hed been dilcovered and vilited by the ’ Pheenicians and Carthaginians. There feems to be no reafon to doubt that the Caffiteri- des were another name for the Britifh iflands. Pliny fays, that Midacritus firt brought tin from thefe iflands; and Strabo acquaints us that the Pheenicians had been long ac- cuftomed to wifit the Caffiterides from Spain for the fake of traffic; but concealing their courfe from others. He gives a ftriking inftance of their effort to conceal the navigation to our lands. When the Romans followed a Pheenician fhip bound thither, for the exprefs purpofe of difcovering the market, the malter ran his fhip afhore, and deftroyed it, rather than lec them trace his courfe ; and he was indemnified by his countrymen for the lofs out of the public treafury. But the Romans, by frequent attempts, at laft obtained the know- ledge which they fought. Bochart derives Bretanike, the Greek name for Britain, from the Pheevician or Hebrew words 7)N7"M7I, Barat- anac, theland of tin. Cafliteros, the Greek tor tin, from which the iflands were called Caffiterides, he alfo compares, with much ingenuity, with the Chaldee Kiftare and Kittira, by which the Targums of Jonathan and Jerufalem render the Greek word xacavrrpes. It was the invafion ot Czfar, about 54 years before Chrift, which brought the Romans firft acquainted with the natives of Britain. Czfar, ambitious of attajning the higheft dif- tinétion in the Roman ftate, applied himfelf to warfare, as the fureft means of raifing an exalted reputation, and of creating a folid power. With this view he attacked, and conquered the Gauls; and in profecution of the fame pur- pole he invaded Britain. Not being well acquainted with the harbours of the ifland, he fent C. Volofenus in a veffel to explore them. The na- tives, at firft alarm-d at his preparations and threats, fent overtures of peace, Czfar received them civilly, but per- filed in his invafion. After five days abfence, Volufenus arrived at Czxlar’s flation, and reported his obfervations. Cefar embarked two legions ef foot in about eighty tranf- ports ; and with thefe, and cighteen more for the reit of his , he failed towards Britam. ¢ arrived at a part inconvenient for landing from its mountainovs afpeét, and beheld the rocks covered with the we — He remained five houre at anchor, wait- or. V. ing for the arrival of his whole force; and when the wind and tide ferved, he failed out about eight miles farther to a plain aud open fhore. The Britons fent their horfe and chariots to oppofe his landing, and all their forces followed. A fevere contelt en~ fued. The Roman veflels were too large for the thallow fea, and their foldiers were obliged to leap into the waves in unknown places, and with heavy armour, and to conflict with the aGtive natives, who were well acquainted with the coaft, and zealous in their oppofition. Ac lait the Roman gallies brought their engines to bear again{t the Bricons, Their appearance and effect checked the brave favages, and the ftandard-bearer of the tenth legion, at that critical mo- ment, rufhing with his eagle towards the enemy, the Romans followed with new courage, and, after a defperate firuggle, compelled the Britons to retire. This defeat occafioned new propofals of pacification, which were broken, and the ftruggle recommenced. The Britons were repulfed again, but Cefar chofe to abandon’ all further efforts to conquer the ifland, and returned to the continent. In the following year he invaded the ifland again. The natives vigoroufly oppofed him under the command of Caf- fivellaun. They experienced defeats, but their refittance was too fierce for the Romans to fupport, and Cafar again withdrew from the ifland, having fhewn the ifland to the Romans, (fays Tacitus, ) but not having conquered it. The Britons remained unmoletted by any attacks from the Romans till the reign of Claudius, at which period, un- fortunately for their independence, but perhaps happily for their civilization, they were invaded by Aulus Plautius. Divided by civil feuds, and no longer oppofing to the Romans that union of will and power by which they had bafiled the genius of Czfar ; the feparate exertions of their varions tribes were generally difaftrous, and the ftruggle ended in the complete conqueft of the ifland. The events of this confli&t are chiefly recorded at great length by Taci- tus, and are too familiarly known to us to be recited here. In the third and fourth centuries Britain gave fome difturb- ance to the Roman empire, by the turbulence of that part of the Roman army which was ftationed within it, At various intervals they made fome of their favourite officers emperora, who contended for the purple with the other com- petitors. Inthefe centuries Britain was much diftrefled by the incurfions of the P:éts and Scots on the north and weft, and by the Franks and Saxons from the fea, At laft the barbarians prefled fo vigoroufly on the Roman empire, that the Roman forces were compelled to abandon Britain in 409, and the ifland fora fhort time recovered its independ- ence, to lofe it again on the triumphant invafions of the Saxons. See Saxons. Barraix, New, in Geography, an appellation which has been appropriated, by fome geographers, to the mott northern regions towards Hudfon’s bay, and the coalt of Labrddor, and comprehending the whole traé&t of country that lies north of Canada, commonly called the Efquimaux country, including Labrador, New Northand South Wales; {aid to be 850 miles long and 750 broad. ‘This is in general a mourtainous, frozen, and barren country; abounding with lakes, rivers, and bays, that furnifh plenty of fih. The fifhery and the fur-trade are the only products of this country that render it valuable. It is very thinly inhabited by a people refembling the Laplanders, and the other nations ip the north-weftern parts of Europe, from whence their a- ceftors probably migrated. Buc the name of New Britain is not admitted in French or Englith maps. See Hupson’s Bay, and Lasravor. ise New, an ifland, or rather a group of iflands, ia the Pacific ocean, being a part of that extenlive tract deno~ wy minated BRI minated AusTRALAsis. It was firft explored and named by Dampier, who pafleda ftrait called after his name, be- tween this territory and Papua, or New Guinea. In 1767 capt. Carteret navigated a channel that lies between New Britain and New Ireland ; and he called its north point Cape Stephens, its eaft point Cape Orford, and a bay about the middle of its eaftern coaft Port Montague. This land was feen by Roggewein’s fquadron in 1722; and by M. de Bougainville in 1768. Dampier, who vifited the bay fiace called Port Montague in 1700, found the land mountainous and woody, but interfperfed with fertile vales and beautiful ftreams. The country feemed very populous, the natives refembling thofe of Papua, and navigating their canoes with great flall. The chief produét feemed to be cocoa nuts, but there were yams, and other roots, particularly ginger ; aod the fea and rivers {warmed with fih. In the main iand, and adjacent iflea, there are feveral volcanoes. A Spanifh frigate, called the Princeffa, failed from Manilla, towards the clofe of the year 1780, for San Blas in California ; and having, in her way thither, fallen in with fome of the iflands which form the northern part of the group called New Britain, fhe difcovered, onthe zoth of January 1781, nine {mall iflands, covered with palm trees, furrounded by a fand bank, and forming within themfelves a lagoon, or. pond of ftill water, and agreeing, in every other refpe&t, with the de- {cription which is given by Valentin of Ontong Java, dif- covered by Le Maire and Schouten in 1616. ‘The latitude of the fouthern part of this clulter of iflands was obferved to be 4° 53/S. New Britain lies between 4° and 6° so! S. lat. and 148° 20! and 151° 20! E. long. BRITANNIC PracveE,in Medicine. SICKNESS. BRITANNICA, in Botany. See Rumex Agquaticus, or HyDROLAPATHUM. BRITANNICO, Joun, in Biography, au eminent Italian {cholar of the 15th century, was bornin the Brefcian terri- tory, of a family originally from Great Britain ; and having ftudied at Padua ebout the year 1470, kept fchool at Brefcia, and diftinguifhed himfelf by feveral learned annotations on various claffic authors, particularly Juvenal, Horace, Perfius, and Statiusin his Achileid. He alfo wrote grammatical and other traéts, and an eulogy on Bartholomew Cajetano. He is fuppofed not to have long furvived the year 1518, and did not live to publifh his notes upon Piiny’s Natural Hittory. BRITANNICUS Codex Erafmi, in Biblical Hiftory, a MS. copy of the New Teftament, which is one of the two MSS. (the Codex Ravianus being the other) that contain the difputed paflage of the three that bear record in heaven, 1 John, v. 7. This MS. is probably the fame with that de- nominated Montfortianus and Dublinenfis, noted 61 in the firft part of Wetftein’s N. T. in the fecond 40, and in the third 34. It isof the 12mo fize, contains the whole N. T. is written on a thick glazed paper, ard not on vellum, in a modern hand, and is probably of the 16th century. Mill relates, that it belonged originally to one Froy, a Francifcan friar, who poffeffed. it either about cr before the middle of the 16th century ; a few years previous to which period, that is, between 1519 and 1522, it was knownto Erafmus by the name of ** Codex Britannicus.” From Froy it came into the pofleffion of Thomas Clement, probably a doétor of philofophy and medicine in England ; from him it came into the hands of William Chare, a Jearned Greek fcholar ; after Chare, it was pofleffed by Dr. Thomas Montfort, and from him took its name, becaufe it belonged to him when it was collated for the London Polyglot; and fince the time of Uther, who had it after Montfort, it has been preferved in the library of Trinity-college in Dublin, where it is noted G. 97; and hence it is fometimes called Dublinenfis, As Erafmus, in the two firft editions of his Greek Teftament, 7 See SWEATING- _Ravianus. BRI omitted 1 John, v. 7. but in the later editions inferted it, bee caufe he had found it, as he relates, in a Codex Britannicus, it has been concluded, with a very great degree of proba- bility, that the Montfortianus is the fame as the Britamnicus of Erafmus ; becaufe, though every MS. in Great Britaia has been carefully fearched, this is the only one which con- tains the paflage in quettion. In proof of this it is ftrongly urged, that the text of the third edition of Erafmus, in 1522, differs in this interpolated paffage from all other editions, except thofe which were immediately copied from it, and at the fame time agrees word for word with the Codex Mont. fortianus. Although no critic would afcribe a high anti- quity to the Cod. Montf. we have no reafon to fufpe& that it is a mere tranfcript from the Complutenfian Polyglot, which is faid to be the cafe with refpe& to the Codex For the difference is ftrongly marked in nume- rous paflages, and even the text in queftion, for which this MS. is famous, is not the fame as in that Polyglot. Erafmus defcribes the Codex Britannicus as a Latinizing MS. ; and Wetitein entertains the fame opinion with regard to the Montfortianus, of which the paflage in queftion, 1 John, v. 7. affords the flrongeft proof; for in the Cod. Montf. it not oniy differs from the ufual text, but is written in fuch Greek as manifeftly betrays a tranflation from the Latin. For the fatisfa€tion of thofe who may not have ac« cefs to other means of information, we fhall give it below, with all the abbreviations, as it is given by ‘Travis, in his letters to Gibbon, p. 153. Ori pets tigi ef mapro POLIT” EV TWOUMy Wify AOVOSs XA TUK HYSOY Xai OUTOE OF T pels ev Eioe Kai rpeis eioty of papru pSvT’ EY TN YN Tey vdwp AO Clb Ole Here the article is omitted before the words expreffive of Father, Son, and Holy Ghoft, becaufe there is no article in the Latin, and it occurred not to the tranflator, that the ufual Greek was omeinp, 0 Aoyos, to weve. He has alfo w snyn, which is falfe Greek, for sas Ins yns, becaufe he found in the Latin, in terra. He has likewife omitted xas os tps e145 zo ev sow, Which is wanting in many Latin MSS. becaufe the Lateran council, held in 1215, had reje&ted it through po- lemical motives. The omiffion of this claufe at the end of the 8th verfe proves, not only that the writer of the Codex Montfortianus copied from the Vulgate, becaufe no ancient Greck MS, omits the claufe in that place, but that he copied even from modern tran{cripts of the Vulgate, becaufe this final claufe is found in all the MSS. of the Vulgate, written before the 13th century. Itis furtheralleged, that rvevyo, in the 6th verfe, is altered to xpisos, becaufe chriftus is the reading of the Vulgate, though it is not found in any Greek MS. Befides, in this MS. the Latin arrangement is obferved with regard to the divifion of the text into chapters, though at the fame time the xeQaAaimw of Eufebius are noted. This Latin arrangement was introduced by. Hugo de_S. Caro, in the i2th century, and is that of our pricted Bibles; but though obferved in the modern MSS. of the Vulgate, it was in general not admitted into the Greek MSS. which adhered te the xe?arcia of Eufebius. Its admiffion, there- fore, into the Codex Montf. not only fhews what influence the Vulgate has had in this MS. but proves, at the fame time, independently of other arguments, that the Codex Montf. is very modern. For no Greek MS. is known, in which the text is divided into our prefent chapters, that was written before the 15th century ; when the Greeks, who fled from their own country into the weft of Europe, became tranferibers for the mernbers of the Latin church, and of courfe adopted the Latin divifions. Moreover, the dots over the s and v, which have been urged in favour of the antiquity of this MS, on the authority of Montfaucon, who, in his +s Paleo- BRI « Palgographia,”” had faid that thefe dots were in ule a thovfand years ago, are likewife ufed in the moft modern MSS. (fee the fame Paleographia, P- 324. 333-) 3; and therefore, fo far from being a proof of antiquity, they are ufed as‘an argument to prove, that the Cod. Montf. is very modern. No one MS. written in {mall letters, among the {pecimens produced by Montfaycon, before the 12th cen- tury, bas thefe dots. As thefe letters, s and », are always dotted in the Cod. Montf., but not always in the MSS. of the 13th aad 14th centuries, and ftill lefs often in thofe of the 12th century, we may infer that the Codex Mont- fortianus is at leaft as modern as the 15th century. Mi- chaelis’s Int. tothe N. T. by Marth, vol. ii. BRITANY, or Bretacne, in Geography, was, before the revolution, a confiderable province of France, with the title of a duchy, reunited to the crown by Francis I, in 1532. Tr derived its name from the Britons, by whom it was chiefly inhabited, when they were driven from their own country by the Saxons, and fought refuge in that part of Gaul called Armorica, which fee. This province forms a kind of penin- fula, bounded on the north, weft, and fouth by the fea, and on the eaft by Maine and Anjou. Its mean length is efti- mated at 57 leagues, and its breadth at about 33: its extent of coaft was computed at about 150 leagues, containing a confiderable number of bays and good ports. Its navigable rivers are the Loire and the Vilaine, united with the Drance by means of a canal between Rennes and Dijon. The other rivers are the Ardre, the Ifle, the Men, the Bornean, the Claye, and the Aden, which difcharge themfelves into the ocean. The climate is temperate; and the foil, which is generally gravel or gravelly fand, with low ridges of granite, is diverfified with hills and plains; and ex- tenfive heaths, refembling Cornwall in its appearance, in fome places covered with forclts of wood, and in others well cultivated, and producing wheat, hemp, flax, &c. Nume- rous herds of cattle are bred and fatted in the paftures; geme and fifh are plentiful; cider is the ordinary drink of the inhabitants, and fome parts produce wines and brandy.. In fome diftriéts of this province there are mineral {prings, and mines of iron, lead, and coal. The charaéer of the Britons is rough and choleric; but they are brave, good foldiers, and excellent feamen. The commerce of this province is confiderable, and confifts of a variety of articles, recited under its principal towns. By the new arrangement, Bre- _ tagne forms the departments of the Ille and Vilaine, the | North-coafts, Finifterre, Morbihan, and Lower Loire. BRITE, in Agriculture, a term applied to hops, when they are over-ripe or fhatter; in which cafe they are {aid to brite. BRITISH America, in Geography. See America, > Bertisu Coin. See Corn. ‘ Baitisn Conflitution. S-e Constitution. Baitisu Crown. See Crown. _ Baitisn [flands, in Geography, are thofe which are adja- cent to the Britith coafts, and fubje& to the crown of Great Britain. Of thefe a geographical defcription, and other par- ticulars relating to them, will be found under their refpective names. We [hall here only obferve, that fome of them, as the ifle of Wight, of Pertland, of Thanet, &c. are comprifed in fome neighbouring county, and are therefore to be looked + sr in a legal point of view, as annexed to the mocher i » and part of the kingdom of England. As to others that require more particular confideration, fee ///e of Man, Aupezaney, &e. Baitisu Language. The language of the ancient Bri- tons, when they were firit invaded by the Romans, was a diale& of the Certic; which bad been the language of all the nations of Europe defcended from Gomer, and fill con- tinued to be fpsken by the people of Gaul, and feyeral other Countries, This is undeniably evident (faye Dr, Henry, BRI Hift. vol. ii, ps 36.) from the nature and reafon of things; from the teitimony of ancient authors; from the names of rivers, lakes, mountains, &c. in Britain being fignificant and defcriptive in the Celtic tongue; and from the remains of that molt ancient and venerable language in fome parts of Britain, as well as in fome countries on the continent. Sce Wates. BRITO, Besrnarp vs, in Biography, a Portuguefe hif- tortan and elegant writer, was born at Almeida in 1569, and having entered into the order of Ciftercians, was fent to porfue his ftudies in Italy. On his return he was appointed principal hiftoriographer for Portugal, and was the firft writer who undertook a general hiftory of that country ; of which, under the title of ‘* Monarchia Lufitana,”’ he pub- lifhed one volume in 1597, and a fecond in 1609. The work was continued by fathers Antony and Francis Bran- dano to feven volumes folio; the laft of which was printed. at Lifbon in 1612. Brito alfo wrote ‘* Eulogies of the Kings of Portugal, with their Portraits ;”? «* Ancient Geo. graphy of Portugal ;’? and ‘* Chronicle of the Ciftercian® Order.” He died in 1617. Nouv. Di&. Hitt. BRITOLAGA, in Ancient Geography, a people who, according to Ptolemy, inhabited Lower Meefia, towards the mouth of the Danube. BRITTEN, in Geography, an ifland in the Frozen ocean, near the fouth-weft coait of Nova-Zembla. N. lat. 71° 6’. E. long. 55° 14!. BRITTLENESS, in Natural Philofophy, that quality of bodies by which they are foon and eafily broken by preflure’ or percuffion. It ftands oppofed to tenacity. Brittle bodies are extremely hard; the leaft percuffion exerts a force on them equivalent to the greateft preffure, and may confequently eafily break them. This effect is par- ticularly remarkable in glafs fuddenly cooled, the brittlenefs of which is thereby much increafed. Tin, though in itfelf tough, gives a brittlenefs to all the other metals, when mixed therewith. The brittlenefs of glafs feems to arife from the heterogeneity of the parts whereof it is com- pofed, falt and fand, which can never bind intimately together. In timber, brittlenefs feems to be conneé&ted with durable- nefs; the more brittle any fort of wood is, the more latting it is found. Thus it is oak is of fo long duration, while beech and birch, as being tough, prefently rot, and are of little fervice for building. Baittreness of the hoof, in horfes. See Hoor. BRITTON, Tuomas, in Biography, the mufical {mall- coal mar. ‘This was an ingenious, innoxious, and humble man, of a profeflion which no longer fubfitts. Not only the ufe, but even the name of {mall-coal is hardly known at prefent. Dr. Johnfon defines it: ‘ Small-coal, little wood coals, ufed to light fires ;”” and illuftrates the word from the Speétator, and Gay. “ A f{mall-coal man, by waking one of thefe diftreffed gentlemen, faved him from ten years imprifonment.”” Specs tator. « When {mall-coal murmurs in the hoarfer throat, From {mutty dangers guard thy threatened coat.’” Gay’s Trivia. In our own memory, {mall-coal was daily cried about the ftreets, and of general ufe in the capital at leat, in kindling fires. Britton was a great favourite of Hearne, the antiquary, whom ke much refembled in his fondnefs for old things, and who has piven a long account of him in the appendix to “ Homingi Chartularium Ecclefiz Wigornienfis,” and informs us, that Britton @as born at or near Higham [errers, in Northamptonfhire, from which place he went to London, where he bousd himfelf epprentice to a fmall-coal man. After he had ferved his full time of feven years, his mafter aye gave BRIT TOWN: I fave him a fum of money not to fet up, Upon this, Tom inthe mufeum, when they were fold by auétion at Tom's went into Northamptonfhire agai, and after he had {pent his money, he returned, and fet up a fmall-coal trade, though his mafter was ftill living, taking a ftable in Clerk- enwell, which he turned into a houfe. This feems the only difhonourable ‘aGtion with which Tom could ever be charged. Some time after he had been fettled in bufinefs here, he became acquainted with Dr. Garaniere, his neighbour, an eminent chemift, who admitting him into his laboratory, Tom, with the dofor’s eonfent and his own obfervation, foon became a notable chemitt, contrived, and built himfelf a moving laboratory, in which, according to Hearne, “he performed with little expence and trouble, fuch things as had never been done before.” Befides his great fill in chemiftry, he became a praftical, and, as was thought, a theoretical mufician. Tradition only informs us, that he was very fond of miufic, and that he as able to perform on the viol da gamba at his own concerts, which he at firft eftablifhed gratis in his miferable houfe, which was an old mean building, the ground-floor of which was a repofitory for his {mail-coal; over this was his concert-room, long, low, and narrow, to which there was no other afcent than by a pair of ftairs on the outfide, fo perpendicular and nairow, as {carcely to be mounted without crawling. Hearne allows him to have been a very diligent colle@tor of old books of all kinds, which, in his courfes through the town crying his {mall-coal, he had a good opportunity of doing at ftalls, where he ufed to ftop and fele& for pur- chafe whatever was ancient, particularly on his two favourite fubje&ts of chemiftry andmufic. On the former, it has na- turally been fuggeited, that he had picked up books on Rofycrucian myfteries, and not impoffible, but that he may have wafted fome of his {mall-coals in the great fecrets of alchymy in the tranfmutation of metals. With refpe& to mufic, he colleéted all the elementary books in Englifh that were then extant: fuch as Morley’s introdu€tion, Simpfon’s divifion violift, Playford, Butler, Bath, and Mace; nine books of inftru&tion for the pfal- mody, flute, and mock trumpet. But befides his vaft col- le&tion of printed mufic, the catalogue of which fills eight pages in 4to. of fir J. Hawkins’s hift. of mufic, he feems to have been fuch an indefatigable copyift, that he is faid to have tranfcribed with his own hand, very neatly at curately, acolleétion of mufic which fold after his deceafe for near 1001. Mr. Walpole, in his anecdotes, fays, that * Woolafton the painter, who was a good performer on the violin and flute, had played at the concert held at the houfe of that extra- ordinary perfon, Thomas Britton the {mall-coal man, whofe picture he twice drew, one of which was purchafed by fir Hans Sloane, and is now in the Britifhh mufeum: there is a mezzotinto from it. T. Button, who made much noife in his time, confidering his low ftation and trade, was a colle&or of all forts of curioficies, particularly drawings, prints, books, maaufcripts on uncommon fubjeéts, as myftic divinity, the philofopher’s ftone, judicial aftrology, and ma- gic; and mufical inftruments, both in and out of vogue. Various were the opinions concerning him: fome thought hie muficai aflembly only a cover for feditious meetings ; ethers, for magical purpofes. He was taken for an atheift, aprefbyterian, a jefuit. But Woolalton the painter, and the fon of a gentleman, who had Itkewife been a member of that club, averred it as their opinions, that Britton was a plain, fimple, honeft man, who only meant to amufe him- felf. “The fubfcription was but ten fillings a years Britton found the inftruments, and they had coffee at a penny adifh. Sir Hans Sloane bought many of his books and MSS. now coffee-houfe near Ludgate.’? We have in early life converfed with members of this cons cert, who {poke of him in the fame manner. So late ag the middle of the laft century, mezzotinto prints of bim were in all the print fhops, particularly an excellent one by Smith, under which, and almoft all the prints of Britton, were the following verfes by Hughes, who frequently per- formed on the violin at the concerts of this ingenious {malls coal man. “ Though mean thy rank, yet in thy humble cell Did gentle peace and arts, unpurchafed, dwell ; Well pleafed Apollo thither led his train, And mufic warbled in her fweeteft ftrain. Cyllenius fo, as fables tell, and Jove, * Came willing guefts to poor Philemon’s grove. Let ufelefs pomp behold, and blush to find, So low a ftation, fuch a liberal mind.” In moft of the prints, he was reprefented with his fack of {mall-coal on his fhoulder, and his meafure of retail in his hand. In the Guardian, N° 144, Steele, {peaking of the variety of original and odd chara¢ters, which our free government produces, fays: “ We have a {mall-coal man, who begin- ning with two plain notes, which made up his daily cry, has made himfelf mafter of the whole compafs of the gammut, and has frequent concerts of mufic at hisown houfe, forthe entertainment of himfelf and friends.”’ But the affertion of fir John Hawkins, that Britton was the firt who had a meeting that correfponded with the idea of aconcert, ig not correét: in the time of Charles I. and during the ufurpation, at Oxford, meetings for the perform= ance of Fancies in fix and feven parts, which preceded fonatas and concerts, were very common. And inCharles the Second’s time, Banifter, father and fon, had concerts, firft at taverns and public houfes, aod afterwards at York buildings. It is, perhaps, not a matter worthy of difpute; but we imagine, that it would be difficult to prove that Handel ever played at the fmall-coal man’s conceit. Handel was proud, and never had much refpeét for Englifh compofers,’ He had been careffed and patronized by princes and nobles fo long, that he would as foon have gone into a coal-pit to play at a concert, as to the hovel of our vender of {mall-coal. About the eommencement of the laft century, a paffion prevailed among feveral perfons of diftin@ion, of colleting old books and MSS.: and it was their Saturday’s amufe- ment during winter, to ramble through various quarters of the town in purfuit of thefe treafures. The earls of Ox-- ford, Pembroke, Sunderland, and Winchelfea, and the duke of Devonshire, were of this party, and Mr. Bagford and other collectors affifted them in their refearches. Brit- ton appears to have been employed by them; and as he was a very modeft, decent, and unprefuming man, he was a fharer in their converfation, when they met after their morn- ing’s walk, at a bookfeller’s fhop in Ave-Maria lane. . Brit- ton ufed to pitch his coal fack on a bulk at the door, and drefléd in his blue frock, to ftepin and fpend an hour with the company. But it was not only by a few literary lords that his acquaintance was cultivated ; his humble roof was frequented by affemblies of the fair and the gay ; and his fondaefs for mufic caufed him to be known by many dilet- tanti and profeffors, who formed themfelves into a club at his houfe, where capital pieces were played by fome of the firft profeffional artifts, and other pratitioners; and here Dubourg, when a child, played, ftanding upon a joint-ftool, the frft folothat he ever executed in public. Wecannot terminate this article better than from Dr. Aikin’s account of Britton. (Gen. Biog.) The circum- ftances of his death were as extraordinary as thofe of his se BRI if the ftory is to be credited. A ventriloquit was intro- duced into his company by an acquaintance who was fond of mifchievous jefts. This man, in a voice, feemingly com- ing from a diltance, announced to poor Britton his ap- ee end, and bid him prepare for it, by pe the jord’s prayer on his knees. Britton, whofe myftical and magical books, had probably made him credulous, obeyed the injuaGtion; went home, took to his bed, andactually died in a few days. This wasin September1714. He was buritd with a very refpedtful attendance in Clerkenwell church-yard. BRITUIN, in Geography, a cape on the weft coatt of Nova Zembla. N. lat. 74° 40°. E.lorg. 52° 14!. BRIVA Jare, in Ancient Geography, a place of Gaul, on the Ifara or Oife, a little north of its confluence with the Sequana or Seine. BRIVAS, a place of Gaul, belonging to the Averni, upon the Elaver or Allier, a little nerth of Condate: fa- mous as. the burial place of St. Julian, rear which the em- ¢ror Avitus was interred in 456, See Brioupe. » BRIVATESPORTUS, or Gesosrivate, /e Croific, a place of Gaul, at the mouth of the Loire, nearits union with the nver Herius or Vilaine, according to Ptolemy. BRIUEGA, or Brioca, in Geography, a {mall town of Spain, in Caftile, feated on the Tajuna, having acaftle. It trades in wool and ftuffs. In 1710, general Stanhope, com- mander of the Englith forces, was obliged to furrender him- felf and his men prifoners of war at this place. f BRIVES, a town of France, and principal place of a dif- trict, in the department of Correze, fituate in a fertile valley on the Correze ; 4 leagues SW. of Tulle. The place con- tains 5762, andthe canton 13,685 inhabitants : the territory comprehends 195 kiliometres, and t1 communes. This is a derable place, lively, and very populous. The furround- ing country produces wine, and nut oil, and abounds in wood. The town has fome manufaGtures, and is adorned by many neat churches. N. lat. 45° 10/. E. long. 1° 40!. BRIVESAC, a town of France, in the department of the Correze ; 6 leagues E. of Brives. . BRIVIO, Giovanni, in Biography, an Italian finging matter, and compofer of Milan, where he opened a finging- {chool in 1730. The celebrated Salimbeni, Appianini, and Mancini, were his {cholare ; as was Giulia Frafi, who wes fo long a favourite finger in England, and who, though only a fecond rate performer at the Opera, was many years the beft female finger at our concerts, acd in Handel’s Oratorios. . Brivio, as a compofer, had cenfiderable merit, and furnifhed the lyric theatres of Italy with feveral fuccefsful operas. Ba:vio, in Geography, atown of Italy, in the Milanefe, on the road from Bergamo to Como. BRIX, a town of France, id the department of the Channel ; 5 miles W. of Valognes. BRIXA, Le. See Leseixa. BRIXELLUM, in -4ncient Geography, a town of Gallia Cifpedana; now Berseco, which fee. RIXEN, Biftapric fs in Geography, adiftri&of theTyrol, in Germany, is fituated among the Rhztian Alps, and is very fraitful, efpecially in wine. ‘The prelate has a revenue of about 30,000 crowns per annum, and is a prince of the empire and flate of the circle of Auflmna: though in ecclefiaftical matters, he is fuffragan tothe archbifhop of Salizburg. He has a vote and a feat inthe diet of the empire, and furnifhes his contingent of taxes aod impofts. The religion of the diocefe is Roman catholic; but among the peafants there are fome Lutherans: the capital is Brixen. , » Barxen, the capital of the preceding bifhopric, feated on the river Eyfach, at fome diftance fouth of the Brenner mountains. It is furrounded with hills and vineyards, and is a well-built populous town; the houfes being adorned a BRI with piazzas, and painted on the ontfide. It has many Seam buildings, exclufive of the cathedral, which are hand- ome, and feveral {pacious fquares ; the mineral waters in its vicinity caufe itto be much frequented. In ro8o, acouncil was held hereby the emperor Henry IV. which depofed pope Gregory VIL. This town was tokemby the French in March. 1796. N. lat. 46° 35! E. long. 11° 5o/. BRIXENSTADT, a town of Germany, in the eircle of Franconia, acd principality of Anf{pach, affording an afylum for involuntary homicides ; 16 miles E. N. E. of Wurzburg. BRIXIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Regio Tranf- padana, belonging to the Cenomani, feated on the Mela ; now Brescia, which fee. Brarxia, a river of Sufiana, which difcharges itfelf into the Perfic gulf, and which rendered the coaft dangerous, according to — by the quantity of mud depofited by it. BRIXTON Bay, in Geography, lies on the welt fide of the ifle of Wight, and is an open bay to the north-weft from the fouth point of this ifland. The ground is rocky, and in {welling feas or winds in fhore, it does not afford a defirable retreat nora fafe anchorage. BRIZA, Quaking gra/fs, in Botany, (2p%w, tonod,) Linn. 84. Reich. 90. Schreb.1 15. Gaertn. 6. ‘Tab. 1. Juff. 32. La Marck, Tab. 45. Smith Flor. Brit. 34. Clafs, ¢riandria digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina. Gen. Char. Cal. glume many-flowered, two-valved, fpreading, blunt, colleGting the flowers into a fubcordate, two-rowed fpikelet. Cor. two valved ; the lower valve the fize and figure of the calyx, the upper one very fmall, flat, roundifh, enclofing the other. Ned. two-leaved; folioles linear, crenulate. Stam. filaments three, capillary, oblong. Pi. germ, roundifh, fpreading. Stigmas, plumofe. Peric. none ; the corolla unchanged con- tains the feed, and when ripe, opens anddropsit. Seed, one, adhering to the corolla, compreffed. Eff. Char. Cal. bivalved, many-flowered; little {pikes two-rowed. Cor. two-valved, ventricofe, with cordate obtufe valves ; feed ad- hering tothe corolla, depreffed. La Merck obferves, that Brizais too nearly allied to Poa, to make a good diltin&t genus. He has, however, kept them feparate. but judging that what has been called a multivalve ealyx in Uniola, its principal difference from Briza, is nothing more than two or three abortive florets, he has abolifhed the genus, and defcribed its {pecies under Briza. In apreement with the great:r number of authors, we have thought it beft to preferve the original diftribution. Species 1, B. minor. Lin. (Eng. Bot. 1316,) a/pera, Knap. (Gram. Brit. 61.) « Spikelets trangular, feven-flowered ; calyx longer than the flor-ts, ftipule very long, lanceolate.” Dr. Smith. Root fibrous, imall, annual. Cu/m ere, about feven inches high, round, roughifh, with minute {pines pointing downwards, leafy, often branched at the bafe. Leaves fheathing, ere&, lanceolate, acute, flat, of a pleafant green, flrated, rough at their margin. Sheath ftriated, {mooth. Stipule lanceolate, very long, embrecing the ftem, decurrert, adhering to the leaf above, very tender. Panicle {preading widely ; branches growing two together, branchlets dichotomous, divaricated, capillary, rough, green. Spikelets pendulous, trembling, deltoid, fmooth, beautifully variegated with white and green, with about feven flowers. Calyx-glumes nearly equal, con- cave, very obtufe, ftriated, membranaceous at the margin, longer than the florets. Florets alternate, gradually fmalier 5 inner glumes very {maJl, emarginate. Dr. Smith defcribes the culm as {mooth, but in {pecimens {ent us from the weft of England, it has a flight roughnefs, juft fenfible to the touch, and vifible with a ftrong magnifier. We have, there- fore, followed Mr. Knap in this part of the defcription, The greater length of the calyx is moft obfervable when the panicle has juft burft from its fheath. Ata more advanced period BRI period the diftin@ion nearly difappears, Tt is a rare plant in England, peculiar to the fouthern counties, and chiefly found in Cornwall. 2. B. media, Lian. common quaking grafts, cow-quakes, fhakers, iadies-hair, bird’s eyes. Eng. Bot. 249. Knap. Gram. Brit. 60. * Spikelets ovate, feven- flowered, calyx fhorter than the florets, ftipule very fhort, obtufe.”? Dr. Smith. Root perennial, fibrous, elongated. Culm ere&t, round, leafy, very f{mooth. Leaves acute, flat, ftriated, a little rough. Sheaths, very long, ftriated, fmooth. Stipule very fhort, obtufe, {carcely decurrent, not adhering to the leaf above. Panicle widely {preading, many-flowered, branches growing by twos, branchlets as in the minor, but brown, not green. Spikelets pendu'ous, trembling, ovate, or a little heart-fhaped, {mooth, fhining, variegated with white and brown. Calyx glumes nearly equal, concave, obtufe, fearcely ftriated, {carious at their margin. Floretsas inthe minor. Dr. Smith. Common in the dryifh meadows of Europe, and other parts of Europe. It has no peculiarexcellence, and has never been cultivated feparately. 3. B.virens, Linn.‘Spikelets ovate, feven-flowered: calyx equai to the florets.”? Very like the preceding, but the leaves are twice as broad. Root annual. Stipule acute, decurrent, adhering tothe leafabove. Panicle fuller, green, more branched ; branchlets much divaricated, occafioned by callous knots depreffing them at their bafe. Flowers rather {maller, readily falling off when fhaken. Native of the Levant, Spain, &c. Introduced into England, 1787, by Mr. Zier. 4. B. geniculata. Willd. “‘ Spikelets ovate, calyx fhorter than the flowers, culm geniculate,” Thunb. Cape of Good Hope. 5. B. Capenfis. (Poa Brizeides, Linn. Sup.) Spikelets ovate, ten-flowered, panicle clofe. Thunb.” Pedicles fimple. Cape of Good Hope. 6. B. maxima. Linn. * Spikelets cordate; florets feventeen.”? Root annual. Leaves broad. Culm about a foot and half high. Spikelets very few, very large, fhining, fca- rious, variegated with green and white. Peduncles fimple. Italy, Portugal, Cape of Good Hope, India. 7. B. eragroflis. Linn. ‘* Panicle oblong; {pikelets lanceolate, many-flower- ed.” La Marck. Root annual. Culm from five to feven inches high, decumbent near the bottom. La Marck obferves, that it is nearly allied to Poa eragroftis, and Willdenow doubts whether it be more than a variety of it; but Villars afferts that it may always be diftinguifhed by the outer valve of the corolla, which is concave, peliucid, with a nerverunning along the middle, and two along the edge. South of Europe. 8. B. mon/peffulana. Allion. ‘ Spike nodding, fimple ; {pikelets alternate, peduncled, fubfolitary, ovate ; calyx five-flowered.?? Martyn’s Miller. BRIZACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Armenia Major. Ptolemy. BRIZANA,a river of Afia, ia Perfia Propria. Its mouth was dangerous, according to Arrian, on account of the banks and rocks with which it abounded. Ptolemy calls this river Brifoana. BRIZE, in Agriculture, a word that fignifies fuch lands as have remained jong without tillage. Baize-vents, or Brise-vents, a kind of thelters ufed by gardeners, who have not walls on the north fide, to keep the cold winds from damaging their melon-beds. Brize-vents are enclofures fix or feven feet high, and an inch thick, made of ftraw, fupported by ftakes fixed into the ground, and props acrofs both infide and outfide, faftened together with willow twigs, or iron-wire. : BRIZEMBOURG, in Geography, a town of France, inthe department of the Lower Charente, and diftri& of St. Jean d’Angely; 23 leagues S. of St. Jean d’Angely. BRIZEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and Middle Mark of Brandenburg ; 4 leagues N. of Wittenberg. BRO BRIZIO, or Barecio, Francesco, in Biography, a painter of archite€ture and land{cape, was born at Bologna if 1574, and educated firft in the {chool of Pafferotti, and afterwards under Ludovico Caracci. Having applied with. great diligence to the ftudy of the principles of perfpettive and archit«éture, he acquired a ftyle in his compufitions of fuch diftinguifhed excellence, that his pitures were much admired, not only forthe truth of the perfpeétive, and the beauty of the colouring, but alfo for the grandeur of his ideas, the majeltic ftyle of the architeGure, the elegance of the ornaments, and the noble talte of land{cape, which he in- troduced to fet off his buildings. He was alfo an engraver, and 1s faid to have affifted Agoftino Caracci in the plates which heengraved; we havealfo fome etchings by this matter. Of his prints we may mention his ‘“* Holy Family,” from Correggio; ‘* St. Roch,” from Parmigiano; the * Flight into Egypt,’”’ from Ludovico Caracci; and “ Chrift and: the Woman of Samaria,” from Agoftino Caracci. He died in 1623. Pilkington. Strutt. BROACH, Beocua, in Middle Age Writers, denotes an awl or bodkin. Among us broach is chiefly ufed for a fteel inftrument ferving to open holes in metals. It is fometimes alfo applied to a ftick on which thread or yarn 1s wound 5 and, in the North, to a fort of wooden needles ufedin knit- ing certain coarfe things. See an account of the broach ufed in weaving tapeftry, under Tapestry. : In fome part of England, a {pit is called a broach and hence alfo to broach a barrel, is to tap it. The ancient lords received from their tenants a fee or tribute, called pertu/agium for the liberty of broaching a kag of ale. The term broach, or broche, is alfo ufed in Scotland to: denote a certain utenfil ufed by the Highlanders for faftens ing their velt, and refembling the fibula’? of the Romans. This broach is commonly of filver, of a round figure, and furnifhed with a tongue, croifling its diameter, and ferving to faften the folds of the garment: fome have two tongues, one on each fide of a crofs bar in the middle. Ancient: broaches of elegant workmanfhip, and richly ornamented, are preferved in feveral families; fome of which are infcribed with names, to which particular virtues were afcribed, and others furnifhed with receptacles for relics, fuppofed to de- fend from harm: fo that they feem to have been ufed not only in drefs, but for the purpofe of amulets. Broacu, in Geography. See Baroacn. Broacuw fo, is whena fhip failing large fuddenly flies up to the wind, in confequence of the difficulty of fleeringy or of bad fteerage, &c. fo that the fails are al! taken aback. BROAD. Arrow, in Heraldry, differs from the pheon by» © having the infide of its barbs plain. Broap Bank, in Geography, a bank on the coaft of Flan-? ders, the fouth end of which is about 4 or 5 leagues N. E. by N. from Calais cliff. On the weft fide between this and Rattle-bank is a channel of 18 or 19 fathoms. ) Broap Bay, a bay of America, in the diftri& of Maine, lying on the line of Lincoln and Hancock counties, + bounded by Pemaquid point on the weft, and Pleafant point on the eaft. - ; Broan Bay, on the coaft of Wales. See St. Bripe’s Bay. Broan-caff Hufbandry, in Agriculture, that fort of arable cultivation in which the feed is put into the foil by the hand without the aid of machinery. In this way the feeds are {cattered over the furface of the ground, without being con- _ fined in regular rows, as is the cafe in the drill method, which + is moftly oppofed to it. The putting of the feed into che earth in this way feems better fuited to the ftony and more : {tiff kinds of Jand, than that by means of machines, as they muft conftantly be Liable to be put out of order, and of courle to BRO to depofit the feed in an irregular manner. BANDRY. Broap-caf Sowing, that mode of putting grain, turnips, pulfe, clover, graffes, &c. into the earth, by difperiing them over the furface by the hand. See Sowinc. , Baoan Fourteens, in Geography, the name of a fand which lies 5 or 6 leagues N. E. from the Texel, extending by a {mall tail N. from the Texel, and N. W. by N. from Flyer Vlialand ifland towards the fouth. Upon this fand are ge- nerally 14 fathoms of water, and between it and the land from 1$ to 19, and more northerly 20 fathoms. Baoan Haven, a confiderable harbour of the county of Mayo, Ireland, lying between Urris and Binwy heads. It is very extenfive, has good ground, and water of fufficient depth for any fhip; but is fo much expofed to northerly winds, that there is not room for more than two large fhips in well fheltered anchorage. Small veffels, however, may go farther up, and lie very fafe on foft fand, with three or four feet water under them at low water. The weftern fhore of this bay is formed by the peninfula of the Mullet, fometimes erroneoufly reprefented as an ifland. There are at prefent only a few fifhing villages oa the coaft of this harbour. About two miles N. by E. of Binwy head are three or four very remarkable rocks, called the Stags of Broadhaven. Lon. between 9° 40’, and 9° 49’ W. Lat. 54° 19’ N. Broan piece, in Coinage, a denomination given to certain pieces broader than a guinea; particularly Carolufes and Jacobufes. Baoap River, in Geography, an arm of the fea, ex- tends alony the weft and north-weft fides of Beaufort or Port Roya! ifland, on the coaft of South Carolina, and-re- ceives Coofa river from the north-weft, which may be alfo called an arm of the fea. Thefe two arms embrace all the iflands between Coombahee river and Dawfufkee found, with which Broad river alfo communicates. Channels between Broad river and Coofa form the iflands. The entrance through Broad river to Beaufort harbour, which is one of the beft in the ftate, lies between Hilton’s head and St. Phillip’s point. Broap River, or Cherakee-baw, a water of Savannah river, from the Georgia fide, which empties into the Savannah at Peterfburg. Broap River, in South Carolina, rifes by three branches from the N. W. viz. the Ennoree, Tiger, and Packolet, which unite about 40 miles above the mouth of the Sa- luda river ; and this, with Broad river, forms Congaree river. Broad river may be rendered navigable go miles in North Carolina. Beoap-Sand, lies on the weft fide of the buoys of the channel in the Zuyder fea, within the Texel. Broap fide, in the Sea-Language, a difcharge of all the guns on one fide of a fhip at the lame time. A broad-fide is a kind of volley of cannon, and ought never to be given at a diltance from the enemy above muiket- fhot at point blank. Baoan Sound, in Geography, is the opening from the S.W. into the roads and harbours of the Selly iflands. In this found there is good anchorage, when St. Mary’s ifland on the E. S. E. and Samfon :fland to the W.N. W. andthe S. point of Trefco ifland on the N. are nearly at the fame diftance of about a mile —Alfo, a found in the N.W. point of France, called by the French * Paflage de Lirosfe,” lying between Point de Sant and the ifland of Ufhant, and extending to fea about 5 leagues from St. Matthew’s point. —Alfo, a found on the coaft of Norway, between which and the north part of Stadland are Flowack iflands.—Alfo, the found which is the entrance into Bolton harbour from the ? See Hus- BRO N.E. in a dire@ line for Nick’s Mate ifland.—Alfo, a found inthe South Pacific ocean, on the eaft coaft of New Holland, within the bay of Inlets, having cape Palmerfton for its N.W. entrance. It is feparated from Thirfly found by an ifland lying in the dire@tion of S.S.E. and S. called Long ifland. S. lat. 21° 30! to 21° 5o!. E. long. 149° 20. Broap-/lairs Pier, lies within the bight of the point be- tween the north Foreland and Ramfgate, and nearly at weit from the Foreland. Broap-fone, in Building, a {pecies of free-ftone, thus de- nominated becaufe it is raifed broad and thin out of the quarries; or not exceeding two or three inches in thicknels 5 chiefly ufed for paving. Broap. wheeled Waggon. See Waccon. Broap-worm, in Zoology, fynonymous with /umbricus latus of old writers. See Tenia, and Tape-wormM. BROADALBIN, in Geography, a townhhip of America, in Montgomery county, New York; containing, by the ftate-cenfus of 1796, 277 inhabitants, who are electors. BROADFIELD,a poft town in Weftmoreland county, Virginia ; 96 miles from Wafhington. BROADKILL, a poft town in Suffex county, Dela- ware ; 166 miles from Wafhington. BROADLEY, a town of Poland, in the principality of Belez: 48 miles E. of Belez. BROBACH, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and eleGtorate of Treves; 15 miles S. E, of ‘Treves. BROCADE, in Commerce, a fort of ftuff, or cloth of gold, filver, or filk, raifed and enriched with flowers, foliages, or other figures, according to the fancy of the manfacturer. Formerly, the term was reftrained to cloths woven either wholly of gold, both of woof and warp, or of filver, or of both together ; but by degrees it came likewife to pafs for fuch as had filk intermixed, to fill up and terminate the flowers of gold and filver. At prefent, any ftuff of filk, fatin, or even fimple teffity, when wrought and enriched with the flowers, &c. obtains the denomination of brocade. In the manufa@ture of brocades, the flatted gilt wire is fpun in threads of yellow filk, apprcaching as nearly as poffible to the colour of gold itfelf. The wire, winding cff froma bobin, twilts about the thread as it {pins round, and by means of curious machinery, a number of threads are thus twifted at once by the turning of one wheel. The principal art con- fits in fo regulating the motion, that the feveral circumvo- lutions of the flatted wire in each thread may juft touch one another, and feem, as it were, one continued covering. At Milan, it is faid, there is made a fort of flatted wire, gilt only en one fide, which is wound upon the thread, fo that only the gilt fide appears; the preparation of this wire is kept a fecret, and has been attempted in other places with little fuccefs. There is alfo a gilt copper wire, made in the fame manner a8 the gilt filver, Savary obferves, that this kind of wire, called falfe gold, is prepared chiefly at Nuremberg 5 and that the ordinances of France require it to be fpun, for its diftin@ion from the gilt filver, on flaxen or hempen threads. The Chinefe, initead of flatted gilt wire, ufe flips of gilt paper, which they both interweave in their {tuffs, and twit upon filk threads; but whatever be the pretended beauty of the ftuffs of this kind of manufaAure, it is obvious that they muft want durability: accordingly, the Chinefe themfelves, as we learn from Du Halde, fenfible of this im- perfe€tion, fearcely ufe them any otherwife than in tapettries, and fuch other ornaments as are not intended to be much worn or expofed to moitture. The Venetians have carried on a large trade, to the Levant, in a kind of brocade called dama/quele, which, though BRO though it has only about half the quantity of gold or filver as that made among us, looks far more beautiful. The flatted wire is neither wound clofe together on the filk threads, nor the threads ftruck clofe in the weaving ;_ yet, by paffing the ftuff betwixt rolls, the difpofition and manage- ment of which is kept a fecret, the tiffue or flower is made to appear one entire briiliant plate of gold or filver. The French minifiry judged this manufacture important enough to deferve their attention; and accordingly, for contriving the machinery, they engaged the ingenious M. Vaucanfon, known throughout Europe for his curious pieces of mecha- nifm, who, inthe memoirs of the academy forthe year 1757, gives an account of his fuccefs, and of the eftablifhment of fuch a manufacture at Lyons. The lower roll is made of wood, thirty-two inches in length and fourteen in diameter; the upper one of copper, thirty-fix inches long and eight in diameter: this laft is hol- low, and open at one end, for introducing iron heaters. Yor making the rolls cylindrical, he has a particular kind of lathe, wherein the cutting tool, which the moft dexterous hand could not guide in a ftraight line through fuch a length as thirty-fix inches, is made to flide, by means of a fcrew, on two large fteel rulers, perfe@ly itraight, and capable of be- ing moved at pleafure, nearer, and always exaétly parallel, to the axis of the roll. He firft difpofed the rolls nearly as in the common flatting mill. In this difpofition, ten men were {carcely fufficient for turning them with force enough to duly extend the gilding ; and the collars, in which the axis of the rolls turned at each end, wore or gulled fo faft, that the preflure continually diminifhed, infomuch that a piece of fluff of ten ells had the gilding fenfibly lefs extended onthe laft part than on the firit. He endeavoured to obviate this inconvenience by {crewing the rolls clofer and clofer in proportion as the ftuff paffed through, or as the wearing of the collars occafioned more play between them; but this method produced an imper- feétion in the ftuff, every turn of the {crew making a fenfible bar acrofs it. To leffen the attrition, each end of the axes, inftead of a collar, was made to turn between three iron cy- linders, called fri@tion-wheels: but even this did not'anfwer fully, for now another fource of unequal preflure was difco- vered. The wooden roll, being compreflible, had its dia- meter fenfibly diminifhed: it likewife loft its roundnefs, fo that the preflure varied in different points of its revolution. On trying different kinds both of European and Indian woods, all the hard ones [plit, the foft ones warped without fplitting, and, of more than twenty rolls, there was not one which con- tinued round for twenty-four hours even without being worked in the machine. Thefe failures put him upon contriving another method of prefling the rolls together, fo that the force fhould always accommodate itfelf to whatever inequalities might happen. The axis of the copper roll being made to turn between friGtion wheels a3 before, that of the wooden one is prefled upwards by a lever at each end furnifhed with a half collar for receiving the end of the axis. Each lever has the end of its fhort arm fupported on the frame of the machine, and the long arm is drawn upwards by an iron rod communicating with the end of the fhort arm of another lever placed hori- zontally: to the long arm of this laft lever is hung a weight, and the levers are fo proportioned, that a weight of 30 pounds preffes the rolls together with a force equivalent to 17.530 pounds, which was found to be the proper force for the fufficient extenfien of the gilding. By this contrivance four men can turn the rolls with more eafe than ten can turn thofe' which are kept together by {crews ; and the fame weight acting uniformly in every part, the preflure continues BRO always equal, though the wooden roll fhould even become oval, and though the ftuff be of unequal thicknefs. A piece of cloth, of about two ells, is fowed to the begin- ing and end of the ftuff, to keep it out to its width when it enters and parts from the rolls, which could not be done by“ the bands for fear of burning or bruiling them: as it would take too much time to few thefe cloths to every {mall piece af an ell or two, a number of thefe is fewed together. The {tuff 1s rolled upon a cylinder, which is placed behind the maehine, and its axis prefled down by f{prings to keep the {tuff tight as it comes off. Four iron bars, made red-hot, are introduced into the copper roll, which in half an hour ace Quires the proper degree of heat, or nearly fuch a one as is uled for the ironing of linen: the wooden roll is then laid in its place, and the machine fet to work. If more than thirty ells are to be paffed at once, the wooden roll muft be changed for another, for it will net bear a longer continuance of the heat without danger of f{plitting, and therefore the manufac- turer fhould be provided with feveral cf thefe rolls, that when one is removed, another may be ready to fupply its room : as foon as taken off from the machine, it fhould be wrapt in cloth and laid in a moilt place. : The principal inconvenience attending the ufe of this ma- chine is, that the heat neceflary for extending the gilding, though it improves the brightnefs of white and yellow filks, is injurious to fome colours, as crimfon and green. A double prefiure will not fupply the place of heat: and the only method of preventing this injury, or rendering it as flight as poffible, appeared to be to pafs the ftuff through with great celerity. d Rich brocades may be cleaned, and the luftre of them re- covered, by wafhing them with a foft brufh dipped in warm fpirit of wine. Neither alkaline liquors nor foap fhould be ufed for this purpofe; becaufe.the former, while they clean the gold, corrode the filk, and change or difcharge its colour, and the latter alfo alters the fhade, and even the fpecies of certain colours. But fpirit of wine may be ufed without any danger of its injuring either the colour or the quality of the fubje@, and, in many cafes, it proves as effe€tual for refloring the juftre of the gold, as the corrofive detergents. ; Spirit of wine feems to be the only material adapted to this intention ; however, this is not proper in all cafes: for if the bafe metal, with which the gold of the covering was alloyed, has been corroded by the air, the particles of the gold may thus be difunited ; and the filver underneath, tar- nifhed to a yellow hue, may continue a tolerable colour to the white; but in fuch cafes the removal ef the tarnifh would be prejudicial to the colour. See Lewis’s Com. Philofo- phico-Techuicum, p. 62. 226. Brocave-SueEtu, in Conchology, a trivial name given fometimes to Conus Geocraruicus. Linn. In a moré general fenfe, the epithet brocade, fynonymous with the French brocgrd, i3 applied to various other objects of natu- ral hiftory, whofe difpofition of colours, and markings, bear a fancied refemblance to that fort)f ftuff, filk, cloth, and which is commonly underftood by the word brocade. Bro- card among the French, and brocade with us, is not, there- fore, the language of naturalitts, but of dealers, and un- fcientific colle&tors. BROCARDICS, Brocarpica, denote maxims or prin- ciples in Law; fuch as thofe pubiifhed by Azo, under the title of Brocardica Furis. * Voffius derives the word from the Greek cpoluexio, q. de jirft elements. Others, with more probability, trom Bur- chard, or Brochard, bifhop of Worms, who made a collec- tion of canons, called from hence Brocardica; and as ay wor BRO work abounded much in fentences and proverbs, the appect- lation brocardica became hence extended to every thing. BROCATELL, called by the French érocadel, an ordi- nery kind of ituff made of cotton, or coarfe filk, in imi- tation of brocade; chiefly uled for tapeltry and other fur- niture. That manufattered at Venice is the m ft ef- teemed, ' BROCATELLO, a name given by lapidaries to a cal- careous ftone or mardle. compofed of fragments of four co- louts, white, grey, yellow, and red. BROCCO, tn Geography, a town of Naples, in the county of Lavora, 5 miles W. of Capua. BROCCOLI, in Botany and Gardening. See Brassica OLERACEA. ‘'BROCHOS, in Surgery, isaterm of doubtful fignifi- cation. It has been confidered by fome asa Greek name for the /aqueus, or noofe ; and by others, as denoting ban- dages in general. Caftellus informs us, that this word re- lates'to certain chirurgical initruments; and he refers to the authority of Galen and Oribafius. It has alfo been confidered as expreffive of a privation of voice, or aphonia. Perfons having a very large and prominent upper lip, have been denomirated brochi: althouzh Dr. Turton, in his Medical Gloffary, fays, that drochus fignifies one who has s©the chin and nether lip ticking ont.” BROCHUS, in Ancient Geography, atown of Pheeai- cia, feated near a marfh, between Libanus and Antilibanus. Polvbivs. BROCK, among Sfort/men, fometimes denotes a badger, oth-rwile called a grey brock. Brock, and Brockxer, arealfo ufed to denote a hart of the third year. BROCKDROP, in Geography, a town of Germany in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Holftcin ; 6 miles W. of Krempe. BROCKEL, or Braxet, a town of Germany, in the circle ot Weltphalia, and county of Verden; 5 miles E. of Rotenburzg. BROCKEN. See Harrz. BROCKLESBY, Ricuarp, in Biography, who attained to confiderabl¢ eminence, and acquired a [plendid fortune by the prastice of medicine in London, was of a refpedctable family of Cork, in Ireiand, but was born at Minchead in Somerfethhire, where his mother was on a vilit to one of her relations at the time of his birth. This happened on the rrth of Augulft, 1722. His parents were quekers; but it does not appear that they were folicitous to initiate him in the ee of that fe&. At an early age he was fent to a famed academy at Dallytore, in the north of Ireland. There he formed an intimacy with Edmund Burke, which was improved into the molt cordial friendthip when they met ‘together afterwards in London. Having completed’ his {chool education, he went to Edinburgh, and after attend- ing the le€tures of the profeffors in the different branches of medicine there, he proceeded to Leyden, and took his @egree of doftor, under the celebrated Gaubius, in June, 1745, giving, for bis inaugural thefis, a differtation *¢ De Saliva fana et morbofa.”” The following year he came to London, and feted in Broad-ftreet : and as the income allowed him by his father was not jarge, and he found that fum not much increafed, for the fir few years, by the profits of his profeflion, he determined to regulate his expences m fech a manner, as to fecure him from the mifery of de- pendence, ‘* Never fuffering himfelf,” 2s he was ufed to fay, **to havea want that was not accommodable fo his fortune.” The fame year he publithed an E-ffay concerning the Morta- et of the Horoed Cattle, which contributed to extend his ou. V. BRO name and charafter, In 1751 he was admitted a licentiate in the Royal College of Pnyticians, in London, . In. 1754 he received an honorary degree of door in medicine}. from the univerfity of Dublin, and the following year he,was ad- mitted by the univerfity of Cambridge, ad eundem. ..He then became a candidate, and in June, 1756, was ele&ted a fellow of the College of Phyficiang. » Asihis-praGice was now much increafed, and by the prudence of his condué&, acd the fuavity of bis manners, he bad coretliated to him- felf the frieod{hip of his profeffional brethren,’ he was, by their recommendation, appointed phyfician to the army. by Lord Barrington. In this capacity hehvent to. Germany, and continued there, until a few months before the.conclus fion of the war, in 1763. The following year he publithed the refult of his obfervactions aud pra@ice, under the title of * Economical and Medical Qbfervations, from 1738 to 1763, tending to. the Improvement of Medical. Hofpi- tals.” Svo. He now returned’ to. London, and fettled in Norfolk-itreet, in the Strand. | His. fortune was by this time increafed by an eftate of Gool. per annum, which de- volved to him on the death of his father; and the duke of Richmond, and five other noble’p-rfonages, agreed togive him penfions of 100!. per annum each, a3 a recompence for attending their families, This, with his baif-pay from the army, made up ahandfome income ; and as he poffefled that aldcrmanly virtue, asdean Swift calls it, difcretion, he'was enabied to keep a carriage, and to live with fome degree of folendour. Soon afrer he was made a fellow of the Royal Society : and not being incumbered with a family, he dedi- cated what time he could {pare from attending his patients, &e. to reading, or to aflociatiog with pe:fons eminent for literature and {cience. On his fuggetion, a profeflorfhip in chemiltry was added to the eftablifhnent of the college at- Woolwich ; and on his recommendation the Jate Dr. Adair Crawford, author of an inzenious philofophical treatife on heat, was appointed the firlt profeffor. Though it has been intimated, that the doétor’s habits were frugal and economi- cal, yet there are abundant proofs he was not deficient in li- berality. On being informed that Dr. Johnfon, with whom he cultivated a {triGt intimacy, wifhed, in the latter part of his life, to vifit the continent for the recovery of his health, but was reftrained from going, by the narrownels of his cir- cumftances, hz, in a handfome and delicate manner, made him an offer of an annuity of 1091. per annum for the remain- der of his life; and on Dr. Johinfon’s declining to aceept the offer, he preffed him to refde in bis houfe, as more airy and healthy than that in which he then lived. To his friend Ed- mund Burke he fent rocol. which he told him he had in- tended leaving him at his death, but thought it might then come to him, at a time when it would be of little ufe. The prefent was accepted, in a manner which fhewed that the doftor was not wrong in his conjeéiurer. Inthe year 1794, finding the infirmities of age increafe faft upon him, he gave up his half-pay in the army, and declined, except- ing among his particular friends, vifiting patients. A little before this time, his patron and friend, the duke of Richmond, had appoisted him phyfician-zeneral tothe royal regiment of artillery, and corps of engineers. This he retained, as giving him occafion of going to Woolwich, and vifiting the laboratory there, to which he was attached, In the beginning of December, 1797, he went to Beaconsfield, to the houfe of Mrs. Burke, the widow of his deceafed friend, where he continued a few days, and returned on the rith of the month, to dine with his two nephews, Mr, Beeby and Dr. Young, the charge of whofe education he had taked principally upon himfelf. Though much fatigued with his journey, he aes pleafed with the tome ey} an BRO and fupported his part of the converfation with chearfulnefs. At nine he retired to relt, but found the labour of going up ftairs almoft too much for him; and obferved, ‘* What an idle picce of ceremony this buttoning and unbutroning is to me now.” After fitting fome minutes in a chair to re- cruit himfelf, he-went to bed, and ina few minutes quietly expired. His fortune, which is faid to have exceeded 30,000l. was left between his two nephews, a few legacies to friends and diftant relations excepted. As Dr. B. was of a quiet and peaceable difpofition, he was not likely to enter into any ferious broil; he was, how- ever, at one time, obliged to accept a challenge. The occa- fion was this; the late doCtor, afterwards Sir John Elliot, in the courfe of his attendance on a patient with Dr. B. had made ufe of means to obtain the favour of the family of the patient, which were not compatible with the cha- rafter of a gentleman. Of this Dr. B. talked openly, and the expreffions he ufed on the occafion were reported to Dr. Elliot, with an intimation, that ifhe did not infift on an apology from his antagonift, no one would, hereafter, meet or aflociate with him. A duel was the refult, which, however, terminated without the effufion of blood, the feconds having taken care to place the combatants at fuch a diftance, that their balls, if they fhould hit, would dono mfchief. Befides the works mentioned before, Dr. B. was author of ‘* Oratio Harveiana,’”’ publifhed 1760, 4to.; “* An Ac- count of a poifonous Root lately found mixed with Gen- tian,” Phil. Tranf. No. 486. ; ‘* Experiments on cutting the tendons, in various animals,” ibid. vol. 43.; ‘ Cafe of a Lady labouring under Diabetes,” Med. Obf. vol. 3.; ss Experiments relative to the Analyfis of Seltzer Water,” ibid. vol. 4.3 ‘* Cafe of an Encyfted Tumour in the Orbit of the Eye,” ibid.; and “ A Differtation on the Mufic of the Ancients,’ fuppofed to be written in the early part of his life. BROD, a fortified town of Sclavonia, feated onthe Save, and famous for a victory gained over the French in 7688. N. lat. 45° 20!. E. long. 18° 36!. Brop, Bomifch, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kaurzim ; reduced to afhes in 1637, and fince rebuilt; 7 miles N. W. of Kaurzim. Brop, Teut/ch, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of €2aflau, on the Sazava, taken by the allies in 1741; 20 milesS.5. E.of Czaflau. Brop, Ungarifh, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Hradifch ; 8 miles S. E. of Hradifch. BRODEAU, Joun, (Lat. Brodeus), in Biography, a learned critic, was born at Tours about the beginning of the 16th century, and having ftudied law at Bourges under Allciatus, devoted himfelf to the belles lettres. He travel- led into Italy, and formed connetions with Sadolet, Bembo, Manutius, and other literary charaGters. After his return to France, he diftinguifhed himfelf by feveral works of criticifm, the principal of which isa colleGtion of obfer- vations, corrections, explanations, &c. of ancient authors, entitled ** Mifcellanea.” The firft fix books of this work were publifhed in the fecond volume of Gruter’s ‘* Lam- pas, feu Fax Artium,” in 1604 ; and the four latter books in the fourth volume of the fame colleGtion. In his notes on Euripides, he has been charged with plagiarifm. He was alfo verfed in mathematics, and the oriental languages, as well as claffical literature. He died at Tours, where he was canon of St. Martin, in 1563. Gen. Dia. ft BRODENFELD, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and territory of Vogtland ; 3 miles E, of Ocl{nitz. BRO BRODERA, a fortified town of Hindooftan, inthe couns try of Guzerat; fituate on the {mallriver Dader, in the north-- eaft part of the tra€& lying between the rivers Tapty and Myhie, through which the great road leads from Surat to Ougein. This is a modern town in comparifon with feveral others, having been built by the fon of the laft king of Guzerat, near the fcite of an ancient town, formerly called Radipore, but now Old Brodera, which 1s entirely gone to decay. It {tands in a very fertile, though fandy, country, has good walls and towers, and is full of artificers, who ma- nufacture the fineft ftuffs of Guzerat, bafts, nicanees, canna« quins, cheloes, &c.; the cottons of Brodera are finer than thofe of Baroach, but narrower and fhorter. Indigo 1s alfo an article of trade in this place, and the vicinity fupplies gum-lac. The Dutch fa@ory eftablifhed at Brodera in 1620, was abandoned before the year 1670. N, lat. 22° 15! 30". E. Jong. 73° 11. BRODERIES, Fr. aterm in Mu/fc for embroidering or gracing a melody. It is equivalent likewife with doubles, variations, feurtil, an old term for flourifhing anair. All thefe terms are ufed for the notes of mufic which the per- former adds to his part in the execution, to vary a melody often repeated, to embeliifh paflages too plain and fimple, or to fhine by the a@tivity of throat or finger, Nothing mani- fefts the good or bad tafte of a mufician, fays Rovffeau, more than the choice and application of thefe ornaments. French vocal performeys were very {paring of their broderies or graces in the middle of the laft century ; for if we except the celebrated Jeliote and mademoifelle Fel, no French finger durft venture to make a fingle change in his part on the ftage. French melody had been for fome years growing more flow, and lamentable, that it was capable of no improvement by graces. ‘Che Italians are unable to execute a melody quite plain: they give full {cope to their memory or fancy, and try who can make the greateft number of changes; an _ emulation often abfurd, and carried to an offenfive excefs. However, the accents of their melody are foltrongly marked, that there is little fear of the air being fo difguifed, as not to be recognizable through all the performers’ redun- dances, With regard to inftruments, a folo player may do what he pleafes ; but a performer in a ful! piece, who dares embrot- der his part, was never fuffered in a good orcheftra. BRODETZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflaw, 5 miles S. of Jung Buntzlaw. BRODIATORES, in the Middle Age, a kind of hbra- rii, or copyifts, who did not write the words and letters plain, but varioufly flourifhsd and decorated, after the manner of embroidery. Du-Cange Gloff. Lat. tom. i. BRODNITZ, in Geography, a town of Proffia, in the bifhoprick of Culm; jo miles E. of Culm. BRODOW, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Hollftein ; 44 miles N. E. of New- ftadt. BRODY, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Lem- berg; 30 miles S. of Lucko. BRODZIEC, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Minfk ; 48 miles E. of Minfk. BROECK, Crispin Vanden, in Biography, a painter and engraver, was a native of Antwerp, and flounfhed about the year 1590. Aga painter, he had {ome reputation in the hif-- torical line ; but the prints engraved from his defigns, which are numerous, evince him to have been a man of genius and great fertility of invention. Among the engravings that are attributed to him, is the * Circumcifion of Chrift,’? in cha- rofcuro ; the outline of which is etched in a bold free manner on copper; and the Be of wood, which produces the lighter tints, BRO tints, is fo contrived as to imitate the hatchings of white chalk upon the lights. The daughter of this artift, viz. «* Barbara Vanden Bro- eck,”’ learned to draw of her father, and was probably in- ftrudted in the art of engraving in the {chool of the Colaerts. Her progrefs, however, was fuch as to refle& no {mall credit on her talents. Mr. Strutt notices the following plates of her execution; the “ Laft Judgment,” done altogether with the graver, and in the ftyle of Martin Rota; a “ Holy Family,”’ with Sc. John and feveral angels; and another « Holy Family,” with Se John kneeling, and attendant an- gels, publithed by Hendius, A. D. 1621. BROECKHUYSE, Joun, Lat. Broukbuffus, an ele- gant {cholar and Latin poet, was born at Amfterdam in 1649. Difliking the profeffion of an apothecary, to which he was apprenticed, he left his mafler, and entered on board an India fhip ; and by degrees became matter of an armed veffel. In this fituation he felt an inclination for letters and poetry; and, by the advice of Grevius, ap- lied to the itudy of the Latin language, of which in a few months he made himfelf complete mafter. He after- wards abandoned his fea-faring employment, and devoted himfelf with ardour to claffical ftudies. Wilf he was on board his fhip, he wrote feveral pieces, one of which was entitled ** Celadon, or Impatience to revifit his Country ;” and a collcStion of his poems was publifhed at Utrecht in 1684, by which he acquired great reputation. As a critic, under which character he excelled, he publifhed valuable editions of Sannazarius, Propertius, Tibullus, and Aonius Palearius. He alfo tranflated into Latin father Rapin’s « Parallel of Homer and Virgil.”” He died in 1707, anda monument was erected to his memory at Amfterdam, where he was interred. A fplendid edition of his poems in 4to. = publifhed at Amfterdam, in 1711. Moreri. Gen. iog. BROECKHUYSEN, Benjamin Van, a Dutch phy- fician of confiderable learning and ingenuity, of the 17th century. After taking his degree of door in medicine at Leyden, he was made phyfician to the armies of the repub- lic, and then phyfician to the fort and town of Bois le Duc. He was alfo known and eileemed by king Charles II. of this country, when refident in Holland. His works are ** CEconomia Corporis animalis, feu Cogi- tationes fuccin&te de Mente, Corpore, utriufque Conjunc- tione,”” Noviomagi, 1672. ‘* CEconomia animali ad Circu- lationem Sanguinis brev:ter delineata,’? Gouda, 1685, 8vo. He was a follower of the fyftem of Des Cartes, and main- tained that the blood was heated in the heart by fire aQually refident there; and to this he attributed the impulle it re- ecived, and which maintained and fupported its circulation. “* Rationes philofophico-medicz,” Haag. 1687, 4to, writ- ten in a florid and poetical ftyle, explaining the animal eco- nomy on Cartefian principlear Haller. Bib. Anat. Eloy. Di&. Hitt. BROEK, Ectas Vannen, a painter, was born and ftu- died at Antwerp in 1657, and became the difciple of Erneft Stuven, and Rudied De Heem, fays Houbraken, or of Mignon, according to Defcamps. He painted, in a loofe, cafy, and natural manner, all fort of fruits, flowers, frogs, and reptiles. He defigned and coloured every objeé& after nature. Brock diedin 1711. Pilkington. Brork, in Geography, a town or rather a lJarze village of North Holland, diftinguifhed by the elegant neatnefs and beauty of the houfes and ftreets, and alfo of the inhabitants. The houfes, which are built of wood and covered with tiles, are painted and ornamented on the outfide with a variety of vivid colours, according to the fancy of the owner; and the windows are generally fathed and decorated with curtains. BRO The infide of the houfes is alfo equally neat and embellifhed. In the fronts of moft of them are agreeable gardens, diver~ fified with gravel walks, fhell- work, images, and little hedges, or painted rails. ‘The ftreets are paved with bricks, and watered by rivulets that pafs by the fides of the houfes; and in order to their being kept clean, they are too narrow to admit of carriages, nor are cattle fuffered to pafs througk them. The fame attention to neatnefs and ornament is mae nifeft in the environs of Broek. The town is chiefly inha- bited by perfons who have retired from bufinefs, or who ave conneéted with fome commercial houfes at Amiterdam. The females are beautiful, but fingularly referved, particu. larly among {trangers. The principal articles of trade are cattle and corn. Broek is diftant one league W. from Mo- nikedam. BROERS Bank, lies on the coaft of Holland, acrof: a village of the fame name, and the cloyfter of Ten Duyn, running W.N. W. about a league into the fea. BROEUCQUES, Joun Francis pu, was born at Mons, in 1690. Ata proper age he was fent to Louvain, and in 171s was admitted doctor in med'cine ; havirg finithed his ftudies there, he returned to Mons, where he was much efteemed for his profeffioual abilities, and continued practi- fing to the time of his death, which happened fuddenlyy July rith, 1749. He publifhed in 1725, in r2mo. * Re- fleGtions fur la Methode de traiter les Fievres par le Quin- quina.” In this he combats, and fuccefsfully, fome of the prejudices ftill remaining againft the ufe of that medicine. “« Preuves de la Neceflité de regarder les Urines, et de l’Ulage que les Medecins on doit faire pour la Guerifon des Mala- dies,”” 1729. Broeucaves, AnTHony Francis, one of the fons of the former, took his degree in medicine at Louvain in 1747, and on the death of his father fucceeded to his practice, in which he continued until 1767, the time of his death. Two fmall ufeful works, the refult of much praice, were publifhed by him: ‘* Difcours fur les Erreurs vulgaires, qui fe commettent dans le Traitement des Enfans,’? Mons, 1754» 1zmo. * Reformation des Erreurs vulgaires fur le Regime que la Medicine prefcrit aux Malades et aux Convalef- cenfe.”” Mons, 1757, 12mo. Eloy. Dié. Hitt. BROGLING, a method of fifhing for eels, otherwife called SnicGuinc. BROGLIO, or Brotr, in Geography, a town of Pied- mont, in the county of Nice, 15 miles N. E. of Nice. N. Jat. 44° 12'. E. long. 6° 42!, BROGNE, a town and abbey of the couaty of Namur; 10 miles W.S. W. of Namur. BROILING or Meats, in Domefiic Economy. See Dressinc of Meats. BROJO Casta, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in Livadia; 22 miles N. of Livadia. BROKEN, among Painters, a colour is faid to be broken, when it is taken down or degraded by the mixture of another. Broken Arrow, or Clay-Catfka, in Geography, an Indian town in the Creek country, in Welt Florida, on the weft fide of Chatauche river; 52 miles below the Cuffitah and Coweta towns, where the river is fordable. Broxen-nacken, in Sca-Language, denotes the ftate of a fhip which is fo impaired and loofened in her frame, a8 to droop at each end; a diforder to which the French thips are moft expofed, on account of their length, &c. nOKEN Bay, in Geography, a capacious inlet, being the wfuary of the Hawkfbury and other rivers, on the eaftern coaft of New Holland, about 8 miles to the northward of Port Jackfon. S. lat. 33° 20/. E. Jong. 151° 27. Baoxen //lands, a name given to an aflemblage of rocky Z2u2 eminences, BR OR Boy eminences, for the moft part barren, fituate on the coalt of Arracan, in the Eaft Indies, and affording fhelter only to p:tites and thieves. N. lat. 16° 30!. E. long. 94° 25!. Broxen Knees. Among Hor/z- Fockies, broken knees are a tnark of a ftumbler. Broken Numbers, in Arithmetic. TRACTIONS Broxen Ray, in Dioptrics, the fame with ray of Rerrac- TION, which fee. Broxen Wind, in Veterinary Science, a difeafe frequently happening to horfes. - The following are the indications which mark its prefence. The breathing of the horfe becomes altered from its natural ftate, and from an eafy, gentle, and uniform refpiration is changed to a painful, laborious, heaving, and violent agitation of the flanks, which rife by feveral fuc- ceffive undulations to a preternatural height, then fuddenly relax and fall downwards beyond the natural extent of thefe parts; the noftrils become diiated, and he'd rigid and opened to their utmoft extent, and the face becomes every where emaciated and contraéted: fuch are the appearances in very aggravated cafes; in more recent cafes thefe appearances are lefs evident, and it is a difeafe that can exilt in every degree of mildnefs or violence. When the difeafe has been of long ftanding, and little pains or care is taken with the animal, as may be more par- ticularly obferved in cart horfes, and horfes employed in farmers’ work in the country, the abdomen becomes large and pendulous; but in more recent cafes, and in horfes otherwife fituated, we have obferved that, in the earry ftage at leaft, the abdomen is rather contraéted and is painfully held up in this diforder. Great thirft attends this difeafe, perhaps arifing from the increafed aétion or fever which it occafions, and this has been too often miftaken for the caufe of it, and has led to the moft cruel privations, There is no diforder, perhaps, of the horfe, which has fo much engaged the attention of anatomifts and of {peculative ingenious men, as this, to difcover its caufe. It has, how- ever, we believe, never yet been fatisfactorily explained ; at leaft, there is no author that we are acquainted with that has formed any conneéted or probable account of ,it, unlefs perhaps very lately, and which was derived from the fource we are about to mention, Haller feems to have fuppofed it proceeded from a relaxed or ruptured diaphragm. See Numser and affured us, after examination, that the lungsare not at all af- feéted in this complaint, and that its feat was about the la- rynx and air paflages; and fome of the writers on this fub- ject have believed, that the lungs were grown too big for the chef, and that this was the fource of the mifchief, and there have been many other conjeGures equally abfurd. Some thought they elucidated the nature of this dileale by compar- ing it toa confumption, and others to anaflhma. We trutt fomething more natural and fatisfatory will be found in the following ftatement of our obfervations on this fingular difeafe. In the year 1794, being engaged in the diffeétion of a -grey mare that was fent to the veterinary college to be de- itroyed on account of this complaint ; on opening the cheft, the lungs appeared free from inflammation, being very white ; and, as it appeared free from rednefs and increafe of colour, the general concomitant of difeafe, we were led for a while to confider the lungs as not the feat of the diforder, as others had done (for feveral of the pupils were prefent at this diff-Gion). On cutting into their fubftance, no inflam- mation was perceivable ; on examining them more clofely, Lower imagined that a relaxation. or injury of the phrenic nerves might occafion it ; fome have we obferved a fmall bladder or veficle on the outfide of the lungs, in the external invefting pleuritic coat; this was con- ceived by fome who were prefent to be a tubercle, and that tubercles might be the caufe of the broken wind. Sufpect- ing, however, from its appearance, that it was not folid, but contained air, it was puntured, and it immediately fubfided. This inftantly {uggetted to the writer of this article, that the lungs were a€tually in a ftate of emphy- jema, or. that air was contained in a ftate of extravatla- tion in their fubftance, and which not only feemed evi- dently the cafe in this iaftance, but we have fince fully verined it by examination and diffeGtion of a confiderable number of cafes of broken wind, and found that it is the conftant appearance. This extravafation of air in the fub- {tance of the lungs is perhaps occafioned by a rupture of the air-cells, as fuggefted by Mr. Coleman at that time, un- lefs it is formed in them, and thrown out by fome morbid operation of the blood-veffcls, as fometimes happens in the inteftines and vagina; for the exa&t way in which this em- phylema arifes has not been yet afcertained. It fuily ex- plains the caufe of the white appearance of the lungs, the membranes being feparated and divided by air lying between them partially admit the light, alfo the puffy appear- ance they make, and the crackling noife they give on their being handled; all admit of a ready explana- tion by this difcovery, and fo do the fymptoms which attend the diforder; for the common air efcaping, from difeafe or a fudden rupture of the cells, into the membranes compofing the lungs, thereby comprefs and obliterate more or lefs the natural cavities deftined for the recep- tion of the air, and thus occafion the cflort we obferve to overcome this obftru€tion, and which naturally induce the appearances we have defcribed as the fymptoms attending this diforder: it alfo accounts for its incurability, and the oppreflion which a full ftomach occafions. As the extra- vafation proceeds, the complaint graduaily, or fometimes fuddenly, increafes, fo as to be infupportable to the ani- mal; and at length being quite ulelefs, he is. neceffarily deftroyed. In fome cafes, the difeafe, without much in- creafing, may exift for many years, and till the horfe dies from other difeafe or age. This white appearance of the lungs it is that had deceived fo long thofe who had been led through curiofity to examine the lungs in this complaint; it being fo unnufual to fee any part in a ftate of difeafe more delicately white than in its healthy ftate; and fingular it is, that the extravafated air fhould not bring on the inflammation and de ftruction of thefe organs. Horfes, io bad cafes of broken wind, are obferved to void air in confiderable quantities by the anus, as though the extravafated air of the lungs was abforbed and carried to the inteftines; or it is probably only indigeftion which is the caufe of this: and the fmiths, not unfrequently, on this account, cut through and divide the /phinder ani, then the power of clofing the reétum is loft, and the air efcapes without any noife; and they are led from hence frequently to imagine they have cured the complaint. . We are now led to confider what the caufe is, which in the general e{timation of mankind leads horfes to this difeafe, viz. their being allowed too much water; and here, we ap- prehend, every obferver of common feeling and humanity muft be fhocked at the recolleétion of what inftances have fallen within his own obfervation of cruelty in this refpe@, and of what horfes are daily and hourly fuffering from the moft barbarous of all cuftoms, the denying a fufficiency of water to found horfes to prevent their becoming broken- winded. ‘True it is, that water adminiftered to horfes in an improper manner, efpecially after the privation above fpoken « BROKEN. fpoken of, may become a caufe of their being broken- winded ; but would any one infer from this, that it is necef- fary that all horfes fhonld be kept almott entirely without water, expofed to a never-ceafing thirlt, till an opportunity of gratifying the appetite in this way occurs ; and the natu- ral and healthful beverage being too largely taken, becomes a poifon, and induces the very milchief which fo much cruel and ufelefs pains lad been taken to avoid ; for the horfe that is allowed to drink frequently, and as'much as he likes, will never from this fource become broken wind:d. No horfe on a common, expofed to the water of the brook, which he can artake ofas often as he pleafes, will ever become broken- winded from thiscaufe, unlefs he had previoofly fuffered a pri- vation of water, and, in his firft excefles to overcome his thirft, had injured bimfelf. Let usnow contider, nader what circum- ftances it is advantageous to deprivea horfe for a time of his water. The traveller, who ftarts in the morning on his jour- ney, would be incommoded, if the horfe’s ftomach was loaded with water; itis quickly abforbed from the ftomach, and paflicg off in peripiration, becomes unfightly and trouble- fome $ and though it may be true, that perfpiration, not too heavy, by keeping a moifture on the fkin, and by its evaporation, induces a coolnefs that might be refrefhing, yet to be inundated with it would be highly difagreable. The water fhould, therefore, be given at an earlier hour in the morning, and fhould have time to pafs off before the horfe is ufed on the road; and if he be deprived, in a great mea- fure, of it during the day, he fhould be the more plentifully fupplied w'th it during the night-time, fo as not to create a violent thirlt, which can only b> gratified, the firft oppor- tunity that happens, at the expence of his health, or perhaps his exiftence. Sorry thould we have been, if, after much inquiry into the nature of this difeafe, we fhould have difcovered that the above pratice of depriving horfes almoft entirely of water, though cruel, was neceflary ; and that we mutt acquicfce, with painful fenfations, in the ufe of this cuftom. We are, on the contrary, convinced from experience, as well as the moft incontrovertible reafoning, that the praétice is as de- ftru@tive and pernicious, as it is cruel and unnatural ; for we are aware, the fuggeftions of humanity would avail b-t little, where an oppofite courfe would beit ferve the interetts of mankind in regard to this animal: however, they are, fortunately for it, not incompatible: on the contrary, all the comforts he can receive will beft infure his life and labours. It fhould be recollected that the horfe is fed on the dryeft food, as corn, beans, bran, hay, &c, and this requires, to its being well digefted, a certain portion of moifture, which mutt be either derived externally, or from the blood; and horfes are often expe&ed to work hard under thefe circum- flances, to fweat and perfpire profafely, and digeft their food as well, without any water; the confequence of this is, that their drynefs and thirft muft arrive at a pitch that is fcarcely governable ; and to thefe caufes we may add, as contributing to the mifchief, the hot, crowded, low ftables of large towns and cities, where they are often, in confequence of fuch treatment, feized with va- rious inflammatory complaints, as affeétions of the limbs, 8, brain, and lungs, and other difeafes. bey are fome- times miferably allowed to wet their mouths on the road, and this is deemed fufficient for their wants; or if they by any accident get to water, the confequences enfue that we ~ have above defcribed. With chaifes and poft coaches are ever feen the greateft number of broken-winded horfes, becaufe the artificial and wilchievous fy ftem purfued by the drivers of fuch vehicles na- turally lead to it. tis a praGtice with the brewers’ dray- horfes, both in the metropolis and the country, as often as they come home, to let them go to the trough and drink their fill; among thefe, broken winded hoi fes are very rare, though they have all the water they can defire. Wetting horfes all over with cold water, while in a pro- fufe fweat, we believe not to be fo injurious a cuflom as would firft appear, if the law for its application is under- ftood, but, cn the contrary, very beneficial and refrefhing. Thofe whordo it fhould be apprifed of the danger of carry- ing it to the extent that would chill the horfe, when the worft confequences would often enfue: to avoid ill efle&s, the horfe, after this bathing, fhould not be left long to ftand ftill and chiil, or in any cold place, or draft of air; but while his fin is yet warm, (a8 in the cafe of a return-chaife,) he fhould be putin, and drove home, till again perfpiration is fully induced upon the fin, when all danger would be pre- vented ; and it would be beft, perhaps, not to repeat it, at leaft to the fame extent on his arrival home: as he is then to {tand ftill in the fable, there would be fome rifk of inflamed lungs, inflamed feet, or the gripes, from the blood being confined in the interior of the fyftem. Muddy water is often conceived to be beft for horfes, and is given them in preference by fome grooms. A horfe, how- ever, muft arrive at an extraordinary degree of thirft before he would touch it; and it is only better, as being in gene- ral warmer, havihg been expofed to the air and fun, and is certainly fafer for horfes than water drawn from a cold fpring or deep well; the contraft of temperature being tco great with the horfe heated by violent exercife. When the caufe of any difeafe is not underftood, the theo- ries for its explanation will be vague and unfatisfactory, and the remedies various, often oppofite, and almoft infinite, and fo it has been with this complaint ; for there is nothing can equal the abfurd nollrums recommended in books of farriery, in this complaint in particular, as well as in fome others ; and the farther we go back, the more fure and found is the information refpeting it. The ideas of the Romans were coarfe and abfurd ; but the Greeks appear to. have had a better knowledge of it, as is feen by the following tranfla~ tion given by Ruellius ‘* Cum in pulmonibus quid rumpi capes rit, hoc vitium xvupwext Graiis quafi pulmonis rupta dixeris ap- pellatar ;?? and it’is afterwards much better deferibed, in a chapter given by Theomneftus in the fame work, and at contiderable length, too much fo to admit of being inferted in this place. Whether, however, the term Pulmonis rupia did really convey to their ideas the atual caufe of the dilor- der, may be doubted by the context, any more than broken- wind to an Englifhman, or Cheval poufifto.a Frenchman. The ancients appear to have had a belietin its being cured, efpe- cially before it became inveterate; the remedies they mention, however, may be fairly fulpected of poffefling any fuch power, We cannot conclude this article more ufefully to the pu- blic than by cautioning them againft a common practice, efpecially among the lower order of horfe-dealers, of vio- lently {queezing the wind-pipe and throat, to afcertain if a horfe be broken-winded, which is often attended with the moft mifchievous confequences ; the cough will be in pro- portion to the violence of the irritation ufed, and this, even in cafes of broken wind, unlefs in the laft {tage of it, when other fymptoms fufficiently denote it ; fo that, as a criterion we believeit to be of little value. A grey poney wae brought to the Veterinary College, during the profefforfhip of M. St. Bel in the year 1791, with great difficulty of breathing, a copious difcharge of faliva from the mouth, and a running at the nofe ; fo tar it appeared fomewhat like glanders ; but the glands under the jaw BRO jaw, and all the external parts of the throat were free from iwelling. The difficulty of breathing was confiderable, and threat- ened {uffocation ; this induced us to fuppofe fome obftruc- tion was the caufe, citherin the noftrils, fauces, or laryox. The operation of bronchotomy was had recourfe to, which immediately relieved him: prefent fuffocation being thus prevented, our next plan was to remove the obftacle, which we imagined might be in the nofe. The frontal “bone was trepanned, and it was intended to trepan the nafal bone, but this was not executed, for the pus from the - former found its way through into the nofe, and the nofe was injected every day, through this opening, with a warm decoGtion of herbs. As the orifice in the trachea every day became fmaller, it was difficult to keep in the canula, which accidentally a few days after falling out, the horfe was fuffocated and expired. On opening the head, there was no obftru@tion any where to be found; on opening the larynx, the true caufe was difcovered. The internal membrane that lines the larynx, or wind- pipe, was enlarged or diftended with a fluid, in a way that prevented the admiffion of air. This membrane was de- tached from the fides of the larynx, and fo diftended, that the two portions met each other in the centre of the pipe, forming two hemifpherical tumours, which a¢ted as valves, and completely excluded the admiffion of air. On cutting into thefe tumours, they were compofed of cellular mem- branes diftended by a {mall portion of fluid : the furrounding parts did not bear any marks of inflammation. If thefe tu- mours had formed on one fide only, they might have been attributed, perhaps, to fome punéture, or fome injury from bleeding, or other caufe of this fort; but being on both fides of the throat, it is probable both fides muft have been irritated, to produce it, and nothing fo likely as violent compreffion of that fort we fee men ufe when they propofe to try horfes for broken wind ; for they endeavour to {queeze the pipe till both fides meet, otherwife the horfe will not cough, or only flightly. Since this, another exaétly fimilar cafe was brought to one of the flaughter houfes of town, while we were cafually ftaying there, and the horfe was faid to die of fuffocation, they could not tell why. On ex- amining the larynx, a fimilar mifchief was difcovered. During the laft fix years, we have opened more than 10 horfes that were broken winded, and uniformly found the lungs emphyfematous: violent breathing and appearances, in every re(pe& like broken-wind, attend other affections where the lungs are injured, as in large abfceflcs forming in the lungs, water thrown out in the cheft in roarers, and even violent pain in any part of the body, will produce appearances refembling broken wind, which again difappear when thofe affeétions are removed. When the ftomach is loaded, efpecially with water, all the fymptoms of this diforder are more eafily remarked, efpeci- ally on exercife ; it is, therefore, one of the moft fure means of afcertaining it; and on this account horfes with this com- plaint, are in general kept from drinking great quantities of water, which they are much difpofed to do, probably from the fever obferved to attend the complaint, andalfo, perhaps from the blood in the lungs not undergoing fo completely the changes it ought to do in that vifcus. Some horfes are differently affeed in broken wind to others; the refpiration is quickened in fome without much heaving, and the abdomen in fuch is contraéted and hard, in- ftead of being large and pendulous. It is fometimes attended with a cough, which is not deep, but fhort and hard, as though the lungs refifted perfeétly the impulfe of this exertion. On exercife the cough is much increafed, after which ‘he feems relieved; the head in coughing is held low, his BRO neck ftretched out as though he endeavoured to bring fome- thing from his throat: guafi offcula devoraffet :’? the face has a rigid emaciated appearance, refembling, though lefs violent, that conftriGion which attends lock jaw. The eyes are often yellow from diffufed bile; the nottrils dilated and rigid. The zppetite is not affeted by it, if any thing it is increafed. The writer of this article endeavoured to rupture the cells of the lungs ofa found horfe, by inflating them, and laying weights upon them, and found that no moderate preflure would doit; indeed when removed from the body no expe- riment could be very fatisfactory, and he defifted from far- ther experiments with this defign. BROKER. The origin of the word is contefted; fome derive it from the French droyer, ¢ to grind;”’ others from brocarder, ** to cavil, or riggle ;”? others deduce broker from a trader broken, and that from the Saxon droc, * misfortune ;”” which is often the true reafon of a man’s breaking. In which view, a broker is a broken trader, by misfortune; and itis faid that none but fuch were formerly admitted to that em- ployment. Broxers are of feveral kinds; exchange-brokers, infu. rance-brokers, ftock-brokers, and pawn-brokers. Brokers, exchange, are a fort of negociators, who con- trive, make, and conclude bargains between merchants and tradef{men, in matters of money or merchandize, for which they have a fee or premium. See ExcuanGE, Thefe, in our old law-books, are called droggers, and in Scotland, broccarif, i. e. according to Skene, mediators or interceffors in any contraét, &c. See PROXENETA. They make it their bufnefs to know the alteration ofthe courfe of exchange, to inform merchants how it goes, and to notify to thofe who have money to receive or pay beyond fea, who are proper perfons for negotiating the exchange with ; and when the matter is accomplifhed, that is, when the money is paid, they have for brokage, two fhillings per rool, fterling. Thefe, by the flatutes of 8 andg WilliamIII. 6 Ann. c. 16. are to be licenfed in London by the lord-mayor and aldermen, who adminifter an oath, and take bond for the faithful execution of their office: and any perfon acting with- out fuch a licence and admiffion, is liable to the forfeiture of sool. and perfons employing them forfeit sol. This is alfo the cafe at Briftol, by ftat. 3 Geo. II. c. 31. They are alfo to regifter contraéts, &c. under the like penalty : and not to deal for themfelves on pain of forfeiting 20ol. They are likewife to carry about with them a filver medal, having the king’s arms and the arms of the city, &c. and to pay 408. a year to the chamber of the city. In France till the middle of the 17th century, their ex change brokers were called ** courtiers de change :”’ but by an arret of council in 1639, the name was changed for that more creditable one of ‘‘ agent de change, banque, et fi- nance ;” and in the beginning of the 18th century, to render the office ftill more honourable, the title of “ king’s counfel- lors’? was added. At Grand Cairo, and feveral places of thé Levant, the Arabs, who do the office of exchange brokers, are called ‘«confuls ;”? the manner of whofe negociating with the Euro- pean merchants has fomething in it fo very particular, that we have referred ic to a diftin€ article. The exchange- brokers at Amfterdam, called ‘“ makelaers’”” are of two kinds; the one, like the Englifh, called ** fworn brokers,”’ becaufe of the oath they take before the burgo- matters; but the owners negotiate without any commiffion, and are called * walking brokers.’’—The firft are in number 395; whereof 375 are Chriftians, and 20 Jews; the others are nearly double that number ; fo that in Amfterdam there are 2 BROKER. are nearly 1000 exchange brokers. —The difference between the two confifts in this; that the books and perfons of the former are allowed as evidence in the courts of jultice; whereas, in cafe of difpute, the latter are difowned, and their Bargains difannulled. The fee of the {worn exchange brokers of Amfterdam is fixed by two regulations of 1613, and 1623. with regard to matters of exchange, to eighteen fols for 100 livres de gros, or 600 florins, i.e, three fols for 100 florins; payable, half by the drawer, and half by the perfon who pays the money. But cuftom has made confiderable alterations herein. The Jews, Armenians, and Banians, are the chief brokers throughout moft parts of the Levant and the Indies. In Perfia, all affairs are tranfaéted by a fort of brokers whom they call “ delal,” i.e. “ great talkers.” The manner of making their contraéts is very fingular, and has been explain- ed under the article Bantans. The French diftinguifh two kinds of brokers; one for the fervice of merchants, the other of manufaéturers, artificers, and workmen. The bufinefs of the former is to facilitate the fale of goods in the wholefale and mercantile way ; that of the other, to procure the goods wanted for manufacturers, artificers, &c. or to fell their goods when made. At Paris there is fcarce a company of tradefmen, or even mechanics, but have their brokers, who are ufually taken out of their body, and make it their fole bufinefs to negociate in the par- ticular kinds of goods to which fuch company is by ftatutes reftrained. There are brokers for drapery, brokers for gro- ccry, brokers for mercery, &c. There are even brokers for tanners, curriers, cutlers, and the like. Di@.of Comm. Boxers, infurance or policy, are agents who tranfa@ the bufinefs of infurance between the merchant or party infured and the underwriters or infurers. Thefe infurance brokers, from the nature of their employment, ought to be, and in- deed generally are, perfons of re{pe€tability and honour, in whom unlimited confidence may be repofed. To the broker the merchant looks for the regularity of the con- tra&, and a proper feleétion of refponfible underwriters: andto him, alfo, the underwriters look for a fair and candid difclofure of all material circumftances affeGting the rifk, and for the payment of their premiums. There is ufually an open account between each broker, and every underwriter, with whom he has much dealing. In this account the broker makes himfelf debtor to the underwriter for all pre- miums, and takes credit for all loffcs to which the undcr- writer is liable, and which the broker is authorifed to receive. Indeed, it is generally underftood, that by the ufage of trade in London, the underwriters give credit only to the broker for their premiums, and can refort only to him for payment ; and that he alone, and not the underwriters, can recover the premiums fromthe infured. This point, however, has never been fettled by any judicial determination. But though the underwriter thus looks to the broker for his premium, and though the broker in his account with the underwriter, takes credit for the loffes and returns of premiums, which he is authorifed to receive from the underwriter; yet, fuch loffes are not to be regarded as a debt from the underwriter to the broker. In the cafe of the bankruptcy of a policy broker, the court of king’s bench (23 Geo. III.) held, that though credit for the premiums mult be given to the broker, becaufe the underwriters know nothing of the principals; yet, that they could not fet off the loffes or returns of premium due to the principals, and which they only could fue for, againfta debt due from the defendants to the bank- rept. In this cafe, the defendants had no commiflion de/ eredere. In afubfequent cafe, where the ation was brought by the affignece of an underwriter againit the factor, it was determined (26 Geo, III.) that the defendant might fet off loffes upon policies fubfcribed by the bankrupt, and due to the defendant’s correfpondents ; but there the defendant had a commiffion del credere, which, lord Mansficld faid, made him liable to his correfpondents for loffes, without firft bring- ing an ation on the policy again{ft the underwriter. Where the merchant happens to refide at a diflance from the place where he means to be infured, the policy is ufually eff:ed by the mediation of his agent or correfpondent there, who, ifhe be nota broker, employsone, and gives him all neceflary inftru€tions. In order to his being an agent in fuch a cafe, he mult either have exprefs dire@tions from the principal to caufe the infurance to be made, or elfe it mul bea duty arifing from the nature of his correfpondence with the principal. And no general authority which he may have in relation toa fhip or goods, will make him an agent for the purpofe of infuring, on behalf of the parties in- terefted. However, though one man cannot, in general, compel another againft his confent to become an agent for procuring an infurance to be effeéted for him, there are three cafes, in which an order to infure muft be complied with : as, firfl, where an agent has effects of his principal in hie hands ; _/econdly, where he has been in the pra€tice of making infurances, and has given no notice to difcontinue; and, thirdly, where he accepts bills of lading fent him on condi- tion to infure. To the office of agent or broker, great refponfibilit attaches; and, in the execution of it, itis the duty of ei to conduét himfelf with the greatelt fidelity, pun@uality, and circumfpeétion. For in this, as in ail other cafes, where aman, either by an exprefs or implied undertaking, engages to do an aét for another, and he either wholly negieeia to do it, or does it improperly or unfkilfully, an ation on the cafe will lie againft him to recover a fatisfaction for the lofs or damage refulting from his negligence, or want of {kill. Hence, if a merchant here accept an order from his corref- pondent abroad to caufe an iffurance to be made, but limite the broker to too {mall a premium, inconfequence of which no infurance can be effe&ted; he is liable to make good the lofs to his correfpondent; for though, it is his duty to get the infurance done at as low a premium as pofflible, yet, he has no right fo to limit the premium, as to prevent the infurance from being effected. And even a voluntary agent, who has no profpeét of remuncration for his trouble, is liable, pro- vided that he takes any ftep inthe bufinefs. It is not only the duty of the agent, in tranfaGting the bufinefs of infurances, to condué himfelf with fidelity and punctuality towards his employer, but he is alfo bound to obferve the ftri€teft veracity aad candour towards the infurer: for any fraud or concealment on his part will avoid the policy, even though the infured be altogether ignorant and innocent refpeting it. In an action agaiaft an agent, or broker, whether for negli- gence or unfkilfulnefs in efieting an infurance, the plaintiff is entitled to recover to the fame amount as he might have reco» vered again{t the underwriters, if the policy had been properly effcéted. But he can only recover what, in point of law, he might have recovered on the policy; and not what the indulgence or liberality of the underwriters might probably have induced them to pay. In fuch an aétion, the agent may avail himfelf ot every defence, fuch as fraud, deviation, non- compliance with warranties, &c. which the underwriters might have fet up in an action on the policy: but if the agent act in the ufual manner, it will be deemed fufficient. There are many reafons why an agent or broker ought not to be an infurer. He becomes too much interelted to fettle with fairnels the rate of premium, the amount of partial loffca, BROKER. : loffes, &e.; and though he fhould not himfelf occafion any un- neceflary delay or obitacle to the payment of a lofs, he will not be over-anxious to remove the doubts of others: befides, he ought not, by underwriting the policy, to deprive the parties of his unbiaffed teftimony, in cafe of difpute. If an agent or broker, meaning to appropriate the pre- mium to himfelf, and take the chance of a fafe arrival, re- prcfent to his employer that an infurance has been effetted agreeably to his infru€tions, the principal may maintain trover for the policy againft the agent or broker; and, upon proof of a lofs, he fhall recover to the fame amount as he would have been entitled to recover againft the underwriters, if a policy had been effe€ted. Marfhallon Infurance, vol. i. See Insurance and Pouicy. Broxers, piece, a fort of petty dealers in drapery, who fell fragments or remnants of cloths, ftuffs, filks, and the like, at under price. Brokers, flock, are thofe employed to buy and fell fhares in the joint ftock of a company or corporation ; and alfo, in the public funds. The negociations, &c. of thefe brokers are regulated by ftat.6 Geo. I. cap. 18. and 7 & 10 Geo. II. cap. 8. which, among other things, enaét, that contracts in the nature of wagers, &c. incur 2 penalty of sool. and by the fale of ftock, of which the feller is not poflefled, and which he does not transfer, a forfeit of rool.; and contrads for fale of any ftock, of which the contractors are not actually poffefled, orto which they are not entitled, are void, and the parties agreeing to fell, &c. incur a penalty of s5ool.; and that brokers keep a book, in which all contraéts, with their dates, and the names of the parties concerned, hall be entered, on pain of sol.: thefe enaétments, however, are little regarded by the gamblers in the public funds. See Srock-joBBING. Baoxers of Aoufehold furniture. See Appraisers. Brokers, pawn, are perfons who keep fhops, and let out money to neceffitous people upon pledges, for the moft part on exorbitant intereft.. Thefeare more properly called pawn-takers, or tally-men, fometimes fripers, or friperers. Of thefe is to be underftood the ftatute of 1 Jac. I. c. 21. by which it is enaGed, that the fale of goods, wrongfully gotten, to any broker in London, Weftminfter, Southwark, or within two miles of London, fhall not alter the property thereof. If abroker, having received {uch goods, fhall not, upon the requelt of the right owner, truly difcover them, how and when he came by them, and to whom they are con- veyed, he fhall forfeit the double value thereof to the faid owner, But there are feveral excellent regulations re{peGting pawn- brokers of later date. By ftat. 25 Geo. III. c. 48. pawn- brokers are annually to take out a licence ona tol. ftamp, within the bills of mortality, and 5]. in any other part of the kingdom, for each fhop kept, under a penalty of sol. By ftat. 29 Geo. III. c. 57. confirmed by ftats. 31 Geo. III. c. 52. and 33 Geo. III. c. 53, pawnbrokers are allowed the following rates of profit for intereft and warehoule- room. For every pledge upon which there has not been lent above 2s. 6d. one half-penny, for any time during which the faid pledge fhall remain in pawn, not exceeding one month, and the fame for every month afterwards, including the current month in which fuch pledge fhall be redeemed ; for-5s., one penny; for 7s. 6d., one penny half-penny ; for ios., two-pence; for 123. 6d., two-pence half-penny ; for 15s.) three-pence ; for 17s. 6d., three-pence half-penny ; for 1l., four-perce; and fo on progreffively and in proportion for any fum not exceeding 40s. ; and for every fum exceed- ing 40s. and not exceeding 1 ol., at the rate of 3d. nd no more for the loan of every 208. of fuch money lenay the mouth ; .and fo in proportion for any fraétional fum A party applying for the redemption of goods pawned, within feven days after the expiration of any month, may redeem them without paying any thing for the feyen days; and ap- plying after feven days, and within fixteen days, pays the profit for one month and the half of another month; but after the expiration of the firft fourteen days, the pawn- broker may take for the whole month. He is required to make entries, and to give duplicates. Any perfon fraudu- lently pawning the goods of another, and convicted before a juitice, fhall forfeit 20s. aad the value of the goods pawned, &c. to be afcertained by the juice ; and on failure of pay- ment, be committed to the houle of correGtion for not more than three months, nor lefs than one month, and be pub- licly whipped; the forfeitures being applied to the fatis- faction of the injured party, and the defraying of cofts, and the overplus, if any, to the poor of the parifh. Any perfon counterfeiting or altering a duplicate, may be feized and taken before a jultice, who is to commit the offender to the houfe of correétion for not more than three months, nor lefs than one. If a perfon fhall offer to pawn any goods, refufing to give a fatisfaGtory account of himfelf and the goods; or if there be reafon to fufpe& that the goods are ftolen ; or if any perfon, not entitled, fhall attempt to re- deem goods pawned ; they may be taken before a juftice for examination: and if it appear that the goods were ttolen or illegally obtained ; or that the perfon atcempting to redeem them has no title or pretence to the fame, the jultice 1s to commit him to be dealt with acccrding to law, provided the nature of the offence fhall authorize fuch commitment by any other Jaw; or otherwife, for not more than three months, nor lefs than one. A juftice may grant a fearch-warrant, and a peace-ofticer break open doors, and reftore the goods, if found, tothe owner. If pawn-brokers refufe to deliver up goods pledged within one year, on tender of the money lent and intereit, a juftice is empowered, on conviction, to commit them till the goods be delivered up, or reafonable fatisfaction be obtained. Goods may be fold by public auction after the expiration of one year; being expofed to public view, and catalogues of them publifhed, and two ad- vertifements of fale by the pawnbroker to be inferted in fome newfpaper, two days at lealt before the firlt day’s fale, under penalty of sl. totheowner. Pawnbrokers, receiving notice trom the owners of goods before the expiration of a year, are not allowed to difpofe of them, till after the expiration of three months from the end of the faid year. They are to enter an account of fales in their books of all goods pawned for upwards of ros; and the overplus, in cafe of fale, fhall, upon demand within three years, be paid to the owner, neceffary interelt, colts, &c. being deducted : and refufal to pay the overplus (hail incur a forteiture of treble the fum lent, to be levied by diftrefs. Pawnbrokers fhall not purchafe goods in their cultody, or fuffer, them to be res deemed for that purpofe ; nor lend money to any perfon ap- pearing to be under twelve years of age, or intoxicated, or purchafe duplicates of other pawnbrokers, or buy any goods before eight in the forenoon, and after feven in the evening ; nor receive any goods in pawn before eight in the forenoon, or after nine at night, between Michaelmas and Lady-day ; and before feven in the forenoon, and after ten at night, during the remainder of the vear, except the even- ings of Saturday, and thofe preceding Good Friday and Chriftmas day; nor carry on the trade on any Sunday, Good Friday, or Chriltmas day. Pawnbrokers are to place in their fhops, a table of rates allowed by this at; and they are required to have their Chriftian and furname, and bufinefs, written over the door, undera penalty of rol. half to the informer, and half to the poor, Pawnbrokers on I 10 BRO ing again this a&, in cafes where no penalty is provided, fhall for every offence forfeit 5), leviable by diftrefs, half to the informer, and half to the poor. Complaint hall, in all cafes, be made within twelve months. This act does not extend to pledges for money above rol., nor to perfons lend- ing money upon goods at 5 per cent. intereft. In the cities of Italy, there are companies eflablifhed by authority for the letting out money in pawns, called ** mounts of piety ;”” an honourable title, like that of the * charitable corporation,” but little becoming fuch inftitu- tions; inafmuch as the loan is not gratis. In fome parts of Ttaly, they have likewife ‘* mounts of piety”? of another kind, wherein they only receive ready money, and return it again, withintereft at fo much per annum, At Bologna, they have feveral fuch * mounts ;” which are diftinguithed into frank and perpetual; the intereft ot the former is only four per cent. ; in the latter, feven. BROKERAGE, the fee paid to a Broker. BROKRY, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan, in the country of Candeifh; 8 miles S.W. of Burhbanpour. BROLO, a town of the ifland of Sicily, in the valley of Demona; 7 miles W. of Pati. BROMBERG, a town of Polith Proffia, feated on the river Bro, called alfo Bidgoff, which fee. BROME, Acexanper, in Biograthy, a poet of the a7th century, was attorney of the lord m-yor’s court of London in the reign of Charles II., and wrote the great- eft number of the fongs and epigrams that were publifhed in favour of the royalilts, and againft the ** rump,” in the time of Oliver Cromwell, and during the rebellion. Thefe, with his epiftles and epigrams, tranflated from different au- thors, were printed in one volume 8vo. after the reftoration. He alfo publifhed a verfion of Horace, and left behind him a comedy entitled “ The Cunning Lovers.” He alfo publifhed two volumes in Svo. of the plays of Richard Brome, a dramatic writer in the reign of Charles I., who had been originally a menial fervantto the celebrated Ben Jonfon. One ofthe plays of R. Brome, called “ The Jo- vial Crew,”? was not long z2go revived, and fuccefsfully ex- hibited. He died in 1652. The editor of his plays, A. Brome, was born in 1620, and died in 1666. Biog. Dram. Brome, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the prin- cipality of Luneburgh-Zell, feated on the Ohre, and belong- ing to a junfdi€tion of the fame name, which comprehends a part of the marfhy foreft of Dromling. Brome graft, in Botany. See Bromus. BROMELIA, (in memory of Olaus Bromel, a Swede, au- thor of Lupolovia, Stock. 1687, 12mo. and Chlori’s Gothica, 1694, Svo.) in Botany, Linn. gen. 395. Reich. 427. Schreb. 450. Clafs, hexandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. coronaria. Bro- mela. Joi. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth three-cornered, fuperior, per- manent; fegments three, ovate. Cor. either monopetalous with three deep divifions, or of three petals, narrow, lance- olate, erect, longer than the calyx. Nedary, adhering to each petal above the bafe, converging. Stam. filaments fix, awl-fhaped, thorter than the corolla, inferted into the recep- tacle. Linn. Schreb., on the corolla or calycine glands. Botc., on calycine glands produced above the germ pe in fome de- gree gynandrous?) Juff. Anthers ereét, arrow-fhaped. Pift. germ inferior ; ttyle fimple, thread-fhaped, the length ot the ftamens; ftigma obtufe, trifid. Pericarp, a berry or cap- fule, one or three-celled. Seeds, fomewhat oblong, betibad Eff. Char. Calyx trifid, fuperior. feales at the bafe. * Flowers on a common receptacle ; corolla monopetalous, Vor. V. Cor, with neGarcous BE O Species, r. B. Ananas, pinesapple. (La Marek Til. Ph ‘ Leaves ciliate-fpinous, fharp.pointed ; fpike co- mofe.” Lino. Root perennial, fibrous. Root-/eaves from two to three feetJeng, and from two to three inches broad, channelled, often a little glaucous. Svem fhort, cylindric, thick, leafy. Spike glomerate, denfe, fealy, oval or conic, crowned with a tuit of leaves, fimilar to the root and ftem leaves, but {maller. Flowers bluifh, {effile, (mall, and fcattered upon the common, thick, fltfhy receptacle. Germ, half buried in the fubftance of the receptacle, which, after the flowers fall off, increafes in fize, and becomes a fuccu- lent frit, covered on all fides with fmall triangular {cales, and refembling the ilrobile of the genus Pinus, whence its common Englifh name is derived. It is a native of South America,.and is faid to. be found alfo in Africa and the Eaft Indies. 2. B. Karatas. Lian. & Leaves ereé, long, narrow ; flowers feflile, aggregate, fubradical. Root perennial, fi- brous, blackifh. Leaves fmooth, light-green, difpofed in akird of circle, and leaving alarge open {pace in the mid- dle. FYowers numerous, purple, or bluifh, feffile on the crown of the root, and forming a clofe, orbicular, convex group. Calyx and germ covered with a ferruginous down, Corol. funnel-fhaped. Pericarp, berry ovate, three-celled, very flefhy, fucculent, of an agreeable, acidulous tafte, when ripe. Seeds oblong. La Marck, from the MSS. of Plumier. A native of South America and the Weft In- dies. 3. B. hemifpherica. Wa Marck. ‘ Subcaulefcent; flowers feffile, difpofed in a clofe hemifpherical group. Nearly allied to the preceding; but the leaves are more open and fhorter ; and the root, when the plant is in fruéti fication, throws up a very fhort ftem. La Marck fuppofes that the Aumilis of Linnaeus is only a variety of the hemi/phe- rica, of a {maller fize, with fewer flowers, and lefs pleafant fruit. A native of Mexico. ** Flowers upon diflin& receptacles, with polypetalous corollas; the proper bromelias of Plumier. 4. B. Pinguin. Linn. “ Leaves ciliate-{pinous, fharp. pointed ; raceme terminal.’? (La Marck. Illuftr. Pl. 223. Geert. Pl. 11. fruit.) Refembling B. ananas in general habit. Root perennial. Leaves five or fix feet long, zccording to Jacquin, more thorny than thofe of B. ananas, green above, and covered with a whitifh powder beneath ; the inner oneg red and fhorter than the others. Svem cylindric, thick, firm, two or three feet high, pubefcent, furrounded by the red interior leaves. Scales pale red, or whitith, diminifhing in fize as they approach the fummit of the flem, FVcqwers rofe- coloured, feffile, in the axils of the upper {cales, and forms ing a beautiful, pyramidal [pike. Fruit about the fizeofa walnut, ovate-pyramidal, obfcurely three-cornered, threes celled, covered with a thick fuberofe-flefhy rind, rugged, with confluent dots, and terminated by the permanent, trifid {tigma refembling a tuft of {mall leaves. The fruit is de- {cribed by La Marck as a capfule, but is faid by Brown (Jamaic.) to have an agreeable {weet pulp, joined with fuch a fharpnefs, that, if {uffered to continue in the mouth, it will caufe the blood to ooze from the palate and gums. A native of the Weft Indies. Defcription chiefly from La Marck. 5. B. nudicaulis. ** Radical leaves dentate-{pinous ; ftem leaves very entire.”? Linn. Root perennial, parafitical, attaching itfelf to the trunks of large trees. LRvot-/eaves two feet long, three inches broad, ftiff, concave, {mooth, green, pointed, and edged with ftrong black {pines. Stem cylin- dric, firm, thick, two or three feet high, covered with a fhort down, which generally givesit a whitith colour, though itis fometimes almoft entirely red. Stem-/eaves or fcales ob- long, very entire, part red or purple, part whitifh, J"/ow- ers {piked, rofe-coloured, feflile, not accompanied by {caleg, 3A whence a0 S23. BROMELIA, whence its trival name, and by which it is fo clearly diftin- guithed from the preceding, that it ought to form part of the {pecific charaéter. Berries ovate, of a bright red co- lour. Its leaves like thofe of the European dif/acus, or teafel, retain the water from rain and dew, and afford a deli- cious draught to the hunter and traveller in its native feorch- ing climate. Common in the woods of the Welt Indies, and fent from the coafl of Guinea to Mr. Miller. 6. B. Spicata. La Marck. ‘ Radical leaves fhort and {pinous ; ftem-leaves very long and very entire, without {pines.” Borm. Amer. Root-/eaves lanceolate, fharp-poivted, ftri- ated, covered beneath with a whitifh powder, and a little enlarged at the bale. Stem or Stems cylindric, firm, about the thicknefs of the finger. Stem-/eaves {word-fhaped, pen- dent. Flowers of a beautiful red, in a clofe pyramidal f{pike. Braéfes lanceolate. Corolla three-petalled ; petals an inch and a half long, ending in a {mall purple point. Stamens white, included in the corolla. Native of Martinico. 7. B. lingulata. Linn. ‘ Leaves ferrate-{pinous, obtufe ; {pikes alternate.”’ Mill. Root perennial, fibrous. Root-leaves, fome almoit lying on the ground, others upright, pale green, concave, many of them roiled up into the fhape of a horn, and terminated by a fhort blunt poiat. Stem four feet high. Stem-/eaves alternate, oblong, pointed, concave, without fpines. Spikes, one terminal, the others in the ax- ils of th feales, or upper leaves of the ftem. Flowers fmall, {ceffile. Berries round, with a {mall point, in fimple ra- cemes, of a bright coral red. Seeds {mall, oblong, reddifh. A native of the Welt Indies. 8. B. bracteata. Willd. s* Leaves ferrate-fpinous; braétes ovate-lanceolate; feape elongated ; raceme compound ; branchlets fubdivided; flow- er feffile.’ Swartz. Root perennial, parafitical. Brades {carlet, membranaceous, very entire. 9. B. paniculigera. Willd. “ Leaves ferrate-fpinous ; bractes lanceolate ; ra- ceme compound ; branchlets fubdivided ; ower peduncled.” Swartz. Scafe more than a foot high. Braéfes {cerlet, alternate, membranaceous, half a foot long. Raceme two feet Jong, ere&t. Peduncles aninch long, tomentofe. 10. B. Chry- fantha, Willd. ‘* Leaves ferrate-{pinous ; braétes lanceolate, toothed; raceme fub-compound, fhorter than the leaves ; flow- ers peduncled.” Raceme afoot long, compound at the bafe. Flowers yellow. Peduncles {mooth. Braves fhrivelling. x1. B. Acanga. Linn. ‘ Panicle diffufe ; leaves ciliate-{pi- nous, fharp-pointed, recurved.’ Native of Brazil. This {pecies, which appeared in the firft edition of the Species Plantarum, was onitted in the fecond, from a doubt whether it is {pecifically diftin& from B. Karatas; but, on farther confideration, it was replaced by Linneus himfelf in the Syf- tema Naturz, and has been admitted by the fubfequent edi- tors of the Species Plantarum, but is not noticed by La Marck. Plumier, and the other older botanifts, divided this genus into three 5 nana. Karata, and Bromelia. The flowers of the Anana, {ays Juffieu, are in a clofe fpike, on a fcape which is leafy at top ; as the foike ripens, it takes the form of a ficthy, fealy, efculent ftrobile, compofed of united berries, which are {carcely divided into cells, and frequently do not ripen their feeds. The Karatas have a denfe rad:cal corymbus, and ovate berries. ‘Che Bromelias are loolely fpiked or panicled on a feape or ftem; and the fruit can {carcely be called a berry. La. Marck, if he were not un- willing to increafe the number of genera without abfolute neceflity, would be difpofed to keep the Anana and Kurata united, on account of their common receptacle and mono- petalous corolla, and to feparate the reft which have poly- petalous corollas on diftin€& receptacles. ‘The general and effential charafters, as they fland in Linnaeus, Schreber, Martyn, and even La Marck, will by no means include all the {pecies; we have therefore enlarged the former, and abridged the latter, in order to make them fufficiently com~ prehenfive. Propagation, Culture, and Uje. The Ananas, or coms mon pinc-apple, has long been cultivated in the Wel In- dics; but its fruit has only lately been brought to perfection in Europe, The firlt perfon who completely fucceeded was Mon, Le Cour of Leyden, in Holland, a contemporary of Mr. Miller: though it was introduced into England fo far back as 1690 by Mr. Bentick. It is propagated, cither from feed, or from the crown at the top of the fruit, or from the fuckers at the fide of the ftem. As the method of propagating by feed is the flowelt, it is feldom praGifed in Europe. There are, moreover, here comparatively few piants which bear perfect feed, owing, as Mr. Miller con- jeCtured, to the greater number having only flaminiferous flowers ; and he founded his opinion on the different fitua- tion of the cells in the two kinds; thofe which produce feed lying near the centre of the fruit, and thofe which are abortive nearer the rind. When the feed is intended to be preferved, the ripe fruit fhould be hung up ina warm room, till all the moifture of its pulpy part is evaporated, and fhould afterwards be kept in a dry place. In fpring, when the weather begins to grow warm, the feed fhould be fown in a pot filed with good garden earth ; the pot fhould then be plunged in a hot-bed; and when the plants have acquired a certain height, they fhould be removed into frefh pots, and treated like other tropical plants. The grand effential is to guard them from too much moitture. The Ananas, contrary to a common opinion, is thought by fome perfons to be equally good, whether it be produced from the crown or the fuckers. See the next articie. Brome iA, in Gardening, comprehends a plant of the fine fruit kind, the B, dzanas, or pine-apple, and fome other {pecies raifed for the purpofe of variety. Of the firft there are feveral varieties in cultivation ; but thofe which principally deferve the attention of the culti- vator, are the queen, which is the moit to be relied on for acertain and regular crop; the Antigua and fugar-loaf, the fruit of which is larger; the Montferrat, the king, and the green pine. The white pine, called by Miller the queen pine, is the moft common in Europe. Its flefh is whiufh and fibrous ; and its rind, when ripe, is as yellow as that of an orange. Its {mell is highly pleafant, and it excels moft of the reft in fize and beauty ; but it falls fhort of fome others in flavour, edges the teeth, and makes the lips {mart. The yellow pine edges the teeth lefs; but both are exceeded by the fugar loaf, which is diftinguifhed from all the others by the purple ftripes on the infide ofits leaves. Its fruit, when ripe, in- clines toa ftraw colour, The Montferrat pine is now rare, in Europe, but is efteemed one of the belt in America. The protuberances of the fruit are longer and flatter than thofe of the common fort. The fmooth pine may bea difin& fpecies: its fruit having no crown of leaves, and its root and ftem-leaves being without fpines. There are feveral other varieties; but as they are continually changing, it is not neceflary to fpecify them. The Karacas is chiefly propagated by feeds; for though it throws out fuckers, they are ill-fhapen, and produce un- fizhtly plants. The feeds fhould be fown early in the {pring, in {mall pots filled with light rich earth, and plunged into a hot-bed of tanner’s bark. When the plants are ftrong enough, they fhould be tranfplanted each into a fepa- rate pet, and again plunged into the hot-bed, where they fhould BROMELIA. fhould remain till Michaelmas, and then be removed into the ftove, and treated like the ananas. The penguin is culti- vated in precifely the fame manner. Neither of them will produce their fruit in England, till they are three or four years old. The latter being very {pivous makes an impe- netrable hedge. and is much ufed in the Welt Indies for fencing pafture lands. The other fpecies are cultivated only for curicfity, and are raifed from feeds brought from their native country, not producing any in England. Befides the varicties of the B. ananas, or pine-apple, above mentioned, there are others known to gardeners, and fometimes introduced into cultivation. The culture of the pine-app'e is more difficult, and re- quires a more exeét and nice attention in tts management, in this climate, than that of almoft any other plant. It is only capable of being accomplifhed fo as to afford good fruit, by the affiftlance of the floves of the hot-houfe, with the artifi- cial aid of fire heat. snd in order to effe@ the bufinefs with the greateft eafe and convenience, and in the molt perfe& man- ner, befides the ftove of the hot 1 frutting-houfe, others are neceffary for the purpofe of bringing the plants forward in, till ready to fet out. in the fruiting-ftove, which are termed nurfery-ftoves, or pits of fucceflive ftoves. And where large quantities of {uch plants are cultivated, it is alfo ufcful to have what are termed bark-pits, formed either by deep frames of wood or of brick work fix feet in width, with fuffici-nt length, five or fix feet deep behind, and four and a half in front, having the tops glazed ; for the purpofe of making hot-beds in, for the immediate reception of the crowns and fuckers from the parent plants, and to prevent the fucceffion-ftove from being crowded too much. Where the whole culture of thefe plants is to be eff-€ted in one ftove only, the plants muft be raifed and fruited together, by which pra&tice not one haif of the fame hot-houle can be occupied at one time with fruiting plants; befides, the young lants are often lable to be brought forward too rapidly. AL. thefe different ftoves and nurfing pits fhould be provided with propir fires and fire pleccs, fo contrived as to work fteadily and fave fuel as much as poffible, as upon this the expecce of the cnlture of thefe plants in a great meafure de- pends. See Hot-novse Stove and Barx Pits. Tt is remarked by Mr Nicol, that Hoves for this ufe are varioufly conftruéted: ‘* fome are fingie pitted, fome double, and fome even triple; fome have flues runnirg un- der, and fome round the bark-bed.” Thefe he co: fiders as being very dangerous to the roots of the plants, if overheated. He alfo difapproves of deuble and triple ftoves, as being very usealy to work in ftormy weather, and confining a vaft quantity of ftagnant unwholcfome air in dull hazy weather. A ftove in which there is a perfeét command of fire- heat, and which admits a free circulation of air in all parts, isto be preferred, ard none are fo convenient for this purpofe as fingle ones. The fituation for them fhould be dry, and the bottoms or floors raifed above the furface of the ground. ‘The common pra@tice of having borders for vines to be trained up the rafters, Mr. Nicol confiders as highly prejudicial to the pine plants. Preparation of the bark heds-—The circumftance of im- portance inthe culture of thefe plants, is that of forming the beds in the ftoves and pits. Thefe are differently conftitured with different cultivators, and are defigned tor the pur- pofe of plunging the pots into, with the plants in them, in order to their due growth and fupport. Thefe beds are moftly compofed of tanners’ bark, as being a fubftance that not only affords the moft uniform and durable he:t, but which is beft fuited to the nourif’ment and growth of the plants and fruit, as well as the molt manageable, Sce Banx bed, The great art in making of thefe beds, is that of producing fuch an uniform moderate bottom heat aa may not injure the roots of the plants, while it is fufficient to promote their regular growth. The author of the * Scotch Forcing Gar- dener” obferves, that his idea of “ the quantity and qua- lity of bottom heat that is required by the pine,” is dif- ferent from that generally entertained. He never withes the plants, except in friking fuckers, to ftand in a bottom heat higher than that of blood heat, and that too of a mild moilt nature. If the watch ftick to the depth of the bottom of the pot feels ju‘t a httle warm to the hand, or when ap- plied to the check, when the body is of a comfortable tem. perature, it is fufficient; and he thinks it confiftent with reafon, that the bottom and fuperficial heat fhould corref- pond at all times. In order more effcAuazily to attain this end, and that the roots may fuftain no injury, he has re- courfe to the following rules in forming, turning, and trench. ing the beds. He never fifts the tan in the pit, or adds above an eizhth part of new, which, if neceflary, he gives place to by fkimming off a little of the furface of the old, The new tan is never fuffered to lie within a foct of the furface, by which means the pots are inftantly plunged in the old. He lays the halt of whatever quantity of new tan is added in the bottom of the trench, and divides the other equally to within-a foot of the furface of the beds. In trenching he throws the fides to the middle, and the middle to the fides, that there may be an equal mixture of the old tan. Thus the beds are rendered of a mild and equal temperature from the firft, and continue much the fame for three or four months, and after the firit filling they are attended with very little expence for new tan. It is ob= vious, therctore, that, in filling the pit of a new pinery, it fhould cither be done feveral months before the plants are placed in, or the tan fhould be well fweated and wafted. by previous turning in an open fhed, &c. And in other cafes, itis advifeable not to plunge the pots above half their depth for the firit two or three months after filling. In adding new tan, it fhould invariably be thrown up in a heap for eight or ten days before ufing, in order to drip and {weeten, and fhould never be applied frefh from the tan yard, as it is wet and apt to heat violently, as well as cake in the beds. It is remarked, that fome obje& to tan, as being expenfive and troublefome in working with; but if this method 1s pra&t fed, thefe inconveniences will be incor fiderable ; and as the plants requir frequent fhifting. the trouble of ftirring up the bark-beds at {uch times is but trifling 5 the addition of new tan being fometimes unneceffary. He is convinced that there is no ingredient which can be fubitituted for tan, that will equally anfwer the purpofe in the pinery, and of courfe recommends the ufe of it in preference to all others, where it can be eafily procured ; and more or lefs of it is always neceffary. He confiders oak leaves as the next belt material, but they cannot be had io many places. Where they ere ufed, he advifes that at leaft eighteen inches of well reduced tan be Jaid on the furface to plunge the pots in; after thefe, a mixture of flable dung and tree leaves of any kind. But they fhould be well fermented before they are uf d, and at lealt two feet of reduced tan laid on the furface for the res ception of the plants, It is fuppofed by fome, that the reae fon of pines being planted in pots inftead of the furface of the beds, is the want of permanent heat in them, as they may be removed with more facility in the time of renewing the bark, &c.; but Mr. Nicol has a different opinion of the matter, fo that, if the heat of the beds were ever fo perma- nent, he would grow them in pots. Asall the diff rent plants of any kind do not grow alike in their native climates, much lefs the pine in an artificial one, there is a neceflity for tav- ing, at leaft, two compartments, and growing the piante in gAz pote, BROMELTIA, pote, that they may be removed and claffed according to circumftances, with the greater eafe and fafety. Befides, many forts of plants, in any fituation, do much better in pots than otherwife; of thefe are all of the fucculent tribe, amorgi{t which is the pine. There would alfo feem another reafon, which is the loofe incoherent nature of tan not affording a proper medium for the growth and fupport of fuch luxuriant plants. The ufual periods of forming and renovating or refrefhing thefe beds are the beginning of the autumn, as Septem- ber, OGober, and the following month, that the heat may be well kept up during the winter, and in the {pring, as about the begiuning of April; a forking up being given in the interval between thefe periods. he pits in thefe cafes fhould be conftantly well filled up, to allow for the fettling that always takes plece. Mould proper for potting the Plants —The mott {uitable fort of earthy material for the culture of the pine-apple plant is that of the firm vegetable kind, or fome compofition in which it is a principal ingredient ; a large proportion of which fhould always be provided in a proper ttate for the purpofe. The mott beneficial kind is that which 1s obtained from the decayed leaves of the oak, or a mixture of it with that from thofe of afh, elm, beech, fycamore, &c. This mould is prepared by colle&ting them as they fall in the autumn, and placing them in a heap, throwing a very little light mould over them, to prevent their blowing away. They fhould remain in this ftate during the winter, and till the beginning of May, when they fhould be turned over and mixed well together. In this way, by the {pring following, they will be reduced into a mould proper for ufe. This fhould, however, be fifted before it is employed, in order to remove pieces of ftick or other improper matters. A compott of turfy vegetable mould with rich garden foil and wel) rotted ftable dung from a hot-bed, in the proportion of one-third of the latter, which have remained together for a confiderable time, is likewife recommended by fome. Brown, flrong, loamy earth, when reduced by long expofure to the air, is another ufeful material; and pigeons’ dung that has been at leaft two years in an heap, and frequently turned and expofed to the influence of the weather, may be employed: alfo fhell marle, and fea or river gravel, which has been fifted and kept in a dry place, having the fize of large peas, &c. may fometimes be employed. The proportions in which they are advifed to be made ufe of for different purpofes in the culture of thefe plants by Mr. Ni- col, are thefe: ‘ For crowns and fuckers entire vegetable mould, with a little gravel at bottom, to ftrike in; after- wards three-fourths vegetable mould, and one-fourth loam, mixed with about a twentieth part of gravel, and a little entire gravel at bottom, till a year old. For year old plants, till fhifted into fruiting pots, one half vegetable mould, one half loam, to which add abouta twentieth part of gravel, and as much fhell marle with a little gravel at bottom, as above. For fruiting in, one half loam, a fourth vegetable mould, a fourth pigeons’ dung, to which add gravel and marle, as above, and lay two inches of entire gravel at bottom.”’ Raifing the Plants. —This is the next point of material con- fequence in the cultivation of thefe plants, and which is effeGted eithcr by the crowns produced on the tops of the fruit, the offsets, or fuckers from between the leaves, and the roots of the old plant. The Jaft fhould never be employed when it can be avoided ; of the other two, fuckers are pre- ferred by fome, while crowns have the advantage, according to others; but Mr. Nicol juftly remarks, that if the former have the fuperiority in being the {tronger plants, they have like- wile the difadvantage of running to fruit more unfeafonably than the latter, The crowns are procured by twifting them aff the fruit when it is made ufe of, and the fuckers by breaking down the leaf immedistely beneath them, and moving them gently both ways till they come off, which fhould not be .attempted till the under parts appear of a brownifh colour, and ripe, as under other circumftances they are liable to break in the middle and be fpoiled. When taken off, they fhould each of them be cleared of a few of the lower out- ward leaves about the bottom where they are to form roots, by rubbing them off; fome alfo pare the under parts of the ftumps f{mooth with a knife. They are then laid or hung up ina dry place four or five days, or more, that the over moil- ture and wounds of the ftumps, or thick parts of the plants, may be dried up and fufficiently healed over before they are planted, and the danger of their rotting be prevented. The auchor of the ** Scotch Forcing Gardener,” however ob- ferves, ‘* that if they are perfectly ripe, and the old plants have had no water for a werk or two before they were takenoff (which they ought not), nothing of this kind is neceffary.”” Each plant frequently affords many fuckers, but rarely more than one crown. ‘he crowns are ufually gathered one by one as the fruit is ufed, and ftuck into a bark-bed till the whole crop of them, as well as the fuckers, can be potted together. The plants, after being thus prepared and collected, muft be placed, according to their fizes, fingly in pots three or four inches in diameter, and five or fix deep, provided for the purpofe, and filled with entire vegetable mould, as dire&ted above, having the bottoms previoufly laid with clean gravel, of the fize of horfe beans, to the thicknefs of an inch or fomething more: fome, however, only advife pieces of flate or tile to be put over the holes in the pots. The firft is probably the beft method, as pre- venting the water molt effeCtually from ftagnating about the roots of the plants. In planting they hould be put neither too fhallow, nor to too great a depth, but have the mould pretty clofely prefled round them. The nurling pit fhould be prepared for their reception by having new tan to the extent of a fifth or fixth part added, but none fuffered to he within ten or twelve inches of the furface. In thefe beds, when of a due heat, the pots fhou'd be plunged up to their brims, in regular order, at the diftance of two or three inches pot from pot each way, keeping them perfe@ly level, and the largeft towards the back parts. Some advife a flight watering to be immediately given, but others think that neither the crowns nor fuckers fhould have any forthe firit fortnight after planting, nor any over-head the firft winter, left they fhould be injured in their hearts by the damp which it occafions. As the plants thus raifed only produce fruit in the fecond, or more generally, in the third year’s growth, commonly with fuckers and crowns for future increafe, and become afterwards of no ufe but as ftocks for fupplying a few more fuckers, there is obvioufly a neceffity for raifing frefh fup- lies of plants annually. Culture in the raifing Stove. —The management of the plants the firft year, or while they remain in the nurfery-ftoves and pits, requires much attention to keep them in a regular and healthy growth by preferving a continued proper degree of heat in the beds, and a judicious application of water with a futzable admiffion of tree air. Mr. Nicol obferves, that where the plants have been ftruck in the beginning of Sep- tember, the beds wiil mottly continue of a kindly heat till about the beginning of November, but fhould then be wrought over, introducing about an eighth part of new tan by trenching it in. But though the plants will in gene- ral have made good roots by this pertod, they do not in 2 common common ftand in need of being frefh potted ; fuch only as are in any degree matted being put into EN of the next fize to thofe in which they are growing. The matted part being fimply taken off, they fhould be replaced with the bulb as entire as poffible, They are then to be plunged in the beds, as in the former cafe, quite up to the brims of the pots, and fhould remain till the beginning of Aprii ; at which period the beds fhould be again wrought over, as direGed above, and the plants have the mould wholly thaken from the roots, after which they fhonld be replaced in the fame pots with frefh mould, and replunged inthe beds. In this cafe the roots being frefh fhould never be difturbed, the parts that are decayed in the ftumps or other places being merzly removed. As the heat of the beds, without the aid of fire, will not be {efficient during thefe periods for the healthy growth of thefe plants, it will be requifite to have recourfe to that of the artificial kinds. This fhould be applied about the be- ginning of O&ober, or the following month, according to the ftate of the feafon. In the application of this heat great care fhould be had to keep it fo moderate as not to force the plants forwards too much, and render them in danger of fruiting uofeafonably, while it is fufficient for their perfe@ growth. The former is fhewn. by their drawing up with long leaves and white hearts; and the latter, by the want of the proper healthy afpe&. To accomplifh this in the moft certain manner, Mr. Nicol recommends working the ftoves fo as to keep the thermometer as near as poffible to 65°, at feven or cight o’clock in the morning and nine at night, un- ul about the firft of March, and then to increafe it gradually to 70°, at which it fhould be maintained fo long as artificial heat may be required. When the weather is very fevere, it is likewife neceffary to cover and defend the glaffes in the night time, as well as occafionally in the day, with canvas for the purpofe, cloths fixed with rollers and pullies, or large garden mats. At the above period the plants ufually begin to grow in a vigorous and rapid manner, and require potting again about the firft or middle of May, at which time the bed fhould be ftirred up to about half its depth, and, if ne- ceffary, a very little new tan worked in. The plants fhould be put into pots about fix inches in diameter on the infide in the tops on a medium according to their fizes, with the balls entire ; and if any of them are matted, that part fhould be difplaced, plunging them to the brims at the diltance of - about fifteen inches from centre to centre of the plants in the largeft kind, and a foot in the fmaller kinds, giving a flight watering at the time. Another potting becomes ne- ceflary about the beginning of Auguft ; and where there are three compartments the plants fhould now be removed into the fucceffion-houfe, the bark-beds being worked over to the bottom. The plants muft be put into pots of eight inches diameter, plunging them to the brims at the diftance of fix- teen inches ona medium, and fettling them with a gentle wa- tering. Atthefe periods a more free admiffion of frefh air be- comes neceflary, efpecially when the weather is mild and favourable. Where other houfes or fucceffion-ftoves are employed in the culture of thefe plants, they may at this time be removed into them, in order to be more conveniently managed in their growth the fecond year. * Culture in the Sueceffion Stoves, or Pits. In the {econd year’s grow:h it will be neceflary, towards the middle of November, to work the bark-beds over to laft during the winter; but the plants need not be fhifted, the decayed leaves about their bottoms being only twifted off, and a little frefh mould laid oo the furface of the pots, where it may be requifite, re- plunging the pots to the brims as before. Some advife the leaves a she plants to be tied up while they are potting or BROMELIA, removing them, in order to keep them from being bruifed ; but the writer juft mentioned difapproves of the pratice, as he finds they are generally much more bruifed in tying than when left loofe. The method which he follows, is to have a perfon ftanding oppofite to him in the time of potting, which is performed on a ftage about a yard high, whofe bufinefs is to hold up the leaves in a loofe, though regular manner, between the arms, and prepare and hand the pots. In this manner he has often been able to fhi't an hundred one-year old plants in two hours. In conveying the plants through the doors of the ftoves, the perfon fhould proceed with the back foremoft, by which means the leaves are faved from injury, as the pot goes firit, and the leaves are drawn backwards after it. About the beginning of March the plants again require fhifting, and the bark-beds fhould then be trenched over as before. The plants at this time muft be thaken out, and replaced ithe fame pots, in new mould, cutting off any of the decayed roots, or the ends of the flumps, twilting off a few of the bottom leaves, plunging them as before in the beds, and giving them a flight watering. Towards the firft of June, the plants fhould again be fhifted. The bark-beds being wrought over to about half their depths, and a little frefh tan added when neceflary, the plants, with their balls entire, fhould then be placed in pots of about ten inches diameter, plunging them, at the diftance of eighteen inches from centre to centre, into the beds, and fettling them with a little water. In regard to potting, it is remarked by the fame author, that at all times a few of the bottom leaves fhould be twilted off each plant, that frefh roots may be made more readily to furnih the furface, which tends to keep them more fteady in the pots. ‘The fire heat in thefe cafes fhould be begun about the fame period as before, according to Mr. Nicol, and kept to about 60 degrees of the thermometer till the begining of March, and then gradually increafed to 65° for the remainder of the feafon. The plants fhould be re- frethed occafionally with a little water, according as the earth in the pots becomes dry, or as the {tate of the weather demands. They fhould likewife have a more free admiffion of frefh air, whenever the feafon will admit of it without danger. Culture in the fruiting-flove or hot-houfe. The plants raifed in the nurfery pits, and continued in their growth in the fucceffion- ftoves, havingattaineda properfizeand ftrength, fhould, towards the latter end of Augult, or the beginning of the following month, be placed in the pots in which they are to fruit, in the fame manner as before, and depofited in the ftoves of the hot-houfe, which fhould have the bark- beds prepared for their reception, by trenching them over to the bottoms, and adding about a tenth part of new tan in a proper ftate of preparation for the purpofe, being well blended, and made fo as to fill up the pits well. The pots in which the plants are now put, fhould be about a foot in diameter ; which fhould be plunged in the beds to the brims, a gentle watering beiog immediately given. In potting the plants, Mr. Nicol in thefe cafes advifes the ufe of a {mall {tick to trundle the mould down between the balls and the fides of the pot, fo as to leave no cavities, a circumftance which fhould be attended to, as being of great utility, The management in this {tate differs but little from that of the preceding ; the chief circum{tance to be regarded, is that of keeping up the heat in as regular a manner as poffible, with the addition of a due quantity of refrefhing moiltures and free air. The beds fhould, about the middle of No- vember, be ftirred up to half their depth, and a little tan added; but the plants muf not be fhifted at this periods only BROMELIA. only requiring to’be re-plunged to the brims again in the beds for the winter. It is the common practice at this time to add a large quantity of new tan, in order to keep up a ftrorg bottom heat through this feafon; than which Mr. Nicol thinks nothing can be more erroneous. He has already remarked, that the bottom and fuperficial heat ought to correfpond ar ali times ; and if the houfe is to be brouzht to 60° only for the winter, it follows, he fuppofes. that a very moderate bottom heat is fufficient. ‘The temperature of the houfe being fo much reduced in winter, is, he con- ciudes, to prevent the plants from ftarting too foon into fruit; and their doing fo 1s frequently more in confequence of too muc® bottom heat, than irregularity in the tempera- ture of the ftove. In the beginning of February, which is the beft thewing feafon, the bark-beds will require trench- ing, which is the only time of the year that the above author advifes a deviation from the rules given above. From this time the houfe, in his opinion, fhould be brourht as high as 70°, and the bottom heat keep pace with the artificial, for which new tan, to the extent of a fixth part, fhould be added. Such of the plants, he obferves, as are not fhewn, are healthy at the root, and ftand ereé& and firm in the pots, * fhould have a little frefh mould laid on the furface by the removal of about two inches of the old. But thofe that are already fhewn, and thofe that are anywife unhealthy, or appear ftunted, fhould be fhaken out entirely, and replaced with frefh mould in the fame pots; but none of the roots, unlefs wafted, fhould be cut away, or removed. This, fo far as it refpets the plants that are fhewn, he prefumes has not been hitherto recommended; he is confequently happy in being enabled to do it with confidence, as it has ever been a matter to be regretted, that pines, from the want of fun and air in the winter months, are apt to be ftunted, and fhew their fruit too foon; and that fruit fo fhewn, feldom comes to any confiderable fize or flavour; the plants fo ftunted, being unable to nourifh the fruit, and thefe, from the want of funfhine in the early months, coming far fhort in flavour of that matured at a later period. It is added, that the experiment was tried on a dozen of plants, the half of which were in, and the other half pait, the flower at this time of the year; the refult was, that they were kept back a full month by the operation; thofe that were palt the flower equalled, and thofe that were only in flower exceeded any of the others of their own forwardnefs at the time of fhift- ing. Being encouraged by this fuccefs, he treated his whole ftock of fruiting plants in the fame manner in the following feafons, and they were kept back to a better fea. fon, and {welled their fruit to as good a fiz- as th fe that fhewed in February. May, the bark-beds fhould be again trenched to the bottom, a tenth part of new tan added, and the plants re-plunged in the beds in the fame manner as in the preceding cafes, no- thing further being neceffary. Though it is not poffible to apply the heat conftantly with that degree of exa¢tnefs that has been recommended, it 1s of great importance to approach It as near as can be conveniently done, which, by proper attention to the thermometers employed for the purpofe, may in a great degree be accompl (hed, efpecially where the perfon who manages the fires, has likewife the command of the houfs, which fhould always be the cafe. Several forts of fuel are employed, but coal or cinders make the moft regular and durable fires, where they can be obtained. Ground tan heat may alfo be employed where the tire-places are properly conitruéted for the pur- pofe. See Hor-nouse. With regard to the admiffion of air, the author of * The Scotch Forcing Gardener” recommends very large portions Towards the beginning or middle of , in the fruiting-houfe while the fruit is ripening, as it is, he thinks, not only effential to the favouring of it, but highly con- ducive to the ripening and hardening of the fuckers, which is alfo a point of importance. Though it is the practice of fome to fhade their plants from the fun, the above author fuppofes they can never have too much of its influence. It is advifed, that in winter even frofty air fhould be admitted in a moderate degree at the top of the houfe, and in frefh weather, at this feafon, to the extent, that the thermometer may not be more than 5° above the fire-heat medium, being continued till the middle of March ; after which, and for the whole feafon, not more than 10°, It is obferved that in winter fires are frequently made in the morning, folely for the purpofe of admitting air, and at the fame time keep- ing up the temperature of the houfe, and that although the pine, from its nature, does not appear to quickly feel the effeGis of bad management, there are few plants in reality do it more fo, and too due an attention to the temperature of the houfe, efpecially in winter, cannot be paid, the want of which is fure to throw the’plants into fruit in an untimely feafon. In refpe& to the application of water in the culture of thefe plants, it is advifed to be given very fparingly in dull weather, particularly in the winter feafon, from about the beginning of Otober to the firft or middle of March, once in eight or ten days is generally fufficient, in a {mail propor- tion; but from that period plentiful waterings are requifite, in confiderable quantities at a time, moftly once in three or four days. Watering much over head in winter, except in clear weather, is not advifed ; but in the fummer months tt is recommended, asa good practice, to firft give the quantity requifite to the root from the fpout of a watering pan, and then a fufficient quantity to wet every part of the leaves from the rofe; the reafon of which is, that the different kinds of pines are formed to require very different quanti- ties of water: the queen requiring more than the king; the Antigua, or brown fugar loaf, and the Montferrat and green or tript fugar loaf, a medium. between the two, in plants of an equal ftate of health and fize. With the truiting plants, very large quantities are res quired from the time they are out of flower, till they begin to colour; but which fhould then be gradually withheld, aud towards its maturity totally, as this increafes the flavour of the fruit, and perfeéts the ripening of the fuckers. Steaming is confdered as not only ufelefs to the health of the pine, but, in dull hazy weather, prejudicial ; of courfe, when there are grapes in the hot-houfe, it fhould be regue lated fo as to fuit them. Water well impregnated with air fhould be ufed “at all times, which fhould be applied about eight in the mornings and from four to five in the afternoon. In the watsring of thefe plants, atin pipe is recommended as ufeful and con- venient, for the more ready condu@ting, the water in the quantity intended to any particular plants of the bark-beds. It fhould be fix feet long, an inch and half in diameter at the upper end, and at the other about half an inch, and be formed of two or three feparate pieces to lengthen or fhorten at pleafure. At the longeft end a kind of funnel fhould either be fixed, or fo contrived as to take off and on occafiozally, to receive the water from the watering pot. By this means water is capable of being conveyed to the plants feparately, in any proportion, to the hearts of them, without wetting the bark-beds more than is neceffary to moiften the earth in the pots, &c. It is particularly appli- cable in winter as well az in the {pring, during the bloom of the fruiting plants. In winter it may fometimes be proper to have fome conveniences in the flove to preferve water ate 3 that BRO that it may be raifed in its heat a little previous to watering the plants with it. Some have attempted the culture of the pine-apple with- out the affilance of hot-houfes, or ftoves conftruéed for the purpofe, fimply by common deep garden frames, and dung hot-beds, aided by occalional linings, in order to pro- mote and keep upa regular degree of heat; but thisis avery imperfe& method, and feldom attended with much fuccefs. The injuries to which thefe plants are chiefly expofed during their growth, are brown and white fcaly infeAs, of the coceus tribe, andthe ant. But as the laftis feldom feen, if the former be not prefent, Mr. Nicol concludes that their prefence is in confequence of that of the infe&ts on which they feem to feed. And the brown fealy infect is conceived to be no further injurious, than by difcolouring the plants; but the white fcaled, or bug, is of the moit mifchievous nature to the plants, as, where it abounds, they never fuc- ceed well. In order to remove them, Mr. Nicol found the following method anfwer perfe@ly, in a cafe where the plants were greatly affeted. Having prepared a ftrong heat for the plants in the bark bed of the nurfiog pits, he, fhook out and cut every fibre from their roots, whereby they were rendered the fame as fuckers at firft, not except- ing thofe that were in fruit, fome of which were juft in flower, dipped them into a liquor prepared by boiling two pounds of {oft foap and flower of fulphur, with one pound of roll tobacco, and two ounces of nux vomica, in eight gallons of water to fix; put them into pots of fix inches diameter, and plunged them to the brims; kept up a fire heat to about 75°, gave them but little air, fhading them in fun-fhine, and afterwards gave them plentiful water- ings over head with the fame mixture, reduced to about half its former ftrength. He continued this treatment for two whole months; at the end of which he again fhook out their roots, and wafhed the whole plants in pure water, put them into frefh pots of eight inches diameter, and re-plunged them into a kind/y heat in another nurfing pit, treating them in all refpe€ts as any other plants. He never faw a veftige of the bug afterwards; a few of thofe plants that were fhewn, however, died, but the others, he obferved, produced fuch fruit as might be expeéted from plants of {uch fizes of any other kind. Time of Maturation, and cutting of the Fruit. The com- mon feafon for the ripening of this fort of fruit is from June till September; but from Auguft to the end of the Jatter month is the principal period of their attaining to the greatelt perfeAion. Mr. Nicol remarks, that fome kinds put forth fuckers at the b-fe of the fiuir, which fhould be rubbed off as they eppear; others put forth fuckers from the root; and as thefe are not proper to be taken into the ftock, they fhould alfo be twilted off, or otherwife deftroyed, as they appear. It is added, that if a plant were to be divefled of all its fuckers, the fruit would open to a much larger fize in confequence ; but as this wafte ultimately tends to the extirpation of the whole ftock, it is by no means advifable. It is proper, however, to reduce the number of fuckers on the plart to two or three at moft, which fhould be done in the May fhifting ; and asthe fuckers are about half grown at the time, the cultivator is enabled to choofe the beft, and at the fame time to eafily deftroy the others, by breaking out their hearts. Where the increafe of the ftock is the obje&, all fuckers, even at the root, fhould be encouraged in their growth. As fome of the kinds alfo grow on long foot- flalke, which are apt to bend down as the fruit gets heavy, they fhould be fupported by fmall ftakee, or other means, as when the fruit falls over the flalk, it is liable to be bruifed, and the nourifhment of the fruit retarded, BRO This fort of fruit lofes much of its flavour, when fuffered to grow till fully ripe; where not prevented, it fhould there- fore always be cut by the time it has attained a greenith yellow colour, and either left in the heart of the old plants, or laid on the wall-plate, &c. in the ftove for a few days, after ithas been feparated from the ftem. The fign of the fruit having attained perfe@ion in mo& kinds, is that of their affluming a fine golden colour, with a delightfully fragrant {mell ; at which time it fhould always be removed. The method of performing which, is by having feveral niches of the ftems with it, and alfo the crown of leaves atthe top. It is eaten in the higheft perfe@tion foon after being cut; but when required, it may be preferved for feveral weeks, by putting the ftem into a bottle of pure water, renewed every two or three days, and placed in a well-dried room of above 6o° of heat. The cultivation of the other fpecies may be performed either by fowing the feeds obtained from abroad, in the au- tumn or {pring months, in pots plunged in the hot-beds of the ftove, or by means of fuckers, in the manner of the pine- apple plants. They muft be kept conftantly in the ftove, where they afford much variety, when properly managed, in aff-mblage with other plants of the fame fort. BROMPFIELD, Wittiam, in Biography, who, in a long courfe of practice, attained to the highelt degree of reputation in his profeflion, was born in Tendon! in the year 1712, and was initisted in the praGice of furgery, un- der Mr., afterwards ferjeant, Ranby. With fuch a precep- tor, and with a mind fufceptible of information, he early found himfeif capable of practifing on his own account. In the year 1741 he began to give leGtures in anatomy and furgery, and foon found his theatre crowded with pupils. Two or three years after, in conjunétion with the reverend Mr. Madan, he formed the plan of the Lock hofpital, for the fole reception of that unfortunate clafs of patients, who are affected with the vencreal difeafe. By a ftrong and for- cible appzal to the humanity of the public, and by fhewing the advantages that ultimately might redound to them, from the improvements that might be expeéted to be made, in fuch an afylum, in the method of treating that frightful difeafe ; a fubfcription was raifed fufficient to enable the projectors of it to ere the prefent {pacious and handfome building, but not for its maintenance, which is {till effe@ed by voluntary contributions. To this bofpital Mr. Brom- field was made furgeon, an office he filled with advantage to the patients and credit to himfelf for many years. Witha view of contriboting to its fuccefs, he altered an old comedy, «The City Match,” written in 1639, by Jafpar Maine, and procured it to be aéted at Drury-lane theatre, in the year 1755, for the benefit of the hofpital. He was alfo, very carly after its being inftituted, ele€ted one of the fur- geons to St. George’s hofpital. In the year 1761, he was appointed in the fuite of the noble perfone, who were fent to bring over the princefs of Mecklenburgh, our prefent queen, and was foon after appointed furgeon to her majefty’s houfehold. Inthe year 1751, he fent to the Royal Society a cafe of a woman who had a fectus in her abdomen nine years, which is printed in their tranfaétions forthe fame year. In 1757s he publithed an account of the Englith night fhades, the internal ufe of which had been recommended in fcrophu- lous cafes; but they had failed in producing the expected benefit with him. Under their ufe, the ulcers became worfe ; they occafioned thirft, dimnefe of fight, and, if not cautioufly given, death. In 1759, he gave “A Narrative of a Phyfical TranfaGtion with Mr. Aylet, Surgeon, at Windfor.’” This is a controverfial piece, and the author clears himfelf from the imputation of having treated his antagonift improperly, In 1767, he publifhed, Thoughts concerning BRO concerning the prefent peculiar Method of treating perfons inoculated for the Small-Pox.’? This relates to the Sut- tous, who were now in the zenith of their reputation. He thinks their practice of expofing their patients to the open air in the midft of winter, of repelling the eruption, and checking or preventing the fuppurative procefs, too bold, and hazardous. Onthe whole, however, he acknowledges, they were deferving of commendation, for the improvements they had introduced, in the treatment, both of the inecu- lated, aud natural fmall-pox. His next work, the moft con- fiderable one, written by him, was ‘‘ Chirurgical Cafes and Obfervations,”” publifhed in 1773 in 2 vols. $vo. Though there are much judicious practice, and many valuable obferva- tions contained in thefe volumes, yet they did not anfwer the expeGations of the public, or correfpond to the fame and credit the author had obtained ; accordingly in the fol- lowing year they were attacked by an anonymous writer, faid to be Mr. Juamond, ina pamphiet, entitled, “¢ Notes on Chirurgical Cafes and Obfervations, by a Profeffor of Surgery.”? The ftri€tures contained in thefe notes are keen and ingenious, and, though evidently the produce of ill- humour, yet feem to have had the efle& of preventing fo genegal a diffufion of the cafes, as the charaéter of the au- thor would otherwife have procured them. They have never been reprinted. About this time the author took a fpacious manfion in Chelfea Park, which he enlarged, al- tered, and furnifhed in an elegant ftyle. It is now occupied by fir Henry Wilfon. Hither he retired, after doing his bufinefs, which he began gradually to contraét into a nar- rower circle. With that view, afew years after, he gave up his fituation as furgeon to the Lock hofpital. His other appointments he kept to the time of his death, which hap- pened on the 24th of November, 1792, in the Soth year of his age. The above are all the memorials we have been able to colle& of this ingenious gentleman, of whom no life has been before written. BROMIO, in Geography, a torrent of Swifferland, in the canton of Bellinzone, which takes its rife in mount Uc- callo, or the Vogelfberg, near Splugen, and joins the Tcfino in the Levantine valley. BROMISCUS, in Ancient Geography, a town in Mace- donia, fituate, according to hucydides, in the gulf where the Jake of Bolbé difcharged itfelf into the fea. BROMIUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Tawanus, having a purple band through the eyes, and the body cinereous. Linn. Fn. Sv. Frequent in Germany, and fome other parts of Europe. Degeer calls this T’abanus maculatus. BROMLEY, in Geography, a market town in the county of Kent, England. The manor of Bromley was given by king Edgar, in 700, to the bifhop of Rochefter, who, inconfequence, had a palace ereétcd here, and the bifhops of that fee appear to have made it their feat till the prefent time. Near the palace is a {pring, which has been found to poffefs the fame qualities as the water at Tunbridge Wells. In munkifh times this was held in high eftimation, and a chapel was ereéted near it for the ule of pilgrims. A college, or hofpital, was erected at Bromley, by Dr. Warner, bifhop of Rochefter, in the reign of Charles II. for twenty poor clergymen’s widows. This is faid to have been the firft endowment of the kind in England. In conf-quence of a bequeft from the reverend Mr. Hetherington, of zocol. and of bifhop Pearce, who left 5000). more, the truftees have been enabled to augment the annual allowance to the widows from 2ol. to 3ol. and the chaplains from gol. to 601. By another bequeft from a Mrs, Betenfon, ten additional houfes have been ere&ted, and endowed, Bromley is fituated on the river Ravenfbourn, at the diflance of 10 miles S.E. from London. Here area BRO weekly market on Thurfday, and two fairs annually. The town confilts of 424 houfes, and 2700 inhabitants. Walfon’s Hiftory of Bromley, 12mo. Bromtey, atownfhip of America, in Bennington coun- ty, Vermont, about 32 miles north-eafterly from Benning~ ton, containing 71 inhabitants. Alfo, a town in Somerfet county, New Jerfey, about zo miles N.W. of Brunfwick. Bromcey, or Assots Bromtey, a {mall market town of Staffordfhire, in England. The adjun&t abbots was given to it inconfequence of its abbey, which is now entirely deftroyed. This town confifts of one ftreet, near the centre of whrch is the town-hall, where the court-leet and court- baron of the earl of Uxbridge are annually held. Bromley ftards is a fine open fertile country, diftant 129 miles N.W. from London, and 11 from the city of Litchfield. Here are a weekly market on Tuefdays, and three annual fairs. The town contains 202 houfes, and 808 inhabitants. Near Bromley is Blithfield, the feat ot lord Bagot; and at two miles diftance is How-crofs, the feat of the earl of Shrewfbury. The foreft of Needwood, confidered the great ornament of Staffordfhire, is 3 miles from this place. BROMPTON. See CuHaruam. BROMSEBRO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland, which has a large bridge over the river that here difcharges itfelf into the fez. A {mall ifland lies in the middle of the river, on which two ftones are erected for boundaries. This place is famous for a congrefs, held in 1541, and again in 1572, for fettling fome difputes con- cerning the arms of the three northern crowns; and alfo, for a treaty of peace, concluded in 1645, between Sweden and Denmark. It is 4 leagues from Chriftianople. BROMSGROVE, a town of Worcefterfhire, in Eng land, is noted for its manufaCtures of worfted, linen cloths, fith hooks, needles, nails, &c. It had formerly a manuface tory for broad and narrow cloths, but this is removed into Gloucefterfhire. In the reign of Edward I. Bromfgrove {ent two members to parliament, and it has had many privi- jeges conferred on it by different monarchs. Edward VI. founded a grammar fchool here, which was additionally en- dowed by fir Thomas Cooks. The church and town are Jarge and handfome, and the former, from its high fituation, is approached by a flight of fifty fteps. It is ornamented with fome painted glafs, and contains feveral fine monu- ments. Among thefe is one for judge Lyttleton, 1600; bifhop Hall of Briftol, 1710; fir Humphrey Stafford, who was killed in Cade’s rebellion ; fir John V'a!bot, of Grafton ; and another afcribed toa daughter of Henry VII. This parifh contains twelve manors, and its houfes amounted, in_ 1801, to 1178, and its inhabitants to 5998, of which 1208 were engaged in manufa€tures and trade. Bromfgrove is 116 miles N.W. from London, and 12 from the city of Worcefter. About one mile anda half diftant is Grafton manor, the ancient feat of the earl of Shrewfbury. Hewell-Grange, the feat of the earl of Plymouth, is at 4 miles diftance. Dod- ford priory is within two miles of Bromfgrove. Nafh’s Hif- tory of Worcelterfhire. BROMUS, in Botany, (Bewua, food,) Linn. 89. Reich. 95- Schreb. 120. Juff. 32. Willd. 140. La Marck, Illutt, 119. pl. 46. Smith Flor. Brit. 38. Clafs, triandria digy- nia. Nat. Ord. gramina, grafles. Gen. Char. Cal. glume, many-flowered, two-valved, {preacing, collecting the florets into an oblong two-rowed {pikelets valves ovate-oblong, acuminate, awnle{3; the lower one {malleft. Cor. two-valved; the outer valve the fize and form of the calyx, concave, obtufe, bifid, putting out a : ftraight BROMUS. firaight awn generally below its apex ; inner one lanceolate, fmall, awnlefs. Ned. two-leaved; leaflets ovate, acute, gib- bous at the bafe. Stam. filaments three, capillary, fhorter than the corolla; anthers oblong. Pi/l. germ top-fhaped; ftyles two, fhort, reflex, villous. Svigmas fimple. Pericarp. the corolla clofely fhut, adhering to the feed, not dehifcent. Seed finzle, oblong, covered, convex on one fide, furrowed on the other. Eff. Char. Cal. two valved; fpikelets many-flowered, ob- long, two-rowed ; (the awn below the apex of the outer glumebf the corolla, Linn.) inner glume fringed with {trong, Ciftant, brifily hairs, Dr. Smith. The genus Bromus is entirely artificial, and there are no natural boundaries between it and feftuca that have been hi- therto afcercained. It was originally aflumed by Linnzus, that a terminal ftraight awn fhould determine a plant to be a {elluca ; but in practice this diltin@tion has not been ftrictly obferved, and great confufion has accordingly arifen in the diitribution of [pecies. Dr. Smith’s new charaer will prove a happy one, if it thall be found to prevail in all the foreign {pecies, which have the general habit of Bromus; but we fear it will fometimes fail. It is already fofficiently evident, that the pofition of the dorfal awn, and the fringe of the glume, cannot both be admitted into the effential charaGer of the enus. , Sp. 1. B. fecalinus, Linn. (Eng. Bot. pl. 1171. Knap. p. 79-) Polymorphus, Sc»poli, Hudfon, Withering. ‘* Pa- nicle f{preading ; peduncles nearly fimple; fpikelets ovate, comprefled, ten flowered, florets diftiné, roundifh.” Dr. Smith. Smooth rye brome-grafs. Roof, annual. Stem, about three feet high, fimple, round, fmooth, and leafy. Leaves, brozdith, flat, ribbed, rough at the edge and un- derneath, cloathed above with fhort, foft hairs; theaths furrowed but not rough. Stipule, very fhort. Panicle, when young, erect, with lanceolate, clofed {pikelets; when mature, pendent, with the fpikelets fo expanded that the rachis is vifible between them. Calyxes unequal, awnlefs; glumes elliptic., fmooth, threc-nerved, membranaceous at the edges. Flores roundith, fmooth, rarely downy, ovate, flat; outer glume marked with feven flight ribs, with a rough and rather fhort awn; inner glume toothed rather than fringed. Dr. Smith. Knap. Native of England, in Norfolk fre- uent, 2. B. multiflorus, Weigel. Gmelin. Willd. (Knap. Fab. So) Confidered by Linneus, a variety of fecali- nus, ‘ Panicle fpreading; peduncles feldom with more than one fpikelet ; {pikelets, ovate-lanceolate comprefled, fifteen-flowcred; florets fubimbricate, roundifh.”? Dr.Smith. Root, annval. Stem, {mooth. Lower leaves, naked beneath, a little hairy at the edges above. Upper leaves, pubefcent, with a fhort woollinefs beneath, hairy above; all rough at the edge; theath fmooth. Stipule, very short, lacerated, fearcely hairy. Panicle, asin the former. Spikelets, ovate- lanceolate, rather comprefied, imbricate, and finally rather remote. Glumes generally Nightly pubefcent, rarely {mooth, Dr. Smith. 5. B. mollis, oe faid by La Marck, in Encyc. Meth. to be only a variety of B. fecalinus, but the error is correGied in the Illuft. (Curtis 2. Eng. Bot. 1078. Knap. 77-) ‘ Panicle ereét, clofe, com- pound. Spikelets, ovate. Ficrete, imbricated, depreffed, ribbed, downy.” Dr. Smith. Root, annual, of a few fim- fle fibres. Stem, erect, about two feet high, fimple, ftriated, generally {mooth ; joints fwelling, often thickly clothed with hairs. —Zeaves and their fheaths thickly covered wiih a foft hoary pubcicence. Stipules, bluntly jointed. Panicle, twa wr three inches long, ereét, at firlt clofe, afterwards a little s#xpanding ; branches half-whorled, the upper fimple, the 47 more or-lefe fubdivided, angwlar, pubcfcent. Spike lor. V. Jets, nearly upright, ovate, acute, rather tamid. #Yoretr, from feven to ten, clofely imbricated, elliptical, concave, and deprefled. Calyx of two unequal glumes, {carious at their edges, keeled, villous, marked with feven or nine ftrong green ribs. Cor. glumes fimilar to thofe of the calyx, the external ore bearing a rough awn about its own length, alittle below its fummit ; inner one membranaceous, without nerves, with ‘a thick green fringed edge. Its compound denfe panicle, and its ftrongly ribbed, depreffed, clofely imbricated glumes, at once diftinguifh it from the two former. The B. nanus of Weigel is only a ftarved dwarf variety. Dr. Smith. It is a common plant in meadows; and in fome parts of the north of England, conftitutes a principal part of their herbage, but chiefly in fields lately laid down, aod owing perhaps not to its being preferred on account of its own excellence, but to the largenefs of its feeds, which are more eafily gathered, and confequently more profitable to the collector. ~Mr. Knapp informs us, that in the fouthern part of Scotland it is cultivated by itfelf like ray-grafs in England. 4. B. race- mofus, Linn. Polymorphus, Hudfon, &cr (Eng. Bot. 1079. Knap. 78.) ‘ Panicle, nearly ere&t, {preading, fimple; {pikelets ovate, of about fix imbricated, depreffed, ribbed, fmooth florets.” Dr. Smith. It agrees in general habit with the preceding, but is more flender; its glumes are perfeG!y {mooth and fhining, and their ribs lefs promi- nent. 5. B. peflinatus, Willd. ‘* Panicle, {preading; {pike- lets, ovate, {mooth, inner valve of the corolla fringed, awn- lefs.”? Thunberg. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 6. B. lanceolatus, Willd. ‘ Panicle, ereé&, {preading 5 fpikelets. lanceolate, fmooth, a little compreffed; awns, at the time of flowering, {traight ; at the ripening of the feed, bent.” Roth. Root, annual. A native of dry fituations about the Cafpian fea. 7. B. alopecurus, Willd. ‘* Panicle, clofe, ereét; {pikelets round, awns divaricated.” Vahl. Spikelets, nearly feffile, {pirally twilted at the bottom. 8. B. /quarrofus, Linn. ‘ Papicle nodding; peduncles fimple ; {pikelets ovate, twelve-flowered ; florets imbricated, depret- fed; awns divaricated.” Dr. Smith. Root, annual. Stem, a foot high, fimple, {mooth, ftriated, leafy. Leaves and fheaths pubcfcent, with a-very fhort deflexed down. Pa- nicle with few flowers. Peduncles, fimple, compreffed, thick- ening upwards. Spielets, very large, ovate, {welling, po- lithed, clofely imbricated. Calyx unequal, nerved, awn- lefs. Corol. outer glume but little larger than the calyx, many-nerved, bipartire at the fummit: awns awl-fhaped, rugged, the length of the glumes; inner glume much lefs, ciliated with a few diftant briltles. Seed, elliptic, adhering to the corolla, villous at the fummit. Native of France, Germany, Siberia, &c. Its claim to be admitted into the Britith Flora refts entirely on the authority of Hudfon, who probably miftook for it fome variety of B. /ecalinus. g. B. japonicus, Willd, Panicle, {preading, branched 5 fpikelets oblong, fmooth; awns divaricated.”” Thunb. Root, annual. “A native of Japan. 10, B. bifidus, Willd. « Panicle, ere&t, branched; fpikelets ovate, with about three flowers; glumes bifid, fetaceous; awn divaricated.”” Thunb. Spikelets, {mall, {mooth. G/ume, terminated hy two awl-fhaped points of nearly its own length, dave jointed, reflexed. 11. B. purgans, Linn. * Panicle nod- ding, curled; leaves naked on both fides; fheaths hairy ; glumes villous.’”? Root, perennial. Siem, afoot and half high, ftrong. Leaves, the breadth of a reed, keeled, green. Sheaths with reverfed hairs. Spikelets, from eight to four- teen, flowered, oblong. Gathered in Canada by Kalm. 12, B. catharticus, Wilid, “ Panicle, {preading, ereéts nearly fimple; {p:kelete, broadly lanceolate, firiated, rough; awna fhort, ftraight.”? Vahl. QRout, perennial, foaly. Shoaths naked 3 B Spikelete, BROMUS. Spikelets, broader than thofe of the preceding, acute. A native of Chili, whofe inhabitants ufe a deccGtion of its root asa purgative. 13. B. brizoides, La Marck, Ill.. <¢ Pani- cle, ere&t; fpikelets, ovate, fmooth; glumes furnifhed with © broad menmibranaceous auricles.””? Native of Mont-Video. Commerfon. 14. B. inermis, Reich. ‘ Panicle, erc&; fpikelets, roundifh, awl-fhaped, naked, nearly awnlefs.’? Pollich. Root, perennial, extremely creeping. Stem, a foot and half high, ftriated, fmooth. Leaves broad, acuminate, Smooth, dark green; mid-rib whitifh, rough. Panicle, at firit clofe and upright, afterwards widely f{preading, and nodding a little at the top. Pedicells feveral together, lower ones very long, upper ones very fhort, often quite fimple. Spikelets containing from feven to ten florets. Glumes of the calye unequal, lanceolate, concave, blunt, fmooth, greemfh, with broad, filvery, thin, membrana- ceous edges; larger glume with ore green nerve, fmaller with three. Glumes of the corolla unequal; /arger witb feven green raifed freaks, awn fhort, frequently wanting ; fmaller, fiat, membranaceous, narrower, the edges rolled back, and furrounded by two green rough fireaks. Mar- tyn quoted from Krocker Flora Silefiaca. La Marck in his Illuft. has dire€ted the defcription in Encyc. Meth. to be expunged. Native of Germany and Swifferland. 15. B. afper, Linn. Sup. ramofus, Svit. Vez. Ed. 13. but not Mantifla; nemoralis, Hudfon; Airfutus, Curtis; dume- torum, La Marck. (Cortis fafe. 2. Pl. 8. Eng. Bot. 1172. Knap. 85.) ‘* Panicle drooping, branched ; florets lancco- late, almoft cylindrical, but flightly ribbed; leaves uniform, lower ones hairy.”” Dr. Smith. Roof anoval or biennial. Stem often fix feet high, ere&; {mooth in the upper part. Leaves {preading, broad, of a full green, ribbed, rough, clothed with long fpreading hairs, all nearly of eqna! breadth ; /heaths rough, with deflexed hairs. Spikelets li- near-oblong, pendulous, often brownifh, a little downy. Calyx-glumes very unequal. Forets about nice, roughifh on the keel; awn rough, fhorter than the glumes ; inner glume clofely fringed ; its membranaceous edges bent in. Anthers faffron-coloured. Moift woods and hedges in England, Germany, Swifferland. 16. B. ere@us, Hudfon, Ed. 1. pratenfis, La Marck. (Eng. Bot. 471. Knap. 86.) * Pas nicle, ereét, a little branched; florets lanceolate, roundifh, radical leaves narrow, ciliate, with white fcattered hairs.”? Dr. Smith. Root perennial, black, downy. Stem about three feet high, ere, itiff and ftraight, fimple, rarely pu- befcent. Leaves linear-lanceolate, ftriated, rough. Sheaths ftriated, f{mooth. Panicle nearly fimple. Spikelets linear- oblong, compreffed, ere&t, often of a purple hue, either {mooth or downy. Calyx-glumes lanceolate, acute, keeled ; the inner one larger, three-nerved. F/orets from five to nine, imbricated, lanceolate, a little compreffed, fomewhat angu- lar, keeled, flightly nerved, rough at the keel; awns about the length of the keel, barely dorfal, ftraight, rough: inner glume rather downy than pectinated. Approaching to feftuca, in which genus Dr. Smith would have been inclin- ed to place it, if it had not fo clofe an affinity with B. afer, an indubitable bromus.. Sandy or chalky fuil in England and France. 17. B. littorevs, Willd. *¢ Panicle nearly ere@, rough; fpikelets oblong, from four to fix-flowered, f{mooth, nearly awnlefs.”? Retz. Native of Sweden, Pomerania, Swifferland. 18. B. cifiatus, Linn. ‘ Panicle drooping ; leaves flightly hairy on both fides, as alfo the fheaths; glumes ciliated.” Root perennial. Stem flender. Spike- fets oblong, compreffed, eight-flowered. Calyx-glumes naked, Corol-glumes lanceolate, very hairy at their edges, but not on the back. Native of Canada. 18. B. flerilis, Linn. (Curtis Faf. 4. Pl. 9. Eng. Bot. 1030. Knap. 84.) Panicle drooping, moftly fimple; florets lanceolate, ribbed, furrowed, leaves downy.”? Dr. Smith. Roof annual, f{mall; fibres capillary. Svem a foot and half high, flender, ftriated, leafy to the top. Leaves {preading, flat, rather flaccid, narrow, fharpifh, ribbed, rough at the edges. Sheaths cylindric, ribbed, with foft deflexed hairs. Stipule oblong, torn. Panicle large, flznder, {preading, rough. Spikelets lanceolate, pendulous, brownifh green, afterwards dark purple, from fix to eight- flowered. Calyx glumes very unequal, the larger one angular, ribbed. Coral glumes with 7 or g nerves, the two near the edge the greatelt, furrowed, and a little downy between the ribs: the inner glume pe€tinated with diftant briftles. Styles growing laterally out of the germen. A mative of urculti- vated places in England and other parts of Europe. 19. B. arvenfis, Linn. (Eng. Bot.g20. Knap. 82.) ¢* Panicle fpread- ing ; peduncles branched; {pikel-ts lanceolate, about eight- flowered; florets elliptical, imbricated, deprefled, {moothith.’? Dr. Smith. Roof annual, fmail. Stem two or three feet high, leafy, {triated, fmooth. Leaves ftriated, a little downy on each fide, rough at the edges. Sheaths thickly clofed with foft hairs pointing downwards, Svipule very fhort. Panicle rather ere&, many-flowered; branches whorled, fpreading, rough. Spikelets acute ; at firft ere&t, afterwards drooping ; remark- able for a glofly appearance, fcarcely obfervable in other bro- mi. Calyx-glumes very unequal, acute, ribbed, membranaceous at the edge. Glumes of the corolla, the outer one rough at the keel, membranaceous at the edge; inner one imaller, with- out nerves, obtufe, pectinated at the edge. Seed viilous at the fummit. A native of England, and other parts of Kus rope, fometimes in corn fields, but as frequently in cultivated places. 20. B. /piculi tenuata, Knapp. (Pl. 81.) ‘* Pas nicle branched and drooping; branches fupporting_one or feveral {pikelets; {pikelets acutely lanceolate; florets {mooth.”? Allied to the preceding. Svem from one to three feet high. In its more luxuriant ftate, branches very long; upright when young, flexile and pendent in maturity. Spike- lets about eight-flowered. Calyx {mooth, four-ribbed, fer- rated onthe keel. Corolla {mooth, but with fome {mall {pines on the back. When the panicle firlt rifes from the fheath- ing of the upper leaf, the lower ftage of branches is gene- rally, though not univerfally, fupported by two caducous braétes, perhaps peculiar to this fpecies. Found by Mr. Knapp {paringly at Seaton, on the coaftof Durham. 21. B. geniculatus, Linn. Man. ‘ Panicle ere€&t; florets diftant; peduncles angular; ftem procumbent at the knot.”? Root annual, Stems {carcely four inches high, decumbent to the laft knot. Panicle {preading. Pedicells not at all attenuated, but compreffed, obfcurely three-fided, but with only two fharp angles, rough. Spikelets oblong, four-flowered. Florets rough, fcarcely downy. dawn ftraight, the length of the floret. Native of Portugal. 22. B. teéforum, Linn. « Panicle drooping; fpikelets linear.”? Root annual, or at moft bien- nial. Stems about a foot high, after flowering lying on the ground. eaves narrow, flat, pubefcent on the lower fide, white-villofe on the upper, ciliate towards the bafe; lower fheaths villous. Peduncles capillary. Spikelets about five-flow- ered. Awn ftraight, very flender, the length of the glume. Native-of the continent of Europe, on walls and dry hills. 23. B. giganteus, Linn. /rrigo/us, La Marck, Illuft. (Curtis Faf. 5. Pl. 7, Knap. 87.) ‘ Panicle drooping, branched, with about four florets in the fpikelet.”” Knap. Root perennial. Stem from four to feven feet high, fmooth and fhining, ftri- ated, leafy. Leaves rather ere€&t, acuminate, a foot long, broad, flat, ribbed, rough on both fides and at the edges ; fheaths long, ftriated, perfe&tly {mooth. Svipule fhort, clafp- ing the ftem, purplith. Panicle elongated, branched, many- flowered, the rachis and branches rough. Spikelets alternate, ovates BRO evate-lanceolate, {mooth, drooping. Calyx-glumes unequal, acuminate, fmooth, keeled; the inner one broad, or with three ribs. Outer glume of the coralla {mooth, ovate-lanceo- late, fearcely keeled, with five ribs at the fummit; acun terminal, two or three times longer than the floret, capil- lary, white, fometimes a little bent; inner glume the length and nearly the breadth of the other, its edge rough, but not ciliated. Dr. Smith, who on that account places it under the genus feftuca. Mr. Knapp fays the inner valve of the corolla is minutely fringed, and in his figure, the awn is de- cidedly dorfal, but neither of thefe particulars is confirmed by our fpecimens gathered in Yorkfhire. We have, never- thelefs, continued it among the bromi, induced rather by the general habit of the plant, than by any other confidera- tion. A native of woods and moift hedges in the temperate parts of Europe. 24. B. rudens, Linn. ‘* Panicle fafcicu- lated, fpikelets nearly feffile, villous, awns ereG@.”? The /co- parius of Linnzus is fufpe&ted by La Marck, and determined by Cavanilles, to be only a variety. Root annval. Stem from feven to ten inches high, a little bent at its lower knots. Leaver fmooth, fhort, and ftriated. Spikelets fometimes {mooth, fometimes green, often blood-red, but generally peler: awns fometimes uprizht, fometimes divaricated on the fame plant. Native of Spain. 25. B. rigens, Linn. Mant. “ Panicle fpiked; {pikelets nearly feflile, erect, downy, with about four florers.” Stems fix or feven inches high, leafy. Leaves ribbed, flightly hairy on the upper fur- face; fheaths covering the whole culm. Spikelets {cattered, tenacious. wns nearly ereé&, the length of the {pikelet. A native of Portugal, Vandel. 26. B. ¢rifforus, Linn. ‘+ Pa- nicle {preading, with about three flowers.”? Stem near two feet high. Leaves with fhort hairs. Panicle fix or feven inches long. Spikelets oblong, pointed. La Marck. Native of Germany and Denmark. 27. B. diandrus, Curtis; ma- dritenfis, Livnzus; muralis, Hudfon, 2d Ed. ciliatus, ft Ed. dilatatus, La Marck; (Curtis Flor. Lond. Fafc. 1. Pl. 9. Eng. Bot. 1006. Knap. 83.) ‘* Panicle upright, {preading, fearcely fubdivided; florets lanceolate, ribbed ; furrowed with only two ftamens.””? Dr, Smith. Root annual. Stems a foot and a half high, ere&, {tiff, flender, firiated, {mooth. Leaves often entirely fmooth; fheaths ribbed, a little keeled, generally {mooth, but fometimes with hairs pointing downward. Sripule thort. Panicle {carcely three inches long, ere&t. Spikelets linear-lanceolate, ere&, rough, often brownifh. Florets diandrous, flightly ribbed, the two a ribs ftanding peculiarly clofe to each other. Found y Dr. Withering in Portugal, and by fir Jofeph Banks at the foot of St. Vincent’s rock near Britlol. It is probably the fame plant with the B. rigidus of Willdenow, who does not appear to have known that the madritenfis of Linnzus is diandrou. 28. B. flipioides. Linn. Mant. ; incraffatus, La Marck. Encyc. Method. * Panicle erect, ovate-pyrami- dal, fpikelets fmooth, about four-flowered, pedicells flatten- ed, andenlarged above.”” La Marck. Rootannual. Ssem fix or feven inches high, flender. Leaves narrow, {mooth. Panicle upright, rather clofe, oblong. Spikelets {mooth, greenifh, or tinged with purple violet. JVorets three or four, each fupported by a pedicell, broader and flat towards the top. Awns ftraight and perfetly terminal. A native of Italy and Spain; defcribed by La Marck from a living plant. 29. B. ramofus, Linn. “ Stem much branched; f{pikelets feflile ; leaves involute-fubulate.”” Root perennial, creeping, hard, joisted, producing at different intervals tufts of leaves and tems. Stems a foot and a half high, lender, {mooth, leafy; throwing out toward the bottom fhort, alternate generally barren branches. Leaves fhort, glaucous, rolled up. Spikelets from three to five, from eight to ten-flowcred ; awas fhort, BRO terminal, refembling thofe of B. pinnatus. La Marck. Oa the fhores of the Levant and Portugal. 30. B. pinnatus, Linn. ‘ Spike fimple, ere&, two-rowed; fpikelets feflile, roundifh; awns fhorter than the glume: leaves almott naked.”” Dr. Smith. Root perennial, a little creeping. Stem, afoot and half, or two feet high, ereét, fimple, round, leafy, very fmooth, ftraight, and rigid, fcarcely tapering. Leaves fomewhat ere, lanceolate, acuminate, rather rigid, ftri- ated, nerved, rough, often naked, rarely hairy on the up- per furface. Sheaths {mooth and polifhed, (Dr. Smith,) generally hairy (La Marck and Koapp, with whom our own {pecimens agree. ) Stipule thort, obtufe, ciliated. Spikelets from fix toten, downy, often curved. Calyx glumes rather elliptical, fomewhat awned, many-nerved. £Vorets twelve or more, clofely imbricated, nerved, and hairy, chiefly towards the fummit; awn terminal, fhorter than the glume, fome- times very fhort, rough; inner glume ciliated with great briltles. Native of a dry, calcareous foil in many parts of Europ>. In England, not uncommon in Yorkthire, Ox- fordfhire, and Kent. 31. B. /j/vaticus, Pollich ; gracilis, Weigel and Willdenow. ‘Spike fimple, drooping, leaning one way; fpikelets feflile, roundifh; awn longer than the glume; leaves hairy.’ Root fibrous, tufted, perennial. Stems two feet high, round, leafy, tapering, very fender, and a little drooping in the upper part. Leaves fpreading, flat, pointed, a little rigid, rough, ribbed, more or lefs hairy, bright green. Sheaths ttraight, clofe, hairy. Stipu/e hort, blunt, torn. Spike fimple, drooping, zig-zag. Spikelets fix or feven, alternate, fef- file, cylindrical, Nnear-lanceolate, generally downy. Glumes of the calyx unequal, with fhortawns. Flores from fix to nine, imbricated, in the upper part ftrongly ribbed and rough; awn terminal, rough, generally much longer than the glume: inner glume fringed like the preceding; fuppofed by fome to be only a variety of B. pinnata; but they cannot be con- founded by any ene who is acquainted with their native ha- bits and places of growth. Frequentin copfes and thickets, efpecially in a gravelly foil. 32. B. criffatus, Linn. “ Spike- lets imbricated in two rows, {effile, depreffed.”” Root peren- nial. Stem about half a foot high, downy, leafy, lower fheaths villous. Spikelets about 20, downy, four-flowered. Awn terminal. La Marck. A native of Siberia and Tartary. 33- B. diflachyos, Linn.; platyflachyos, La Marck. Illuft. ** Spikelets three or four, erect, comprefied, rigid, feffile; glumes ciliated.” Root annual. Stem from fix to ten inches high, leafy, a little bent atthe knots. Leaves rather fhort, foft, and ciliated at their edges. Spikelets large, alternate, from two to five. Fiorets eight or nine. was long, ftraighr, terminal; the external glume ciliated. La Marck, A na- tive of the fouthern provinces of France. The lat fix {pecies have the terminal awn of feftuca. Hudfon and Knapp have accordingly referred the pinnatus, and fylvaticus to that genus, in their arrangement of Britifh graffes; but Dr. Smith, partly on account of their general habit, but chiefly of their ciliated interior coroll glume, has continued them among the bromi. ‘Ihe laft five have the inflorefecnce of triticum. Bromus glomeralus, Scopoli. See Dacry is. Baomus capillaris. Sec Cynosuaus. Bromus, in Entomology, a {pecies of Spuinx (Zygaena), defcribed by Fabricius as a native of Surinam. Its ferrugi- nous, with hyaline wings, and the margin entirely black. BROMYARD, in Geography, is a market town of Heres fordfhire, England, fitnated in a valley, in a part of the county which abounds with orchards. It is irregularly built, and badly paved. Many of the houfes are {mall timber ftruétures, and the market houfe is in a very fhattered flate. The church, an ancicnt edifice, 3 now undergoing confider- gB2 able RRO able repairs, Bromyard contains 242 houfes, and 983 inha- bitants. It hasa {mall weekly market on Tuefdays, and four anoval fairs. It is 125 miles W. from London. BRON, a town in France, in the department of the Eure and Loire, and chief p'ace of acanton, in the diftri& of Chateaudun, 23 leagues N.W. of Chateaudun; the place contains 1918, and the canton 10,6118 iuhabitants ; the territory includes 267 kiliometres, and 121 communes. BRONCHANT, in Heraldry, a termufed by the French heralds to denote the fituation of any beait, when placed on afield ftrewed with fleur-de-lis. BRONCHIA, or Broncatz, in Anatomy, the two pri- mary divifions of the trachea or wind-pipe, which convey the air to the lungs. See Lunes. BRONCHIAL Arteries arife from the defcending aorta, and accompany the bronchiz into the lungs. See the defcrip- tion of the Arrerigs and Lunes. Broncutat glands, abforbent glands fituated at the root of the lungs, Sve the defcription of the AzsorBenT vef[ls and Jungs. Broncurat eins are thofe which accompany the bron- chial arteries. See the defeription of the Veins and Lunas. BRONCHOCELE, in Surgery, an appellation ufually gi- ven to a {welling {cated’on the fore-part of the throat, and well known in England by the popular name of a Derby/bire neck, or monttrous craw. The word bronchocele is derived from poyxos, the wind-pipe, and xndn, a tumour. This dif- eafe was familar to fome of the ancients, and is defcribed by Celfus (De Re Medica, lib. vit. cap. 13.), although his ac- count of its nature and treatment is very imperfe@t. The moft common fituation of this fwelling is the fides of the thyroid gland, and in a great many cafes it feems to con- filt of a general enlargement of that organ; but not un- frequently the gland becomes fub-divided into various diftin@ fiefhy portions, conneéted clofely to each other by cellular membranes. The form and contents of this tumour will be found very different in different fubjeAs; for the moft part, however, it it is roundifh during the firft years of its exiftence, and mode- rately compreflible, endowed with little fenfibility, highly vafcular in its texture, not readily going into fuppuration, and leaving the external fkin of its natural colour. Some authors have faid, that the bronchocele confiits of a honey- like matter; others, that it contains little portions of bone and hair; others, that !t is inflated by air; and fome, that it is diftended by a watery, ferous, or puriform fluid, &c. Probably moft of thefe opinions may be occafionally true; but our own experience inclines us to believe, that in the greater number of cafes the {welling is truly farcomatous, or Hlefhy. This difeafe fhould be diftinguifhed from aneurifm of the carotid or thyroid artery ; from fcrofulous enlargements of the lymphatie glands; and from an extenfion of the mem- brane lining the trachea, which fometimes forms a real hernia, by protruding between its anoniar cartilages. See ANEu- RISM, ScroFuLA and Hernta. Although bronchocele is found in many countries, it ex- ifts with peculiar frequency at the bottom of mountains, where much wet and heat prevail; from which circumitance, it has been fvppofed by fome people to be chiefly confined to the fub-alpine regions. ‘ Le goitre eft une tumeur indo- lent de la glende thyr ide, qui {urvient principalement aux habitans des vallées placées au pted des Alpes fecondaires ; et que je rommées, pour cette raifon, /ub-/b-alpines.” Traité du Goitre et du Crétinifme par F. E. Foderé, Paris, An. viii. Who has not heard of the {welled throat of the Alps? an ancient poct inquires. BRO “ Qnis tumidum guttur miratur in Alpibus ?” The French name, goitre, or gouétre, is evidently a core ruption of the Latin word guétur, the throat; and although M. Louis has maintained, that the bronchocele and the go}- tre ousht not to he miftaken for each other; thefe two names are now fo univerfally applied to a fimilar affeCtion, that it would be vain to attempt any correétion of the fuppofed error. .Vide Encyclopedic, Art. Go#fre, compofed by Ms. Louis. In another place he fays again, ‘* I ne faut pas con- fondre, comme on fait affez communement, la dronchoccke avec une autre tumeur du cou qu’on nomme goitre.”” Art. Bronchocele, ibid. He would confine the term broachocele toan hernia of the wind-pipe, which, in his opinion, may be cured by compreffing the tumour with a fuitable bandage and cufhion, < Upon the diforder which conftitutes the fubje€t of the prefent article, we know not any author who has written fo amply and experimentally as M. Foderé, who had many op- portunities of obferving the bronchocele in all its ftages,. where it prevailed asan endemic difeafe. This affetion more frequently attacks females than males,. children than adults, and relaxed or delicate conttitutions- than thofe which are rigid and vigorous; but it will fometimes aff-& perfo:s of apparently good conttitutions, and of either fex, on their going to relide in the low vallies beneath the Alps, the Pyrenécs, the Apennines, &c. where it is ende- mial and hereditary. Scrofula and rickets feem to make the greate{t ravages amonz people who are liable to-bronchocele: but M. Foderé is pofitive that the latter difeafe, neverthelefs, differs materially from the two former; and that the goitre is purely a local complaint of the neck, unattended with the lea(t danger, except it occafion violent mechanical preffure by the enormous bulk of the fwelling. Wide chap. v. § 19, to 24. Traité du Goitre et du Cretinifme. The remote phyfical caufes which have been affigned for this difeafe, are various and unfatisfa¢tory : viz. the drinking of hard, cold, or fnow water; the ufe of alimentary fubftances not fufficiently nutritious; the repulfion of fome cutaneous diforder ; the abufe of vinous or {pirituous liquors, &c. The- ories, which have been founded on any of thefe fuppofled caufes, are too hypothetical, and are contradicted by nume- rous faéts; befides which, the bronchocele will be found to prevail where none of thefe caufes exiftin a ftriking degree, as feveral writers have fufficiently proved. The difeafe, how- ever, is known to predominate moft in countries affected by great humidity of the atmofphere, joined with exceflive heat; it augments in the {pring-time, and diminifhes in the autumn; it is lefs prevalent in a cold and dry winter, than during a feafon of dampnefs and moderate warmth ; it is even faid to be influenced in its progrefs, wherever it is endemial, in ex- a& proportion to the degree of moilture indicated by the hygrometer. Thefe facts are eftablifhed by the obfervation of Meffrs. Foderé and Villars, after numerous and varied ex- periments. : We cannot, moreover, acquiefce in the explanation which has been offered re{peéting the proximate caufe of this dif- eafe, or the phenomena of which it confifts. The thyroid gland, fome writers tell us, contains a vifcid humour, which continually lubricates the larynx and trachea by its exudation; -and itis the ftagnation or detention of this mucus in the cap- fules of the gland, fay they, which forms the diforder in quef- tion. Bat, we afk, have the ufes of the thyroid gland been afcertained? Hasits minute {truéture been developed? Has there been any muciferous duéts or outlets detected? Is it really afecreting organ? Further, we are told, that the humid air is imbibed by the cellular texture of this gland ; that it thereby becomes expanded, or tumefied; that its fc- 6 wi cretory BRONCHOCELE. cretory dus are thus obftruSted; and that bronchocele con- fits altogether in this laxity or atonic ftate of the organ. But, furely, all this is hypothetical ; for, even fuppofing the imbibition of moilt air to take place (which, however, re- Mains to be proved), would it not be received into the ab- forbent veffels, and tranfmitted to the thoracic du&? And, why fhould it be imagined, that the thyroid gland imbibes the moift atmofpherical air, more than other parts of the body which are equally expofed ? Upon the whole, we fee no reafon for adopting the above opinion, however refpetably it has been fupported ; and we do not feel competent to offer ary explanation ourfelves of the proximate caufe of this dfeafe. Perhaps fome light will be thrown on the inquiry when we are better informed as to the economy and natural ufe of the thyroid gland; but, ‘for the prefent, we are without data, or fuitable analogies, to afford a legitimate conciufion. We proceed, therefore, to the means which have been employed for the prevention and cure of this complaint; a fubje€& on which much has been faid and written, although not to the entire fatis{dc- tion of praétitioners or patients in general. As to preventive meafures, they muft chiefly confit of fuch as tead to meliorate the foil and air of thofe places wherein the bronchocele is endemial. If it be a fact that marfhy Jands, an humid atmofphere, deep and woody vales, fur- rounded by lofty hills which intercept the falubrious breeze, are among the phyfical caufes of this difeafe, the prevention muft partly depend upon the removal or avoidance of fuch caufes; and this fhould be efpecially attended to by perfons who are naturally of a delicate or (oft fibre, and are there- fore predifpofed to debilitating complaints. The curative means are either medical or furgical. The internal remedies, which, have acquired the greateit reputa- tion, are burnt fponge, foap, fulphurated kali, prepared nitron, and artificial foda-water. It has been adviled to -exhibit a dofe of calomel and neutral falts once a week, daring the ufe of the other medicines; likewife to keep the neck warm; to refide in a dry pure atmofphere; and to fwallow the above-named remedies very flowly, which is par- ticularly infiited on if the patient take thefe medicines in a folid form. Authors have alfo alleged, that benetit is fome- times derived from the external application of mercurial oint- ment, biiftering plafter, foap liniment, camphorated oi), dry fri@ions, moderate compreffion, and ele&rical {parks. But of all thefe means, the burnt fponge made isto lozenges, has received the higheft encomiums. For our own part, we have been difappointed in our expeations from thefe lo- zenges ; although many practitioners confider them as almoft infallible, if properly adminiftered and perfevered in. The following is the formula recommended by Mr. Ring : Take of Burnt fponge, two ounces ; Powdered gum Arabic, two dreams ; Powdered cinnamon, half a dram ; Simple fyrup, enough to form the whole into a mafs, which is to be divided into forty-eight troches. Care muft be taken that no more {yrup be ufed than is abfo- lutely neceffary to make the dry ingredients properly cohere ; for which reafon, it muft be added flowly, and the mafs muft - be well beaten. he lozenges are to be dried before a fire, ‘ona plate which has been flightly oiled, to prevent them from ticking ; and they maft be kept in a bottle or gallipot, tied over with a bladder. One of thefe tablets is to be exhibited three times a day, for a confilerable time. Some practitionere, indeed, have given fo much as fix or eight drams of the burnt {ponge daily, without any inconvenience; and, too often, witheut any benefit totheir patients, It would be deferying the at- tention of furgeons, to afcertain, if poffible, the caufe of this diveifi.y in their feccefs ; and whetherthe nature of the afl, Gion, in the cafes faid to have been cured by the ufe of the {ponge, does not eflentially differ from thofe in which this remedy has been taken largely to no good purpofe. Dr. Herrenfchward, of Berne, thinking that the burnt fponge has atendency to injure the ftomach, and produce a leucorrheea, advifes that it fhould not be calcined, but em. ployed in decoétion ; and this, he fays, is equally efficacious. Whereas, M. Foderé prefers it to be only half-burnt, and mixed with honey and canelia alba; of which the bulk of a large nut is to be taken three times a day, for feveral weeks. This laft author tells us, he has feen an extremely large {welling of the neck difperfed by the daily ufe of thirty grains of the fulphate of potafh, diffolved in a pint of water : and he confiders the cure as more ecfi y effeled, by requiring the patient to take a cathartic every week, during the whole time of the medicinal courfe; by keeping the neck very warmly covered; by twallowing the burnt fponge, &c. infen- fibly, or holding it a confiderable while in the mouth ; by beginning the remedy at the decline of the moon; and by changing the air to a dry or open fituation, which, indeed, he regards as indifpenfably nec: flary. The fuccefs will alfo much depend on: the patient’s being young, and otherwife healthy; but if the fwelling be of a {cirrhous or indurated nature, there is very little hope of relief, except by a manual operation, fuch as Cornelius Cel- fus long ago recommended. However, the extirpation of the tumour can hardly be undertaken, unlefs it be detached, encyfted, and feated at the fore part of the neck. The {welling being fituated in the vicinity of fo many im- portant organs, will deter a furgeen from haltily propofing Its entire excifion ; befides, there are cafes related, in which the mere opening of the cylt has effeGted a cure; and, in thefe cafes, the contents were either evacuated at once, or gradually leffened by fuppuration. When there is an evident flu€tuation of matter, a feton drawn through the tumour might perhaps be advantageous; or, as Celfus and others have fuggefted, the application of a caultic might be par- tially ufeful: but, if the life of a patient be not endangered by this difeafe, it would be prudent to avoid fuch irritating means. Although thé ulcer which remains after the ufe of a caultic will fometimes be exceedingly diftrefling and diffi- cult to heal, we are not of opinion, with Mr. Benjamin Bell, that it ever ‘* degenerates into a cancer.”’ We ought not to conclude this article without alluding to a celebrated remedy prepared and fold at Coventry, for the cure of bronchoccle. It is generally fuppofed to be lefs efficacious than burnt fponge alone, and to confilt of equal parts of fponge, cork, and pumice ftone, calcined ; which is formed into a bolus, with fugar or fyrup, to be laid under the tongue every night. Mr. Proffer, who publithed an account of the bronchocele and its treatment in 177%, recommends the following powders, in preference to the Coventry medic ne : k Cinnab. Antimon. opt. levig. 9j. Milleped, pp. & pulv. Spong. calcin. 4a gr. xv. m.f. pulvis. One of thefe isto be taken an hour or two before breake faft, for two or three weeks ; and after the interval of about a fortnight, they are to be again renewed ; and three of the following pills are to be taken at bed-time, during the fecond courfe of the powders. RK Pil. Mercurial ph. nov. 3 . F. Pil. N° 48. equales. The dofe is to be adjufted to the age and conftitution of the patievt, who fhould be prepared for this courfe by two or BRO or three previous purges, and avoid taking cold. Tf thefe means be ufed for about a month or fix weeks, without any external application, Mr. Proffer has no doubt of fuccefs. However, the patient fhould be under twenty-five years of age. At this age the cure is uncertain; but at a more ad- vanced period of life it is much more improbable, and feldom or ever fucceeds. Mr. Gooch, in his ** Medical Obferva- tions,” mentions an agucous BRONCHOCELE; and fo does Mr. ‘Davies in the Med. and Phyf. Journal, N° 71, Jan. 1805. BRONCHORST, Peter, in Biography, a painter of perfpeétive and hiftory, was born in 1588 at Delft, where he learned the art of painting. His fubje&ts were views of an- cient and modern churches, which he executed with great fuccefs. In the council chamber at Delft are his ‘* Judg- ment of Solomen,’’ and ‘* Chrift driving the money-changers out of the Temple;’”’ deferibed as performances in which the archite@ture is elegant, and the figures carefully finthhed. He died in 1661. Pilkington. Broncuorst, Joun-Van,a painter of hiftory and land- fcape, was born at Utrecht in 1603; and as he difcover- ed an extraordinary genius before he was 11 years of age, he was placed under the direGtion of John Verburg. He was afterwards for fome time affiftant to Peter Mattys, a painter on glafs, at Brabant. After his return to his own country, he entered the {chool of Cornelius Poelemburg, and being charmed with his tafte of defign, pencilling, and co- lour, imitated his ftyle with great fuccefs. Till his 36th year he painted on glafs; but after that time in oil, after the manner of Poelemburg, and obtained a lafting reputation. In the choir of the new church at Amfterdam, there are three of his paintings on glafs, which are exhibited as curiofities; and in the fame church, on the folding doors of the organ,are three hiftorical paintingsin oil, *¢ The ‘Triumph of David over Goliah ;?’ ‘* The anointing of Saul;” and « The attempt of Saul to kill David while he was playing on the harp,”? which are excellent performances. He alfo amufed himfelf with the point; and fome landfcapes from Poelemburg, and other fobje€ts from his own compofition, are attributed to him. Pilkington and Strutt. Broncuorst, Peter, was born at Leyden in 1648, and, from an ob{cure original, arrived, by the power of his own genius and inceffant application, without any maiter, at diftinguifhed excellence as a painter in water-colours. His fubjeéts were birds and animals of all kinds, which he copied after nature with uncommon hie, exattnefs, and expreflion. He died in 1723. Pilkington. Broncnorst, or Bronworst, in Geagraphy, a town of the United Dutch States, in the county of Zutphen ; 5 miles N of Docfburg. BRONCHOTOMY, in Surgery, is the operation of cutting into the trachea or wind-pipe ; from Spoyxo: and tep- It has been alfo named Larnyncoromy, and TRacHe- otomy; although there can be no reafon whatever for emp oying the latter terms in preference to the ufual appella- tion. Mr. Benjamin Bell, however, has faid, that as bron- cho'omy ‘coniilts in an opening made into the trachea, and not into the bronchiz, it ought more properly to be named tracheotomy :? but to fuch hypercritici{ms, we can only re- ply, in the language of M. Petit-Radel: <‘* Quelques nomenciateurs, peu inftruits dans la langue Greeque, et ignorant que les ancients défignoient le trachée fou le nom de Bpoyxos. qu’ils ont confondu avec Bpoyxie, qui font les an- neaux des fubdivifions de ce canal, ont micux aimé déligner vo. cette operation fous le nom de trachéotomié ow laryngotomie 3 ~ mais fes dénominations n’ont pu généralement prevaloir.”’ Encyclop. Méthod. Art. Bronchotomie. The operation of dronchotomy may be practifed, with BRO greater or lefs probability of fuccefs, in cafes where a patient 1s in danger of fuffocation, from an obftacle in the trachea, or a contrition of the glottis. There may be likewife a neceffity for our reforting to this operation, where the trachea is comprefled by a tumour externally, or where the tonfils and parts adjacent become fo enlarged as to impede refpiras tion confiderably. In fhort, fhould any mechanical caufe be fuppofed to exift, of threatening fuffocation and impend- ing death, the furgeon’s duty will be too plain and imperious to admit of hefitation: an incifion muft be made into the trachea without a moment’s delay, unlefs fome other obvious remedy can, be fuggelted for the patient’s reftoration. The cafes to which we here allude are fo various, that they can- not be all enumerated ; but no well inftruéted praCtitioner will fuffer any perfon to lofe his life for want of ao opera- tion fo eafily performed, fo little attended with bad confe- quences in itfelf, and fo certainly efficacious in a multitude of examples which frequently occur. Perhaps few, if any chirurgical means can be propofed for the relief of a patient in extreme danger, fo revolting to mankind, as this of bronchotomy. A general and long eftablifhed prejudice prevails againtt it, arfing from an erro- neous opinion, that ** wounds of the wind-pipe are always mortal.”? Aithough this opision is refuted by almoft daily obfervation, and numbers of people have recovered after cutting their own throats (i.e. dividing their trachea) in the moft horrid manner ; yet ftill, the popular notion exifts, and mult be encountered. It is therefore advifeable, prior to the performance of this operation, that all the reafons which influence the furgeon’s decilion, fhould be ftated fairly, and the probable or certain confequences of a dif- ferent procedure be judicioufly reprefented to the patient or the bye-ltanders, to prevent any groundlefs blame in the event of ill-fuccefs. As the canfe of interrupted refpiration may be different, on different occafions, fo muft there be a variety in the man- ner of performing this operation, according to the exiting circumitances : in fome cafes, a fimple incifion into the wind- pipe, about half an inch below the crycoid cartilage, will efleA the relief we with for; but, in other cafes, the wound mult either be kept open by a canula; or a portion of one or two of the cartilaginous rings muft be cut out, in order that the patient may continue to breathe with facility throuzh the artificial orifice. Sometimes, again, it may be requifite to make a fecond opening, with a view to affilt us in the extraction of a foreign fubftance ; and when that ob- je& fhall have been attained, probably there will be no fur- ther neceffity for an artificial air-hole remaining open in the trachea, fo that the external as well as the internal wound may be healed with all convenient {peed. When it is required that the patient fhould breathe for fome time through the wound, it would, we think, be ge- nerally preferable to cut out @ portion of the cartilage, (which has been often done with fafety,) rather than to harafs the patient by keeping a metallic canula in the wound, between the divided cartilages. An inceflant coughing and fenfe of uneafinefs will be hkely to enfue from the prefence of a ca- nula, which might, therefore, be a fource of greater mifchief than could poffibly arife from the removal of a {mall piece of cartilage. Every perfon knows what diftrefling confe- quences immediately follow on the admiffion of only a crumb of bread into the glottis: and how aggravated mutt the fen- fations of a man be, who has a filver tube remaining in his larynx or trachea for feveral days, efpecially if it happen to touch the oppofite parietes! Should an extraneous body be lodged in the trachea, itis not always capable of being remov- ed without making an incifion acrofs three or four of the carti- 4 laginous BRO laginous rings, (i.e. in the direion of the wind pipe itfelf,) exa@tly oppofite, or a little below the foreign fubftazce. Several kinds of in{traments have been propofed for exe- cutirg this fimple operation; fuch as concealed lancets, trocars and canulz, guarded {calpels, &c. But, we cannot conceive what hazard or difficulty fhould occur to a fur- geon who is at all ufed to handle a common difleGing knife, in making a longitudinal incifion through the fore-part of the neck and trachea. We are very much inclined to fim- plify all chirurgical operations and inftruments ; rather than to make a parade, which fometimes tends to magnify real difficulties, or to create imaginary ones in the eyes of a young practitioner. Befides, the operation of which we are now treating is among the number of thofe which ufually call for prompt and definitive meaferes; wherein the fur- gon has no opportunity, (except in large cities,) to fearch for curious initruments, and, therefore, fhould feel confi- dent, that his bufinefs may be well performed without them. The apparatus effentially neceffary, on this and many other important occafions, will, doubtlefs, be in the pofftffion of every furgeon, or may be eafily obtained when called for. The feliowing has been recommended as one of the beft modes of performing the operation of bronchotomy : The patient is placed upon a low ftool, or in that pofture in which he finds it moft eafy to breathe; his head is held upright, but by no means bent backwards, and fecured by an affiftant. Oppofite the third or fourth cartilaginous ring of the trachea, the fkin is now drawn up into a high crolfs fold; and it is cut through exaGly at the middle of the trachea, to fuch a depth, that when the fold is let go, the incifion extends itfelf longitudinally from the firft cartilagin- ous ring down to near the upper extremity of the fternum. By making the incifion of a proper length, the operation will be greatly facilitated, as its edges can then be drawn farther from each other. As foon as the hemorrhage has been entirely ftopped, that art of the trachea, where the incifion is finally to be made, mutt be laid bare, by difleGting away the cellular fubftance and mufcular fibres fituated about the membranous interftice between the third and fourth ring, and by either entirely removing them or prefling them fideways. ‘The operator then places the nail of the fore-finger of his left hand upon this interftice ; and applying the thumb and middle finger of the fame hand to both fides of the trachea, he pufhes the point of his inftrument, which mutt previoufly be dipped'in fome freth oil of almonds, along the nail of his fore-finger, through the above-mentioned membranous interftice, be- tween the third and fourth cartilaginous ring, into the tra- chea. He then applies the fore-finger of his left hand to one or the other io lie cartilagincus rings, clofe to the tube or canula, in order to hold it back whillt he withdraws the blade of his inftrument. If we make ule of Richter’s curved inftrument, we muft move the hand upwards in pufhing it in, in order that we may turn the point of the inftrument downwards, and prevent its touching the back part of the trachea. But in order that we may prevent the tube from flipping out of the wound, and alfo to prevent its moving to and fro in the trachea, feveral doffils are introduced above aod be- low into the wound, fo as to keep the lip: afunder. Tothe rings, on both fides of the external opening of the tube, two narrow flips of linen are applied, which prefs the rings down upon the trachea; and the whole is covered and fecured with adhefive plater. And that none of the fluids which are collected in the wound may make their way into the canula and wind-pipe, the patient mufk lie or fit inclined on one fide, and the wound muft, from time to time, be wiped BRO dry with a fponge. When the tube fills with mucus, it mutt be cleaned with a {mall feather; or two fuch tubes may be employed, one enclofing the other, and either of them removed, when neceflury, for the purpofe of clearing it of mucus. As animprovement upon theinftrumentsheretoforeemploy- ed, Mr. Benjamin Bell propofes one which has nearly the form of a flat itraight trocar, and ought never to be lefs than two inches in length. Before it is pufhed between the two car- tilages, it mutt firit be thruft through feveral linen compreffes, which not only ferve to cover the pledgit of ointment in- tended to prote&t the wound, but alfo produces the advan- tage that (by removing one or more of the comprefles, which may be done by cutting them open at the fides with a pair of fciffars,) we are able to increale the length of the tube at pleafure. In order to fecure the tube in the fituation where It is left after the operation, he paffes it through an opens ing in a plate of polifhed fteel, which is curved fo as to fit to the fhape of the fore-part of the neck, and faftened be- hind with ftraps and a buckle. To prevent any foreign fub» ftance from getting through the orifice of the canula into the trachea, it may be covered with a piece of fine gauze, which fhould previoufly be wetted, that the dult may not penetrate through it, but flick to the outfide. When the caufe which gave rife to the operation has been removed, and the paticnt can again breathe through his mouth, the tube is withdrawn, and the orifice healed up. like any other wound of the wind-pipe; in doing which great caution fhould be ufed, left any thing fhould get into the trachea, which might produce dangerous confequences, Meffrs. Chopart and Default propofe, that the incifion into the trachea fhould be made between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages, and through the ligamentum crio-thyroi-.- deum; which, however, we cannot recommend, on account: of the far greater fenfibility and irritability of the larynx, whereby the mott violent fymptoms, threatening immediate fulfocation, might be excited. When this operation becomes neceffary on account of any foreign fubltance lodging in the trachea, it may be per- formed in the following manner, The integuments are: firft divided as above deferibed ; and a longitudinal ineifion is. made at the anterior part of the trachea, from cbove, downwards, through three or more of the cartilaginous. rings. An affiltant then draws afunder the fides of the wounded trachea with a blunt hook, upon which the ope- rator introduces a crooked forceps, with which, he carefully feeks for, and extraéts the foreign body. In this cafe, it is alfo indifpenfably neceffary, that the hemorrhage from the external wound fhould be entirely {topped before any incifion is made into the trachea, as otherwife a very violent cough would be excited. If an extraneous fubftance fheuld ftick in the larynx, it might perhaps be dangerous, (as fome have advifed) to cot the thyroid cartilage longitudinally, fince this operation. would excite very violent coughing ; and might Iikewife be fuperfuous, if it were poffible to lay hold of the foreign fubflance with a crooked forceps, introduecd through an incifion made at the ufual place, below the cricoid cartilage. BRONCHUS, in Anatomy, properly denotes the lower part of the a/pera arteria, dividing into bronchie, or branches. In which fenfe bronchus ftands contradiftinguifhed from la- rynx. The name bronchus is alfo extended to the whole afpera: arteria, or trachea. Broncuus alfo denotes a perfon afli€ted with a bron- chocele, or tumour of the throat, called by Ulpina guttu- rofuuse a BRONe BRO BRGNCGLI, Tuomas,in Biography, a Neapolitan phye ficien, who publifhed in 1622, gto. * De popular horribili et peftilenti Gutturiset annesarum, Partium Aff-Aicne, Neapolin et totum fere Regnum vexante, Coniiltum.’”? This is an early account of the /carlatina anginofa, which feems not to have made its appearance in this country until about the middle of the laft century, when Dr. J -ho Fotherg Il publithed an zgecurate account of the difeafe, with the mcthod he hed found molt fuccefsful in treating it. He is.very earnelt in advifing his brethren to be careful in diflisguifhing it from the common quinfy, as it requires a mode of treatment very oppofite to that difezfe. The fcarlalina anginofa has of late years become one of the molt frequent, as weil as molt in- f.€tious and dangerous epidemics that vifit this country. BRONE, in Geography, a river of Swiffcrland, in the Valais, which joins the Rhone near Sion. BRONGUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Meefia, which, according to Herodotus, diicharged itfelf into the Ifter. BRONI, or Bronno,in Geozrap/y, a town of Italy, in the Milanefe, where the French were deteated by the Imperialilts in 1703; 10 miles S.W. of Pavia. N. lat. 41° 50!. E. long. 10° of. BRONITZA, a village of Roffia, feated on the Matta, within 20 miles of the Novogorod. In this village an ex- cellent caviare is prepared of the roe extraGted from large quantities of Ath caught in the Malta; At the diftance of about 2 miles is an infulated well of fand and clay, of a cir- cular form, the lower parts of which are thickly ttrewed with detached pieces of red and grey granite. This emi- nence was remarkable in the times of idolatry for an oracular temple, the fite of whichis now occupied by a brick white- wathed church. BRONNIKGO, a town of Siberia, on the Irkutfch, <8 miles N. of Tobolfk. ’ BRONTES, in L£ntomology, a {pecies of Paritrio (Pied. Urb.) of afmall fize, that inbakits Africa. ‘The wings are fubcaudated, above and beneath fufcous, with a band on the firft pair, and margin of the fecond {nowy white. Fabricius. Obf. In Spec. Inf: of that writer, it is defcribed under the fpecific name of Annus. Bronres, is alfo the name of Paririo Paniscus, in fome German writers. BRONTEUM, in Antiquity, that part of the theatre un- derneath its floor, wherein brazen veflels, full of ftones and other materials, to imitate the noife of thunder, were kept. Potter. Arch. Gree. lib. ii. cap. 8. BRONTI, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Sicily, 28 miles W. of Taormina. BRONTIA, among Waturali/s, a kind of figured ftones, commonly hemifpherical, and divided by five pointed zones. The word is formed from (yovrn, thunder ; alluding to the popular tradition that thofe ftones fall in thunder fhowers : whence they are alfo denominated thunder-ftones, fometimes polar ftones, fairy-ftories, and alfo ombrie, by naturalifts. Some take the Grontie for the petrified fhells of the echinus JSpatagus, or brifcus, of Ariftotle. Dr. Woodward rather {uppofes them to have been formed, and received their fhape, in the fhell of the echinus /patagus ; on which footing they are alfo ranked in the number of EcuiniTES. Dr. Plott contefts both. Bronti are fometimes alfo ufed in England for'a kind of figured ftones, fhaped like arrow-heads, lefs properly called sELEMNITES, and popularly ‘hunder-bolts. Dr. Woodward takes not thefe for natural ftones, but fuppofes them to have been fafhioned thus by art, to ferve .ae weapons before the invention of iron. BRO Some alfo give the denomination Jrontia to the Bataas CHITEs 2nd CHELONITES. BRONTOLOGY, books containing the dodtrine of thunder, and of the prefages drawn therefrom. Sce Tuun- DER. BRONZE, Browzo, Jtalian, a mixed metal for calling ftatucs and other ornaments; Vafari‘ fays, the Egyptians mixed two-thirds of brafs and one of copper. Pliny 1. 34. c. ro. fays, one-tenth of lead, and one-twentieth of filver fhould be added tothe brafs, and the mixture of thefe three, he calls Grecian ; among the moderns two-thirds of copper and one of brafs are found to be a good mixture. The an- cients formed moft inftruments of brafs, which the moderns make of iren and fteel; Homer defcribes moft of the arms in his poems, offenfive and defenfive, as brozen; he calls the Greeks by the genaral epithet of brafs-coated ; and feidom mentions fteel; moft of the arms and inftruments found in Herculaneum, Pompeia, Stabea, &c. were of brafs or bronze, whether agricultural, mechanical, mathematical, archite@ural, or culinary ; the remains of very few iron in- ftruments having been difcovered, and a complete fet of furgical inftruments of bronze found in Pompeia, fhew the great prevalence of this metal among the ancients. Bronze, cafling, 1s performed in the following manner : the figure or pattern to be caft in bronze, muff havea mould made on it in a mixture of plafter of Paris and brick-duft, not more than one thirdof the former, andtwo-thirds of the latter; the mould fhould be fufficiently thick for ftrergth, accord- ing to its fize; in its joints ltcle channels fhould be cut from different parts of the internal hollow tending upwards, to give vent to the alr, which the metal will force out, as it runs into the mould. When the mould is made, athin layer of clay fhould he neatly and fmoothly {pread over the infide, the fame thicknefs the bronze is intended to be; then the mould muft be clofed, and the hollow within the layer of clay filled with two thirds of brick-dult, and one-third of platter mixed with water; this will make the core; and if the figure to be caft fhould be large, before the platter and brick-duft are poured into the mould which is to form the core, ftrong bars of tron forming a fkeleton of fupport for the metal figure, when caft, muft be laid in the mould, and round this the core mult be caft; when this is done, the mou'd muft be opened again, and the layer of claytaken out; the mould and core muft then be thoroughly dried and even burned with charcoal or lighted ftraw, for if the leaft par- ticle of wet or damp remains, the caft will be blown to pieces, and the perlons engaged in the work will moft likely be maimed or killed by the difperfion and force of the hot metal. After they are perfe@ly dried, the core fhould he laid in the mould agar, and fupported in its place by fhort bars of bronze, which run through the mould into the core; the mould may now be clofed and bound round with bars of iron ftrong in proportion to the fize of the work; the mould fhould then be laid in a fituation for cafting, and well fup- ported with dry materials, as fand, ftones, &c.: great care muft be taken that thefe alfo are d-y, to avoid fatal confe- quences. A channel muft be continued from the refervoir of metal to the mouth of the mould, with a fuffictent flant or inclination for the liquid bronze to run eafily ; it is a necef- fary caution that no perfon fhould engage in bronze.cafting without the affiltance of experienced workmen, on account of the danger attending it. Many particulars relating to this article may be found in Pliny’s Natural Hiftory; in the Life of Benvenuto Cellini, and Vafari’s Lives, in the chap- ter upon bronze-cafting. ‘The form of the furnace for this purpofe, as well as the manner of running the metal, are the fame as employed in cafting bells. Bronzr¥, BRO Bronze, in Painting, denotes a colour prepared by the colourmen of Paris, in imitation of bronze. ‘There are two forts of it, the red and the yellow, or golden: the latter, the yellow, is made folely of the finelt and brighteft copper- duft rhat can be had; and in the former there is only added a {mall quaotity of red ochre, well pulverifed. They are both applied with varnifh, and, to prevent its turning greenifh, the work is dried over a chafiing-difh, as foon as bronzed. BRONZERIUS, Joun-Jerom, in Biography, was born of wealthy parents, in a {mall .own im the Venetian territory, in 1577. After making great progrefsin the ftudy of the belles lettres, philofophy, and aftronomy, he was fent to Padua, where he was initiated into the knowledge of medicine and anatomy, and in 1597, was made doctor. He now went to Venice, where he praifed medicine to the time of his death, in 1630. His publications are, ** De innato ca- lido, et naturali fpiritu, in quo pro veritate ret Galeni doétrina defenditur,”? 1626, 4to.; ‘* Difputatio de Princi- patu Hepatis ex Anatome Lampetrz,”’ Patav. gto. Though from difieGing the liver of this animal he was fatisfied the blood did not acquire its red colour there, yet he did not chufe to oppofe the doftrine of Galen. His obfervation, however, was probably not loft, but led the way to a more complete difcovery of the fa&, by fubfequent anatomiits. * De Principio EffeGtivo Semini Infito.”? Haller. Bib. Anat. BRONZES. Thus Aniiquarians denominate figures of men or beafts, urns, and every piece of fcelpture, which the ancients made of the above metal. Statues, bults, &c. caft of this metal, are called by this name, whether they be originals or copies. BRONZING is the‘art of imitating bronze. See Bronze, in Painting. BRONZINO, in Biography. See Avior, Browxzixo, AGNoxo, a painter of hiftory and portraits, was born at Dlorence, in 1511, and became the difciple of Puntormo, with whom he continued for feveral years, and whofe flyle he acquired to fuch a degrce that the paintings of one and of the other could not be readily ditinguifhed, His extraordinary abilities are fufficienty evinced in all his performances. Among others, at Florence, a “ Nativity” is mentioned 2s incomparable; and alfo a ‘ Venus,” embracing Cupid, attended om one fide by mirthful loves, and on the other by jealoufy, fraud, and other peffions, alle- gorically reprefented. The compofition and finifhing in both thefe are highly extolled. As his mafter, Puntormo, died before he had finifhed the chapel of St. Lorenzo, at Florence, the duke appointed Bronzino to complete it. Bronzino alfo diftinguifhed himfeif in the painting of por- traits ; particularly thofe of Andrea Doria, Dante, Boccace, and Petrarch, and of all the illuftrious perfons of the houfe of Medici. His works at Florence, Peiaro, and Pifa, bear Jafting teftimony to his merit; vor was he lefs refpected and eltemed for his amiable qualities than for his profeffional talents. His tafte of defign was grand ; his pencil neat, but free ; his colouring refembled chat of Puntormo ; and in his draperies he imitated the manner of Michael Angelo Buona- roti. He died in 1580. Pilkington. BRONZOLO, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the country of Tyrol, feated ou the Adige; 5 miles 5. of Bolzano. BROOD, the young of fith and fowls. The word is derived from the Saxon Uredan, to breed ; which alludes to Ayu, to be big with young. ‘The word is alfo ufed for afet of any young. Inwhichtenfe we fay, abroed of vipers, a brood of oyiters. A brood of pheafants is more i igs lie ancyee Phil, Tranf, N° 369. OL. Vv. BRO Broop of fea-fith is {pawned, and lies in RAI waters, where it may have reft to receive nourifhment, and grow to perfec- tion. And here it is often deftroyed by weirs, craw-netsy and nets with canvas, or like engines in the bottoms of them 5 in harbours, havens, and creeks.—Every weir near the main fea takes, in twelve hours, fometimes five bushels, fome- times ten, fometimes twenty or thirty. For the preventing hereof, by 3 Jac. I. cap. 12. it is enaéted, that none fhall erect a weir, or weirs, along the fea-fhore, or in any haven, or creek, or within five miles of the mouth -of any haven or creek, or fhall willingly deftroy the {pawn or fry of fih, oa pain of rol. to be divided betwixt the king and the profe- cutor. Neither fhall any one fifh in any of the faid places, with any net of a lefs mefh than three inches and a half be- twixt knot and knot (except for the taking {moulds in Nor- folk only), or with a canvas net, or other engine, whereby the fpawn or fry of fifh may be deilroyed; on pain to forfeit the faid engine or net, and 1s. in money, to be divided bes twixt the poor of the parifh and the prolecutor. Broop, or Broop comb, called by the French cowvainy is that part of the comb ofa bee-hive, which contains in its cells the futere progeny of the hive, in the three diff-rent flates of eggs, worms, and nymphs. See Bew, and QuEEN dee. BROODING, the aét of a hen, or other bird, fitting on a number of eggs, to keep them warm, till they hatch, or produce young ones. See Harcuine. BROOK, a little river or {mall current of water. A brook is fometimes diltinguifhed from a river by the latter flowing continually, and the former only occafionally. Brook, in Geography, a county of Virginia, in America, 305 miles from Washington ; containing 4418 white inhabi- tants and 288 blacks. : BROOKE, Sir Rozert, in Biography, an eminent lawyer of the 16th century, was born at Claverly, in Shropshire, educated at Oxford, and from thence removed to the Mid- dle-Temp'e. In 1552, he was called to be ferjeant at law; and in 1553, appointed lord chief jultice of the common pleas ; 2bout which time he was knighted. He died in 1558, leaving behind him the reputation of great fill in his profeflion, and of integrity in the exercife of it, both at the barazd onthe bench. His works are ** An Abridgmenty covtaining an Abftra&t of the Year-books, till the time of ugen Mary ;” “ Certain Cafea adjudged in the times of Henry VILI., Edward VI., and queen Mary, from the 6th of Henry VIII. to the 4th of queen Mary,” and “ Read- ing on the Statute of Limitations, made g2 Henry VIII. cap. 2.” Brooxe, Henay, an ingenious author in polite litera. ture, was the fon of a clergyman, and born in Lgeland in 1706. Having commenced his education under Dr. Sheri- dan, and profecuted it in Dublin college, he removed to the Temple; where his lively genius and agreeable temper con- ciliated the cfleem and attachment of many friends. After his return to Ircland, he privately married his covfin, an amiable young lady, at a very early age, of whom he waa appointed guardian, and lived for fome time in domeftic re+ tirement ;~ but his increafing family obliged him to exert his abilities for their fupport. With this view he came over to London, and, as it 1s faid, under the eye of Pope, wrote his philofophical poem of ** Univerfal Beauty,’? in 1735. He returned again to Ireland, and engaged in the practice of the law ; but his predominant defire of acquiring diftinétion in poetry and elegantliterature induced bim agam to vifit Lon- don, where he produced atragedy, entitled “* Guftavus Vafa,”” and containing fentiments of liberty fo flrongly exprefled, that government prohibited its public exhibition at the theatres. ‘This oppofition excited an enthufiallic ardowr among his 3C friends BRO friends ard party, at the head of wnom wae Frederick prince of Wales; and the play wes publifhed by fubfeription in i739, much more to his advantage than if it had been acted. Warmly attached to his royal highnefs, Brooke tooka houfe at Twickenham, near Mr. Pope’s, and fent for his wife, who was propofed by the prince as wet-nurfe to a child, of whom the princefs was then pregnant. But his expences exceeding his income, he was prevailed upon by his wife to part with his houfe, to difmifs hisfervants, and to retire to privacy in hisnat:ve country. Hisattachment to the mufes, however, continued; and in 1745 his tragedy, entitled “The Earl of Weltmoreland,?? was aéted at Dublin ; and in the fame year he publifhed his «* Farmer’s Letters,” which were addreffed to the people of Ireland, and defigned to promote the principles of liberty and patriotifm, At this time he was patronized by the earl of Chefterfield, then the lord-lieutenant, and appointed barrack-malter. As a poet he afterwards dittinguithed himfelf by three pieces, com- municated to the public 1n Moore’s “‘ Fables for the Female Sex,” 1747. His picce, entitled “* The Female Seducers,” has been peculiarly admired, not only for tendernefs and pethos, as well as fublime poetry, but for the devotional {pirit which always charaéterized the author. Difappoinced in his views of farther advancement, he retired into the country, in company with an only brother; where they reared together their numerous families, with mutual har- mony and affe@ion. His intervals of leifure were employed in writing dramatic pieces 2nd novels, the former of which he hoped to have introduced on the London ftage. But though Mr. Garrick would at one time have engaged him asa writer; his propofals were not duly regarded by Mr. Brooke, who flattered himfelf with more encouraging pro- fpets, and they were, therefore, never renewed. Hts tragedy of the ‘* Earl of Effex,” however, which had been aéted at Dublin, in 1749, was alfo performed at Drury- lane in 1760; but as to his other tragedies and comedies, it does not appear whether they were exhibited in any theatre. In 1762 he publifhed a treatife in 8vo. entitled «* The Trial of the Roman Catholics,”? favourable to that clafs of Infh fubjets; and in 1766, his novel, called ‘* The Fool of Quality,” which attracted confiderable attention, though its general plan was wild and incoherent, and the latter volumes were ftongly tinétured with methodifm, in which the religious fervour of his mind at length terminated. Ge- nerous and fympathifing in his difpofition, and deftitute of economy, he was reduced to the neccflity of firft mortgaging, and, at length, of felling his patrimony ; in confequence of which he relided for fome years ina rented houle at Kildare, which he afterwards quitted for a farm near his former habi- tation. The affliGion of lofing his wife, after an union of pearly 50 years, and alfo of a favourite child, depreffed his fpirits and deranged his underftanding to fuch a degree as to terminate in almolt total imbecility. His novel entitled 6 Joliet Grenville,”? publifhed in 1774, indicated {till more fenfibly than the laf volumes of the Fool of Quality, the decline of his faculties. His two poems, viz. ** Redemp- tion,’’ and the ‘* Fox chace,” are among his later works, and little known orread. He died in O@ober 1783, leaving only two furvivora of his feventeen children. His dramatic and other works (the novels excepted) were printed in 4vols. 8vo. 1780. Life prefixed to his works, Gen. Biog. Brooke, Frances, the daughter of a clergyman, whofe name was Moore, and the wife of the Rev. John Brooke, of Norfoik, was diftinguifhed both by her literary talents and the gentlenefs and fuavity of her manners. Her death, which happened at Sleaford, in Lincolnfhire, Sept. 26th 1789, was occafioned by a {pafmodic complaint. Her firft BRO literary performance was a periodical work, entitled “ The Old Maid,” continued from November sth, 1755, until July 1756, and publifhed in one volume 12mo. In the latter year fhe publthed « Virginia,” a tragedy, with odes, paftorals, and tranflations, 8vo. In 1763, fhe publifhed her novel, entitled ** The Hiltory of Lady Julia Mandeville,” which was read with general approbation, although not without a with that the cataftrophe had been lefs melancholy. In the fame year fhe alfo publifhed ** Letters from Juliet Lady Catefby to her Friend Lady Henrietta Campley,?? 12mo,; a tranflation from the French. She foon afterwards accompanied her hufband, who was chaplain of the garrifon at Quebec, to Canada; and there witnefled thofe romantic {cenes that are fo admirably deferibed in her * Hiftory of Emily Montague,” 4 vols. 12mo. 1769. In the following year appeared ‘* Memoirs of the Marquis of St. Forlaix,’’ 4 vols. 12mo. Soon after her return from Canada, fhe formed an intimate acquaintance with Mrs. Yates, and had, as fome have faid, a fhare with her in the Opera-houfe. As Mr. Garrick had rej-éted her firft play, which was the tragedy of Virginia, fhe made a fecond attempt to obtain his favour, but without fuccefs. This condu@, on the part of the manager, excited her refentment, which fhe ex- preffcd with a feverity, afterwards lamented and retra@ted, in a novel, entitled ** The Excurfion,”? and publifhed in 2 vols. 12m0. 1777. Her * Siege of Sinope,” was acted at Covent-Garden, in 1731, and met with temporary ap- probation, probably from the fupport that was given to it by the theatrical talents of Mr. Henderfon and Mrs. Yates ; but her moft popular performance was “ Rofina,”’ prefented to Mr, Harris, the manager of Covent-Garden, and a&ted at that theatre in 1782. Her laft work was ‘* Marian,’? which appeared in 1788, and was aéted with fome fuccefs, though it was much inferior to her Rofina. She was alfo the tranflator of the ** Abbé Millot’s Elements of the Hif= tory of England, from the Invafion of the Romans to the Reign of George II.’ in 4 vols. r2mo. Biog. Dia. BROOKFIELD, in Geography, one of the moft ancient, wea'thy, and populous towns of Worcefter county, in the ftate of Maffachufetts, fituate in the fouth-weftern part of the county, and containing 3284 inhabitants ; 64 miles W. of Bofton, on the poft road leading from Botton to New York, and 18 miles W. of Worcefter. Its Indian name was “ Quaboag.”? Inthe vicinity of this town are iron ore, and large quantities of ftone, which yield copperas. It was fet- tled by people from Ipfwich, in 1660, and incorporated in 1673.—Alo,a townfhipin Orange county, Vermont, 2omiles W.S. W. of Newbury.—Alfo, a township of Lincoln coun-« ty, in the diftri& of Maine, 14 miles above Norridgewaik, on Kennebeck river; formerly called ‘* Seven Mile Brook.?? —Alfo, a town in Chenengo county, New York, having 1973 inhabitants; 25 miles S. of Whiteltown.—Alfo, a town in Effex county, New York, on the weft bank of lake Champlain.—Alfo, a pofl-:own in Fairfield county, Connece ticut; 6 miles N.N.E. from Danbury. BROOKHAVEN, a townhhip in Suffolk county, Long. ifland, New York, containing 4122 inhabitants, Thetown includes about 40 houfes, together with an epifcopalian and a prefbyterian church ; 60 miles E. of New York. BROOKINGTON, a pott-town in Amelia county, Vire ginia, 182 miles S.S.W. from Wathington. BROOKLIME, in Botany. See Veronica Becca BUNGA. BROOKLYN, in Geography, a pleafant townof America, in Norfolk county and ftateot Maflachufetts, con tainingabout 60 or 70 families ; fituate between Cambridge and Roxbury, and feparated from Bolton on the eaft by a narrow bay, 2 which BRO which fets up fouth from Charles river, and forms a penir- fula of Bolton. This town fupplies Bofton with vegetables, and ic is the place whither perfons of fortune retire from public life.--Alfo a polt-town in King’s county, New York, on the weft end of Long ifland, containing.2378 inhabitants. Tn this place ere an epifcopaban church, a Dutch reformed church, and one belonging to the Methoditts, a powder ma- gezine, and fome elegant houles lying chiefly in one ftreet. Itis feparated from New York by Eatt river, which is nearly a mile broad ; and forms an agreeable obje& from the city. — Alfo, a townfhip in Windham county, ConneGicut. about 20 miles N. of Norwich.—Alfo, a town in Hil.fborough county, New Hamphhire; 65 miles W. by S.from Portf{mouth. BROOKVILLE, a pefl-own in Montgomery county, Maryland, 20 miles N. W. from Wahiington. BROOM, in Botany. See Gentsta and Spartium. Broom, African. See ASPALATHUS. * Baoom, Butchers. See Ruscus Acuteatus. Broom-fower, in Heraldry, the denomination of an order, inftituted by St. Louis king of France, in the year 1234, on occalion of the coronation of his queen Margaret, eldett @aughter of Raymond Berengarius, count of Provence. The Aabit of the knights was a cloak of white damafk, with a violet-coloured hood. The collar was a gold chain of broom flowers, enamelled proper, interlaced wish lozenges of gold and flower de-lis, pendent therefrom, a cro{s flory, with this infcription ‘ Exaltat Humiles ;” the founder accounting the broom the fymbol of humility. Their num- ber was at the fovercign’s pleafure, and this order continued till the death of king Charles V. Broom-gall, in Entomology. Se> Garurs of the Broom. Broom-loch, or lake, in Geography, an extenfive falt- water lake, or arm of the fea, on the north-wet fide of the county of Rofs in Scotland, famous for its excellent herrings. On this lake is the village of Ullapool. Broom-rape, in Botany. See Ornopancue. Bzoom allo denotes a well known houf-hold befom, or im- plement wherewith to fweep away dirt, duft, and the like: thus we fay, a birch-broom, a hair-broom, a ruth-broom, a heath-broom. The primitive kind of brooms, from whence the denomination is given to all the reft, was made of the nifla, or wild broom, growing on commons. ROOME, Wicruiam, in Bingraphy, a native of Chefhire, was educated upon the foundation at Eton, bunt failing of a vacancy in a f{cholarfhip at King’s college, thouzh he was captain of the {chool for a whole year, he was fuperanauvated, and fent to St. John’s college by the affittance of friends, where he obtained a fmall exhibition. He appeared in the world at an early period as a tranflator of the Iliads into profe, in corjunétion with Ozell and Oldifworth, a tranfla- tion, which, though now forgotten, was, in Toland’s opi- fion, fuperior to that of Pope. After his introduétion to Mr. Pope, he was employed by him to make extratts from Enuftathiue for the notes to the tranflation of the Iliad; and in Pope’s Mifcellanies, many of his early pieces were inferted. When the fuccefs of the Iliad gave encouragement toa ver- on of the Odyfley, Pope called Fenton and Broome to his ffitance; taking half the work upon himfelf, and affizning the other half to his coadjutors, four books being allotted to Fenton, and eight to Broome. ‘To the lot of Broome fell the 2d, Oth, 8th, ith, ath, 16th, 18th, and 23d; toge- ther with all the notes. The ftipulated pecuniary recom- ¢ of Broome was sool. together with copies amounting to the value of about rool. more. Fenton, it is faid, was to receive 3001. for his four books. ‘his difproportionate diftbution of recompence offended Broome, and produced & mifunderftanding between him and his employer. He ree BRO prefented Pope as avaricious, and Pope purfued him with avowed holtitity. Amonz other difrefpectful refl-etiors in the Dunciad and the Bathos, he reckons Broome among ‘ the parrots who re peat another’s words, in fucha hoarfe odd tone, as makes them feem their own.’ It is faid that they were afterwards reconeiled ; but they never became friends. Mr. Broome pubisfhed a mifcelleny of poems, but never acquired any very hizh dirnicy in the church. Wrhillt he was rector of Sturfton in Suffolk, he married a rich widow ; and in 1728, on the king’s vilic to Cambridge, he obtained the title of LL.D. In 1773, he was prefented by the crown to the rectory of Pulham in Norfolk, which he held with Oakley Magna, in Suffo'k, given to him by lord Corn- wallis, together with the vicarage of Eye m Suffolk: he then rehgned Pulham, and retained the other two prefer- ments. Towards the clofe of his life, he amufed himfe.f with tranflating odes of Anacreon, which he publifhed inthe Gentleman’s Magazine, under the name of Chefter. He died at Bath, Nov. 16th 1745, and was buried in the abbey church. Johrfon’s Lives, BROOMING, or Breamixs of a flip, the burning cff the filth fhe has contraéted on her fides with ftraw, reeds, broom, or the like, when fhe is on a careen, or on the ground, See Car eeninc. BROONS, ina Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Northern coalts, and chicf place of a cans ton, in the diltmét of Dinan; 3) leagues S. W. of Dinan. The place contains 2,001, andthe canton I 1,824 inhabitants; the territory includes 220 kiliometres and 10 communes. BROOTZI, a town of Siberia; 48 miles N. W. of Tomfk. J BROOZENKOWA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Podolia; 32 miles N. E. of Kaminiec. BROQUIES, a town of France, in the department of the Aveyron, and diflri& of St. Afrique, feated on the Tarn; 7 leagues S. of Rhodez. BRORA, a fea-port town on the eat coat of Scotland, in the county of Sutherland ; near it is a coal-mine, the coals of which are faid to take fire on being expofed to the air; here is likewife a quarry of lime-ttones, interfperfed with a variety of fhells ; 10 miles N.N.E. of Dornock. Brora, a river of Scotland, which paffes through a lake of the fame name, in the county of Sutherland, and rua into the fea at the town of Brora. BRORE, a river of Germany, which difcharges itfelf into the Meufe, about a league below Maettricht. BROS, a royal free. town of Tranfylvania, feated on the Maros; the capital of a tribunal of the fame name, in a fer- tile country, the inhabitants of which diftinguihh themfelves by their fkill in agriculture. By an infcription on one of the gates, addreffed to the emperor Trajan, it appears to have been a Roman colony. BROSCHAN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leit« meritz; 4 miles S. of Leitmeritz. BROSCHI, in Biography. See Farinevuo. BROSELEY, in Geography, a large, populous village of Shropfhire, England, is rendered remarkable from a pheno- menon which occurred here at the beginning of the laft cen- tury. Beneath the furface of the earth is a continued bed of coal, which is dug, and appropriated on the {pot to va~ rious iron forges, potteries, &c. and great quantities of it are fent to different towns by means of the Severn which divides this parith from Colebrook dale. In the year 17714, it was difcovered that a vapour which arofe from a well or pit, would take fire upon being condenfed in a tube, and ignited by flame. This circumftance excited great curiofity, and many perfons came from different parts of the country to 3Cz witnele BRO witnefs the burning well, as it was called. A gentleman wrote an account of it for the Philofophical 'T'ranfa€tions, and further particulars were publifhed in the Gentleman’s Magaz'ne, vol. xxv. p. 303. It continued to burn for fome ume, ull the proprictor of the land having {nok a coal pit in the immediate vicinity, thereby deftroyed the operating cante. The parifh of Brofely contains 1031 honfes, and $32 inhabitants. It is 146 miles N. W. from London. BROSIMUM, in Botany, (from Ppwzriyo:, eatable). Swartz. Prod. 12. Schreb. 1486. Gmelin Syit. Nat. Mar- tyn’s Miller. Bofe. Ciafs, dioecia monandria. Gen. Char. i. Stameniferous flowers. Cal. ament common, globular, covered on all fides with imbricated, circu'ar, pelrate, mem- branaceovs, deciduous fcales ; three larger, furrounding the bafe of the ament ; the other fmaller, of an irregular form, between each of which the flamens break out. Cor. none. Stam. filaments folitary, very fhort, round ; anthers bilamel- late ; lamellas circular, peltate, the lower dehifcent from the upper; pollen globular. Pi/?. germ at the top, included ina {pongy ament, very [mall, ovate, abortive. Style one, ereG, bifid at the fummit. Stigmas reflexed, fimple. 2. Pif- tillifercus flowers on a different tree. Ca/. ament like the former. Cor. none. Pift. germ globular, (the fcaly body of the ament itfelf). S#y/e rifing from the middle of the germ at top, long, bifid. Stigmas fimple, acute, a little re- flexed. Pericarp, berry pedicelled, {pherical, one-celled. Seed folitary, with a two-lobed kernel, furrounded by a thin membrane and bipartite. ‘Eff. Char. Ament globular, covered all round with cir- cular peltate feales. Cor. none. Filam. folitary, between the feales. Style bifid. Berry one-feeded. Sp. 1. B. Alicaffrum. Brown, Jam. ‘ Leaves ovate, lanceolate, perennial; aments folitary ; fruit corticofe.”” A tree making about one-third part of the woods in fome parts of Jamaica. Its wood is not defpicable, and its leaves and younger branch's are a fatteninx fodder for all forts of cattle. Its fruit, when roalted, eats like a chefnut, and is called bread-nut ; and when boiled with falt-fifh, pork, beef, or pickle, isa wholefome and not unpleafant food. Its leaves and fyounger branches are full of gum, which renders them difagreeable to cattle at fi ft, but of which they foon become fond. 2. B. fpurium. Brown, Jam. ‘* Leaves lanceolate- ovate, acuminate 5; aments ovate, in pairs; fruit foft.”? A timber tree in Jamaica, caked milk-wood, but not much valued. Obf. Swartz’s defcription of the yerm and fruit is very ob{cure ; that given by Bofc, though not eafily reconciled with it, is more intelligible. * Flowers united in a globular ament, compofed of peltate feales, each of which, in the barren plants, covers a ftamen, and in the fertile ones, a germ with a bifil ityle, without either calyx or corolla.” Fruit a one-feeded drupe. BROSME, in Schthyology, a fpecies of Ganun, that in- habits the fouthern feas of Greenland. ‘The mouth is bearded ; tail oval, and pointed. Miill. Brose is alfo a fynony mous name of coryphena rupeffris. Egcde Groen. BROSNA, in Geography, a river of Ireland, which iffues from Leugh-Hoyle in the county of Weitmeath ; and foon after pr fles throuzh Lough-Ennel; on leaving which it runs fouthward into the King’s county, and joins the Shannon, about three miles above Banagher. Brosna, Little, a river which forms, for many miles, the fouthern boundary of the King’s county, and flows into the Shannon, about four miles below Banagher. BROSSAC, a town of France, in the department of the Charente, and chief place of a carton, in the diftri@ of Bar- bezicux ; 10 miles $.S.E. of Barbezicux. The place con- BRO tains 1017, and the canton 4887 inhabitants; the territory comprehends 150 kiliometres, and 13 communes. BROSSA, in Botany, (from Guy de la Broffe, fore meriy intendant of the royal garden at Paris). Lion. ger. 1229. Spec. Plant. Sup. Reich. 261. Schreb. 330 Joff. 161. Willd. 375. La Marck Iil. 316. Nat. Ord. bicornes ? ~ Erica, Jufl. Clals, pentandria monogynia. Gen. Caar. Cal. one-leafed, five-parted ; {egments obiong, acu- minate, ereG@, the length of the corolla. Cor. monopetalous, truncated at the end, entire, or crenvlate. Stam. five, in- cluded in the corolla. Pi. germ fuperior? pentagonal; {tyle awl-fhaped, fhorter than the corolla; ftigma fimple. Pericarp, capfule roundih, five-furrowed, five-celled, covered with the calyx, which is now enlarged, converging, and flethy, opening at the fides. Sveds numerous, very {mall. Eff. Char. Calyx flethy, five-parted. Cor. truncated. Capf. five-celled, many-feeded. Sp. B. coccinea, Linn. ** Shrubby, with a fearlet flower and black fruit,’? Plum. A fhrub three or four feet high. Root branched; /eaves alternate, petioled, fharply ovate, flightly toothed, fmooth, pale green ; flsqwers in racemes at the end of the branches, alternate, peduncled, with two braét-s about the middle of the peduncles. BROSSARD. in Biography, praGifed furgery many years at Chatre, in the early part of the laft century. He had the merit of reviving the practice of ufing agaric in ftopping he- morrhages, after amputations, which had been difcontinued. Though that fungus does not poflefs the powers he attribu- ted to it, and mutt not be depsnded on, in ftopping the bleeding of large veflels, yet in preventing the effufion of blood, from the {maller arteries, it is of acknowledged utility. He was rewarded by Lewis XV. with a penfion, for divulg- ing the fecret, in a fhort memoir, publifhed on the fubje&t, in 1757- Haller. Bib. Chirur. Eloy. Di&. Hift. Brossarp, Sepastian, author of the firft mufical dic. tionary publ.{hed ina modern language, and which has been of fingular ufe to fubfequent mufical lexicographers, par- ticularly to Graffineau, and Jean Jaques Roufleau. Indeed mufical hiftorians would be ungrateful not to acknowledge, that the numerous lift of writers on the fubje& of mufe, ancient and modern, whence he drew his materials, and which he has inferted at the end of his work, has not opened to them fubjeG&s of inquiry, and fources of information. And we think with M. Framery, that Rouffeau has treated this intelligent and zealous writer unworthily, in accufing him of publifhing an Italian diGionary, with a French title. When the fecond edition of Broffard was publifhed in 1702, the French mufical technica was infufficient, alone, to fur- nifh a book: nor could their explanation be much wanted, while taken from the current language of the country. Brof- fard mutt be allowed to have marked out the road for Rouf- feau to purfue, which, with his impreflive eloquence, he has certainly rendered more flowery and pleafant. Honeft Walther, in 1722, has been more jult to his pro- totype in his German mufical lexicon; where there is a greater extent of mulical information than in any book of the fize that we have mec with. The French biographers inform us that Broflard, born 1660, was a canon of the cathedral of Meaux, who excelled in knowledge of the theory of mufic. he writings which he publifhed on the fubject were ali well received ; particu- larly a mufical dif:onary, which was of great fervice to J.J. Rouffeau, in furnifhing him with the greateft part of the materials for his mufical articles in the Encyclopedie, which he afterwards collected, and formed into a volume. Mr. Graffineau might, without exceffive humility, have called his mufical dittionary a tranflauon, We know the pains, BRO prios, expeace, and perfeverance neceflary to colle& and read fucha number of books in all languages, few of which are cither amuficg or inftru@tive, to which the firft compiler of a dictionary or a hiftory is condemned. Johnfon calls our language a ‘ multiform and chaotic dialeét ;” and the technical language of mufic certainly merits thefe tutles more than the terms of any other art or fcience. Broffard died in 173. at 7o. BROSSE, Guy ps va, great uncle to the celebrated ftatefman M. Fagon, was born at Rouen, towards the end of the fixteenth century. Being much attached to botany, he gave a piece of ground, in which the rndiments of the jar- din royal des plantes medicinales, at Paris, was laid. This was, after much folicitation, enlarged, endowed, and an efta- blifhment for the improvement of botany formed by cardi- nal Richlieu, and de Broffe was appointed phyfician to the king, Lewis XIII., and curator of the garden, ‘This was about the year 1626. He had been uwelve years folicitiag the eftablifhment, and feems to have {pent the remainder of his life, which was extended tothe year 1641, in improving it. His works, which all relate to his favourite fubjeé&, are, *‘Deffein du Jardin Royal pour la Culture des Plantes Me- dicinales, a Paris, avec l’Edit du Roy touchant |’ Etabliffe- ment de ce Jardin en 1626.” Svo. “* De la Nature, Vertu et Utilité des Plantes, et Deffein du Jardin Royal de Medicine, Paris, 1628” this was afterwards,, viz. in 1640, publifhed in folio, with so plates, which are much commended. ** Defcription du Jardin, &c. contenant la Catalogue des Plantes, et le Plan du Jardin, 1636.”? Haller. Bib. Botan. Eloy. Di@. Hit. Brosse, or De Brocue, Perer 1a, was born at a town in Touraine, and educated to the practice of furgery, in which he acquired fo much celebrity, as to be called to attend Philip III. of France; to whom, by his artful ma- nagement, he made himfelf fo ufeful, that he made him his chamberlain, aod entrufted to him the government of the kingdom. Elated with this extraordinary fuccefs, he be- came infolent to the peers, none of wom could get accefs to the kisg but through him. Finding the queen was be- come his enemy, as well as moft of the principal perfons in the kingdom, with the view of ruining her with the king, he took the horrid refolution of poifoning prince Lewis, the eldeft fon of the king, by his former queeo. This he effected in the year 1276, and then accufed the qucen of having committed the murder, in order to raife her fon to the throne, but the villainy of the man was difcovered by the means, it is faid, of anun; andhe was executed, to the great joy of the country. The ftory is told by Henault, in his Abregé Chronologiqne de I’ Hiftoire de France. BROSSES, Cuares DE, an eminent mathematician, and man of Ictters, was born at Dijon, in 1709; and pur- fuing the line of profeffion for which his family had been diflinguithed, he became a counfeilor of parliament in 1730, and aprefident 4 mortier in 1741. As he was eminent for his zeal and integrity, as well as for his talents, he was en- trufted with the coudu& of many intereiting tranfaAtions, and in confequence of prefenting the remonttrances of the ptople to the throne, he fhared the honourable difjrace in- curred by many other worthy perfons in the reign of Louis XV. However, he afterwards obtained diftinguifhing marks of court approbation, by being appointed prefident of the parliament of Borgundy 10 1774. His intervals of leifore were devoted to the puriuits of jiterature and {cience; and in thefe his range was toextcsfive as to comprehend hiftory, geography, mythology, antiquities, metaphyfics, and lan- wages, He was alfo acquainted with a great number of amar men, both «t home and abroad, and wasa member of 4 BRO “various literary focieties. Buffon had been his {chool-fellows and regarded him from his youth asa genius of a fuperior order. Befides being the author of feveral memoirs in the colle&tions of the academies of Paris and Dijon, the jour- nal des Scavans, and the Dictionnaire Encyclopediquc, he wrote the foliowing feparate works: © Letters on the Dif- covery of Herculaneum,” 1750, 8vo. ;** Hiltory of Voyages to the Southern Regions,”’ 2 vols. 4to. 17563 in which he maintains the exiftence of a fouthern continent, difproved by the fubfequent voyages of the French and Englith, at leaft within any acceflible latitudes ; «Oo the Worthip of Fetiches, ora Parallel between Ancient Idolstry, and that of the Pcople of Negroland,” 1760, 12mo.; a curious phi- lofophical and mythological performance: * T'reatile on the mechanical Formation of Languages,”’ 2 vols. 12m0. 1765; in which he attempts to eftablifh a general etymological fyf- tem deduced from the fuppofition of a primitive language, founded on the mechanical formation of articulate founds; “« Hiftory of the Roman Republic in the Courfe of the fe- venth Age of Rome, by Salluit, partly tranflated from the Original of that Author, and partly compofed and reftored from the feattered Fragments of his laft Works.’? 3vols. gto. 1777. and “ Lettres Hiftoriques et Critiques fur I’Italie,” &c. 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1799. In private and focial life he was no lefs amiable than refpeCtable in his public and litera- ry charaéter. He died at Paris, May 7. 1777. Eloge par M. Muret. Nouv. Di&. Hit. BROSSETTE, Craupne pe, was born at Lyons in 167%, fir entered among the Jefuits, and afterwards be- came a lawyer. He was a member of the academy of Lyons, and keeper of the public library in that city. His works befides fome profeflional performances, were “ A brief Hits tory of the Town of Lyons,” and “ A New Hiftos rical Eulogy of the Town of Lyons,” 4to. 4711, both ele- gantly written, ‘“* Hiftorical Elucidations of the Satires, and other Works of Boileau Defpreaux,’’ 2 vols gto. 1716, often reprinted in various fizes; and‘ A Commentary on the Satires and other Works .of Regnier,’ Syo. 1 729% Broffette correfponded with fevcral literary perfons, parti- cularly with Rouffcau and Voltaire. He died at Lyons ia 1746. Nouv. Di&. Hitt. BROTCHET, in Jebrhyology, one of the French fyno- nyms of the gartifh or fea-pike. See Esox Lucius. BROTERA, in Botany, a genus in the clats monadelphia dodecandria, formed by Cavanilles for a plant found in New Spain, which differs from bis genus Dombeya, only in the ftructure of the capfule : but, as Bofe obferves, it agrees in generic charaéter, avd ought to be united with Pentapetes Pheenicea, the only {pecies for which Willdenow has pre- ferved that Lionzan genus, the other two original {pecies having been feparated from it to form anew genus, which from their winged feeds 1s called Pterofpermum. La Marck not thinking the difference in the ftruéture of the capfule a fufficient generic ditin@tion, has abolifhed the genus Dom. beya of Cavanilles, Jufficu, Ventenat and Willdenow, and has placed all its {pecies under the genus Pentapes, with the original Pentapetes Pheenicea, fill retaining Prerofpermum as a diftinét genue. See Penraperes, where the Protera of Cavanilles will be deferived. BROTEROD, in Geography, atown of Germany inthe circle of Franconia, and county of Henncburg, belonging to th landgrave of Heffe Caffe) ; 3 miles N. of Schmalkalden, BROTHEL. See Bawpy-hou/fe and Srewa. BROTHER, Frater, a term of relation between two male children, {prong from the fame father or mother, or both. Scaligerand Voffius derive /raler from Qgerne, for Garp, which properly fignifies a perton who draws water ia - the BROTHER. the fame well; @pcw, in Greek, fignifying well, and Qga7eia, a company of people who have a right to draw water out of the fame well—The word, it is faid, came originally from the city Argos, where there were only a few wells dif- tributed in certain quarters of the city, to which tbofe of the fame neighbourhood alone repaired. By the civil law, brothers and filters and. in the fecond degree of confanguinity ; by the canon law, they are in the firt degree. By the Mofaic law, the brother of a man who died without iffue, was obliged to marry the widow of the deceafed. Deuter. xxv. 7, See Levirare. The ancients applied the term brother indifferently to al- molt ali who ftood related tm the coilateral line, as uncles and nephews, coulin germans, &c —This we learn not only from a great many paflages in the Old Teftament, but aifo from profane authors: Cicero, in his Philippics, fays, ‘* An- tonina was both wifeand fifter of Mark Antony; becaufe fhe was daughter of his brother C. Antonius.” And as to coufins, Tullius Hoftilius, in Dionyfius Halicarnaffus, calls the Horatii and Curatii, brothers, becaufe they were filter’s children. The language of the Jews, bifhop Pearfon obferves, in- cluded in the name of brethren not only the ftri€& relation of fraternity, but alfo the larger of confanguinity. Weare brethren, fays Abraham to Lot, Gen. xiii. 8. whereas Lot was only his nephew.—So Jacob told Rachel that he was her father’s brother, Gen. xxix. 12. whereas he was only her father’s nephew —This confideration has been urged with good advantage againit the Antidicomarianites, who, from the mention made of the ‘ brethren of Jefus,’’?( John ii. 12. Matth. xii. 46.) have impugned the perpetual virgi- nity of the mother of Chritt, for which, however, there feems to be no fufficient foundation Among us, it is cultomary for kings to give the title &t brother’? to each other; the union in coronation being efteemed to create a kind of ‘* brotherhood.’? Nor is the cul- tom modern: Menander mentions a letter of Cofroes. king of Perfia, to the Emperor Juftinian, beginning thus: Cof- roes, king of kings, &c. to the emperor Juitinian ** my bro- ther.” Kings now alfo give the fame appellation to the eleCtors of the empire; and the like was given, by the king of France to the king of Sardinia, while only duke of Sa- voy. cn the civil law, brothers, fraéres, in the plural, fometimes comprehend filters : as Lucius and Tilia, fratres ; tres fratres, Titius, Mevius, & Seia. Brotuers, fofler, thofe which fucked the fame nurfe. The French call them “ fratres du lait,’? or brothers by milk; which is moft properly ufed in refpe& of a perfon who fucked a nurfe at the fame time with the nurfe’s own child. Brotrners, German, Fratres Germani. See GERMAN. Broruer was alfo uledin Middle dge Writers, for a comes or governor of a province. Broruer ia applied ina lefs proper fenfe, to denote a perfon of the fame profeffion. In which fenfe, judges, bi- fhops, priefts, &c. call each other brothers. Broruer in Chrift, frater in Chriffo, the fame with /pi- ritual brother, a perion admitted intoa monattic fociety or fraternity. Broruer is more particularly ufed to denote the relation between monks of the fame convent; as brother Zachary, brother Bonaventure, &c. In Englifh we more ufually fay, friar Zachary, &c. fromthe French word /rere, brother. - This appellation is borrowed from the primitive Chrif- tians, who all called each other “ brothers :’” but it is prin- cipally ufed for fuch of the religious. as are not pricfs; thofe in orders are generally honoured with the title of ihe patres, peres; whereas the re& are only fimply dro- thers. The monks of St. Dominic are particularly called preach. ing brothers, or friars predicants ; thofe of St. Francis, minor brothers ; thofe of charity, ignorant brothers, &c. Conscript brothers, fratres confcripti, denote laymen and others entered inthe catalogue of the brothers of a monaftery, or rather poflcfled of the fraternity thereof. Outer brother, frater exe terior, fometimes denotes a lay-brother. Svrange brother, frater adveniens, a holt or gueft belonging to another monaf- tery. Foreign brother, frater externus, either a monk, priett,- or canon of fome other monzftzry, to whom the prayers of the fociety are granted. Mature brother, frater maturus, = diftinguifhed by his age, gravity, or probity, above the reit. Baoruers, /piritual, denote laymen admitted intoa mo- naftic fraternity. ‘he name was alfo given to thofe other- wife called mature brothers, and fometimes alfo toa fort of adopted brothers, or perfons who commenced a kind of brotherhood, with the ceremony of breaking bread together in the church before the prief. : Brotuer, day, frater laicus, or converfus. See Lay Bras ther. Broruer, given, frater donatus, amorg the Carthufians, denotes a young perfon drefled in minim cloth, and wearing a hat, whofe office is to ferve in the houfe, anfwering to what in other orders is called an offered brother, frater ob- latus. Broruer is alfo an appellation more peculiarly given to certain orders of religious; thus the Brotuers of St. Alexis, in the Low Countries, were an order of perfons who attended on thofe who lay dying, and took care of the burial of the dead. Broruers of Ave Maria. See SERvITEs. ‘ Brotuers of Charity,a fort of religious Hofpitallers, founded about the year 1297, fince denominated Billetins. They took thethird order of St. Francis, and the fcapulary, making three ufual vows, but without begging. Broruers of Charity, alfo denote an order of Hofpital- lers fill fubfitting in Romifh countries, whofe bufinefs is to attend the fick poor, and minifter tothem both fpiritual and temporal fuccour. They are all laymen, except a few prielts, for adminiftering the facrament to the fick in their hofpitals, The Brothers of Charity ufually cultivate botany pharmacy, furgery, and chemiltry, which they praétife with fuccefs. They were firft founded at Granada, by St. John de Dieu ; and a fecond eftablifhment was made at Madrid, in the year 1553: the order was confirmed by Gregory XII]. in 1572. Gregory XIV. forbade them to take holy orders: but by leave of Paul V. in 1609 a few of the brothers might be ad- mitted toorders. In 1619 they were exempted from the jurifdiGtion of the bifhop. Thofe of Spain are feparated trom the reft, and they, as well as the brothers of France, Germany, Poland, and Italy, have their diftinét generals, who refide at Rome. They were firft introduced into | France by Mary of Medicis, in 1601, and have fince built a fine hofpital in the Fauxbourg St. Germain. Broruers of Charity of St. Hippolytus, a religious congre= gation, firft fet on foot by Alvarez, a citizen of Mexico, in 1585, who aflociated with him feveral other pious perfons to attend on the fick, and founded an hofpital without the walls of that city: which being approved of by the popes and the number of like hofpitals increaling, a congregation was formed under the title of ** The Charity of St. meas ytus,’? BRO lytus,”” beeaufe the fir hofpital had been dedicated to that faint, on whofe featt-day the city firft fell into the hands of the Chriftians. Clement VIIL. in 1594, granted them all the privileges of the Brothers of the Charity of St. John de Dien. Broruers of Death, a denomination vfually given to the religious of the order of St. Paul, the firft hermit. They are called * Brothers of Death,” fratres a morte, on account of the figure of a death’s head, which they were always to have with them, in order to keep perpetually in their minds the thoughts of death. This order, by its con- ftitutions, made in 1620, does not feem to have been elta- blifhed long before pope Paul. V. Lewis XIII. in 1621, permitted them to fettle in France. It was probably fup- prefled by pope Urban VIII. Brotuers of Penitence, or of the Penitence of Fe/us Chrift, a name given at Thovloufe to the religious of the third order of St. Francis; called alfo Beguini: and to a fra- ternity of Penitents held in the chapel of the church of the third order, under the direGion of the Beguini. See Bscuins. Broruers, Pyed, fratres pit, a denomination given to all monks, whofe habit was partly white, partly black; they were otherwife called Agaches. Brotuers of St. Gregory the Illuminator, a religious order efiablifhed in Armenia, in the fourteenth century, which being much reduced and decayed by the conquetts of the ‘Turks and Perfians, was, in 1356, united to the order of St. Dominic. Brotuers, Joyful, fratres gaudentes, in Italy, denote the knights of the order of the Virgin Mary, firft iattituted at Bologna in 1261, for whom a rule was prefcribed by pope Urban 1V. Baoruers, poor, in the Charter-houfe, a denomination given to decayed gentlemen, to the number of eighty, who are fubfifted with diet, cloathing, and lodging on the eftablith- ment. The poor brothers are to be gentlemen by defcent, re- duced to poverty, or de¢ayed merchants, foldiers, or officera of the king’s houfehold. The conditions of admiffion are that they have no eftate for life worth 2001. nor coming in, viis @ modis, 241. per annum; and that they be fifty years old, unlefs they have been maimed in the public fervice; in which cafe the age of forty fuffices. They wear a livery- gown within doors Brotuers, White, the name of a fe& which appeared in Roffia towards the beginning of the fourteenth century; fo called from their white cloaks on which waga St. Audrew’s crofs of a green colour. See BretuRen. Baotuers of Arms, an appellation given to thofe who contract a kind of fratern'ty in war, obliging themfelves to the mutual fervice and affiltance of each other. In the mili- tary orders, the knights are alfo called brothers.—In the order of Malta, there ia a particular clafs, who are called « ferving brothers ;” confifting of fuch as cannot give proof of their nobility. In Latin they are denominated fraires chentes. Baotners by adoption. See Avortion. Two brothers who have only the fame father, are called fratres confanguinci; and thofe who are only defcended from the fame mother, fratres uterini. Beoruens of the Crofr, See Fuacercantes. Broruens of the rofy Croft. See Rosycrusians. Brotuens, /worn, fratres conjurati. See Frataes. Baoruers, in Alchemy, lame, or maimed, denote the imper- fe& metals, which are to be cured of their lamenefs by the e& elixir; i.e. are to be purified and feparated from their drofs, &c. by the philofopher’s ftone. BRO Broruers, in Geography, iflands inthe Indian fea, on the north fide of the entrance into the ftraits of Malacca. N. lat. 7° 18!. E. long. 78° 10!, to 78° 15! Broruers, Seven, iflands in the Indian fea. S. lat. 3° 24!. E. long. 60° 25). Brotuers, Three, iflands in the Indian fea. S. lat. 3° 45’. E. long. 62° 25'.—Alfo, iflands in the Eaft Indian fea. N. lat. 10° 32! E. long. 107! 59!.—Alfo. iflands in the fame fea. S. lat. 5°20! E. long. 117° 30’. The molt northerly, which is about 5 or 6 leagues fomewhat foutherly from Thumb fhoal, is called by the Dutch “ North Brother.” Between thefe and Celebes, lies Tonakcke ifland, which is larger than any of them.—Alfo, three remarkable hills on the eaft coaft of New Holland, which may be feen 14 or 16 leagues off at fea. S. lat. 31° 40’. W. long. 207° 10. Broruers, Two, lie on the ealt coalt of New Holland, off cape Manifold; one of them is low and flat, and the other high and round; near the fhore is a third ifland,— sae iflands of New Zcalaad, near queen Charlotte’s ound. BROTHERHOOD. See Fraternity. Brorxernoon of God, in the Middle Ages, a denomina- tion given to an aflociation formed for reftraining and abos lifhing the right and exercife of private war. The people, eager to obtain relief from the fufferings that were thus oc- cafioned, among other expedients, had recourfe to a pres tended revelation. Towards the end of the 12th century, a carpenter in Guienne gave out, that Jefus Chrilt, together with the bleffed Virgin, had appeared to him, and having commanded him to exhort mankind to peace, had given him, as a proof of his miflion, an image of the Virgin holding her fon in her arms, with this infeription : “* Lamb of God, who takeit away the fins of the world, give us peace.” This low fanatic addreffed himfelf to an ignorant age, prone to credit what was marvellous. He was received as an infpired mef- fenger of God. Many prelates and barons affembled at Puy, and took an oath, not only to make peace with all their own enemies, but to attack fuch as refufed to lay down their arms, and to be reconciled to their enemies. Thus they formed the above-mentioned affociation. But the influence of this fuperttitious terror or devotion was not of long con- tinuance. BROTHERTON, in Geography, an Indian village of North America, adjoining New Stockbridge in the ftate of New York, inhabited by about 150 Indians, who migrated from different parts of Conne@ticut, under the care of the Rev. Mr. Occom. Thefe Indians receive an annuity of 2160 dol- lars, which fum is partly appropriated to the purpofe of main- taining a {cbool, and partly to compenfate a fuperintendant for tranfaéting their bufinefs, and difpofing the remainder of their money for their benefit. BROTIER, Ganaier, Abbé, in Biography, a diftin- guifhed fcholar, and member of the French Academy of Belles Lettres, was born at Tonnay in the Nivernois, in 1723, and educated in the Jefuits college of Louis-le-Grand, of which he was for feveral years librarian. Accuftomed through life to write notes in the margins of all the books which he read, and diftinguifhed alfo by a retentive memory and fingular penetration, he had thus colleéted materials for feveral volumes; and as he applied to ftudy for 10 or 12 hours a day, he had acquired an immenfe fund and variety of knowledge. With the exception of the mathematics, his knowledge comprehended every branch of fcience, natural hiftory, chemiftry, and even medicine. It was his cuftom every year to read Hippocrates, and the books of Solomon, in the original languages ; for thefe, he faid, were the beft remedies for all bodily and mental difeafes, But he was principally BRO principally devoted to the belles lettres: and had acquired an accurate acquaintance with all the dead languages, parti- cularly the Latin, and with moft of the modern languages of Europe. He was alfo well verfed in ancient and medern hiftory, chronology, coins, medals, infcriptions, and the ufages of antiquity ; and he had collsGted a great mafs of materials for a new hiftory of France, which he was pre- vented from undertaking. On the diflolation of the order of Jefuits, he found a pleafant afylum in the houfe of M. de Ja Tour, an eminent printer, and in this retreat he {pent the lat 26 years of his life. Here he publifhed his edition of ** Tacitus,’ enriched with notes and learned differtations, and fupplements; and alfo a ew edition of ‘* Piiny the Naturaliit,”? to which he has added notes and illuftrations, being merely a concife abridgment of what he had prepared with a view of correéting and enlarging the edition of Har- douin, and of giving an hiftorical account of all the new dif- coveries made fince the beginning of the t8th century. His other works of inferior importance were a beautiful edition of «© Phedrus;’? an edition of Rapio’s poem, ‘‘ De Hortis,”? to which he fubjoined a ‘* Hiitory of Gardens,” written in Latin with great elegance, and abounding in the moft beauti- ful imagery. Befides a lively imagination, Brotier poficifed a found and difcriminating judgment, and an elegant talte. His conceptions were clear, and his mode of communicating knowledge perfpicuous. From the abbe Fontenay’s further delineation of his charaGter, we thall fele& the followiag par- ticulars. ‘ Humble and unafluming, and of fuch delicate modelty, as caufed him to blufh when the leaft encomium was pafled upon him; good tempered, plain in his manners, and giving himfelf up to fociety with the {miles and fimpli- city of a child; his converfation was engaging, and always inftruétive when it turned on fubj-€s of literature and fcience, Widely differing in this refpe&t from thofe men of - letters, who, if we may be allowed the expreflion, are mifers of their knowledge, and feem to hoard it up for themfelves, or that they may make an oftentatious difplay of it in fome publication, the abbé Brotier anfwered with great readinefs the queftions of every perfon who applied to him for informa- tion, and inftructed thofe around him with the utmoft affa- bility and condefcenfion.”? ‘ That intimate friendfhip which united me to the abbé Brotier,’”’ fays Fontenay, ‘ gratitude for the fervices he did me, his talents, and his virtues, will always endear his memory to me; and | may jultly fay with the Roman poet : ‘* Multis ille bonis flebilis occidit, Nalli flebilior quam mihi.” This accomplifhed and elegant fcholar died at Paris, Feb. rath 1789, at the age of 67. The following is a lift of the abbé Brotier’s works, as given in La France Literaire, by J. S. Erfch, publifhed at Hamburgh in 1797, and cited in Aikin’s General Biogra- phy: ‘“‘ Examen de l’Apologie de M. PAbbé de Prades,” 1753, 8vo; ‘* Conclufiones ex uniyerfa Theologia,” 1754, 4to. ; * Traité des monnoies Romaines, Grecques, et Hebr. comparées avec les monnoies de France, pour intelligence de V’Ecriture Sainte et de tovs les auteurs Grecs et Ro mains,” 1760, 4to.,” ‘ Profpeéius d’une edit. Lat. de Tae cite, en 5 vols, 4to.,’? 1761; **C. Corn. Taciti Opera, recog- novit, emend. fuppl. explevit, notis, differt. tabulis geogr. illuftravit,” 1771, 4 vals. 4to.; ‘* Supplementa, hb. 7. wo Annal. Taciti,”? 1755, Svo. ;‘* Cl. viride la Caille vita,” 1763, 410.3 “ C. Pini Hiftoria naturalis,” 1779, 6 vols. r2mo.; * Renati Rapini Hortorum, hb. iv. et cultura hor- tenfis, hiftoriam hortorum addidit,” 1778, 8vo.; “ Phedri Fabularum, lib. v. cum notis et fuppl. accefs. Parailela J. de la Fontaine Fabulz,’? 1755, r2mo. A.C. Brotier, the abe BRO bé’s nephew, who was arrefted in February 1794, a3 being the chief of a confpiracy, publifhed, in 1790, “* Paroles me- morables récuetllies par Gabr. Brotier,’”? 12mo0. BROTO, in Geography, a town of Spain in Arragon; 6 leagues from Jaca. ’ BROUAG#, a maritime town of France, in the depart- ment of the Lower Charente, 2 leagues S.W. of Rochefort ; it confifts of 5 or 6 ftreets, which terminate in a large fquare, and is famous’ for its falt-works. N. lat. 45° 50’. W. long. 1° of. BROUCA, a town of Sicily, on the fouth fide of the gulf of Catania, and 5 leagues S. of it. N, lat. 37° 257. E. long. 15° 30. BROUCK. See Bruge. BROUGH, or Broucu vunper STAinmor, a {mall town of Weftmoreland, in England, conlifts chiefly of one long ftreet, and is feated on the great road between York and Carlifle. The furrounding country, though bleak and naked, contains fome good foil. Here the long chain of mountains, which bound the ealtern fide of Weftmoreland, is interrupted by another range of hills, which croffes it from the ealt to the weft. A charter was obtained for a market and fair in the time of Edward III. ; but the greater mare kets at Kirkby Stephen and Appleby have entirely fuper- feded this at Brough. Here are the remains of a caltle, which bears marks of great antiquity ; and its keep is called in old records, ‘* Cxfar’s Tower.” Antiquaries are agreed in placing the Roman ftation, ‘‘ Verteris,” atthis place; and this appears extremely probable from the various Roman coins, &c. that have been found here, from the chara@ter of the caitrametation, and its diftance from the iiations ‘* Las vatris’’ (Bowes), and * Voreda”’ (Old Penrith). The remains of the cattle occupy an eminence, which rifes rather abruptly on the north and weft froma plain ; and on the fouth and eaft, where not fo fteep, it is additionally fortified with a ditch and vallum. Soon after the Norman conquelt, this wasa place of meeting and confultation with fome of the.borderers, who confpired againft the conqueror. Near Brough is a large cotton-{pinning manufa@ory, bes longing to John Carlton, efq. who has a beautiful feat near the town called Hillbeck hall. Brough has three fairs an- nually ; one of which, in September, is noted in the north of England for the great quantity of cattle, horfes, &c. which are brought to it. This town is 261 miles N. W. from London; and contains 117 houfes, with 694 inhabitants. Houfman’s Topograph. Defcript. of Cumberland, &c. Syo. BROUGHTON, Hueu, in Biography, a learned di- vine was born in 1549 at Oldbury, in Staffordfhire. OF his early education nothing is now known; but it is faid by the biographers of Bernard Gilpin, that he was met by this excellent perfon in his journey to Oxford, whither he was travelling on foot for the purpofe of becoming a fcholar there, and taken to his own {chool at Houghton, whence he was fent to Cambridge. At that univerfity he became one of the fellows of Chrilt’s College, and here he fo diftin- guifhed himfelf by his application and proficiency, and pars, ticularly by lis knowledge of the Greek and Hebrew lan- guages, as to attract the notice and obtain the patronage of the earl of Huntingdon, whe encouraged and affifted him in his ftudies. From the univerfity he removed to London, and there became a celebrated preacher. His mode of preaching, according to Dr. Lightfoot, was to feleét two parallel texts, one from the Old Teftament, and the other from the New, and to difcourfe upon them in their mutual conneGtion ; in- dulging many fanciful and over-{trained interpretations. Notwithttanding his popularity as a preacher, he purfued his ftudies without intermiffion; and he is faid to have fre- quently . BROUGHTON. quently fpent 16 hours out of the 24 at his books. In 1588, 4% publifhed a work, the refult of much previous la- bour, entitled, ‘ The confent of Scriptures ;”? which is.a kind of {cripture chronology and genealogies. In this work he zealoufly maintains the incorruptnefs of the facred text, both of the Old and New Tcftament; and he contends, that the original tongue of Adam and Eve continued un- changed till the Babylonifh captivity, that the characters and points are the fame with thofe written by God on the two tables, and that the facred tongues were changed in the time of the prophet Daniel ; but that the ferfe of the original tongue is preferved by the LXX. and the New Teitament. The chief of the Maforites, according to this writcr, was Ezra; and they have kept the letters and words with fuch care, that none of themcan perifh. This work, which ex- cited great attention, was warmly oppofed by Dr. Reynolds of Oxford; and the author thought the controverfy of fuch importance, that he wifhcd to haveit fettled by public autho- rity. For explaining his do€&rine, Mr. Broughton initituted weekly leGtures in London; and they were condu@ed for fome time at St. Paul’s, with the permiffion of the queen and couccil, on condition of his returning the names, abodes, 2nd occupations of all his auditors ; but by the oppofition of the bifhops, this indulgence was difcontinued, and he was obliged to deliver his leGures in private rooms engaged for the purpofe in dfferent parts of the town. Such was the extravagance of his attachment tothe Hebrew language, that, having taught the fon of a friend to read and {peak it at the age of 7 or § years, he rigoroufly prohibited his talking even to his mother in Englifh. In 1589 he went to Germany, and refided for fome time at Frankfort, where he held a long difpute in the Jewifh f{ynagogue with a rabbi concerning the truth of the Chriftian religion. But in his various difputations with the Jews, and alfo with the pape he paid no great regard to the rules of prudence and olitenefs. After his return to England, in 1501, he pub- ifhed ‘* An Explication of the Article of Chrift’s Deicent to Hell,” maintaining with great learning that the word Sades no where, either among the Greeks, or in the Scrip- .tures, properly denoted bell, or a place of torment, but only the place of fouls, the ftate of che dead, or the invifible world, This opinion, though now generally received, was, upon his firlt zvowal of it, violently oppofed, and particu- larly by archbifhop Whitgift and bifhop Blfon. During a great part of queen Evizabeth’s rcign he pafled much of his time abroad ; converfing with le-rned men, and propagating his peculiar opinions. ‘I’o the archbifhop of Mentz, who treated him with particular diftinGion, he dedicated his tranf- lation of the Hebrew prophets into Greek ; and it has been . faid, though not with great probability of truth, that he was offered a cardinal’s hat if he conformed to the church of Rome. On the fubje& of Chrift’s defcent, he addreffed an epiftle in Greek to the Genevans, which was printed at Mentz in 1601: and in this epiltlle he reproved that church for its unbecoming heat and violence with regard to fome points, and {poke with great feverity of the celebrated Beza, to whom he alfo addreffed fome rude letters, giving to the Jefuit Serrarius, to whom he fent copies, full permiflion to publith them. In 1607 the new tranflation of the bible was begun, and it was thought furprifing, that Broughton had no concern in it ; but his peculiar notions, and the diflike of the epilcopal bench, prevented his being employed. Vind- ing no encouragement at home, he removed again to the continent, and became for fome time preacher to the Eng- lifh at Middleburg in Zealand, But when his health begaa to decline, he determined to return to England, and to die in hisown country. Accordingly he embarked in Novem- a gs in the following year he lodged in the boufe OL. Y. ofa friend at Tottenham High Crofs, where he died of e pulmonary confumption in Auguft, 1612, His funeral wae attended by a great concourfe of friends; and his remains were interred in St. Ancholin’s church-yard. As a {cholar, and controverfial divine, Mr. Broughton was {elf opinion= ated, choleric, rude, and dogmatical; but for the heinous charge of ingratitude to his firlt friend and patron, Bernard Gilpin, againit whom he is faid to have incenfed the bifhop of Durham, there feems to be no fufficient foundation. His works are for the mott part printed together in one large folio volume, at London, in 1662, with this fingular title, -“ The Works of the great Albionean Divioe, renowned in every nation for great {kill in Salem’s and Athens’ tongue,and familiar acquaintance with ail rabbinical learning, Mr. Hugh Bronghton.” Dr. Lightfoot, addicted to fimilar kind of literature, highly extols them; but they are now forgotten. During his life, Broughton was not only a fubje& of angry controverfy but of ridicule ; an initance of which occurs in Ben Johnfon’s * Alchymifl”? But this contemptuous re- flcGtion was more than counterbalanced by an elegy, pof- {cffing geeat poetical beauties, written by an obicure au- thor, called « W. Primrocs,” and annexed to his works. ln this elegy. theology is perfonified, and repreftnted as lament~ ing the tofs of him. What he fays of him as a linguilt, is ae foilows : ** Who, tuneful as the filver-pinion’d fwan, Canaan’s rich language in perfeétion fang.” « He knew the Greek, plenteous in words and fenfe, The Chaldee wife, the Arabic profound, The Latin pleafing with its eloquence, The braving Spanifhwith its loity found, The Tufcan grave with many a laurel crown’d, The lifping French, that fits a lady vain, The German, like the people, rough and plain, The Englih, full andrich, hisnative country’s ttrain.’! Biog. Bric. Broucuton, Tuomas, a learned epifcopalisn divine, and one of the firlt writers in the Biographia Britannica, was born in London, July 5, 1704, educated at Eton, and removed to Cambridge about the year 1722, where he en« tered himfelf of Gonville and Ca'us college. At fchool he had diftinguifhed himfelf by the acutenefs of his genius, and the ftudioufnefs of his difpofition; and at the univerfity he dire&ted his chief attention to the modern languages, and to the mathematics, which he ftudied under the famous profeffor Saunderfon. In 1727, he took both deacon’s and prieft’s orders, and jeft the univerfity, to fupply th- curacy of Offey in Hertfordthire. In 1739 he was prefented to the regtory of Stepington or Stibington in the county of Huntingdon; and foon after he was chofen reader to the Temple, and thus introduced to an acquaintance with bifhop Sherlock, who, in 1744, preferred him to the valuable vicerage of Bedmintter, near Briftol, together with the annexed chapels of St. Mary Redchff, St. Thomas, and Abbot's Leigh. Upon receiving this prefentation he re- moved to Briltol, where he married a wife, by whom he had feven children, of whom fix furvived him. He refided on his living till his death, which happened Dec. ait 1774; and his remains were interred in the church of St. Mary Redcliff. r. Broughton, during his refidence in London, affoci- ated with the principal literary men of his time, and as he was agreat lover of mufic, he was introduced to the ac- quaintance of Mr. Handel, whom he furnifhed with the words for many of his compofitions. In his public charaMter he united moderation of temper with a zealous attachment to the Chnitian caufe, and in his private life, his difpofition was mild, cheerful, and liberal, and he devoted his time and 3D attention BO attention to the interefts and happinefs of his family, From the time of his quitting the univerfity till he was confider- ably advanced fn life, he engaged in a variety of pub ications, of which the following lif is taken froma paper in his own hand-writing : “ Chriftianity diftiun@ from the religion of Nature, in three parts, in anfwer to Chriftianity as old as the Creation ;’? ‘ Tranflation of Volraire’s Temple of afte ;?? ‘© Preface to his Father’s Lettersto a Roman Ca- tholic ;”’ * A'teration of Dorre! on the Epiftles and Gofpels, froma Popith to a Proteftant Book,”’ 2 vo's. 8vo. ; * Part of the new Edition of Bayle’s Ditionary in Englifh, corre&t- ed, with a Tranflation of the Latin, and other Quota- tions ;”? “* Jarvis’s Don Quixote, the Language thoroughly altered and correéted, and the poetical parts new tranf{- lated;?? ** Tranflation of the mottoes of the Speftater, Guardian, and Freeholder ;” * Original Poems and Trarf- Jations by John Dryder, efq. now firft collected and pub- lithed together,” 2 vols.; ‘* Tranflations of the quotations in Addilon’s Travels, by him left untranflated ;?? ‘© The tirlt and third Olinthiacs, and the four Philippics of Demof- thenes (by feveral hands), revifed and corrected, with a new Trarflation of the fecond Olinthiac, the Oration de Pace, and that de Cherfonefo, to which are added all the Argu- ments of Libanius, and fele€t notes from Ulpian,” Svo. ; «¢ Lives in the Biog. Brit.;?’ “ The Bifhops of London and Winchelter on the Sacrament, compared ;’” * Hercules, a mufical Drama ;”? “ Bibliotheca hiftorico-facrz, an hittorical DiGionary of all Religions from the Creation of the World to the prefent time,’’ 1756, 2 vols. folio ; «* A Defence of the commonly received Doétrine of the human Soul ;” and « A Profpe& of Futurity, in 4 Differtations, with a preli- minary Difcourfe of the natural and moral evidence of a futnre State.” He alfo left io manufcript * A fhort View of the Principles upon which Chriftian Churches require of their refpective Clergy, Subfeription to eftablifh- ed Articles of Religion,?? which was compofed not long before his death. From feveral fugitive pieces found in manu(cript among his papers, and two unfinifhed tragedies written at the age of 17, it is inferred that he poffefled no inconfiderable talents for poetry. Biog. Brit. Broucnron Jfland, in Geography, an ifland of America, lying at the mouth of Alatamaha river, in Georgia, which belonged tothe late Henry Laurens, efq. The fouth chan- nel, after its feparation from the north, defcends gently, winding by M?Intofh and Broughton iflands, in its way to the ocean through St. Simon’s found. BROUKHUSIUS, in Biography. See BroecKHuYSE. BROUNCKER, or Brounxer, Witu1am, lord vif- count of Caftle Lyonsin Ireland, and firft prefident of the Royal Society, after its incorporation, was the fon of fir William Brounker, made vifcount in 1645, and born about the year 1620. At an early perio? he manifefted a genius for thofe mathematical fciences in which he afterwards ex- celled. The place and courfe of his education are not known; butin June, 1646, he was created do€tor of phytic at Oxford ; andin 1657, and 1658, he correfponded on ma- thematical fubj-Gs with Dr. John Wallis, who publifhed his letters in the “ Commercium epiftolicum,”? printed at Ox- ford in 1658, gto. In April 1660, he united with the nobi. lity and gentry in fubfcribing a declaration, acknowledging general Monk to be the reftorer of the laws and privileges of thefe nations. - After the reftoration, he was made chan- cellor to queen Catharine, and keeper of her great feal, acommiffioner of the admiralty, and matter of St. Catha- rine’s hofpital near the Tower of London. He was alfo an aétive and ufeful member of the Royal Society at its firft eftablifhment, and held the office-of prefident with honour BRO to himfelf, and advantage to the inftitution, for rs yeats viz. from July 1662 till November 1677. Ofhis works, notwithfanding his aétivity in promoting literature and {cience, there are few extant. Thefe are Experiments on the recoiling of Guns,”? publithed in Dr. Spratt’s Hiftory of the Royal Society; ‘¢ An algebraical Paper upon the fquaring of the Hyperbole,” publifhed in the Philofophical YranfaGtions (See Lowthorp’s Abr. vol. i. p. 10, &c.) 3 *¢ Several Letters to Dr. James Uther, archbifhop of Ar- magh,’”? annexed to that primate’s life by Dr. Parr; and s¢ A Tranflation of the Treatife of Des Cartes, entitled Mufice Compendium,” publithed without his name, but en- riched with a variety of obfervatione, which fhew that he was deeply fkuled in the theory of the f{cience of mufic. Lord Brounker died at his houfe in St. James’s ftreet, Weltminfter, April 5, 1684, and was buried in a vault in the middle of the choir belonging to the hofpital of St. Ca- tharine. Biog. Brit. BROUSONNETRA, in Botany. See Parirtus. BROUSSE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de« artment of Puy le Dome; 6 leagues E. of C'ermont, BROUSSON, Craupe, in Biography, a Freneh protelt- ant, who was a zealous partizan, and at length a martyr of the reformed religion, was born at Nifmes in 1647, and educated to the law. He exercifed the profeffion of an ad« vocate for 20 years, firft at Ceftres and afterwards at Tou- loufe, with fingular reputation for generofity and difinte- rcftednefs, as well as firmnefs and ability. As he took part in his pleadings with the proteftant minifters and churches, an attempt was made to corrupt his integrity by the office of a counfellor’s place, which he rejeéted with contempt. It was at his houfe that the deputies of the proteftant churches aflembled in 1683, and here they concurred in the refolution of continuing to affemble for public wors fhip though their churches were demolifhed. The ex- ecution of this purpofe was produ@ive of many tumults, feditions, and maflacres; and though they were termi« nated by an amnefty iffued from the court of Louis XIV. this was accompanied by an order for arrefting feven or eight perfons who had been principally concerned in framing the refolution, Brouffon was one of thefe ; aad appre- hending the confequence, he had previoufly retired to Nifmes ; and as foon as he received the intelligence of the propofed arreft, he fled to Geneva, and afterwards to Laufanne. At this latter place he publifhed his ** State of the Reformed in Franer,’? 1684; and his “ Letters to the French Clergy in favour of the Reformed religion,”? 1685. About this time he was appointed one-of the deputies from the principal refugees in Swifferland, for engaging the proteftant powers to intereft themfelves in favour of the French reformed that were difperfed through Europe. At Berlin, he compofed, by defire of the eletor of Bran- denburg, his ‘* Letters from the Proteftants in France to all other Proteftants.”? From Berlin he went to Holland, and had feveral conferences with the prince of Orange and penfioner Fagel. Afterwards returning to Swifferland, he printed “* Letters to the Roman Catholics ;’? and, with a view to the more effe@tual diftribution of them in France, he ventured, in 1689, to vifit that country. On his arrival ia the Cevennes, he accepted the office of minifter to a con- gregation of proteftants, which affembled on the top of a high mountain, and, notwithftanding the varions profecu- tions with which he encountered, he continued the exercife of his miniftcrial fun@ions in thefe parts for 4 years. In ‘1698, he returned to Laufanne, and from thence removed to Holland, where he printed ** A fummary Relation of the Wonders wrought by God in the Cevennes and Lower Languedoc, BRO Languedoe, for the econfolation and inftru€tion of his defo- lated Church,” to which bis enemies would naturally afcribe the charaéter of fanaticifm. He alfo publithed a volume of fermons, and received from the States of Holland a pention, asa minifter. Towards the clofe of the year 1695, he again vifited France, travelling through moft of its provinces and employiog his pen in various wntings. During the negoci- ation for the peace of Ryfwick, he exerted himfelf in ex- citing the proteftant powers to treat for the re-eftablifh- ment of the French reformed churches. Trailing of fuccefs in this obj-@, he made another tour through France, and, after encountering a variety of hazards, he was at length apprehended at Oleron in September, 1698, and carried for trial to Montpellier. Having been conv.ct d of preaching in defiance of the royal eci@, and of having held corre fpond- ence with the enemies of the itate. he was condemned to bz broken alive upon the wheel, and he endured the execution of this dreadful fentence with all the fizmnefs appropriate to his charaéter. His eloquence and zeal were univerfally acknowledged, and by his own party he was regarded as a martyr. The States of Holland did honour to his memory, by adding 6co florins, as a pention to his widow, to the 400 which had been allowed to himfelf. Nouv. Di&. Hitt. *. BROUVELIEURES, in Geography, 2 town of France, ia the department of the Vofges, and chicf place of a can- ton, in the diflri@ of Sr. D:é; ove league north of Bruy- éres. The place contains 414, and the canton 3574 inha- bitants; the territory comprehends 130 kiliometres and 10 communes. BROUWER, tn Biography. See Brauwer. BROUZET, Nicuovas, was born in the neighbour- hood of Montpellier, where he took his degree of doétor in medicine in the year 1736, whence he went to Pars, and was admitted correfponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and foon after was made phyfician to the hof- pital at Fontainbleau. He publifhed, in 1754, “ Effai fur Education medicinale des Enfans, et fur leurs Maladies ;” a popular work, by which he obtained much ercdit. In his chapter on Generation, he follows the fyftem of Buffon, and fuppofes the organized particles to attract each other, as the particles of falt do in forming cryftals.. He alfo con- tends far the power of the imagination of pregnant women, in marking and déforming the fortus ; but though there are thefe, and other blemifhes, the work contains many ufcful practical rules for the management of infants, and for the cure of their difeafes. It was tranflated into Englith and blifhed in London, in 1755. Haller Bib. Chir. Eloy. i&. Hit. BROW- antler, the firit branch of the born of a hart or buck, fhooting out from the beam, or main horn, next the head. Brow-foff, in Carpentry,a beam which goes acrofs or over- thwart a building. BROWALLA Heide, or Browerra heath, in Geo- graphy, a plain of Sweden, in the province of Smaland, lying about two Swedith miles from Wexio, and famous for being the place where the Danes were totally routed by the dest Blenda, who commanded the Smaland women, in the defence of their hufbands, who were engaged in an- other exp+dition. As a recompence of their bravery, the women of Smaland were honoured with extraordi- nary privileges, and wore a kind of martial head-drefs; and they have ftill an equal fhare of inheritance with the men. BROWALLIA, in Botany, (named by Linnzus in ho- noor of Browallius, bifhop of Abo, who defended the fexual BRO fyftem againfk Seigefbeck). Linn. gen. 773. Reich. 834. Schreb. 1036. Juff. 123. Grrt. 304. Pl. 53. Willd. 1175. La Marck. Pi. 535. Clifs, Didynamia Angto/permia. Nat. Ord. Luride—Scrophularie, Juil. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth one-leafed, tubular, fhort, five-toothed, permenent; teeth rather unequal. Cor. monopetalous, funnel-fhaped; tube cy< lindric, as long again as the calyx; border flat, five-cleft; fegments rounded, emarginate, the upper one a little larger than the reft, and confiituting the upper lip. Stom. fila- ments four, included in the tube; the two longeft with larger anthers, which clofethe throat of the corolla. Anthers fim- ple, incurved, converging; the inner oes twin, the onter ones opening at the top with a fmall hole. Pi? gern ovate, retufe ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the tube cf the corolla; fligma’ thick, four-lobed. eric. capfuie ovate, obtufe, clothed with the calyx, two-celled, many-feeded, two-valved ; valves bifid at the top; partition fiat, thin, parallel to the valves, and feparating from the fides of the capfule as it advances to maturity, whence Linnzus judged it to be one-celled. (Gare. and Jufl.) Seeds nu- merous, fmall. Eff. Ch. Cal. five-toothed, Cor. border five-cleft, nearly equal, {preading ; throat clofed by the two larger anthers: Sp. 1. B. demiffa, Linn. (La Marck Pl. 535.) ‘* Downy; peduncles alternate, one-flowered.?? Root annual. Stem hers baceous, about a foot high, brarched. eaves alternate, petioled, ovate-pointed, with fhort hairs on their petioles and nerves. Flowers axillary and terminating, folitary, fhorter than the Jeaves. Corc/la of a bright, but pale blue colour. Seeds fent to Mr. Miller from Panama, in 1735, who named the Plant Dalez,in honour of Mr. Dale, an eminent Englifh botaniit, and fent the feeds under that name to Linnzus, who thought proper to change the name to Browallia. 2. B. elata, Linn. (Curt. Bot. Mag. 34.) ‘ Rather {mooth, flowers one or more, terminating.”? Root annual. Stem about two feet high, cylindric, ftiff, much branched. Leaves lanceolate. Flowers of a beautiful violet-blue. Native of Peru. Both thefe fpecies mult be raifed on a hot-bed in the {pring, and may afterwards be tranfplanted into a warm flower border, where, if the weather be favourable, they will flower and ripen their feeds. 3. B. alienata, Linn. “ Upper leaves oppofite, two ftamens the length of the corolla.”” Taken up by Linnzus folely on the authority of Miller’s figure; and as Miller himfelf did- not infert it in the later editions of his Dictionary, it isa dubious plant. 4. B. humi- fufa, Forfk. ‘ Hifpid, proftrate; flowers axillary, nearly feffile, white.” Svems flender, branched, hifpid. Leaves oppofite, oblong, {effile, narrowed at their bafe. Peduncles axillary, folitary, very fhort. Calyx hifpid, cylindric, with five thread-fhaped divifions. Tube of the corolla ftraight, half an inch long; border open, almoft regular, with four oval divifions. Cap/ule compreffed, one-celled? many-feeded, enveloped by the calyx. BROWERSHAVEN, in Geography, fo called from port des A be the port or haven of brewers, a {ea-poit town of Zealand, on the north fide of the ifland of Schouwen, op- pofite to Goree. In 1426,abloody battle was fought near this town between Philip, duke of Burgundy, and Hum- phry, duke of Glouceher, brother to Henry V. king of England, who came with 3000 Englih to the affiltance of Mary de Jagueline, countefs of Holland, in which the duke of Glovecer was defeated ; 5 miles S. of Goree and S. S. W. of Helvoetfluys. 15/~ *RROWHEAD, a cape of Ireland, at the eaftern extre- mity of Barley Cove, in the fouth-wellera part of the county of Cork. N. dat- 51° 23! 30%. W. long. 9° 4o!. 3D2 BROWN, N. lat. 51° 40! E, long. 4° BROWN. BROWN; adufky kind of colour, inclining fomewhat towards rednefs, Dyers diftinguifh divers fhades and gra- dations of brown, a fad brown, London brown, clove brown, purple brown, walnut-tree brown, &c. The brown colours are biflre, brown ochre, Colegae earth, ombré and brown pink; which fee. Svanifh brown is a dull red colour, ufed by houfe-painters chiefly for priming, and by colourmen in preparing cloths for piétures and other coarfe work, as being cheap and ealy to work. Itis obtained from a native earth, which is found ie the flate and of the colourin whichit isufed. Thename feems to import that it was formerly brought from abroad ; but that which is now ufed is dug up in feveral parts of Ensland. For.the method of dyeing browns, fee Dyrrinc. Brown, Rozerr, in Biography, the founder of the fe& denominated Brownists, was the fon of Anthony Brown, efq. of Tolthorp, in Rutlandfhire, and the grandfon of Erancis Brown, whom king Henry VIIL., io the 18th year of hie reign, privileged by charter to wear his cap in the prefence of himfelf, his hers, or any ef his nobles; and not to uncover but at his own pleafure; which charter was con- firm-d by aé& of parliament. Thus defcended of an ancient and rcfpectable family, nearly allied to the lord treafurer Burleigh, he was born at Northampton, towards the middle of the 16th century, ftudied divinity in the univerfity of Cambridge, and afterwards became a fchool-mafter in South- wark Adopting the opinions of Cartwright (fee Cart- WRIGHT), he determined to form from them what he con- ceived to be a more perfe& fyftem of dotrine and praétice ; and, about the year 1580, he began to inveigh with intem- perate vehemence and ardour againit the difcipline and cere- monies of the church of England, reprefenting her govern- ment as Antichriftian, her facraments as fuperflitious, her li- turgy as a mixture of popery and paganifm, and the miflion of her clergy as no better than that of Baal’s priefts in the Old Teltament. In the foilowing year he preached at Norwich to a Dutch congregation, in which were feveral perfons inclined to Anabaptilr ; and having in this fituation gained fome profelytes to his opinions, and eftablifhed a cha- raGter for fanétity and zeal, he formed a conneétion with a fehoolmafter, whofe name was Richard Harrifon; and, with his affitance, he colleéted a number of difciples, partly Dutch and partly Englith, who, difapproving the forms and fervice of the eftablifhed church, were formed into a feparate fociety under the denomination of Brownists Upon this, Brown was convened before Dr. Freake, bifhop of Nor zich, and other ecclefiaftical commiffioners; but’as he perfifted in main- taining his opinions, and beliaved in an unbecoming manner befare the court, he was committed to the cuftody of the fheriff, from which, however, he was releafed by the inter- polition of his relation, the lord-treafurer Burleigh, who candidly imputed his error and obftinacy to zeal rather than malice, and recommended reafoning rather than harfh treat- ment, as the moft likely means of reclaiming him. The lord-treafurer’s letter to the bifhop produced the defired ef- fe&. His lordfhip afterwards requetted archbifhop Whitgift to give his kinfman neceffary intlruGion and counfel; but Brown left the kingdom, and fettled at Middleburg in Zealand, where he and his followers obtained leave of the States to worfhip God in their own way, and to form a church according to their owo model; a fketch of which was drawn up by Brown, in atreatife printed at Middleburg. in 1582. This confifts of three traéts; the fir? entitled «© A Treatife. of Reformation, without tarrying for any, &c.;’? the obje& of which is to excite the people to with- @raw from the church, and unite with him, and to exclude. the civil magiftrate from any authority over ecclefiafical perfons and concerns: the /econd is, * A Treatife upon the 23d chapter of St. Matthew, &c.’’ in which the author ex- claims againft the abufe of tongues in preaching, that is, again{t the ufe of Hebrew, Greek, or Latin, in fermons: alfo, againft the ufe of logic and rhetoric, &c.; againft diforderly preaching at St. Paul’s crofs, &c.; and againft parifh- preachers and hired leGturers: and the ¢hird is entitled, “A Book which fheweth the Life and Manners of all true Chriftians, and how unlike they are unto Turks and Papitts, and Heathen folk, &c.”? Some time before the year 1585, Brown left M:ddleburg, and came over to England; for in this year he was cited to appear before archbifhop Whitgift, to anfwer to certain matters contained in a book publifhed by him ; and when he had been brought, by the prelate’s reafcning, to a tolerabie compliance with the church of England, he was fent to his father in the country, and re- commended by the lord treafurerto his favour and aff:Gion. Brown’s opinions, however, were too deeply fixed to be eafily eradicated ; and therefore his father, with a feverity very different from the condu& of the Jord treafurer, dif- owned him for his fon, and expelled him from his houfe. Brown had now no fettled habitation, and encountered va- rious hardfhips; but at length he fettled in Northampton- fhire, and perfifted in zealoufly propagating his tenets. Be- ing cited to appear before the bifhop of Peterborough, he retufed to obey, and was excommunicated for contempt. This cenfure alarmed and humbled him; and having made his fubmiffion, he obtained abfolution. Accordingly, about the year 1590, he renounced his principles of {eparation, » from that time continued in the communion of the church, and was foon after preferred to the retory of a church in Northamptonfhire. Fuller, however, 1s of opinion, that Brown never formally recanted his opinions with regard to the main points of his doétrine ; but that his promife of a general compliance with the church of England, improved by the countenance of his patron and kin{man, the earl of Exeter, prevailed upon the archbifhop, and procured this extraordinary favour for him. He adds, that Brown allowed afalary for one to difcharge his cure; and though he op- poled his parifhioners in judgment, yet agreed in taking their tythes. His feé&t, however, long furvived his revolt and of its peculiar tenets an account is given under the arti- cle Brownists. Brown is reprefented as a man of good parts and fome learning ; but his temper was imperious and uncontrollable; nor was his conduét agreeable to the Sab- batarian ftr Gtnefs which was afterwards profeffed by his fol- lowers. Fuller fays of him, that he bad a wife with whom he never lived, and a church in which he never preached, though he received the profits of dt: and as all the other {cenes of his life were ftormy and turbulent, fo was-his end ; for the conftable of his parifh requiring fomewhat roughly the payment of certain rates, his paflion moved him to blows; of which the conftable complained to juftice St. John, who inclined to pity rather thar to punifh bim; but Brown behaved with fuch infolence, that he was fent to Northamp- ton gaol, on a feather-bed ina cart, being very infirm, and aged above 80 years, where he foon after fickened and died, inthe year 1630; after boafting of his perfecutions, and “that he had been committed to 32 prifons, in fome of which he could not fee his hand at noon day.” Biog. Brit. Brown, Txomas, an ingenious writer, who lived to- wards the clofe of the 17xh century, was the fon of a farmer in Shropfhire, and educated at Newport fchool in that county, where he acquired a confiderab!e acquaintance with the Latin, Greek, French, Italian, and Spanifh ics ihe ee ‘4 whic BROWN. which was farther improved at Chrift-church, in the univer- fity of Oxford. But notwithftanding his literary attain- ments, his conduct was fo irregular, that he was under a neceflity of quitting the univerfity ; and, inftead of return- ing to bis father, he removed to London, where he was in danger of ftarving. In thefe circumftances of penury and diftrefs, he was relieved, by being appointed {chool matter at Kingfton-upon-Thames; a profeffion, however, which, being very unfuitable to his difpofition, he foon abandoned. Returning to London, he commenced author; and em- ployed himfelf in writing for the bookfellers. His publica- tions were very numerous, and cenfifted of dialogues, letters, poems, &c. in which his erudition was enlivened by his hu- mour; for in his writings,’as well as in his converfation, he was always fprightly and facetious. But though he had the reputation of a {cholar, he was deftitute of prudence ; and, as he indulged his genius for fatire to an extravagant degree, he was more likely to forfeit than to conciliate the friendfhip of thofe who were able to affilt him ; and it was faid of him, that he rather chofe to lofe his friend than his joke. He took pleafure in libelling both the clergy and jaity, and his indecorous treatment of religion laid the found- ation for remorfe, which is faid to bave embittered the jaft moments of his life. Mr. Jacob informs us, that towards the clofe of his career, he was favoured by the earl of Dor- fet; that being invited to dine with him in company with Dryden, and fome other gentlemen of fimilar defcription, he found, to his agreeable furprife, a bank note of 5ol. under his plate, at which time Dryden was prefented with another of rool. Brown died in 1704, and was interred im the cloilter of Weftminfter abbey, near the remains of Mrs. Behn, with whom he had been intimate. His works, con- fitting of dialogues, effays, declamations, fatires, letters from the dead to the living, tranflatious, &c. were printed in 4 vols. 12m0. in 1707 Tney are not deititute of learn- ing, and abound wirh humour, which 1s jullly charged with want of delicacy. Biog. D.&. Brown, Moses, vicar of Olney, Berks, and chaplain of Morden college, was born in 1703, and was originally a pen-cutter. In 1723, he publifhed two dramatic pieces, called **Polidus, or diitreffed Love,’”’ a tragedy, and * All bedeviiled,” a farce, both aGed at a private theatre in St. Alban’s fireet. On the inftitution of the Gentleman’s Ma- gazine, he became a contributor to it ; and obtained fome of the prizes offered by Mr. Cave, for the beft poems ; and, in 1739, be publifhed a volume of poems in Svo., and, in 1749, ‘* Sunday Thoughts,”’ a poem, 1zmo. In 1756, he publifhed “* Percy Lodge,” a defcriptive poem; he alfo edited ** Walton’s Complete Angler ;” and, in 1773, re- publithed his “‘ Pifcatory Eclogues.’”? He alfo tranflated Zimmermann, and was the author of fome fermons. He died Sep. 13th, 1787. Biog. Di&. Baown, Joux, aclergyman of the church of England, and an ingenious writer, was born in 1715 at Rothbury, in Northumberland, and educated, firft at Wigton, and after- wards at St John’s college, Cambridge, where he acquired great reputation. Upon his quitting the univerlity in 1735, he took orders, and firk fettled as minor canon and leturer in the city of Carlifle. In 1739, he took his degree of matter of arts at Cambridge ; and in the yerr of the rebels lion. 1745, he diftingurthed himfelf by his zeal for govern- ment, and by the intrepidity with which he entered asa voluntecr at the fiege of Carlifle. In the following year, he preached, on occafion of the trial of fome of the rebels, two admirable difcourfes on the conne4tion between religious truth and civil liberty, and between fuperitition, tyranny, irrclizion, and. licentioufnefs; and his avowed attachment to the principles of whiggifm recommended him to the patronage of Dr. Ofbaldelton, bifhop of Carlifle, who ob- tained for hima living in Weftmoreland. About this time, his talents for correct and elegant verlification were evinced, in a poem on ‘ Honour,”? infcribed to lord Lonfdale, and in an “¢ Effay on Satire,’? addrefled to Dr. Warburton, and ° prefixed to this eminent critic’s edition of Pope’s works. Tne friendfhip of Warburton was foon followed by that of Mr. Ralph Allen of Prior park, who entertained Mr. Brown at his houfe, and offered him pecuniary affiltance. During his vifit at Prior-Park, he preached two fermons at the ab- bey-church of Bath ; one of which, expofing the mifchiefs ef immoderate gaming, 1s faid to have induced the magif- trates to iffue an order for the fuppreffion of the public gam- ing tables. In 1751, he publifhed a work which may be fill regarded as one of his moft capital produCtions: viz. ‘« Effays on the charatteriltics of the earl of Shaftfbury,”’ comprehending one * On Radicule, confidered as a left of Truth ;”’ another, * On the Motives to Virtue, and the Ne- ceflity of religious Principle ;”? and a third, “ On revealed - Religion and Chriflianity.’ Thefe effays are written with elegance and {pirit, and, at the fame time, with candour and politenefs. ‘They were.of courfe much read, and fre- quently re-publifhed, fo thata fifth edition of them appeared in 1764. In 1755, Mr. Brown was honoured with the title of doétor of divinity at Cambridge; and, in the fame year, he ventured to appear before the public under the : new charaéter of a dramatic writer. With the afliltance of » Mr. Garrick, his tragedy of * Barbarofla,” was exhibited - on the ftage with advantage; and this was fucceeded in the enfuing year by ‘¢ Arhelftan.”” Both thefe performances were publifhed without his name. Tne next publication which we fhall mention, forms a kind of era in the anthor’s life; it appeared in 1757, and was entitled ** An Ellimate of the Manners and Principles » of the Times.”? ‘This work was publifhed at a time, when the fpirits of the people were extremely deprefled by fome unprofperous events that had occured at the commence- - ment, and during the progrefs of the war, in which the na- tion was engaged ; and it was defigned to thew, that a vain, luxurious, and felfifh effeminacy, in the higher sanks of life, marked the charaGter of the age, and to point out the caules and the effe&ts of this effeminacy. ‘The * Eftimate,” adapted to the circumftances and difpofition of the people, at the time when it appeared, was read with avidity, and feven editions of it were called for in little more than a» year. It did not pafs, however, unnotic BRU harmonies. Again, why fhould not noife give the fenfation of found, fince with found noife is produced? Put down all the keys of a harpfichord or piano-forte at once,and a fenfation of nothing but noife will be the confequence, and its effe& will continue no longer than that of any other noile. Why fhould not noife be found, fince a mufical firing forced, or a pipe over-blown, is only noife, any more than a voice which fcreams with all its might, or a great beil heard in the belfry? Becaufe it is impofflible to difcriminate one found from another; though the tone of the fame bell at a diltance is eafily afcertained, as would the {creaming voice if foftened and rendered tuneable. But it may be afked, whence comes this great change of noife into found. It iz from the diminifhed violence of the vibrations, which had caufed fo many aliquot parts to found at once that the total became mere noife. For the aliquot parts in vibration are not only the half, the third part, the fourth, and all the confequences, but the feventh part, the ninth, the hundredth, and {till more; all which have the fame effect asthe putting down all the keys at once, the bell in the belfry, and the voice of a {creamer; and thus found itfelf becomes noife, and noife found. A coarfe, confufed, and diffonant mufic, is contemptuovfly called noife; asa bad opera ill performed is {aid to produce a great noife, but no effect.’? Thus far the citizen of Geneva, with his ufual force and ingennity, has deferibed noife. A paffage is given from ‘* La Poetique de la Mufique,”’ of M. De la Cepide, in fupport of Rouffeau’s doétrine, which in this inftance feems to want no fupport. Meffrs, Ginguené and Framerie have taken up the fubje& after M. De la Cepide, merely to expand and amplify Rouf- feau’s arguments, without fortifying them by any additional matter, except in cenfuring the augmentation of force in an orcheftra by facbuts, cymbals, double drums, and tromboni, which producing nothing but noile themfelves, prevent us from hearing every thing that deferves the name of mufic. Inftruments of percuffion may be of ufe in the open air to mark the fteps of an army on its march, and the fereaming and clamour of the reft during battle, to drown the cries of the wounded and groans of the dying; but in an inclofed theatre or concert-room, they only torture delicate ears, and change into punifhment the pleafures of fenfibility. BRUKA, or Bruxo, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the fouth coat of the river Gambia; 160 miles from the fer : BRUKSAL, an ifland of Africa, near the mouth of the river Senegal, BRULE, or Bruttos, Gape, lies on the coaft of Ezypt; Tr leagues W.N.W. northerly from Damietta, or the an- cient Pelufium.—Alfo, a cape on the coalt of Cape Breton, in North America, near the gulf of St. Lawrence, feparating the bay of Moricnne from the bay of Miray. BRULON, a town of France, in the department of the Sarthe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of La Fléche; 3 leagues northof Sablé. Thetowncontains 1310, and the canton 10,994 inhabitants; the territory includes 200 kiliometres, and 16 communes. BRUMALIA, or Bromatta, a fealt of Bacchus, cele- brated among the ancicnt Romans, during the fpace of 30 days; commencing on the 24th of November, and ending the 26th of December. Some fay this fealt was celebrated twice a year, viz. on the 12th of the calends of March, and on the 18th of the calends of September. The word comes from bruma, the day of the winter fol- flice ; in regard of the time when the feait was held: though others derive it from Brumus, or Bromius, names of Bac- chus. BRU The brumalia were inftituted by Romulus, who ufed, dis ring this time, to entertain the fenate. During this fealt indications were taken of the felicity of the remaining part of winter. The Brumalia were alfo called Hiemalia. BRUMALIS, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Emsrriz 4 that inhabits the Tyrolefe country, called by Latham the Brumal Bunting. Scopoli thus defcribes this little bird : body beneath, the front, and region of the eyes citron colour: hind head and neck cinereous.—Obf. The back is yellow brown, vent citron, thighs whitifh, quill-feathers brown, having the exterior margin citron. BRUMATA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Puavena (Geometra) the wings of which are yellowith, with a black ftreak, and a paler one behind. ‘lhe female is apterous, or without wings, and {potted with black. Lian. Found on apple trees. : BRUMATH, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a can ton, in the diftri€t of Strafburg, 3 leagues N. of Strafburgs Tke town contains 2671, and the canton 12.951 inhabit< ants; the territory comprehends 1822 kiliometres, and 21 communes. BRUMEL, Anrtuony, the moft ancient contrapuntift of the French fchool of whofe compofitions we have been able to find any remains, was contemporary with Jufquin, and fcholar of Okenheim; and though he is not hkely to be inquired after by the prefent age, he was fo refpeéted in his day, that his name fhould not be configned to the gulph of oblivion while a veltige of his works remains; and feveral {till fubfift io Glarcanus, and the Mufeum colle&tion. The fame of the great muficians of antiquity is fo ettablifhed in books, that, though not a tingle relic of their works has been extant thefe two thoufand years, their names and renown are fill held in veneration by mankind. BRUMOY, Peter, in Biography, a celebrated French writer, of the order of the Jefwits, was born at Rouen in 1688, commenced his noviciate at Paris in 1704, and finifhed his tludics at Caen. Having been for fome time employed in teaching rhetoric in different parts of the country, -he took the vows of his order at Paris in £722, and undertook the education of the prince de Talmont. He engaged for fe- veral years in the Journalde Trevoux, but in confequence of publifhing father Margat’s hiftory of Tamerlane, he was exiled from Paris. On his return, he continued his “* Hif- tory of the Gallican Church ;”” but having nearly finifhed the rath volume, he was taken off by a paralytic ftroke in 1742, leaving behind him the charater of an amiable man aod an efteemed writer. The work from which he acquired the greateft reputation was his ‘¢ Théatre des Grecs,” in 3 vols. 4to. ; containing profe tranflations and analyfes of the principal Greek tragedies, with differtations on the Greek theatre, &c. The author, whofe erudition and tafte are much elteemed by the beft judges, has been cenfured by fome writers for manifelting too trong a bias towards the ancients, and Voltaire in particular is difpleated for his not having al- lowed the fuperiority of the French theatre above the Greek, Brumoy publithed likewife, in 1741, a colleGtion of his own pieces, in 4 vols. 12mo. confifting of Latin poems, founded upon the model of Lucretius, epiltles, and dramatic pieces, tragic, comic, and paftoral. His poem on the * Paffions”? has been much extolled for the clevation of its fentiments, and its poetic beauties. The difcriminating excellence of his tragedies confifts in the delineation of the tender p:flions. The “ Revolutions of Spain,” begun by father Orleans, were finifhed by Brumoy. Nouv. Dict. Hitt. ‘ BRUN, Cxraxces Le, an eminent French painter, “i tne BRU the fon of a {cu'ptor, defcended from a Scots family probably of the name of ** Brown,” and born at Parisin 1619. Manitfett- ing in very early life the bent of his genius, fo that at theage of four years he took coals from the fire for drawing figures on the floor, and at the age of twelve years made a good portrait of his grandfather, he was placed under the inttruc- tion of Vouct, whom he aftonifhed by his rapid progrefs. In 1642 be was fent by the chancellor Sequjer to Italy, where he continued 6 years, boarding in the houfe of the famous Povffia, and employing himfelf in copying the works of the principal maiters, and in ttudying the cofume of differ- ent ages and nations, fo as to acquire the character of a learned painter. He alfo imitated the tafte of Pouffin fo exaGly as to deceive feveral connoiffeurs. On bis return from. Rome to Paris, in 1648, he was received into the Academy, and as he engaged in the highelt branch of his art, hiftorical and allegorical painting, and fele€ted great works, he rofe to the mof diilinguifhed rank in his profef- fion, He was patronized by the fuperintendant Fouguet, and by him recommended to Cardinal Mazarin, and by his iuterpofition, to the king. By the intereft of Colbert, he was afterwards made the kigg’s firft painter, and ennobled in 1662. Lewis X1V_ honoured him with peculiar tokens of favour, and frequently attended him whilft he was paint- ing the family of Darius at Fontainbleau. In his five large picees of the hiftory of Alexander the Great, he is faid to have exhibited the exploits of that conqueror in a more glorious light than Quintus Curtius in his hiltory. As an evidence of his attention to truth and nature, it is reported that he caufed Perfian horfes to be drawn at Aleppo as mo- dels for thofe which he painted in Alexander’s battles. He swas employed by Colbert in painting the chapel and pavi- lion of Aurora at his feat of Sceaux, and by his intereit he shad the direGion of the royal works, and particularly of the Gobelin manufactory, for the tapeftry of which he made -Gefigne of the four feafons and four elements, that were en- graved by Le Clerc. At the Gobclins he had handfome lodgings, and he was allowed a confiderable penfion. The Academy of painting was altogether under his direétion, and he contributed in an eminent degree, by procuring an -eltablifhment at Rome for the gratuitous education of young artilts fele&ted from Paris, and in a variety of other ways, -to the promotion of the fine arts in France, and to the pe- -culiar magnificence of the reign of Lewis XIV. With a particular view to this laft object, he was occupied for four- -teen years in reprefenting by hiftory and allegory, in the great gellery at Verfailles, the (plendid events of this pe- riod down to the peace of Nimeguen. But the work, though he devoted to it much time and attention, became thetabjed of criticifm, fo that his reputation derived little advantage from it. When Louvois fucceeded Colbert as fuperintendent of the royal edifices, Mignard was fet up as a rival to Le Brun, and the mortification he experienced preyed upon his fpirits, fo that he fell into a decline, and died in 1690, leaving a wife but no children. Le Brun amaintained, in bis manners and ftyle of living, the dignity of aman of quality: foreign prinecs teftified their refpect for his talents by the eagernefs with which they endeavoured to obtain peffiflion of his works, and the grand duke of ‘Tofcany paid him the compliment of requetting a portrait of him for bis gallery. Thus flattered and honoured, both at home 2nd abroad, it is no wonder that his pride thou'd be mortified by the advancemest of a rival ; more efpeciaily when we confider, that he manifefted a jcalouly of compe- -Aitors in bis conduét towards Le Sueur, which was unworthy of his talenta and charaéter. When this great genius lay on his death bed, Le Biun, alter having vilited bim, BRU faid on his departure, “that death was taking a great thorn out of his foot ;”? an exprcffion which indicated want of becoming fenfibility, and which occafioned the unfounded sso that he had procured poifon to be adminiitered to his rival, The diftinguifhing merits of Le Brun as a painter are greatnefs of conception, good ordonnance, expreffion and elevation: but he ts cenfured for too much of the French flutter and affeQation, a want of variety in his attitudes and draperies, and deficiency of colouring. Among the moft eftimable of bis performances we may reckon the “ Battles of Alexandcr,’”’ the merit of which has been more confpi- cuous by the excellent engravings of Girard Audran, the ‘* Penitent Magdalen”? much admired, the “ Carrying of the Crofs,” the « Crucifixion,?? and * St.John in the lake of Pat- mos.” Hisdelignshave beencopied by many capital enzravers? and he himfelt etched for his amulement {everal plates, in a dark bold ityle, manifefting the hand of the malter, among which are the ‘* Four times of the Day” and an “ Infant knecling upon the Crofs,” from his own d-figns. Asa writer, he is known for two works: one “ On Phy- fiognomy,”” and another * On the Paffions,” which latter has fupplied various models for drawing. D’Argenville, Gen. Di&. Pilkinzton. Strutt. Brun, Perer Le, a learned ecclefiaftical writer, was bora at Brignole, in Provence, in 1661, became-a prieft of the cratory,and was engaged for 13 years in giving ledtures, at the feminary of St. Magloire, at Pari+, on the Scriptures, coun- cils, and ecclefiaftical hiftory. In 1693 he publifhed « Let- ters to prove the illufion of Philofophers on the Divining Rod,” afterwards publifhed under the title of Critical Hittory of the Superttitious Practices which have feduced the Vulgar and embarraffed the Learned, with the Method and Principles for difcriminating the natural from the fuper= natural Effe&s,’? three vols. 12mo. in which the author ad- mits the reality of diabolical illufions in his attempt to give a natural explanation of fraudulent deceptions. He alfo wrote An hiftorical and dorinal Treatife on theatrical Spectacles,” 12mo. in which he maintains their unlawfule nefs to a Chriftian. At the requelt of the Abbe Bignon, he publifhed an elaborate work on ‘ Liturgiee,” in 4 vols. 8vo. the firft of which appeared in 1716, and three others ia.1726. The opinions which he advanced on the confe= eration of the mafs, involved him in a controverly, ducing the profecution of which his life was terminated by a difors der in the brealt, in January, 1729. As a writer, he was profound and methodical, with a clear and fimple ftyle: oh his piety was equal to his erudition. Nouy. Did. ut. Baun, or Browns, Care, in Geography, lies in the N.N_E. point of che entrance into the great road ot Toulon, on the coaft of France, in the Mediterranean. BRUNCA, La, a fea-port town on the weft coalt of the ifland of Sicily, at the entrance of the gulf of Catania, 16 miles fouth of Catania. BRUNDISI, or Brunpisium. See Beinpiss. BRUNELLA, in Botany. See Prunevca. BRUNELLESCHI, Paani, in Biography, an eminent lralian archite&t, was born at Florence in 1377+ and in early life having a talte for mathematics and mechanics, and a de- fire to learn feuipture, he became acquainted with Donatelli, a riiog artilt in this department, and accompanied him to Rome, in order to furvey the monuments of architeGture and feulpture in that capital. Here Briunellefchi employed nis whole time with indefatigabue affiduity, in meking drawings and taking meafures of all the famous relics of antiquity 5 and having conceived a defign of eflablifhing bis fame, by erecting BELO ereAing, on anew plan, a dome for the cathedral of St. Maria del Fiore at Florence, he remained in Rome, after the departure of his friend, in order to qualify himfelf for this undertaking. Asin his youth he had been initiated into tlie bufinefs of a goldfmith, he now found his knowledge ufe- ful in procuring a maintenance by fetting jewels for the gold- fmiths. In 1407 ficknefs obliged him to return to Flo- rence; and at this time the Florentines had convoked an affembly of archite&ts and engineers to deliberate on the completion of the cathedral. Brunellefchi gave his opinion and then returned to Rome. Many plans were propofed for erecting the propofed dome; but Brunellefchi was fingular jn afferting that a double dome might be raifed to a fufficient height, without that immenfe mals of timber-work which others had thought to be neceflary. Having communicated his defigne, he engaged the confidence of the magiftrates, and he was employed in the execution of the work. “He proceeded in it with ardour, and lived to complete the dome as far as the lantern; carrying it to fuch a height, and exe- cuting it with fuch beauty, as altonifhed the whole country. Such indeed was the beauty with which it was executed, that Michael Angelo afterwards faid, it would be very diffi- cult to imitate, and perhapsimpoffible to furpafsit. Brunel- lefchi was employed by Cofmo the Great in building the ab- bey of canons regular at Fefoli, and in forming for him the model of a palace, which his prudence and moderation would not allow him to execute. But as Cofmo preferred the more humble plan of Michelozzi, Brunellefchi was fo indignant that he deftroyed his model, though its fuperiority was ac- knowledged by Cofmo. He afterwards undertook the con- ftru€tion of the Pitti palace, and carried it up to the fecond ftory ; but the completion of it after his death, was the work of Ammanati. The church of St. Lorenzo in Flo- rence, was almoft entirely the work of Brunellefchi. He was no lefs filled in military, than in civil architeGture; and in this department, he gave to'the duke of Milan the plan of a fortrefs for his capital; and he alfo contrived the two cita- dels of Pifa, and other fortifications in that part of Italy. As a civil engineer, he was employed in 1445, by the mar- quis of Mantua in conftru@ing dykes for reftraining the Po to its bed; and foon after the completion of this work, he died at the age of 69, much regretted by his brother-artifts, and more fo by the poor, to whom he wasa father. His merit was more generally acknowledged after his death than during his life ; for he had the mortification of feeing feveral of his undertakings left unfinifhed for want of due encourage- ment. Brunellefchi was alfo a cultivator of Italian poetry, and fome of his burlefque verfes have been printed along with thofe of Burchiello. D’Argenville. Tirabofchi. BRUNELLIA, in Botany. Clafs, dodecandria pentagy- nia. Gen. Char. Calyx with five ovate fegments, perma- nent. Cor. none. Stam. filaments eleven, villous at their bafe. Ned. eleven permanent glands, alternating with the ftamens. Pifl. germs five, fuperior; ftyles tubular; ftigmas fimple. Peric. capfules five, difpofed in the form of a ftar, oblong, pointed, one-celled, one-valved, opening lengthways. Seeds two, pedicelled, inclofed in anaril. Two trees of this ge- nus are figured in the Flor. Peruv. pl.12. Bofc. BRUNET, in Ornithology, the name affigned by Buffon to Fringilla pecoris, which fee. Thus alfo Brunet du Cap de Bonne Efperance, Buff. is turdus capenfis, which fee. Bruner, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the fouth coaft of Newfoundland, at the entrance into Fortune bay. N. lat. 47° 15'. W. long. 55° 4/. Brunet, Cape, is the fouth point of the entrance into the bay of Arcaffon, on the weft coaft of France, from : BRU which a tail ftretches off towards the fea, in the direGion of W.S.W. : BRUNETTE, La, a ftrong and well garrifoned fortrefs of Piedmont, near Sufa, commanding two vallies. By an article in the peace concluded between the French and the king of Sardinia, in April 1796, this fortrefs was to be dif- mantled. BRUNFELSIA, in Botany, (named by Plumier from Otto Brunfeifius of Mentz, who publifhed the firft good figures of plants in 1530, and died in 1534). Linn. 260. Reich. 281. .Schreb. 1013. Willden. 1151. Juff. 127. La Marck. Bofc. Ciafs, pentandria monogynia, Linneus, Reichard, and Bofc; didynamia angiofpermia, Gmelin, Schre- ber, Willdenow, and La Marck. Nat. Ord. Perfonate—So- lanee. Juff. Gen. Char. Cal. one-leafed, bell-fhaped, five- toothed, obtufe, very {mal!, permanent. » Cor. one-petalled, funnel-{haped; tube very long, flightly curved inwards; border flat, with five blunt, nearly equal lobes. Svam. fila- ments four, very fhort ; anthers two, a little higher than the others, prominent from the mouth of the tube (a fifth fila~ ment very fmall, abortive, Juff. & Bofc.) Pif. germ roundifh, {mall; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the tube ; fligma rather thick. Pericarp, a berry, Linns Swartz, Juff. La Marck, Bofc; a caplule berried on the outfide, one-celled, two-valved, opening by a diftiné future from the fummit to the bafe, Schreb. Willd. Martyn. Seeds many, compreffed, convex on one fide, angular on the other, rug ged, with little points. Eff. Char. Calyx five-toothed, narrow; tube of the co= rolla very long; capfule one-celled, many-feeded, with a large flefhy receptacle. Sp. 1. B. Americana, Linn. trumpet-flower. (La Marck Illutt. Pl. 548.) ‘¢ Leaves elliptic, acuminate, on longifh petioles ; tube of the corolla ere& ; lobes of the border en- tire.’ Swartz. A tree of a moderate fize. Trunk, the thicknefs of the human body. Branches loofe. Leaves al« ternate, very entire, narrowed towards the bafe, {mooth. Flowers growing three or four together at the ends of the branches. Tube of a pale colour, fprinkled with violet {pots 5 border at firft very white, at length pale yellow. Fruit nearly {pherical, a little larger than a nut, of an orange co- lour, containing numerous ruffet fzeds placed between the external covering and a flefhy fucculent fubftance which oc~ cupies all the infide. La Marck. A native of Jamaica, Mar- tinico, and other Welt Indian iflands, Cultivated by Mr. Miller, in 1739. 2. B. undulata. ‘* Leaves lanceolate- ovate, drawn to a point at both ends; petioles very fhort 5 tube of the corolla curved; border waved.”? Swartz, A na~ tive alfo of Jamaica, &c, 02/. Schreber’s defcription of the receptacle not bring re~ concileable with La Marck’s, and not being in itfelf very intelligible, has been omitted. P Both thefe {pecies may be raifed in the fpring, either from feeds or cuttings, and fhould be treated like other tropical plants. In fummer they fhould have much frefh air; but in winter mult be kept clofe. With proper management they will produce flowers every feafon in June aud July. BRUNI, Leonarp, in Biography. See Anetino. BRUNIA, in Botany, (from Cornelius Brun, the cele- brated traveller), Linn. 274. Reich. 293. Schreb. 376. Juffl. 381. Gert. 152. Pl. 30. Willd. 428. Ventenat. vol. iil, p. 474. A genus formed by Linnseus for feveral fhrubby plants, which have fome refemblance in habit to erica and protea, and are allied in their mode of inflorefcence to flatice; but its diftinguifhing charaGters were not accu- rately fixed: for Linnzus afterwards feparated from it “a ry BRU ef the original fpecies, annexing one to di/ma, and the other to profea, and admitted an additional one, which he had formerly referred to pighes. Reichard was fenfible that the fpecies of Linneus differ from each other in the number of ftyles and fituation of the germ, but left them as he found them. Gertner alfo obferved, that the genus ftood in need of a thorough inveftigation ; and that the plants with an inferior ought to be a from thofe which have a fuperior germ. In conformity with this idea, Schreber formed a new genus for the former, with the additional charaGers of two ityles, either quite feparate, or joined together, and fila- ments inferted on the calyx. This genus he called /ewi/anus ; but in honour of one of Linneeus’s difciples, it has fince been named faavia. The effential character of érunia, as it ftands in Schreber, confiits of a fuperior germ, fingle ilyle, and fla- mens inferted on the claws of the petals. But the confufion was not yet completely removed; for two of the f{pecies with a fuperior germ have decidedly two ityles. It was therefore neceflary either to divide the original genus into three, or to allow to drunia a greater latitude with refpeét to the ftyle. The latter has been preferred by the prefent French botanilts, except La Marck ; and we do not hefitate to adopt Ventenat’s generic character of brunia, efpecially as it correfponds with Willdenow’s difpofition of the {pecies, though the effential characters of brunia_and ffaavia in the German author are both erroneous. We fhall only add, that fome obfcurity neveithelefs muft remain, till we have new and accurate detailed defcriptions of all the fpecies taken from recent and complete fpecimens. Gen. Char. Receptacle common, chafly. Calyx common, many-leaved. Cal. proper, inferior, with five fegments. Petals five, clon- gate, upright, clawed. Séam. five, attached to the claws of the petals. /i//. germ fuperior; flyle fingle or double ; ftigmas two. Pericarp, a dry ovate drupe, containing a hard, two-celled nut, with but few feeds. Eff. Char. Stamens on the claws of the petals; germ fu- perior. Pericarp, a dry, two-celled drupe. Species, 1. B. nodiffora, Linn. (La Marck, Illuft. Pl. 126.) *¢ Leaves three-fided, curved inwards; heads of flowers ter- minal, on the lateral branches."? Thun. A branched, ever- green underfhrob. = Leaves very {mall, pointed, upright, clofely imbricated, forming in the flender branches five longi- tudinal, fomewhat fpiral, angles. J/eads of flowers whitith, about the fize of a {mall cherry. Styles two. 2. B. palea- cea. Linn. “ Leaves three-fided, upright, clofely preffed to the ftem; heads corymbofe, chatiy ; chaff longer than the flowers.” Willd. Similar to the foregoing. Leaves fmaller. Heads of flowers many, panicled. Receptacle vil- lous. Styles two. 3. B. lanuginofa. Linn. “ Leaves linear, very flender, fpreading, fmooth: heads of flowers globular, {moothith, aggregate, termi:ml.” La Marck. Little branches reticulated, with a woolly fubflance, in the manner of a {pider’s web, whence the trivial name. Leaves nume- rous, very {mall, {mooth, tipped with a black point. Heads of flow-rs white, {mall, fmooth, numerous. Bergius fays, that the germ is inferior; but itappeared to La Marck ina dried fpecimen to be fuperior, incorporated with the top- fhaped bafe of the flower. Svy/e awl-fhaped ; ttigma fimple. If Bergius fhould prove to be right, and if, as the fimple ftigma feems to indicate, the fruit fhould be found one-celled, it mult be removed to flaavia. 4. B. abrotanoides, Linn. * Leaves linear-lanceolate, fpreading, with three flat fides, callous at the points.” Linn. A much branched undér- fhrub, about a foot andahalf high. /.caves {mooth, rounded. Heads of flowers {mall, {mooth, terminating, many together, difpofed fomewhat in the form of an umbel. Sil one, Teen: 5- B. verticillata, Linn. jun, “ Leaves with oL. Vv. BRU three flat fides, obtufe, fmooth; litle branches whorled faitigiate ; 4eads terminating.’’ Linn. jun, Heads not globu- lar. 6. B. /uperba, Willd. “ Leaves with three flat fides, thread-fhaped, with callous points, {preading, ciliate-villous.’” Willd. « Edges of the leaves thinly ciliated with long hairs.” 7. B. fraganoides, Willd. ‘ Leaves with three fat fides, preffed to the item; the edges and the midrib thickly cilia- ted.”? Willd. Thefe two are inferted from their habit ; the flowers not being known. 8. B. ciliata, Linn. ‘ Leaves ovate, acuminate, ciliate.”’? Linn. Style bifid. All the fpecies are natives of Southern Africa. Oljerv. La Marck, in the letter-prefs to his plates, has retained all the {pecies under drunia ; and, in contradiction to his own defcriptions publifhed fome time before in the al- phabetical part, has made a fuperior calyx part of its eflen- tial charaGter. The germ of B. nodiflora, he now fays, is certainly inferior; and it muft be confeffed, that he is in fome degree fupported by the high authority ef Gertner, who has figured the fruit of this {pecies, and calls it femi- inferior: but through a {lrange inattention in the effential character, he defcribes the fruit as a capfule ; in the generat one, asa dry berry. He divides the genus into two fami- lies: 1. With globular heads of flowers dettitute of leaves, comprifing the facies defcribed above, except the two intro- duced by Willdenow, and the ciliata of Linneus, which he appears to have difcarded. 2. With heads furrounded by a lengthened, coloured calyx, forming a kind of involucre, This family confiits of the two {pecies, which have been re- ferred to Fg Profeflor Martyn has inferted under bruaia, only the /anu- ginofa, ciliata, and verticillata ; afligning to levifanus, the nodtflora, paleacea, and abrotanoides, as well as the radiata, and g/utinofay which conttitute the flaavia of Willdenow, Ventenat, and Rofe. See Sraavia. ‘ Brunia /evifanus. See Protea Levifanus. Brunia uniflora. See Diosma Cupreffina. BRUNIQUEL, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Lot, and diftrict of Montauban; 8 leagues S.S.E. of Cahors. _ BRUNN, Joun-James, in Biography, was born at Bafle in the year 1591. Applying to the ftudy of medicine, he was admitted to the degree of doctor in that faculty in 1615; and in fucceffion was advanced to the rank of profeffor in anatomy, botany, and in the practice of medicine. To the laft he was appointed in the year 1529, and he continued performing the duties of thefe offices to the time of his death, in 1660. His work is * S {tema Materiw Medicx, conti- nens Medicamentorum fimplicium et compofitorum Seriem ac Sylvam, Methodo medendi ac Formulis Remediorum pra- {cribendis accommodatum,”’? Bal. 1630, 8vo. “he work has been, many times re-publifhed; and in 1680, with ao by Gerard Biafius, Hall. Bib. Med. Eloy. Diet ift. Bruny, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the arch- duchy ef Auitlria, 4 miles W. of Horn.—Alfo, a town of the fame archduchy, 8 miles W. of Ebenfurth. Brunn, or Barun, a city and royal borough, the {e- cond town in rank, and the firlt in commerce, of Moravia, the capital of a circle of the fame name, fitwated at the con- flux of the rivers Schwartfehaw and Surtawa. Although this city isnot large, it is well-built and populous; the num- ber of inhabitants being eftimated at 18,000. It has confi- derable manufaétures of cloth, velvets, and plufh. The diets of the ftate are held here, alternately with Olmutz. It is defended by a flrong fortrefs called “ Spilberg,”’ erect- ed on an eminence near the town, at the foot of which ftand two cloifters of nuns, and an hofpital of the knights of 3G Malta. BRU Malta. The Pruffians laid fiege to this fortrefs in 1742, but were obliged to abandon the enterprife. In the town are fix cloiiters, the bifhop’s palace, a collegiate church, and a college of Jefuits.- The cloifter of Auguftine hermits is famous for an image of the virgin Mary, pretended to have been made by St. Luke, and a foundation for young ladies. Brunn is diftant about 32 miles S.W. of Olmutz, roo S.E. of Prague, and 156 S.E. of Drefden. N. lat. 49° 10!. E. long. 16° 15/. f Brun, a circle of Moravia, bounded on the north by Bohemia, on the eaft by the circle of Olmutz and Hradith, on the fouth by Auftria, and on the weit by the circle of Iglau and Znaym. In this circle are many iron-mines and forges, medicinal {prings, quarries of marble, glafs-houfes, and alum-works. It is faid to contain 7o towns, and above 20,781 houfes. The capital is Brunn. BRUNNEA, in Entomology, a name given to a fpecies of Musca, that is entirely of a brown colour. Linn, This is a native of Europe. Bruwnnea, an Eatt Indian fpecies of Vespa of the larger kinds. The prevailing colour is dull, ferruginous ; firft and fecond fegment black at the bafe. abr. The legs and antennz of this infe€&t are ferruginous. Brunnea, a fpecies of Poarzna, having brown wings, with a large tranfverfe yellow {pot in the middle; margin chefnut brown. This is of the Nod@ua family, and inhabits Germany. Brunnea, a fpecies of Curysome xa, of a {mall fize, that inhabits New Holland. It is teftaceous, with the fu- ture of the elytra, and a {mall line in the middle, fufcous. Fabr., &c. Brunnea, in Natural Hiflory, a fpecies of PLANARIA, of an oblong fhape, and brown colour, with a longitudinal black line. Mull. Hitt. Verm. Its habitat unknown. This is nearly allied to nigra, another fpecies of PLaNARIA. BRUNNEARIA, in Entomology, a {pecies of PHarana (Geometra), the wings of which are deep yellow, with a black margin above, and two black ftreaks beneath. This is a native of Italy. BRUNNEATA, a fpecies of PHarana (Geometra), with ferruginous wings, and four abrupt brown bauds. In- habits Upial. Borgttr. Inf. ; BRUNNEN, in Geography, a populous village of Swif- ferland, in the canton of Schweitz, fituate in the midft of a bay formed by-a branch of the lake Lucern, or lake of the four cantons; celebrated for the treaty concluded in 1315, between Uni, Schweitz, and Underwalden, which gave birth to the Helvetic confederacy. It was again dif- tinguifhed in April 1798, by being the place where deputies from the cantons of Uri, Schweitz, Underwalden, and Gla- rus, unanimoufly determined to maintain their independence, and to refit the innovations of the French. Brunnen is fe- parated from Schweitz by a pleafant and fertile plain, laid out in meadows, and planted with fruit trees, and diftant from it about 24 miles S.W. N. lat. 46° 56’. E. long. tee: BRUNNEOLUS, in Entomology, a Linnean {pecies of IcuNEUMON, peculiar to Europe. The pervading colour is black ; abdomen and legs reddifh; antenne reddifh, with the bafe black ; pofterior brown. BRUNNER, Batruazar, in Biography, born at Hall, in Saxony, the middle of the 16th century ; addiéting him- felf to the ftudy of medicine, was fent to the univertity at Erford, and afterwards to Leipfic, where he was admitted, to the degree of doftor in that faculty. He then travelled over part of Italy, France, and England, and having paffed three years in thofe countries, returned to Hall, where he BRU acquired much reputation for his learning and for his {kill in his profeffion. He died in 1604. A few years after his death, were publifhed, colleéted from his papers, ‘* Confilia medi- ca, fummo ftudio colle@a et revifa, a Laurentio Hoffman, Hale Sax.”? 1617, 4to. ‘ De Scorbuto TraGatus duo,’ 8vo.: fince printed with the ‘treatife of Eugalenus, written in a methodical manner, and giving an accurate account of the difeafe. Among other remedies, he recommends the juice of water-creffes taken in milk-whey. Though attached to chemiftry, in which he was allowed to be expert, he left_no written documents on that fubje&. Haller Bib, Med. Eloy. Di&. Hitt. Brunner, Jonn Conran, a Swifs phyfician and ana- tomift of eminence, was born at Dieffenhofen, the 16th of January 1653. After paffing through the ufual {chool edu- cation, he was fent, at the age of 16, to Strafburg, where, applying affiduoufly to the ftudy of phyfic and anatomy, he was created doétor in medicine in 1672. For his thetis, he gave the anatomy of a child with two heads, which it was his fortune to meet with. He now went to Paris, and attended the {chools and hofpitals there, with fuch affiduity, as to attract the notice, and. gain him the intimacy of Di- onis and du Verny, who were prefent while he made the experiments on the pancreas, which enabled him, fome years after, to publifh a more accurate defcription of that vifcus, than had been before given, under the title of «¢ Ex- petimenta nova circa Pancreas. Accedit Diatribe de Lym- pha et genuino Pancreatis ufu,’? Svo. 1682, Leide. He proved that the fluid fecreted by the pancreas is not necef- _fary to digeftion, and that an animal may live after that vif- cus is taken out of the body, having tried the experiment upon a dog, which perfe€tly recovered from the operation, On quitting Paris, he came to London, and was introduced to Dr. Willis, Lower, and Henry Oldenburg, fecretary to the royal fociety. From England, he paffed to Holland, and ftudied for fome months at Leyden. At Amfterdam, he vifited Swammerdam and Ruyfch, with whom he after- wards correfponded, Returning home, he was made pro- feflor of medicine at Heidelberg, and firlt phyfician to the - eletor palatine, who conferred on him the title of baron de Brunn in Hamerftein. About the fame time, he married one of the daughters of the celebrated Wepfer, and wag elected honorary member of the academia nature curiof, in return for fome ingenious differtations which he had com- municated to them.’ In 1688, he publifhed “ Differtatio Anatomica de Glandula pituitaria,” 4to. Heidelb. From this time, he became in fuch great requett, for his know- ledge and fuccets in practice, that he was, in fucceffion, cons fulted by molt of the princes in Germany. Among others, in 1720, he was fent for to Hanover, to attend the prince of Wales, afterwards king George II. In 1715, he pub- lifhed at Heidelberg, “* Glandula Duodeni feu Pancreas fe- cundum deteétum,”? 4to. which was only an improved edi- tion of his «« De Glandulis in Duodeno Inteftino deteétis,’* which had been before twice printed. There are fome other leffer works, the titles and accounts of which are given by. Haller, in his Bib. Anat. In the later edition of Wep- fer’s works are given diffections by our author, of the heads of fome perfons who Cied of apoplexy, of whom he had had the care. Though early afflicted with gravel, and in the latter part of his life with gout, he continued to attend to the calls of his patients, though living a great diftance from his refidence. When, in his 74th year, he went in great hafte to Munich, to attend the eleG@or Maximilian Emanuel, on his return, he was feized with a fever, which, in a few days, put an end to his exiftence, on the 2d of Odtober 1727. Haller Bib. Anat. Eloy, Dict. Hitt. ? BRUN- BRU BRUNNEUM, in Entomology, a {pecies of Hister, deferibed as a Swedifh infest. ‘The colour is ferruginous ; wing-cafes fomewhat ftriated. Linn. BRUNNEUS, a f{pecies of Curcutio of a large fize, found at the Cape of Good Hope. ‘The general colour is brown; beak fufcous; wing-cafes teftaceous, and ftreaked with dots. Fabr. Gmel. &c. Brunnevs, a {pecies of Prinus of a brown colour, with the wing-cafes very fmooth, with pubefcent ftrie. Linn. &c. A native of Europe. Baunnevs, a fpecies of Cryproceruatus, found in Europe, that is defcribed hy Linneus. The colqur is brown ; abdomen fufcous ; wing-cafes fmooth. Brunsnevs, « {pecies of Evarer that inhabits Europe. The thorax is rufous, in the middle black ; wing-cafes and body ferruginous. Lion. Braunneus, a fpecies of Cimex, of an ovate form, and brown colour, except the wings, which are white. This is found in Europe, and is defcribed as above by Linnzus. Brunneus, a {pecies of Asttus, the thorax of which is cinereous, lineated with black; abdomen and legs brown, with black fpots. Fabr. This kind is a native of Cayenne. The head is whitifh; fnout black ; antenne brown ; abdo- men cylindrical ; wings white ; legs at the tips black. Brunneus, in Zoology a {pecies of Coruser of a brown colour, {potted with white ; abdomen whitifh. Boddaert. This is ferpens cobellas of Seba. BRUNNICHAND, in Entomology, a {mall infe& of the Tortrix tribe of PHat «Na, named in compliment to Brun- nich. This fpecies, which inhabits Germany, and the north of Europe, has the wings of a fufcous colour, with a com- mon, rhomboid white fpot on the back. Fabr. BRUNNICHELLA, a [pecies of Parana of the Tinea tribe, named after Brunnich. It is of a black colour with three violaceous bands. Vandelli, &c. Inhabits Eu- rope. RUNNIPES, a fpecies of Tenesrio, the fize of which is fmall. It is of a black colour, very {mooth and giolly 5 wing-cafes ftriated ; antenne and legs ferruginous. abr. &c. Tohabits Europe. Beunnires, a {pecies of Stapuytinus of a black co- lour, with the legs and antenne at the bafe and tip ferrugi- noys. Inhabits Europe. BRUNNUS, a fpecies of Cerampyx of a brown co- lour ; thorax armed with three fpines; wing-cafes obtufe, with two obicure elevated {trie ; antennez compreffed and fhort. Inhabits North America. Gmel. &c. OL/. The Cerambyx penfylvanicus of Deyeer. Brunnus, a fpecies of Sruixx, (Sefia), the wings of which are brown, and without {pots; pofterior ones emar- inate. A native of Surinam. Fabr. BRUNO, Grorpaxo, in Biography, a bold innovating Panay ei of the 16th century, was born at Nola, in the ingdom of Naples; and, though he firft entered among the Dominicans, the freedom of his religious opinions ren- dered it expedient for him to feek a hate at Geneva in 158z. But the rigid fyftem of orthodoxy, inculcated by Calvin and Beza, obliged him to leave this city, after a refidence in it of two years, and to return to Paris; where, notwithftanding his oppofition to the Ariftotelian philofo- phy, he was allowed, for fome time, to deliver public lec- tures in the univerfity. In 1586, he defended for three days, at a folemn difputation, opinions concerning nature and the world, which he publifhed in 1588, at Wittemberg, under the title of “ Acrotifmus, feu Rationes Articulorum Phyficorum adverfus Peripateticos Parifiis propofitorum.’’ Detore this time, he took a journey to England, and formed BRU an acquaintance with fir Fulk Greville, and fir Philip Syd- ney, to the latter of whom he dedicated two works. From’ Paris he removed to Wittemberg, and made an open profef= fion of Lutheranifm. After a temporary refidence at Helmf- tadt, and at Frankfort, where he fuperintended an edition of his numerous works, printed by John Wechel, he fettled at Padua; but being arrefted, he was firft confined in the pri- fon of the inquifition at Venice, and afterwards at Rome. After two years’ confinement, he was condemned by the in- quilitorial tribunal, and burnt alive in February 1600. The ciimes that have been alledged againft him, were his Luthe- ran herefy, his defertion frem the Dominicans, aud his athes iftical opinions. Bruno was of a paradoxical turn of mind, and of a confident fanguine difpofition ; fond of advancing novel and fanciful fentiments, but confufed and obfcure in’ his method of explaining them. Bayle and La Croze have charged him with founding his philofophy on the principles of Spinoza; but, in reality, he attempted to unite the an- cient emanative and atomic fyftems. In his works are found obfcure hints of the vortices of Des Cartes, the atoms of Gaffendi, the optimifm of Leibnitz, and the ce- leftial phyfics of Copernicus ; but his fuggeftions on thefe topics are very darkly and inaccurately expreffed ; and he feems to have been more diftinguifhed by his bold attack of ancient errors, than by his introduétion and eftablifhment of new truths. One of his moft famous works is “ Spaccio della Beftia triomphante,’’ or the demolition of the trium- phant beait; Lond. 1584, a work fatyrizing many received {yftems of religion, and charged with advancing atheiftical opinions. Befides feveral philofophical and theological writ- ings, he was the author of an Italian comedy in profe, ens titled * Il Candelajo,” and of fome Latin poetry. Toland’s Pofthumous works, vol. i. Gen. Di&. Brucker’s Hitt. Philof. by Enfield, vol. ii. Spe€tator, N° 389. vol. v. Bruno,a faint of the Roman church, and founder of the order of Carthufians, was born at Cologne about the year 1040, and ftudied at Rheims, where he became a ca- non and regent of the public fchool. Compelled to leave Rheims by the tyranny of Manaffes, the archbifhop, he de- termined, in 1080, to retire from the world to the defert of Chartreux, where, in 1084, he founded his new order. After refiding in this folitude for 6 years, he was fummoned to Rome by pope Urban II., who had been his {cholar at Rheims ; but difgufted with the manners of the capital, he withdrew to Gaba) and declining to accept the arch. bifhopric of Reggio, he obtained from count Roger a foreft, with its adjacent diftri€t, named la Torre, near Squillace, where he founded the fecond houfe of his order. In this retreat he died in 1101 ; and he was canonized by pope Leo X. in 1514. His works, which are enumerated by Cave, have been confounded with thofe of his contemporary St. Bruno of Segni, who flourifhed about the year 1087, and died in 1125. The principal treatifes of Bruno, the Car- thufian, are, a Commentary on the Pfalms,’’ and another On St. Paul’s Epiftles,’’ befides feveral colleétions of fer- mons, and two letters to his‘ difciples. A collection of his works was printed at Paris in 1524, and at Cologne in 1611, 3 vols. fol. Cave’s Hilt. Lit. vol. ii. p. 158. For an account of the order eftabhithe by Bruno, fee CARTHUSIANS. Bruno, James Pancrace, born at Altdorf on the 23d of January 1629, after receiving a liberal education in his own country was fent to Padua, where he was admitted do€tor in medicine in 1653. Returning thence, he fettled at Nuremburg, and foon became diftinguifhed for {uperior learning and abilities. In 1662, he was invited to accept the chiair of profeffor in medicine by the univerfity at Alté 3G2 dorf, BRU dorf, his native city, and he continued in that office to the time of his death, O&ober 13, 1709. Befides his com- mentaries upon many parts of the works of Hippocrates, and his edition of the Ifagoge medica of Gafpar Hoffman, Bruno publithed “« Oratio de Vita, Moribus, et Scriptis Gafp. Hoffmanni, Lipfi.”” 1664, 1zmo.- * Dogmata Me- dicinz generalia in ordinem noviter reda¢ta,”? Norib. 1670, &vo. * Caltellus renovatus, hoc eft, Lexicon Medicum cor- rectum et amplificatum,” 1682, 4to. The additions to this work are numerous and valuable, and the volume, fo improved, has been frequently reprinted. ‘* Martifla No- menclature Medice hexaglotte ; Vocabula Latina Ordine alphabetico, cum annexis Arabicis, Hebreis, Grecis, Gal- licis et Italicis preponentis,’? Noriberge 1682, ato. * Epi- tome, Elementa vere Medicine compleétens,’”’ Alt. 1696, 8vo. “ Monita et porifmata Medicine mifcellanea,”’ ibid. 1698. 4to. His fon Frederic James, born at Altdorf in 1665, following the fteps of his father, was made do¢tor in medi- eine at the univerfity there, in 1697, and practifed in that art with confiderable credit, to the time of his death, 1727+ Haller Bib. Eloy. Dict. Hitt. Bruno, in Geography, a river of Italy, which runs into the lake of Caftiglione, near Buriano, in the duchy of Tufcany, BRUNOR, Buffon, in Ornithology. See Loxia Bico- LoR, or orange-bellied grofbeak. BRUNOY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Seine and Oife, and diftri&: of Corbeil; z leagues N. of Corbeil. BRUNSBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weftphalia, belonging to the order of Corvey; 4 miles W.N.W. of Hoxter. BRUNSBUTTLE, a fea-port town of Germany, fub- jet to Denmark, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Holitein, onthe north fide of the Elbe ; 40 miles N.W. ef Hamburg. N. lat. 44° 30!. E. long. 8° 42’. BRUNSFELS, Orno, in Biography, a celebrated re- ftorer and improver of botany, was born at Mentz, the end of the rsth century. He received his education at Solmes, a town in that neighbourhood ; and having taken the degree of mafter of arts, entered a monaftery of Carthufians at Mentz, where he refided fome years. Embracing at length the tenets of Luther, he left the monaftery,and went to Straf- burg, and opened a {chool for the inftruction of youth. In this employment, undertaken to procure a maintenance, he continued nine years, reading, during the vacations, the Greek, Arabic, and Latin writers on medicine ; in which he became fo expert, that, in the year 1531, he was enabled to publifh new editions of the works of Serapion, Averhoes, and Rhazes. He had the preceding year taken his degree of doGor in medicine at Bafle. Soon after he fettled at Berlin, and was made phyfician to that city, where he died on the roth of November 1534. Whillt at Strafburg, he publifhed two {mall tracts to facilitate the ttudy of grammar to children, annotations on the gofpels, and on the acts of the apoftles, and an anfwer to Erafmus’s Spongia, in de- fence of Hutten. The following are the principal of his botanical and medical works. ‘* Catalogus illuftrium Medi- corum,”? 4to. 1530. ‘¢ Herbarum vive icones, ad Nature imitationem, {umma cum diligentia et artificio efficiate, cum effeCtibns earundem,”’ fol. vol. iil. 1530, 1531, 1536. The plates are much commended by Haller, who, on account of this work, ranks the author among the reftorers of bo- tany. “ Thefes, feu communes loci totius Medicine, etiam de ufu Pharmacorum, Argentine,’ 1522, 8vo. “¢ Onomatticon Medicine, nomina continens omnium {ttir- pium, &c. Argent.” 1534. folio, For his great fkill in medicine, he was thought deferving of the following : BRU * Te nato, defunéta fere medicina revixit : Pzonii vindex nominis unus eras.”? Adami Vite Medic. German. Haller Bib. Botan. BRUNSFELSIA, in Botany. See Brunretsta. BRUNSTATT, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Rhine, and diftri& of Alt- kirch; 7 miles N. of Altkirch. BRUNSTEIN, a mountainous bailiwick of Germany, in the principality of Calenberg, lying on the Leine and Ruhme, and comprehending 6 villages. The chief trade of the inhabitants confifts of thread and linen. BRUNSVIGIA (Heilt.), in Botany. Lis ORIENTALIS. PRUNSWICK, duchy of, in Geography, is a diftri& of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, bounded on the north by the duchy of Lunenburg, on the eaft, by the duchy of Magdeburg and the principalities of Anhalt and Halberitadt, on the iouth, by Thuringia and Heffe, and on the weit, by the principality of Minden, and county of Lippe, or by the circle of Weitphalia, from which it is fe- parated by the river Wefer. Its capital is Brunfwick. The territory of the duke of Brunfwick, commonly called the principality of Wolfenbuttle, from a lefs important town than Brunfwick, includes 1472 f{quare miles, and 170,0-03 or, as fome fay, 185,co0 inhabitants. It is fertile in corn | and paftures, and abounds with mines and game : it.has alfo feveral medicinal fprings and extenfive forefts ; but its ma- nufactures and commerce, which were once flourifhing, have fuftained confiderable injury by the German wars of the 17th century. Its principal rivers are the Wefer, Ocker, Leyne, Imenau, and Viper. The territories belonging to the houfe of Brunfwick extend far beyond the limits of this duchy, and comprehend, befides Wolfenbuttle, Grubenha- gen, Calenberg, and Gottingen, the principalities and duchies of Lunenburg, Hanover, Zell, Ultzen, Danneberg, Marpuy, Giffhorn, Eimbeck, and Hamelen, which fee re- {pectively. Brunswicx,acity of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and diltri& of Wolfenbuttle. It is the capital of the preceding duchy, and the refidence of the prince, to whom it belongs, and who is ufually ftyled the * duke of Brunfwick and Wolfenbuttle.”” The town is fituated in a plain, on the banks of the Ocker, which enters the plain by two branches, but within it, feparates into a greater nuin- ber of {lreams, that unite again at its iflue out of the city. It is accordingly divided into five different parts, called the Old Town, the New Town, the Hagen or Burg, the Old Wieck, and the Sack. ‘The form of the town is nearly {quare, and itsextent about 2 miles in circumference. The houfes in general are old, and conttru&ted of wood ; but many new buildings have been lately erected, and the city is every day acquiring frefh beauty. It has feveral churches, one of which is for the accommodation of the Lutheran worthip, which is the prevalent religion of the place, and others appropriated to the French and Dutch calvinifts, and to the Roman catholics. Among the public buildings, we may reckon the prince’s palace, to which is annexed a li- brary, containing a curious collection of fcarce and curious bibles, or fragments of bibles in feveral languages, to the number of above 1000 volumes; the academy for martial exercifes; the armoury ; the Caroline college founded by duke Charles, and ereéted in 1745; the opera-houfe; the play-houfe; the ‘* packhofe,”” where all goods, imported or exported, are rated and taxed; the council-houfe, where the magiftrates meet ; the “ Autorkof,”’ affigned in 1681 to the foreign dealers, at the fair, for the fecurity and more convenient fale of their goods; the mint; the work-houfe or houfe of correCtion $_ See AMARYL- BRUNSWICK. correction; the orphan-houfe, which, fince the year 1753, kas had annexed to it a Latin fchool, with a priating-houte and book-fhop; two gymnatiums, with an amatomy and furgery Rkouk founded by duke Charles, and opened in 17515 a college for the ftudy of phyfic, inftituted in 1757; a large lazaretto; and a hofpital. With refpect to the aca- demy at Brunfwick, Dr. Moore informs us, (View of So- ciety and Manners ia France, &c. vol. ii. p. 70.) that it has been new modelled, and the plan of education improved, by the attention, and under the patronage of the hereditary prince. Students now refort to it from many parts of Ger- many, and fome even from Great Britain. Such of them as are intended fora military life, will find advantages in this academy, fuperior to thofe that may be had at any other place on the continent. They will here be under the protection of a family partial to the Britifh nation; every branch of feience is taught by mafters of known abilities ; the young ftudents will fee garrifon duty regularly perform- ed, and may, by the intereit of the prince, obtain liberty to attend the reviews of the Pruffian troops at Magdeburg and Berlin: and they will have few temptations to expence in a town, where they can fee no examples of extravagance; they will have few opportunities of diflipation, and none of grofs debauchery. The reigning prince of Brunfwick is faid to adminifter the finances of the ftate with wife frugality, and to di- minifh the debts, in which, at his acceflion to the duchy, he found himfelf involved. As the father of his people, he einploys his power to increafe their profperity and hap- pinefs. Maay of their former burdens are already diminith- ed, and property is not heavily taxed, and the finances are daily advancing to a better condition. Brunfwick is ftrongly fortified; and on the ramparts it has 2 mortar-piece of tel, to} feet in length, and g feet 2 inches in circumference, and weighing 1800 quintals, which will carry a ball of 730lbs. weight to the diltance of 33,000 paces, and throw a bomb of rocolbs. weight; but it re- quires 52 lbs. of powder for a charge. Although fortifica- tions have occafioned much calamity to many towns in Ger- many, by attracting the vengeance of enemies, fo that many of them are now difmantled; thofe of Brunfwick were of fingular utility in 1761, when they preferved the town from bemg Pillaged, and afforded prince Frederick an opportu- nity of gaining fignal honour. When the town was be- fieged by a body of 20,0co men under prince Xavier of Saxony, prince Ferdinand detached 5000 of his army under his nephew Frederick, affilted by general Luckner, with order to make an attempt for raifing the fiege, and faving his native city. The prince difpatched a meflenger to the ernor, with a letter wrapped round a bullet, and-which e was inftruGed to fwallow, in cafe of his being taken by the enemy. However, he had the good fortune to make his way into the town; and the prince, in the middle of the night fpecified in the letter to the governor, fell fuddenly on the enemy’s cavalry, who, unfufpicious of his approach, were encamped carelefsly within a mile of the town; and having by this fudden movement difperfed the cavalry, he produced an alarm among the infantry, which occalioned their retreat. [arly in the morning, the young prince en- tered Brunfwick, amidft the acclamations of his fellow-citi- zens, whom he had relieved from the horrors of a fiege. On the arrival of his brother, the hereditary prince, at his father’s palace, he found Frederick at table, entertaining the French officers, who had been taken the preceding night. ivolnick was formerly one of the Hanfe towns, and go- verned asa republic: but when it became a fortified city, #6 commerce was injured, and its population diminifhed, Its number of inhabitants is now eftimated at about 22,0003. the peafants are fober and laborious, and as they are robuit, though clownifh, they make good foldiers. They have fe- veral manufactures in the town; but one of the chief em- ployments of the people is {pinning wool and flax : and they are provided with an excellent inftitution for fupplying the poor with thefe means of fubtiftence. This inftitution fur-- nifhes all who choofe to apply with the materials, and they are paid for their labour on the fame terms with thofe of the manufacturers; aud yet, what arifes from the fale of the yarn and thread, is fufficient to defray all the expences of the eftablifhment. Adults perform this work ac their own habitations; but 200 children work every day in the houfe, and are there alfo inftruéted in reading and writing. The firit {pinning wheels are faid to have been invented in this place in 1530, by a itatuary, named Jurgen. The ftrong beet of Brunfwick, called “ Mum,” after the name of its inventor, Chriftian Muinmen, is exported to various parts of Europe, and even Afia. \Brunfwick has two confider- able fairs every year. Brunfwick appears to have been in being fo early as the: Sth century. In 775, it is faid, that the emperor Charles. the Great came to the Ocker, which runs through “ Brue- nonis vicum,’? or Brunfwick ; and it is alfo related, that in. the beginning of the 8th century, bifhop Swibert with his train of followers went to Saxony, and coming to a large town called Brunfwick, preached there, and conyerted great. numbers. Hence, it has been thought not improbable, that the place was founded by duke Bruno, fon-in-law to duke Witikind, if not by his father duke Bruno of Enjern. Bruno I. margrave of Saxony, is faid to have enlarged and. embellifhed this city A.D. 955. In the time of Henry the Lion, it confifted of five precinéts, within its feparate wall; but this duke, in 1177, inclofed them all within one wall. In 1314, the burghers of Brunfwick. were difcharg- ed from all kinds of villainage;. and. in 1345, the citizens by mortgage acquired the governmentof the town, and ar-- rogated other immunities, which were the occalion of fe-- vere and tedious contefts between them and the duke. At length, in 1671, duke Rodolphus Auguitus made himfelf snaiter of the town after along fiege, by means of the cannon which had been lent him by the inhabitants for another pur-- pole ; and he ereéted a citadel to- fecure their fubjection. In 1757, it was taken by the French, but evacuated in the following year: and an unfuccefsful attempt was made againftitin 1761. Brunfwick is diftant 7 miles N..of Wol- fenbuttle; in N. lat. 52° 15! 43’. EE. long. 10% 357. Brunswick, Family of, in Hiflory. . This ancient and’ illuftrious houfe is defcended from the marquis of Azo of Efte, who was proprietor of the Milanefe,. the {tate of Genoa, and feveral other countries in Lombardy... About the year 1040 he married Cunigunda, or Cuniza, heirefs of the firlt Welphs, or Guelfs, earls of Altorf, in Suabia; and their fon Welph, or Guelf, obtained the duchy of Bavaria of Henry IV. in 107. His grandfon, Henry duke of Bavaria, acquired Brunfwick along with Saxony. In 1195, William, fonof Henry the Lion, and of Matilda, or Maude, eldeft daughter of king Henry II. of England, in whom was united the Bre teeta and Normau.blood,, acquired Lunenburg; and his fon Otho, in 1235; was the: frit duke of Brunfwick and Lunenburg. His fon,. Al- bert I. in 1252, was furnamed the Great. Magnus IJ. in. 1368, was furnamed Torquatus, from a large chain which he wore. His fon, Bernard, retained Lunenburg; while Brunf- wick paffed to Henry the fecond’s fon, aud continued in the: lines of his defcendants till the year 1634.4. The dukes of Lu-- nenburg acquired fome {mall portions of adjacent tervitory-. Henry being put to the ban of the empire, in Ayah ae Vee- BRUNSWICK. fucceeded by his fon, who only affumed the title of duke of Zell, a title which continued till the reign of George Wil- liam, in 1665. In 1617, Chriftian, duke of Zell, obtained poffeffion of Grubenhagen. In 1692, George William, duke of Zell, confented that the eleCtorate, inflituted in favour of his family, fhould be conferred on his younger brother, as he had no male heir. Erneft died in 1698, hav- ing married Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England. He was fucceeded by his fon George Lewis, eleGior, in 1698, and king of England, in 1714, who, in 1715, added to his family the duchy of Bremen, with the principality of Verden. In 1727, he was fucceed- ed in the Britifh throne and electorate by his only fon, George Auguftus, or George II. from whom, in 1760; they devolved upon his grandfon, our prefent fovercign, George III. Brunswick Lunenburg, or Luneburg, in Geography, an electorate of Germany, the territories of »which are chiefly fituated in the circle cf Lower Saxony, is frequently deno- minated, from its capital, the electorate of Hanover; which fee. See alfo LuneBurG. Brunswick, Wolfenbuttle. and WoLFENBUTTLE. Brunswick, New, a province in the northern part of Nova Scotia, according to the divifion of 1784, the other retaining the original name, lieson the north weit of the bay of Fundy, and is bounded on the fouth by the north fhores of this bay, and by the river Miffiquafh to its fource, and from thence by a due eaft line to Verte bay, and on the weit by a line running due north from the main fource of St. Croix river, in Pafflamaquoddy, to the high lands, which divide the ftreams that fall into the river St. Lawrence, and the bay of Fundy ; and from thence by the fouthern boun- dary of the colony of Quebec, until it touches the fea-fhore at the weftern extremity of the bay of Chaleur; then fol- lowing the courfe of the fea-fhore to the bay of Verte, in the {traits of Northumberland, until it meets the termination of the eaftern line, produced from the fource of the Miffiquafh already mentioned, including all the iflands within the faid limits. The towns of this province are the capital Frederick- town, feated about go miles from the zftuary of the river St. John, St. Ann’s almoft oppofite to it, St. Andrew’s and St. John’s. In 1784, another town, near the mouth of the river St. John, was erected, under the appellation of New Brunfwick, into the metropolis of the province fo called. There are fome other fettlements near the bay of Fundy, with a fort called Howe. A tribe of favages, called the Marechites. inhabits this province, and they are eftimated at 140 fighting men. It has two confiderable bays, feveral lakes, among which the grand lake is 30 mniles long and about g broad; and its chief rivers are St. John’s, Magegadavik, or eaftern river, Dickweffet, St. Croix, Merrimichi, Petit- codiac, and Memram-Cook, all of which, except the three laft, difcharge themfelves into Paflamaquoddy bay. St. John’s river is navigable for veffels of 50 tons about 60 miles, and for.boats about 200; the tide flowing about 80. It opens into a vaft extent of country, in which are rich vales and meadows under cultivation; and the upland is in general well-timbered; the trees being pine and {pruce, hemlock, and hard-wood, principally beech, birch, maple, and fome oak. The pines on St. John’s river are the largeft in Britifh Ame- rica, and afford a confiderable fupply of mafts for the royal. navy. ‘The fith are falmon, bafs, and fturgeon. This river affords a common and near route to Quebec. The river St. Croix feparates New Brunfwick from the province of Maine, belonging to the United States. The rivers which fall into Pafflamaquoddy bay have on their banks meadows and vales, See Duchy of Brunswick and muft formerly have been covered with a large growth of timber, as the remains of large trunks are {tiff vifible. The great chain of the Appalachian mountains paffes on the north-weit of this province, probably terminating at the gulf of St. Lawrence. The chief products of this province are timber and fifth. See Nova Scotia. Brunswick, a county of America, in Virginia, lying between Nottaway and Meherrin rivers; is about 38 miles long, and 35 broad, and contains 6917 free inhabitants, and 9422 flaves.—Alfo, a maritime county, in the diftri€t of Wilmington, North Carolina, containing 4110 inhabitants, of whom 1614 are flaves. his is the mot foutherly county of the ftate, having South Carolina on the fouth-weft, and bounded by cape Fear river on the eaft. Smithville is the feat of juftice.—Alfo, the chief town in the above county,. feated on the weit fide of cape Fear river; and formerly the beft built in the whole ftate, and carrying on the moit extenfive trade. It lies about 17 miles S.W. of Wilming- ton, and was formerly the feat of government; but in 1780 it was confumed by the Britifh forces, and has now only three or four houfes, and an elegant church in ruins. N. lat. 34° 2’. W. long. 78° 12'—Alfo, a townfhip in Effex county, Vermont, on the weft bank of Conneéticut river, oppolite to Stratford, in New Hampfhire-—Alfo, a city- in Middlefex county, New Jerfey, fituate on the fouth-weit bank of Rariton river, in alow fituation, under a hill rifing to the weft of the town. It has about 300 houfes, and about 3000 inhabitants, one-half of whom confifts of Dutch. This town has aconfiderable inland trade, and over the river, oppofite to this city, is one of the moft ele- gant and expentive bridges in America. It is 18 miles N.E. from Princetown, 60 N,E. from Philadelphia, and 35 S.W. from New York. N. lat. 40° 30’. W. long. 74° 30’. —Alfo, a poft town of Cumberland county, in the ditt of Maine, lying 30 miles N.E. of Portland, and of Botton 151, on the fouth fide of Merry-meeting bay, and partly on the fouth-weftern fide of Androfcoggin river. It contains 1809 inhabitants; and is the {cite of Bowdoin college, N. lat. 43° 52'. W. long. 69° 58.—Alfo, the chief town of Glynn county, in Georgia, fituated at the mouth of Turtle river, where it empties into St. Simon’s found. N. lat. 31° 10'.. The harbour is fafe and fpacious enough to contain a large fleet. The town is regularly laid out, but not finifhed. From its advantageous fituation, and the fertility of the back country, it promifes to be one of the moft com- mercial and flourifhing places in the ftate. It is diftant 19 miles S. of Darien, 60 S.S.W. of Savannah, and 110 S.E. of Louifville. N. lat. 31° 14. W.long. 81°45! Brunswick Houfe, one of the Hudfon-bay company’s fettlements, fituate on Moofe river, half way from its mouth; S.W. from James’s bay, and N.E. from Lake Superior. N. lat. 50° 13’. W. long. 83° 31! Brunswick-green, Priezland-green. Thiscolour is largely ufed for the bluifh greens of paper-hangings, and other coarle. kinds of painting in water colours. It is prepared in the following way. ‘Take a barrel, or any other clofe veflel of wood or earthen ware, and fill it half full of filings or clip- pings of copper; then pour ina faturated folution of fal- ammoniac, fufficient to moiften the whole thoroughly : put on the cover of the veflel, and fet it in a warm place. Ina few hours the copper will begin to decompofe the fal-ammoniac, and form muriat of copper, ammonia being at the fame time difengaged. The muriated oxyd abforbs a confiderable quantity of moifture, on which account it is requifite from time to time to add frefh portions of diffolved {al-ammoniac, till, in the courfe of a few weeks, nearly the whole of the copper is converted into oxyd. The contents of the barrel i 4 are BRU are now to be emptied and pailed through a fieve iva tub of avater, by which the unoxydated copper will be feparated from the pigment, whigh will pafs into the water. This being well wathed aud flowly dried in the fhade, is pure Branfwick greev. Three parts muriat of ammonia, and two of copper yield fix parts of the green. It is rarely, however, that pure Brunfwick greenis met with, as it is y adulterated with cerufle. RUNTRUT, or Pauntaut, in Geography. See Po- RENTRU. BRUNUS, in Biography, an Italian phyfician and fur- geon of great name in his time, flourithed in the early part of the 14th century, and is faid to have been intimate with Petrarch. He was author of Chirurgia Magna et Parva,” publithed at Venice in 14,0 in a collection of chirurgical treatifes, fol. which has been feveral times reprinted. The Chirurgia isa compilation, taken from the Greek and Ara- bian phyficians, principally from Albucafis, from whom he deferibes the operation of cutting forthe itone in the blad- der, In the fiftula of the anus he recommends opening the finufes, without which, we cannot, he fays, be certain of curing. Haller. Bib. Chirurg. Eloy Dié. Hilt. BRUNUSEE, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Stiria; 12 miles W. of Racketburg. BRUSA, atown of Turkey, in Afia, built by Prufias, the friend of Hannibal. It is {till extenfive and populous, but the ftreets are narrow. Many houfes are built fo much inft the bill, that the upper rooms open into the gardens, They reckon 7o mofques, but moft of them are negleGed, or abfolutely in ruins. The police isecclefiaftic. The be- zellan isample, and one of the khans is fingularly commodi- ous. The fale of raw and manufactured filks conttitutes its commerce. BRUSA-Soac1, in Biography. See Riccio. BRUSCH, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into the Rhine at Strafburg. It forms a canal by means of fluices from Molfheim. BRUSCIO, a town of Swifferland, in the Valteline, fituated near a river which difcharges itfelf into the Adda. N. lat. 46° 9'. E. long. 10° 3’. BRUSCUS, in Botany. Ger. See Ruscus. BRUSEGANA, in Geography, atown of Italy, in the Paduan; 4 miles W.N.W. of Padua. BRUSH, anaflemblage of hairs or hog’s briftles, faft- ened in the broles of a wooden handle or board, pierced for that im ate and ferving to cleanfe divers bodies by rubbing therewith. Of brufhes there are a round, a flat, or fquare bruth, cloaths-brufh, head-bruth, horfe bruth, beard bruth, comb-brufh, weavers-brufh, and the like. The manner of making brufhes, is by folding the hair or briftle in two, and bringiug it by means of a pack-thread, or wire, engaged in the fold, through the holes wherewith the wood is pierced all over, or faftened therein with glue or pitch. When the holes are thus all filled, they cut the ends of the hair to make the furface even. Beusu, Painter's, See Pencir. Bausn, Sheermen’s, is made of wild boars’ briftles, and ferves to lay the wool or nap of cloth, afte: fheering it for the laft time. The fleth-bruhh is of-ufe in medicine, efpeciaily in cafe of rheumatifms, and certain cutaneous diforders. See Faic- TION. The bruh is alfo applied to the foles of the fect of new- born infants, when fainting, to find whether they be alive or dead. Bausn, in EleAricity, denotes the luminous appearance of the electric matter, iffuing in a parcel of diverging rays, froma point.. Beccaria alerbes this appearance to the force . BRU with which the eleétric fluid, going out of a point, divides the contiguous air, and pafles through it to that which is more remote. See Plate, LleGricity, See Srar. Bau SHES, wire, are ufed by filver-fmiths and gilders, for ferubbing filver, copper, or brafs pieces, in order to the gilding of them. There is a method of dying or colouring leather, per- formed by only rubbing the colour of the fkin with a brush, This the French leather-guilders called brouffure ; being the lowett of all the forts of dye allowed by their ftatutes, Brus of @ fox, among Sport/nen, lignifies his drag or falls tip or end of which is called the chapey RUSH tron-ore, fignities a kind of ore full of fri, a fembling the hair of ents hes Bausu is alio ufed in {peaking of a fmall thicket. or coppice. Jn this feufe, the word is formed from the middle age Latin drufeia, brufeus, which tiguifies the fame. Brusu-wood denotes fmaller flender wood or fpray. See Browse. Z BRUSHING. Among Jackies, a brufhing gallop de- notes a brifk ove: a horfe fhould have his brufhing gallop in a morning before watering. BRUSINSKOL, in Geography, an ifland of Ruffia, in the lake of Ouezkve; go miles S.E. of Petrovadikoi. BRUSKAU, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of. Braclaw ; 48 miles N.N.W. of Braclaw. BRUSLEE Isvanp, hes on the coalt of France, in the Englifh chanael, below the Seven IfMands, and Lanion haven and river, PRT Ue Te a ten of France, in the depart. ment of the Lower Alps, and diltri& of Digne: i eh Ee Gubiees Ones BRUSSELS, in Latin Bruxelie, in Flemith Bruxellas, a large and handfome town, annexed to France, being the chief place of the department de la Dyle. It was former] the capital city of Brabant, and of the Auflrian Netherlands’; where the governor-general held his court with all the {plendour of royaliy, Its fituated partly on a hill and partly in a vale, on the banks of the.tiver Seune,’ which runs through the town. . Various etymologies are given to the name ot Bruflels : it has been derived from DBrugge-Senne, bridge on the Senne ; from Brugfel, hermitage bridge ; from Brozfell, a nett of fwans, on account of the number of thofe birds found in the adjacent river and marthes;°and from Broffaiiles, bulhes, it being formerly {urrounded by woods. It is highly probable that the ancient forelt: of Ardennes extended to this place; and that the prefent foreft de Soigne was part of it, Bruflels was not exifting in the 7th century. It owes its origin to alittle ifland formed by two branches of theriver, on which St. Gery, or Gaugerie, bifhop of Cambray, built a chapel and preached the gofpel to the heathens who were feated in the vicinity ; he died in 61g. In 1044, the town, being confiderably enlarged, was fur- rounded by a wail, and fortified with towers, of which traces are fill remaining. — A fecond, more extenfive inclofure, took place in 1379, and now exilts, but the town extends itfelf far beyond; fince many villages are become its fuburbs, by a continuity of buildings and flreets. Bruffels is otna- mented mF many handfome public ttruétures. ‘The princi+ pal church is collegiate, dedicated to St. Gudule, and was built in 1047, but rebuilt between 1226 and 1273. The palace difplays confiderable talte and magnificence, and fore merly contained one of the mott beautiful chapels in Europe, which efcaped the great conflagration in| 1731, but was pulled down in 1777 to make way for the erection of the new fquare called Place Royaie. ‘The town-houle, or gruild. hall, was built in 14425 it has a fteeple 464 feet high, furs mounted by a coloflal ftatue, 17 feet high, of St. Michael with BRU with the dragon underhis feet, which turning on a pivot, -aéts asa vane. The park in the upper town (anciently part of the forelt de Soigne,) is a beautiful promenade, and has a public pleafure-garden in one ofits groves. The green walk near the canal has a pleafing appearance, being two miles in length. Befides the place royale, Bruffels is ornamented with feven {quares or market-places. The principal are the great market, the place St. Michael, the corn-market, the petit fablon, and the grand fablon, where a beautiful foun- tain was erected by lord Aylefbury. In this town are twenty public fountains, adorned with ftatues, &c. the moftt re- markable is the manneke pitt, on which is reprefented a -child in brafs, which is fo admirably executed that it has ex- cited the notice of many connoiffeurs, and particularly the elector palatine in 16g8, and Lewis XV. in 1747. ‘The po- pulation of Bruflels is ‘eftimated at 80,000. In Tinfeau’s Statiftical View of France, its four parts or cantons are re- prefented as containing 66,297 inhabitants, and including 75 kiliometres, aud one commune. It had formerly confider- able trade in the manufacture of camlet and tapeftry, which ds now on the decline: but its lace is ftillin high eftimation, as the moft beautiful in the world. Its carpets are alfo noted all over Europe. This town has fuffered frequently by war: it was bombarded in 1695 by marefchal Villeroy ; and be- fieged, in 1708, by the elector of Bavaria, and in 1746, by marefchal Saxe. It was taken by the French in the fum- mer of 1794. Charles IJ. king of England, and his bro- therthe duke of York, made Bruffels their occafional refi- dence during the ufurpation of Cromwell. This town has ‘given birth to many celebrated men: among others are, Duquelnoy, Vanhelmont, St. Aldegonde, Breugh Cham- paigne, D’ Artois, and other painters. Bruflels is 21 miles S.of Antwerp, 26 S.E. of Ghent, and 141 N. by E. of Paris. N. lat. 48° 51/. E. long. 4° 28’. Brussets, Rocer of, in Biography. Weype. : BRUSSOW, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and Ucker Mark of Brandenburg ; 42 miles N.E of Prenzlow. BRUSTERVORT Pornr is fituate inthe Baltic fea; 3 'eagues N. by W. from Koningfburg deep, and 16 leagues N E. by N. from Memel deep. 4 BRUSZILOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Kiov ; 46 miles W. of Kiov. i ; BRUTA, in Zoology, isthe fecond order of animals in athe Mammnatia clafs, the charaéter of which confifts in having no fore tecth in either jaw. The genera of this alafs are bradypus, myrmecophaga, manis, da/ypus, rhinoceros, clephas, and trichecus ; which fee. BRUTE, or Beast, a term generally applied to quadru- peds, and alfo to other animals, and implying inferiority of intellect. Among brutes, the monkey kind, both in the external fhape and internal ftructure, bear the neareft refemblance to man. In the monkey-kind, the higheft and the moft nearly approaching the likenefs of man, is the orang-outang, or homo fylveftris. te. ‘ Philofophers are much divided about the effential cha- yaéters of brutes. Some define brute as an animal not rifible, ora living creature incapable of laughter ; others, a mute animal, or a living thing deftitute of fpeech ; the Peripate- zics, an animal endowed with a fenfitive power, but without a rational one. The Platonifts allow reafon and underftand- ing, as well as fenfe to brutes, though in a degree lefs pure and refined than that of men. Indeed, the generality of the ancient philofophers thought that brutes reafoned: this, among the heathens, was the opinion of Anaxagoras, Por- phyry, Celfus, Galen, Plutarch, as well as Plato and others, See VANDER BRU Plutarch has a dialogue under this title, that brutes ufe rea. fon (Op. vol. ii. p. 988.) The whole Pythagorean fe& fhould alfo be of the fame fentiment, becaufe the metempfy- chofis imports, that human fouls pafs into the bodies of brutes. The Stoics alfo holding that the Divine Being is diffufed through all creatures, were neceffitated to maintain the fouls of brutes to be divine, and, confequently, that they had reafon. Among Chriitians, La¢tantius, and the whole body of Manichees and Gnottics, affert the fame. Can any perfon, fays Lactantius (Inft. Div. 1. ii. c. 10.), deny that brutes have reafon, when they often outwit man himfelf? He allows every thing to brutes which men have, except a fenfe of religion. Some Sceptics have afcribed religion and virtue to brutes; and they fay that Solomon (Ecclef. iii. 18, 19.) feems to affures us, that the fouls of men have no pre-eminence over thofe of brutes. Sextus Empiricus, in particular (Pyrrhon, 1. i. c. 13.), inflitutes a comparifon be- tween dogs andthe human kind. The former excel the latter as to fenfe ; they havea quicker fcent, by which they purfue beafts that are unfeen; they difcover them fooner by the eye, and their hearing ismore acute. Accordingly it is alleged, that a dog is not deftitute of the faculty of reafon- ing, from the famous inftance mentioned by Chryfippus, who obferved that a hound coming into a road which feparates into three directions, makes choice of the third by virtue of an induétion or fyllogif{m ; becaufe after having {cented the two ways by which the beaft did not pafs, he 1uns ftraight upon the third without {centing it; where the reafon is ob- vious : the beaft pafled either that way, or that way, or this way ; but he paffed neither that way nor that way, and there- fore this way. See Stanley’s Hilt. Philof. p. 780. That a dog is poffefled of what they call internal reafon, appears, from his choofing things convenient, flying the hurtful, pur fuing his food, and running away from the whip ; and when wounded or fick, acting prudently, as the circumftances of his cafe, and his abilities and opportunities dictate. It has alfo been argued, though certainly with no great appearance of reafon, that we owe the difcovery of many medicines, and the invention of many arts, to brutes. Thus, it is faid, that from the fpider man learned the art of weaving ; from the fwallcow he borrowed architeéture; from the goofe fwimming, from fifh navigation; from filk-worms fewing; to omit many other in{tances of the like kind alleged by Plu- tarch (De Solert. Animal. Op. tom. i. p. 974.), Voffius (De Onig. Idol. 1. i. c. 27.), and others. How many ac- tions of brutes, it is faid, are to be obferved, which cannot be accounted for without the firft proceffes of reafoning ? If we fay, that dogs, by long habits and force of rewards and punifhment, may be taught many things, do not this docility, and remembrance of blows, argue memory, fear, and defire, which cannot fubfift without knowledge, fenfe, pleafure, and pain? And if brutes have knowledge, it is allowed that they mutt alfo have judgment and reafon. The Cartefians, on the other hand, maintain, that brutes are mere machines, wholly deftitute not only of reafon and thought, but of every degree of perception: and that they perform their various funétions as mere “¢ automata,”’ excited to motion only by means of animal fpirits, which aét upon the nerves and mufcles. This extravagant and paradoxical opinion Des Cartes has been fufpeéted of borrowing from Gomez Pereira, a Spanith phy- fician, who employed 30 years in compofing a treatife, which he entitles “ Antoniana Margarita,” from the Chriftian names of his father and mother, publifhed in 1554; but it is more probable, that it wasa conclufion originally deduced from his notion of the animal {pirits in the economy of human nature. However this be, the notion was revived by Des Cartes, and further afferted by Le Grand, d’Armafon, and others of his followers, who were led to adopt this a 5 om BRUTE. from that principle of his philofophy, that the effence of the foul confiits in thinking; fo that, fuppofing knowledge and — in brutes, they muit have fouls like thofe of men ; the fenfitive foul of the Arittoteliaus being held by him a mere chimera. But Pereira does not appear to have been the firft inventor of the doctrine ; fomething like it having been held by fome of the ancients, as we find from Plutarch (De Placit. Phil. 1. v.c. 20.), and St. Augultin (de Quant. Anime Patch. Invent. Nov. Anti. c. 3.) Des Cartes was probably led to adopt this opinion of the mere mechanifm of brutes in order to obviate two great objections; one againft the immortality of the fouls of brutes, ifithey were allowed to have anys and the other againft the goodnefs of God, in {uffering creatures who had never finned to be obnoxious to fo many evils. In favour of this opinion it has been argued, that’ many human aétions are merely mechanical, being per- formed without the perception of the agent, and any direc- tion from his will; and thefe muft be afcribed to the impref- fion of objects, and the original difpofition of the machine, in which the influence of the foul has noconcern: fo that in fuch cireuniftances often occurring with regard to ations that are habitual, human beings are no better than aittomata. 2. Some natural movements of the body are fo involuntary, that’ we cannot reitrain them, and feem to depend altogether on mechanifm. 3. Tothis mechanifm we are alfo to attri- bute thofe likings and antipathies for and again{t particular objects, which precede knowledge and diferimination, and which in adyanced life baffle and controul reafon ; and they furnifheftriking proots of that irrefiftible influence which cer- tain objects have on the human frame. 4. Our paflions are known to depend onthe motion of the blood, and the reci- rocal impreflions caufed by the animal {pirits between the eart and brain, that are fo intimately conneéted by their nerves; and hence it is inferred, that if effe&s of this kind may be produced by fuch fimple mechanical means as the mere increafe of motion in the blood, without any direétion of the will, we need not wonder that the actions of brutes fhould refult merely from a refined mechanifm, without thought or perception. 5. It has been further urged, that human ingenuity has produced many furprifing phenomena by mechanical means, fuch as are exhibited in automata of human contrivances ; and as the mechanifm of the body of the meaneft animal mutt infinitely furpafs that of the moft curious machines of this nature, the effects produced by it muft be proportionably: more furprifing. In reply to thefe arguments, 1t has been alleged, that they only prove, if we allow their full force, the poffibility of the cafe, that brutes are mere machines, or thatthe power of God might produce certain actions by mechanifm, but not that he has aétually dave fo ; and, moreover, that if they be admitted, they will prove too much, or that human beings may be mere machines, and not only irrational butinfenfible too. To the Cartefian bypothelis it has been more direéily objeGted, that the phe- nomena of tion, forefight, memory, volition, and {pontaneous exertion, and of various paffions of joy, forrow, tear, ar = page love, &c. exhibited by brutes, are in- explicable'by any mechanical principles and laws. We have the fame evidence in many cafes of the fenfibility of brutes which we have of that of mankind; and that they are alfo endowed with the powers of refieétion and reafoning, as well as with fenfation. — If beafts were automata or machines, they could have no perception of pleafure or pain, and confe- quently no cruelty could be exercifed towards them; which is contrary to the common fenfe and obfervation of mankind, andtfeemingly contrary to thofe declarations of {cripture, which obvioufly intimate that they are the objects of fevere seVot., V. mite wail " - ~ and of mild and merciful treatment. Prov. xii. ro. Ray's Wifdom of God in the Creation, p. 56. ~y ae The late profeflor Bergmann, in an ingenious treatife, writ- ten in German, and entitled © Thaagralivdge: &c.”’ or * Re- fearches defigned to fhew what the Brute Animals certainly are not, and, alfo, what they probably are, &c.’’ 8vo. Mentz, 1785, has produced a variety of arguments in order to prove that brutes are not machines. But if they are not mere ma- chines, what are they? manifeilly fenfitive beings, with an im- material principle; and thinking, or reafoning beings toa cer- tain degree. In certain clafles of animals this appears evident tothe profeflor, who feems to have obferved, with great fa- gacity and attention, their various operations and proceed- ings, their ways and means, &c. He thinks it impoffible to’ deduce this variety of action in any animals (if we except thofe of the lowcft clafles in the gradation of intelligence) from a’ general and uniform ioftinét: for they accommodate their operations to times and circum{tances. They combine: they choofe the favourable moment; they avail themfelves of the occafion; and feem to receive inftruétion by experience. Many of their operations announce refieCtion ; the bird re- pairs a fhattered neft, inftead of conitrudting, inftinétively, anew one; the hen, who has been robbed of her eggs, changes her place, in order to lay the remainder with more fecunty ; the cat difcovers both care and artifice in conceal- ing her kittens. Again, it is evident that, on many occa- fions, animals know their faults and miftakes, and correct them: they fometimes contrive the moft ingenious methods of obtaining their ends; and when one method fails, have re- courfe toanother; and they have, without doubt, a kind of language for the mutual communication of theirideas. How is all this to be accounted for, (fays Bergmann,) unlefs we fuppofe them endowed with the power o perceiving, think- ing, remembering, comparing, and judging? They have thefe powers, indeed, in a degree, inferior to that in which they are pofleffed by the human {pecies, and form claffes be- low them in the graduated feale of intelligent beings. But though it feems to him unreafonable to exclude them from the place which the principles of found philofophy, and facts afcertained by conftant obfervation, affign to them in the great and diverfified {phere of life, fenfation, and intelligence; he does not, however, confider them as beings, whofe actions are direGted to mora/ ends, nor, confequently, as accountable and proper fubjects for recvard be pune in a future world. That brutes poffefs refleGtion and fentiment, and are ful. ceptible of the kind as well as the irafcible paffions, inde- pendently of fexual attachment and natural affedtion, is evi- dent from the numerous inftances of affeétion and gratitude daily obfervable in different animals, particularly the dog. OF thefe, and other fentiments, fuch as pride, and even a fenfe of glory, the elephant exhibits proofs equally furprifing” and unquellionable; for which we refer to the article Eve- PHANT, The brute creation manifefts alfo a Wonderful’ fpirit of fociality, independent of fexual attachment. It is well known that horfes, which are perfeétly quiet in com- pany, cannot be kept by any fences in a field by themfelves; oxen and éows will not fatten by themfelves, but neglect the fineit pafture that is not recommended by fociety ; fheep con- ftantly flock together. Nor is a propenfity to affociate re- ftriéted to animals of the fame kind and fize. Tnftances to this purpofe are enumerated in White’s Natural Hiftory of Selborne, to which we refer the reader. T'rom thefe inftances we may conclude that Milton, when he puts the following fentiment in the mouth of Adam, feems to havebeen miftaken: 6 Much lefs can bird with bealt, or ith with fowl So well converfe, nor with the ox the ape.” 3,1 Mr, BRUTE Mr. Locke {Eflay, vol. i. p. 120, 148.) maintains, that the fouls of brutes are wholly material: that they do not poffefs the power of abftraétion; and that the having of general ideas is that which puts a perfect diftin€tion between menand brutes. Accordingly, he fuppofes that they have no ufe of words, or any general figns by which to exprefs their ideas. It has, however, been a fubje& of difpute, whether brute animals have any language intelligible to one another. Some have pretended, that they have a kind of jargon, by which they can make a mutual communication of their fentiments; and Porphyry relates, that Tirefias and Apollonius Tyanzus underftood thislanguage. There isat leaft a fimilitude of {peech in brutes; for they know each other by their voices, and have their figns whereby they ex- prefs anger, joy, and other paflions. ‘Thus, a dog affaults wn one ttrain, fawns in another, howls in another, and cries when beaten in another. To us, indeed, their fpeech, if it may be fo called, appears rude and inarticulate ; but perhaps ours, though underftood by them, is the fame in their ears. But if the voice of brutes be unintelligible to us, does not the fame hold of the language of our own kind, till we have been inftru€ted in it? And the language of foreigners, what is it but a confufed unmeaning heap of founds? Laughter, as the fign of mirth and joy, has been thought peculiar to men ; and yet we fee fomewhat refembling it in brutes, fig- nified by the motion of their ears, eyes, mouth, and tongues. Dr. Hartley (fee his Obfervations of Man, p. 239.) has inveftigatcd the intelletual faculties of brutes, and applied his theory of vibrations and affociation in accounting for the inferiority of brutes to mankind, with regard to intelleétual capacities. He afcribes the difference fubfifting between them to the following circumaftances, which he has taken occafion to illuftrate on the principles of his theory. ‘The Airft of thefe is the {mall proportionate fize of their brains, whence brutes havea far lefs variety of ideas and intelleCtual affections than men. ‘The fecond caufe of this difference is the imperfection of the matter of their brains, whereby it is lefs fitted for retaining a large number of miniatures, and combining them by affociation, than man’s. The third caufe is their want of words, and fuch like fymbols; fourthly, the inftin@tive powers which they bring into the world with them, or which rife up from internal caufes, as they advance towards adult age, is another caufe of this difference; and, &fthly, it is partly owing to the difference between the ex- ternal impreffions made on the brute creation, and on man- kind. This ingenious writer fuppofes, with Des Cartes, that all the motions of brutes are condu€ted by mere mechanifm; yet he does not fuppofe them to be deftitute of perception ; but that they have this in amanner analogous to that which takes place in us; and that it is fubjeted to the fame me- chanical laws as the motions. He adds, that it ought always to be remembered, in {peaking on this fubje&, that brutes have more reafon than they can fhow, from their want of words, from our inattention, and from our ignorance of the import of thofe fymbols, which they do ufe in giving inti- mations to one another, and to us. *« As brutes,”’ fays Dr. Prieftley, (Difquifitions on Matter and Spirit; p. 238, &c.) ‘have the fame external fenfes that we have, they have, of courfe, all the fame inlets to ideas that we have; and though, on account of their wanting a fufficient guantity of brain, perhaps chiefly, the combination and affociation of their ideas cannot be fo complex as ours, and therefore they cannot make fo great 2 progrefs in intel- le€tual improvements, they muft neceflarily have, in éind, every faculty that we are poffefled of. Alfo, fince they evidently have memory, paffions, will, aad judgment too, as their actions demonitrate, they muft, of courle, have the faculty that we call abfra@ion, as well as the reft; though, not having the ufe of words, they cannot communicate their ideasto us. They muft, at leait, have a natural capacity for what is called ab/fradien; it being nothing more than a pars ticular cafe of the affociation of ideas, of which, in general, they are certainly poflefled as well as ourfelves. Betides, if dogs had no general or abftra&t ideas, but only {uch as were appropriated to particular individual obje&s, they could never be taught to diftinguifh a man as fuch, a Aare as fuch, or a partridge as fuch, &c. But their ations thew, that they may be trained to catch hares, fet partridges, or birds in general, and even attack men, as well as to diftinguifh their own mafter, and the fervants of the family in which they live. Whether brutes will furvive the grave we cannot tell. This depends upon other confiderations than their being capable of reafon and refileGtion. If the refurreétion be pro- perly miraculous, and entirely out of all the eftablifhed laws of natyre, it will appear probable that brutes have no fhare in it; fince we know of no declaration that God has made to that purpofe, and they can have no expectation of any fuch thing. But if the refurreétion be, in fa, within the proper courfe of nature, extenfively confidered, and confequently there be fomething remaining of every organized body that death does not deftroy, there will be reafon to conclude that they will be benefited by it as well as ourfelves. And the great mifery to which fome of them are expofed in this hfe may incline us to think, that a merciful and juft God will make them fome recompence for it hereafter. He is their maker and father as well as ours. But with refpeét-to this queftion, we haye no fufficient data from which to argue, and therefore muft acquiefce in our utter ignorance, fatisfied that the maker and judge of all will do what is right.” It has been, till very lately, a general opinion in the Chrif- tian wor!d, that the fouls of brutes were wholly material, and therefore mortal. ‘Che great lord Bacon entertained this opinion. Anima fenfibilis,’”? fays he, “ five brutorum, plane fubftantia corporea cenfenda eft.”? The cclebrated anatomift Willis alfo profeffed the fame. The fentiments of Malebranche feem to have coincided with thofe of Des Cartes; for he fays, that they eat without pleafure, and cry without pain; that they fear nothing, know nothing; and if they act in fuch a manner as to indicate underftanding, it is becaufe God, having made them to preferve them, has alee their bodies fo as mechanically to avoid whatever might hurt them. The learned Gale maintains at large (Philofophia Generalis, p. 323.) that the fenfitive foul is corporeal; and the celebrated Dr. Cudworth has revived the long-exploded notion of the foul of the world, from which the fouls of brutes iffue, and to which he fuppofes they return, without retaining their feparate confcioufnefs after death. However, in order tofolvethe difficulty refpeGting theirftate andthat of mankind, he fuppofes the immortality of the foul not to follow neceffa- rily from its immateriality, but from the appointment of God. Butin accounting for the difference in the divine difpenfations to them and us, he conceives them to be deftitute of morality and liberty. Some fpeak, however, as if they held brutes to be moral beings, and under the obligation of the law of na- ture. Ulpian, and other civil lawyers, are fuppofed to be of this opinion; as alfo the Stoics, from whofe fchool this tenet is faid to have been firft borrowed. It is alleged, on the other hand, that brutes cannot be fubje& toa law, unlefs. they have a power of knowing him that mace the law, judging whether we have a right to command them, and what is contained in the law, that they may dire& themlelves. accordingly; which feem all to be things out of the reach of brutes. But Ulpian’s definition of the law of nature, « jus naturale eft quod natura omnia animalia docuit,”” — vy BRU fairly interpreted, does not imply that brates have reafon and reflection, but may be underftood of that natural inftin& common to man and brutes, by which they are impelled to felf-defence, propagation of their {pecies, &c. We hhall clofe this article with briefly noticing the fanciful opinion of father Bougeant, who has laboured to prove, both from reafon and fcripture, that the {pirits of brute creatures are devils. As fo many guilty victims of divine vengeance, they are fentenced to endure a variety of evils. By nature, he fays, they are extremely vicious; but God, by irreco- verably reprobating them, has, at the fame time, divefted them of their liberty, fo that they can be no longer criminal : an hypothefis equally abfurd in its principles and in its confequences. BRUTIA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Mutitva that inhabits Calabria. Its charaéter is thus defcribed : colour black ; thorax rufous; abdomen with fix filvery white {pots, and belt of the fame. Petagn. Inf. Cal. Bavrtia, in the Medical Writings of the Ancients, a term ufed to denote thé fatteft and moft reiinous kinds of pitch, and fuch as was the moit proper for making the oil of pitch, caljed “ oleum picinum.”? The term is derived from Bru- tia, or Brutium, the name of the country where it was pro- cured. Plin. N. H. 1. xv. ¢. 7. BRUTIAN Forest, inwdicient Geography, now called La Sila, an extenfive foreft of Brutium or Calabria, which covered a furface of 200 miles in circumference ; and from which Hiero, king of Syracufe, and after him the Romans, drew their maits and other timber for fhipping. The fame forett is {till covered with large woods of pines or firs; but from thefe extenfive woods little benefit is derived, except in turpentine-and fuel. BRUTIUM, one of the two peninfulas of that part of Italy, anciently known by the name of Magna Grecia, which extended to the itraits that feparated Sicily from Italy ; the other peninfula being called Calabria. Part of it towards the north is now diftinguifhed by the appellation of Calabria Citra, and the more foutherly part is denominated Calabria Ultra. It was inhabited by the Brutii, who were flaves of Lucania, that had revolted from their matters, taken up arms, and rendered themfelves independent. Some derive their name from a Lucanian term, denoting ‘ Rebels :”” but others with greater probability feek the etymology of their name in the nature and produétions of their foil. Accordingly, as moft of their trees were refinous, they find in the oriental term “ Brata,’? or, as the Syrians write it, «« Bruta,”’ the origin of the appellation Brutii. Calabria, it is likewife alleged, has a fimilar derivation from ¢ Calab,”’ fignifying pitch or refin. ‘Their principal rivers were, on the weft, Lamatis and Metaurus, and on the eaft, Cecinus, Targines, Neoethur, and Cratis. Their chief towns, in the vet, from north to fouth, were Pandofia, Conventia, Hippo- nium, and Rhegium; and on the eaft, from fouth to north, Locri, Seylacium, Croton, Petilia, and Rofcianum. The ** Brutium promontorium’”’ was that promontory fince called #* Cabo de Scilio.”” BRUTO, Joun-Micuaer, in Biography, a polite Italian fcholar, was born at Venice about the year 15153 and in the courfe of his vagrant life, he refided for fome time at Padua, afterwards vifited Florence, Lucca, and other Jtalian cities, pafled fome years at Lyons in France, and travelled into England and Spain. In 1574 he accepted ani. .'ta- tion from Stephen Battori, prince of ‘Tranfylvania, by whom he was employed in writing the hiftory of that country ; and after his advancement to the crown of Poland, accom- panied him to Cracow. On the death of this prince, he removed to Vienna, and became hiftoriographer ta the em- BRU peror Rodolph {T. He clofed a wandering life, in the courfe of which, notwith{tanding the patronage he enjoyed, he never rofe above indigence, in Tranfylvania, in 1594. As a writer, he had the reputation of learning and merit ; and, though he contemned the affeétation of the Ciceronians, his Latinity was pure and elegant. His critical works com- prifed notes on Horace, Cxfar, and Cicero; but his hifto- rical knan are the mott valuable. His Florentine hif tory, extending to the death of Lorenzo de Medici, is con- fidered as one of the fineft monuments of the age. It was os at Lyons in 1562, under the title of « Florentine iftoria, libri viii. priores.’’? As it was conformable to the olitical condué& of the houfe of Medici, it was induftrioufly fupprefled, and few copies of it now remain. His elegant tract “ De Origine Venetiarum,”’ his treatife « De In{tau- ratione Italix,’” and his * Hiftory of Hungary,” are pre- ferved in the imperial library at Vienna. Of his fmaller printed works, comprifing orations, Latin letters, and two treatifes, one on the manner of ftudying hiftory, and the other containing conjugal precepts, a new edition awas printed at Berlin in 1698, 8vo. Bayle. Tirabofchi. BRUTOBRIA, or Bauropotis, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in Beetica, fituate between the river Beetis, and the country of the Tyritani or Turditani.. Steph. Byz. BRUTON, or Brewron, in Geography, is a pleafant, well-built market-town in Somerfethire, England, fituated 113 miles W. from London, and 12 S. from Frome, at the wellern extremity of the foreft of Selwood, and takes its name from the river Brew or Brue, which, rifing in that foreit, paffes through the town in its way to Glaltonbury. The furrounding {cenery is extremely intereiting : the vales are meadows, the declivities orchards, and the eminences fheep- walks. The manor was once the property of fir Maurice Berkeley, whofe younger fon John, as a reward for his fer- vices to the royal caule, was created by Charles II. lord Berkeley of Stratton. ‘he title became extin& in 1772, and the manor is now in the poffeffion of fir Richard Colt Hoare, bart. of Stourhead in Wiltfhire. On this fite was anciently an abbey, founded by St. Algar, earl of Corn- wall. The town confifts principally of five ftreets, in the centre of which is the market-place, where, till lately, ftood a curious old hexagonal market crofs, fupported by fix pil- lars at the angles, and a larger one in the centre. ‘The roof confilted wholly of the ribs of arches, which diverged from pillar to pillar, and were finely ornamented with fculpture. This edifice was eighteen feet high, the top flat, and encom- pafled with a ftone balluflrade ; 1t was built, as Leland in- forms us, by John Ely, the lat abbot of Brewton. ‘The market 1s on Saturday. In the High-{treet is a market- houfe, built by a fubfcription of the farmers who frequented this market, upon land given them for that purpofe by Hugh Saxey, efq. who, from a low ftation, was advanced to the polt of auditor to queen Elizabeth. He died in 1620, poffefled of feveral manors and eftates in the counties of Somerfet and Gloucefter; which, in conformity to his in- tention, were fettled in 1638 on twelve gentlemen of the county, for the ereétion and endowment of an hofpital here for the maintenance of old men, women, and boys. ‘The number now fupported are eight men, ten women, and twelve boys; the latter are boarded, educated, and appren- ticed; and the aged ure comfortably provided for, The annual income belonging to this charity'is about 2500/. Inthe court of the hofpital is a ttatue of the founder, with this infeription :— Hugh Saxcy,%q. founder of this hof- pital, auditor to queen Elizabeth, and king James.” There 1 alfo a firee-fchoo) in the?town, inflitoted by king Jed abi 2 ward BRU ward VI, and endowed by bifhop Fitzjames, and his brother fir John, lord chief juice. Bruton confifts of 333 houfes, containing 1631 inhabitants, the greater part of whom are employed in agriculture: for though Leland tells us, that in his time, “* Brewton was much occupied with making of clothe,” yet at prefent the only manufacture is a little hofiery, and filk reeling, at the latter of which three or four hundred young perfous are employed. The church, dedi- tated to St. Mary, is a large ftruéture, and has two qua- drangular tewers,| one occupying the weft end, and the other rifiag from one fide of the north aifle. The latter feems to have been the origina] tower, but the former is the handfomeit. The intevior of the church is well ornamented, and contains a great number of monuments. Collinfon’s Hiftory of Somerfetfhire, vol.i. gto. Maton’s Tour through the Weftern Counties, vol. it. 8vo. BRUTUS, or Brute, in Biography, the firft king of Britain, according to the fabulous relation of Jeffry or Geoffrey of Monmouth. See Bairary. Beutrus, Lucius Juxivs, the founder of the Roman republic, was the fon of Marcus Junius, a wealthy patri- cian, who had married the daughter of Tarquin the Proud, with whom terminated the race of kings at Rome. The father and brother of Brutus were aiffaffinated by order of this tyrant at the beginning of his reign; and Brutus him- felf efcaped by feigning idiotifm, whence it is faid the name of ‘* Brutus” was derived. Under this charaéter he was admitted into the royal palace, brought up with the king’s fons, and regarded merely as the object of their diverfion, On occafion of a plague which broke out at Rome, Tar- quin fent his fons to confult the oracle of Delphi as to the caufe and cure of the contagion; and Brutus alfo was or- dered to accompany them for their amufement. ‘The princes prepared magnificent prefents for Apollo; but their compa- nion is faid to have offered to the god an elder ftick, en- clofing a rod of gold, and ferving as an emblem of himfelf. It is further reported, that when the princes made an in- quiry, which of them fhould be king of Rome, the oracle replied, that the government fhould be referved for him who fhould firft kifs his mother ; and that they, interpreting this anfwer literally, agreed to kifs their mother at the fame time, and toreign jointly. But Brutus, interpreting the refponfe of the oracle allegorically, fell down upon the earth, after his return to Italy, and kifled it, as the common mother of ail mankind. Whatever may be thought of this ftory, it is certain that the tragical death of Lucretia (fee Lucre- tis) roufed the dormant and difguifed fpirit of Brutus ; and that, having fnatched the poignard out of her bofom, he vowed vengeance on the aggreflors, and excited her re- fations to concur with him in retaliating on Tarquin and his family the difhonour fhe had fuffered, and the lament- able event in which it had terminated. Accordingly they all bound themfelves by a folemn oath to execute their purpofe, and agreed to follow the counfel and example of Brutus, who feemed now, by a kind of extraordinary infpiration, to have recovered his faculties, and to poffefs talents, which had hitherto been concealed, fit for conducting their delibes rations, and fecuring their profperous iflue. The gates were immediately fhut, the fenate was affembled, and a pub- lic decree was propofed and carried for banifhing the king, annihilating the royal form of government, and eftablifhing acommonwealth. Brutus, and Collatinus, the hufband of Lucretia, were eleGed as the firft chief magiftrates of the ftate, under the denominetion of ‘ confuls ;?? an important change in the conftitution of the Roman government, which took place in the year of Rome 245, B.C. 509. This change, {o hattily concerted and accomplifhed, although it BRU had obtained the concurrence of the fenate, and of the people, excited an alarm amongit thofe who were attached to the old conftitution, and particularly among the young nobility, who were zealous partizans of the dethroned and expelled fovereign. In the number of the malcoatents, were the two fons of Brutus, and three nephews of Collatinus. Thefe were ative in the confpiracy formed againtt the new government; and they concurred with others in binding themfelves by avery folemn oath to murder the confuls, and to re-eftablifh monarchy. Wohilft they were concerting mea- fures for this purpofe, the plot was difclofed by a fiave to P. Valerius, a patriotic fenator, and orders were iffued fer apprehending them. When the fons of Brutus, venerated by the people as their deliverer, appeared before the con- fular tribunal, the attendant »multitude. was feized with a general panic; and as foon as they were conviéted of the crime alleged agaimit them, the fenators, in a kind of confufed murmur, exprefled their anxiety and wifhes, by uttering the words, * Banifh them! bantth them !?? Colla- tinus wept, and the ftern patriot Valerius was filent. But- the father, facrificing private feelings to the public good, and apprized of the neceffity of fupprefling rebellion by an awful example of punifhment, with a fteady countenance, and firm tone of voice, gave orders to the lictors to execute the law on his fons. ‘he diftrefs of the affembled multi- tude on this folemn occafion was fuch as no words can de- fcribe ; mournful looks and fecret groans pleaded for pity ; and when the conful feemed to pay no regard to their an- xiety and tears, they loudly remonftrated, and exclaimed with one voice, “* We give them back to their country, and to their family.”? Neither the interceflions of the people, nor the fuppliant cries of the criminals, could alter the fixed purpofe of Brutus, who witneffed the execution of the fentence; and having feen them ftripped, beaten with rods, and beheaded, retired from the tribunal, to indulge, without doubt, thofe parental feelings which the neceflity of the times had induced him to difguife and reftrain. Of his condu& on this occafion very different fentiments have been entertained. Whillt fome have extolled, others have condemned it. But to the judgment of fober reafon, it exhibits a noble example of the triumph of public virtue over private affetions; and the difplay of it required that fternnefs of temper, and thofe peculiar ideas of the extent of parental authority, which feem ta have characterized this ancient Roman. Collatinus was more flexible ; and he wifhed to fpare his nephews, and to jupprefs the evidence which the flave Vindicius had adduced againit them. The zeal of Valerius was roufed; and whilft the people were tumultuous, Brutus returned, and having again afcended the tribunal, juttified his own condu&, but referred the fate ef the other criminals to the decifion of the people, who concurred in condemning them, and ordering them for exe- cution. Collatinus, however, accufed by Brutus for his weaknefs, and want of patriotilm, was obliged to renounce his authority, and to retire to Lavinium, where he lived privately to an advanced age. Upon his removal, Brutus, in order to obviate every fufpicion that it was his intention to govern fingly, convoked the people by centuries in the Campus Martius, for the ele€tion of a new conful; and Valerius, afterwards known by the name-of ‘ Poplicola,” whofe meritorious condu& in the difclofure of the confpi- racy has been already mentioned, was chofen to fupply the vacancy. Some difference occurs in the relation of thefe events by Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus, Livy, and Plutarch ; but they all agree in the principal faét, refpecting the con- du& of Brutus towards his fons. During the confulate of Brutus and Valerius, ‘T'arquin and his partizans made fome vigorous BRUTUS: vigorous efforts for regaining the throne of ‘Rome; and, joined by the Veientes, the avowed enemies of the Romans, they advanced towards the city. But they were met by the confuls at the head of the Roman forces; the com- mand of the horle being aflumed by Brutus, and that of the infantry by Valerius; the horfe of the enemy, com- manded by Arunx, one of Tarquin’s fons, came forward to the charge; and as the hoftile armies approached each other, Acunx difcovered Brutus attended by his lifors ; aad inflamed with refentment, he exclaimed, ‘* There is the enemy of my family, the ufurper of my father’s throne.’? He thea immediately advanced taa perfonal encounter, and Drutus few to meet him. ACtuated by paffion, more than by cool ceurage, thefe two champions, neglecting the means of perfonal defence, transfixed each other with their {pears, aad at the fame inftant fell dead from their horfes. This happened in the year B.C. 509. The confli@ thus com- menced, terminated in a viGtory on the part of the Romans; and, as fooa as it was decided, Valerius buried his colleague Brutus with great pomp, and gave Rome the firit example of thofe funeral orations, which it was afterwards cultomary to pronounce in commendation of their great men. The Roman matrons diltinguifhed themfelves on this occafioa ; for, regarding Brutus as the avenger of the honour of their fex, they mourned for hima whole year; and his ftatue was afterwards erected in the capitol, with a naked {word in his hand. The Romans yenerated his memory, as that of the fecond founder of their city, who had reftored liberty to their country, cemented it by the blood of his own fons, and died in defending it againit an ufurper ; and they con- fidered him as haying undergone more hardfhips and dangers in eftablithing the commonwealth, than Romu!us had done in Girlt founding the kingdom. Virgil has nobly iketched bis hiftory and praife in the following lines; “ Confulis imperium hic primus fxvafque fecures Accipiet ; natofque pater, nova bella moventes, Ad penam pulchra pro libertate vocabit. Tnfelix ! utcumque mat ea fata minores ; Viacit amor patriz, laudumque immenia cupido.” En. VI. 820. He firft fhall hold the conful’s fway, and wield The dreaded axes; he, a Roman fire, For thee, fair Liberty ! his rebel fons Shall doom to public death. Unhappy man! Howe’er potterity the deed may judge, His country’s love, and boundlefs thirft of praife,, Shall quell the father.’’ Dionyf. Halic. lib. iv. and v. Livy, lib. i, and ii. Plut, in Poplicol. apud Op. T.i..p. 97, &c. Bautus, Marcus Junius, an illuftrious Roman, derived his name and defcent, as fome have faid, as well as his f{pirit, from L. J. Brutus, the fubject of the preceding article. Cicero records this line of his defcent, both in his {peeches and writings as a fat which was not doubted by any ; and he often {peaks of the “‘ image of old Brutus,”? which Mar- cus kept in his houfe among thofe of his anceftors; and Atticus, who was peculiarly curious in the antiquities of the Roman families, drew up Brutus’s genealogy for him; and deduced his fucceffion from that ancient hero, ina dire& line, through all the intermediate ages from father to fon. Plu- tarch alfo,on the authority of Pofidonius the philofopher, was of the fame opinion. Other ancient writers, however, and par- ticularly Dionyfius of Halicarnaflus, allege feveral arguments againft this defcent, which feem to be very plaufible; and Aang fay that the family of the patriot was extiné in the execution of Lis two fons. However this be, M. J. Brutus was the fon of a fenator of the fame name, who belonged to the party of Marius, and who was put to death for his feve- rities by Poinpey at the furrender of Mutina. His mother was Servilia, the filter of Cato, who difyraced herfelf by her connection with Czfar, which gave rife to the opinion that Bratus was his natural fon. But as he was born in the con- fulfhip of L. Cornelius Cinna ILI. and Cn. Papirius Carbo I. A. U. 668, he was no more than 15 years younger than Crfar himfelf; and this circumitance fully confutes the vulgar ftory of his being commonly believed to be Cefar’s fon. As Brutus loft his father, when he was young, the care of his education devolved on his uncle Cato: under whole direction it was conducted on that liberal plan which prevailed among Romans of dittin&tion, after their conneétion with Greece. He ftudied the language and philofophy of that country ; and he acquired, by meaiis of his natural ta- lents and fedulous application, adiftinguifhed reputation for eloquence. At the bar and in private afiemblies his rhetorical powers were exercifed; he pleaded feveral caufes of great importance, and he was allowed to be the moft eloquent and learned of all the young men of rank and family at the period in which he lived. His manner of {peaking was corre, elegant, and judicious ; though he wanted that force and copioufsefs which are required in a.coafummate orators But he was principally delighted with the fludy of philofo- phy, in which, though he profeffed himlelf a difciple of the moderate fe& of the old academy, he neverthelefs; from a certain pride and gravity of temper, and from a deference to the example of Cato, affeGted the feverity of the Stoic. His difpofition, however, which was mild, gentle, and com- paffionate, was incompatible with this fyftem ; and he was often conitrained, by the tendernefs of his nature, to confute the rigour of his principles. On the doétrines of the phi- lofophy which he had adopted, he wrote fome treatifes, and he transfufed both the language and fentiments of his fee into Latin. His. accomplifhments as a fcholar and an orator are fufficiently attefted by Cicero, who has done him the honour of introducing him as one of his {peakers in his dialogue ‘* De Claris Oratoribus,”’ and addreffed to him his treatife~entitled “ Orator.”? Attached to Cato from his youth, he imbibed, under his difcipline, an ardent love of liberty and virtue: and having accompanied him in his ex- pedition to Cyprus, where he was employed by his uncle, after the unhappy end ofits king, Ptolemy, in fecuring the royal treafures for the public. This commiflion he executed to the fatisfaétion of his uncle ;, and by marrying his daughter Portia, he formed a clofer alliance with this vene- rable patriot, and was led to make him the model of his public condu&. Accordingly, after his example, when the civil war broke out between Cafar and Pompey, he joined the party of the latter; although he had reafon to refent his condu& for the murder of his father ; and Czfar’s familiarity with his mother induced him to manifeft a partiality in favour ofherfon. Atthe battle of Pharfalia, in which Brutus was engaged on the fide of Pompey, Czfar gave {pecial orders to » find out and preferve him unhurt; and after this battle, - which terminated the republic, he jecis himfelf to Czfar, who rejoiced in his fafety, an immediately received him into favour, teftifying his regard for him by. pardoning his friend Caffius at his ierecincas, Cefar entrufted him with the government of Cifalpine Gaul, and afterwards no- minated him praetor of Rome. Notwithftanding the grati tude and refpe& he was thus induced to entertain for Caefar, . he was alarmed by his ufurped dominion, and a view of the degraded {tate into which his country was reduced by the yitlation of the laws and conititution, excited a difguit which no favours could compenfate. At the fame time, Caffius, who had married his fider, was afliduous in endeay vouring- BRUTUS. wouring to-kindle the flame of patriotifm in his breaft. He caufed the name of his fuppofed anceftor, Junius Brutus, to be founded in his ears; and led him to believe that the Romans expetted his affuming the hereditary office of ref- cuing them fromatyrant. Thefe arguments at length pre- vailed, and Brutus agreed to take the lead in a confpiracy againft Cefar’s life. His charatter induced feveral other eminent citizens to join in the defign ; and they refolved to execute it on the ides of March (March 15) A. U. 710, B.C. 44. It is faid, that when Cefar faw his beloved Brutus among the confpirators, with his dagger drawn * againft him, he defifted from any farther felf-defence, wrapped his head in his mantle and furrendered himfelf to his fate. Averfe from needlefs effulion of blood, Brutus, by impolitic forbearance, permitted Antony to efcape ; and by readinefs to acquiefce in the reading of Cefar’s will, and by the pompous folemnities of his funeral, he furnifhed Antony with a pretence for exciting in the minds of the people a reverence for his memory, and a deteftation againft his murderers ; in confequence of which he and his party were obliged to fecure their lives by retiring from Rome to An- tium. Afterwards, when Octavianus joined Antony, and they concurred in affuming the fovereign power, he and his faithful Portia quitted Italy and fet fail for Athens. Here, at conyenient intervals, he renewed the profecution of his philofophical ftudies ; whilft at the fame time he fecretly prepared for war, and fent a meffenger to Macedonia, to en- gage the Romans of that province in the party of the repub- lic, and to facilitate his admiffion into it, as governor for the fenate. Having obtained a complete fupply of men, arms, and money, he marched into Macedonia , and gained pof- feffion of the army, and of the perfon of Caius, the brother of Antony, who had been deputed to feize Dyrrachium and Apollonia. When Odtavianus became fole mafter of Rome, he pro- ceeded to the condemnation of all who had been concerned in the murder of his adopted father; ard the names of Brutus and Caffius were inferted, much to the regret and grief of the people, in the bloody roll of profcription. They, however, were at this time in the command of power- ful armies, which fpeedily formed a junction at Smyrna. Having performed fome feparate fervices in the fubjugation of thofe maritime powers, the Rhodians and Lydians, they met again at Sardis ; and determined to dire@ their march to the ftraits of Hellefpont, in order to pafs over into Europe, for the purpofe of oppofing the progrefs of Antony and Oc- tavianus, who had row arrived at Macedon. It was in the courfe of this march that the frightful apparition, recorded by Plutarch and other hiftorians, prefented itfelf to Brutus, and which, under the appellation of his evil genius, an- nounced another vifitto him at Philippi. Caffius afcribes this phenomenon to the illufion of a troubled imagination, under the influence of anxiety and bodily fatigue ; and if it be any thing more than an idle fabrication, to this caufe it may be reafonably attributed. On the plains of Philippi the two hoftile armies affembled for the decifion of the inte- refting conteft. Brutus and Caflius having fettled their plan of conduét, if the iffue of this confli& fhould prove unfa- vourable, they prepared for action. In the firft battle Brutus defeated OGavianus, but in the ardour of the con- teft he left Caffius unfupported, and thus occafioned his de- feat and death. This event he grievoufly deplored, and fhedding many tears over the body of his friend, bewailed the lots of him under the honourable appellation of « the laft of the Romans.’ He had now the fole command of a numerous and mutinous army ; which compelled him to rifk another engagement, having firft put to death all the flaves whom he had made prifoners, and having promifed to his foldiers, in cafe of victory, the pillage of Theffalonica and Lacedemon. In the fecond battle the wing which he commanded routed that of OGavianus, whilft Antony de- feated the other committed to the condué of Caffius’s lieu- tenant. But, inftead of purfuing this advantage by follow- ing the fugitives, this experienced general availed himfelf of it. by turning round on the rear of Brutus, and entirely breaking and difperfing his troops. Brutus having efcaped being made prifoner by the heroic friendfhip of Lucilius, who furrendered himfelf under the name of Brutus, and who was generoufly faved by Antony after the difcovery of the fraud, fled with a few friends to a retired valley, where he fpent an anxious night. With the returning dawn, he per- ceived that he was furrounded by the enemy, and conjured fome of his domeftics to put an end to his life. Upon their refufal, he difmiffed them with a requeft that they would provide for their own fafety ; and he then renewed his ap- plication to Strato, an Epirote, and his former fellow ftu- dent ; but Strato perfilted in his denial, till Brutus called upon a flave to perform the fatal office. Upon this the generous Greek exclaimed, ‘ Forbid it, Gods, that it fhould ever be faid, that Brutus died by the hand of a flave for want of a friend!”? and covering his face with his left hand, prefented with his right his f{word, upon which Bru- tus threw himfelf with fuch violence that it pierced through his body, and he inftantly expired. Thus perifhed, in the 43d year of his age, according to Cicero, but in the 37th according to Velleius Paterculus, one of the moft irreproach- able characters in Roman hiftory ; according to Blair’s table, A. U. 712, B.C. 42. To his generofity, humanity, uprightnefs, and well- principled virtue, public and private, writers of all parties have borne teftimony ; and thofe who have condemned the act of affaflinating Cwfar, have afcribed it, on the part of Brutus, to patriotic motives. Indeed, Antony himielf did him the jutlice to fay, that he “ was the only one of the con- {piracy who entered into it out of principle ; that the ref, from private malice, rofe up againft the man, he alone againft the tyrant.” No man in public life feems to have fet up virtue more fincerely as the objeét of his veneration and purfuit than Brutus ; and it does not, therefore, feem probable, that according to the report of fome writers, his lait {peech fhould be a confeffion of error in having followed aa empty name. ‘ His memory,’’ fays one of his biographers, “¢ was cherifhed and honoured as long as a fpark of Roman {fpirit furvived the lofs of conftitutional freedom ; and the names of Brutus and liberty are to this day infeparably affociated.’’? His body was treated with refpeét by Antony ; but the vindictive OGavianus caufed the head to be cut off, in order to expofe it at the feet of Czfar’s ftatue. But his deftination was defeated, as it was thrown over-board in a ftorm. The remains were honourably burnt by order of Antony, and the afhes fent in an urn to Servilia. Plutarch’s Brutus, apud Op. t. i. p. 984. Middleton’s Life of Cicero, vel. ii. p. 226. Anc. Un. Hitt. vol. xi. and xii. Brutus, in Entomology, a {pecies of Papirio (Eq. Achiv.) The wings are white with a black border ; on the lower pair beneath, a fufcous band. This inhabits Africa ; it is a large and rare infect. Cramer defcribes a variety of it under the name of Merope. Brutus, in Geography, a military townfhip of America, in New York. through which runs the river Seneca, and where it receives the waters of Owafco lake, paffing from the fouth-eaft through the towns of Aurelius and Scipio. It lies 11 miles N. E. from the north end of Cayuaga lake, and 19S. S, E. from lake Ontario. i BRUTZ, BRU BRUTZ, atown of France, in the department of the Ile and Vilaine, and diftri& of Redon, 2 leagues fouth of Rennes. F BRUX. See Mosr. BRUYE, or Buca, an iflandin the bay of Bengal, near the mouth of the river Ava, about 8 leagues long and 3 broad. N. lat. 167% 15". E. long. 97° 37’. BRUYERE, Joun De La, in Biography, a French writer of reputation, was born, in 1640, in the Ifle of Frauce, and, at a proper age, recommended by Boffluet to inftruét the duke of Burgundy in hiftory. The refidue of his life was pafled at court, where he maintained the cha- racter of a man of letters; philofophical and umambitious in his temper, as well as polite and unaffected in his man- pers, unitmg the gaiety and focial difpofition of the well bred gentleman with the ftudious habits of the fcholar. In 1693 he was admitted into the French Academy ; and, in 1696, a fit of apoplexy terminated his life. His work, entitled “ Charaéters of Theophraftus, tranflated from the Greek, with the Characters or Manners of this Age,’ was firft publifhed in 1687, and has been feveral times re- printed. Inthis work, of which Malezieux predifted that “ it would gain many readers and many enemies.” the au- thor has had the honour of participating with Moliere in the correction of more follies and indecorums than perhaps any other moralift, ancient or modern. The pencil with which he pi&tured modern charaGters and manners is ftrong but delicate ; his ftyle nervous but abrupt, occafionally ob- fcure, and affeétedly fententious. The maxims of Publius Syrus are almoft wholly tranfplanted into his works. Keys were made of his charaéters, for the court, the capital, and the provinces; and his book, by means of its fuccefs, produced many im tations. The beft editions of the “ Cha- ra€ters”’ are thofe of Amfterdam in 1741, and of Paris in 175oand1765. The author’s ‘ Dialogues on Quietifm” were arranged for publication by M. Du Pin, and printed in 1699. itn: Dit. Hit. BRUYE'RES, in Corey, a town of France, in the deparcment of Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the dittriG of Epinal, and 11 miles E. of it. The town con- tains 1911 and the canton 12,435 inhabitants: the territory includes 210 kiliometres, and 32 communes. Brurveres Sous Laon, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Aifne, and diftri@ of Laon, 1 league S.S.E. of Laon. BRUYN, Corwecrus Le, in Biography, a traveller and painter, was born at the Hague, and having com- menced his travels through Mufcovy, Perfia, the Paint, and the Eaft Indies, in 1674, completed them in 1708. His “ Voyage to the Levant” was publifhed at Amfterdam in 1714, folio, and his “ Travels to Mufcovy, Perfia, &c.”” in 1718, in 2 vols. fol. ; an edition much of Fae for the beauty of its plates, but excceded in value by that of Rouen in 1725, in § vols. 4to. on account of the corre¢tions and notes of the Abbé Banier. As atraveller, Bruyn is curious and inftructive, but his ftyle is inelegant, and his faéts fome- times inaccurate. Nouv. Di&. Hitt. BRUYNSWICK, in Cergraphy, a plantation of Ame- rica, in Ulfter county, New York. BRUYS, Peres De, in Biography. See Petraosrus- SIANS. BRUZEN DE LA MARTINIERE, Axsrtonv-Avu- Gustin, an indultrious compiler, was born at Dieppe in 1666, and educated at Paris, under the care of his uncle, the celebrated Richard Simon. In 1709 he was employed, by the duke of Mecklenburgh, in refearches into the hiftory ot that duchy, and afterwards attached to the duke of BRY Parma, and to the king of the Two Sicilies, who appointed him his fecretary with a handfome falary. Upon his retire- ment to the Hague, he completed his “ New Geographical a ak which was dedicated to the king of Spain, and recompenfed by the title conferred upon him by that mo- narch, of his firft geographer. After a life of ftudy and labuur, as well as of {focial intercourfe and pleafure, fuited to his friendly difpofition and polite manners, he died at the Hague in 1749. His reading was extenfive, and he wrote with judgment, facility, and generally with elegance. His favourite ftudies were geography, hiftory, and polite litera- ture. The moft valuable of his numerous works are “The great Geographical, Hiftorical, and Critical Diionary,”” 10 vols. fol. Hague, 1726 to 1730, and Paris, 1768, 6 vols. fol. ; “ Puffendorff’s Introduction to the Hiftory of Eu- rope, greatly augmented and correéted,” of which the laft edition is that of the Hague, in 11 vols. 12mo; ‘© Geogra- phical and Hiftorical Treatifes to facilitate the Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, by various celebrated Authors, Huet, Le Grand,Calmet, Hardouin, &c.” 2 vols. 12mo. 17303 and “ Seleé&t Letters of M. Simon,” with a life of the author and curious notes, Amft. 4 vols. rzmo. Nouy. Dié&. Hift. BRYA, in Botany, (Brown Jam.) See AMERIMNUM Esenus. BRYAN, in Geography, a county of America, in Geors gia, adjoining Chatham county on the weit and fouth- | seo It contains 2836 inhabitants, of whom 2306 are aves. BRYANT, Jacos, in Biography, the fon of a Cuftom- houfe officer at Plymouth, was, for the honour of Devon- fhire, born there ; though he has been reprefented by fome asa native of Kent, from the circumftance of his father’s being transferred to that county whilit himfelf was a child. Placed upon the foundation of Eton college he was early diftinguifhed for claffical attainments ; and the high reputa- tion with which he entered King’s ferved as an incentive to his future exertions. Succeeding at the ordinary period toa fellowship in that college, he continued its ornament till nearly the end of the century, andthe boaft of both in- ftitutions to the clofe of his life. Having devoted himfelf early to habitual ftudy, he perfevered with but few inter- ruptions ; and thefe are to be confidered as referring rather toa change of fubject, than a breaking off from his ordinar purfuits ; for during his fecretaryfhip to the duke of Mart. borough and the Board of Ordnance, he availed himfelf of the opportunities which his employments afforded for rendering his knowledge in modern taétics fubfervient to that of the ancients. Ashe attended the father in the ca- pacity of fecretary during his military commands, fo he ac- companied the fon to the feat of the Mufes; and, in the office of private inftructor, fuperintended the ftudies while at Eton of the prefent duke of Marlborough, as well as thofe of his brother lord Charles. Devoting himfelf to a life of literature, his diligence was unremitted in his fa- vourite purfuit, and the cffeéts of it were confecrated to the beft purpofes of learning and religion. The fiift work which he formally publifhed was “ Ob- fervations and Enquiries relating to various parts of ancient Hiftory, containing Diflertations on the Wind Euroclydon, and on the Ifland Melite; together with an Account of Egypt in its moft early State, and of the Shepherd Kings, 1767.’ Thofe who knew Mr. Bryant formed confiderable page Hig from his acknowledged reputation, when this volume was announced ; nor were they difappointed on its appearance. The opinion entertained of his learning was confirmed by it, and the ingenuity difplayed in it acquired hin confiderable commendation, Hi & BR YY ANT. His next communication to the public, andthe work on which his charaéter as a fcholar muft ultimately reft, was his “New Syflem, or Analyfis of Ancient Mythology ; wherein an Attempt is made to diveft Tradition of Fable, and to reduce Truth to its original Purity.”” Of this pub- lication the fir? and fecond volumes came forth together, in 1774,and the s/ird followed two years after. It being his profeffed defign to prefent a hiftory of the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Canaanites, Helladians, Ionians, Leleges, Dorians, Pelafgi, and other ancient nations, lis refearches for this purpofe were not only of neceffity recon- dite, but in many inflances uscertain ; but to facilitate his paflage through the mighty labyrinth which led to his primary object, he not only availed himfelf of the feattered fragments.of ancient hiftory wherever he could find them, but allo of a variety of etymological aids; for being perfuaded that the human race were the offspring of one flock, and eon- ceiving thenct that their language in the beginning was one, this favourite notion was exemplified by him in the invelti- gation of radical terms, and applying thefe as collateral aids. Coufidering that his knowledge of the Onental dia- leéts was yery confined, it is to be lamented that upon fome accafions he has indulgedtoo freely to fancy; yet thus much muft be confeffed, that his defefts in this kind of learning form a ftrong pleain his favour; for if, without uideritanding thefe languages, he has fuccecded in tracing out fo many radicals as his table of them exhibits, and more efpecially if he has been right in explaining them, it will follow that his explanations muft be founded on truth, and therefore are not chimerical. In oppofition, however to them, Mr. Bryant experienced fome fevere and petulant attacks: firit} from a learned Dutchman, in a Jatin review of his work; and fhortly after from the late Mr. Richardfon, who was privately affifted by fir William Jones ; a circum- ftance which there is reafon to think Mr. Bryant never knew. To their firiures Mr. Bryant replicd in an anonymous pamplilet, of whica he printed a few copies for the perufal of his friends, but never profefiedly publithed. It is hoped, however, that, inthe next edition of his Mythology, this traét will be added, as it is among the belt of his works, Amongit other parts of the Mythology which were at- tacked with afperity, that which relates to the Apamean medal was feverely affailed. Mr. Bryant defended himfelf ina feparate publication (which alfo fhould be fubjoined to the new edition) ; and though what he offered on the fub- jet was lightly treated by tome, who highly appreciated their knowledge of medals, yet the opinion of profeiior Eckhel, the firft medalift of his age, has decided on the controverfy in favour of Mr. Bryant. Whatever may be:the merit, in the opinion of the learned, of Mr. Bryant’s New Sy/lem at large, no perfon can peflibly difpute, that a very uncommon ftore of learning is percep- tible through the whole; that it abounds with great origi nality of conception, much peripicacious elucidation, and the moft happy explanations on topics of the higheit im- portance : ina word, that it itands forward amongft the firit works of its age. About this time the Vindicia Flaviane, a traét on the much difputed teftimony of Jofephus to Chrift, was printed, and a few copies fent toa bookfeller in either univerfity ; but as thepamphlet appeared without the name of its au- thor, and no attention was fhewed it, Mr. Bryant recalled them, and fatisfied himfelf with diftributing the copies thus returned amongft a few particular friends. “he new light, however, which Mr, Bryant threw upon the fubjea, and the acutenefs with which the difficulties attending it 4 P were difcuffed, foon caufed the Vindicie to be known, and at length to be publithed with his name. Dr. Priettley having, by his ftatement of the dotrine of philofophical neceffity in a lefs exceptionable point of view _ than that in which it had been ‘heretofore feen, attracted at- tention to the fubje€&t. Mr, Bryant was alarmed at the pers nicious tendency, as he conceived, of the doétrine; and with the defign of checking its advancement, addreffed the docter on the fubje. But whatever impreffion this addrefs might have produced on other readers, it certainly left his antagonilt unconvinced; which, however, was not the cafe ina former inftance, for Dr. Priefiley liberally conteffed that, in re{pect to the teftimony of Jofephus concerning our Saviour, Mr. Bryant had made him completely a convert. The poems attributed to Rowley haying been publifhed by Mr. Tyrwhitt, Mr. Bryant’s attention was next drawa to them. From the communications of his friend Dr. Glynn, and his own enquiries at Buitol, Mr. Bryant hav- ing acquired fuch information as convinced him, that they had their foundation in reality, and were not entirely of Chatterton’s fabrication, embarked in the contelt; but though he failed to produce conviction in feveral particulars, his book difcovers confiderable talent, as well as much knowledge of Eaglifh antiquities and literature, and abounds with arguments which cannot be repelled. The hypothefis of Mr. Bryant in reference to the original language was always kept in view by him, and as refearches were extended on all fides to obtain elucidations, the lan- guage of the gypfies engaged his attention; accordingly the collections which he made from it, were publifhed in the Archzologia, vol. vii. His next production, but which ftill remains unpublithed, was an illuftration in Latin of gems in the poffefiion of the duke of Marlborough, engraved for his Grace by Barto- lozzi. Of this magnificent work Mr. Bryant’s obfervations formed the text of the firft volume, that of the fecond was written by Dr. Cole, prebendary of Weltminiter. The friendfhip which fubfifted between Mr. Bryant and the family of his patron, prompted him on all occafions.te fubferve their wilhes, and to this difpofition are the public indebted for his Treatife on the Authenticity of the Scrip- tures andthe ‘l'ruth of the Chriftian Religion, which was written to gratify the dowager lady Pembroke, and is an excellent book for popular inftruction. Tn two years after (for the treatife juft mentioned ap- peared in 1792) the world were obliged by a large volume, entitled «« Obfervations upon the Plagues inflicted upon the Egyptians; in which is fhewn the Peculiarity of thofe Judgments, and their Correfpondence with the Rites and Idolatry of that People ; with a Prefatory Difcourfe con- cerning the Grecian Colonies from Egypt.’”’ This is cer- tainly to be reckoned amongft Mr. Bryant’s beft perform. ances, and as fuch will be ftudioufly read. Profeffor Dalzel having communicated to the Royal So- ciety of Edinburgh, and afterwards publifhed in a: feparate volume, M. le Chevalier’s ‘ Defcription of the Plain of Troy,”? Mr. Bryant, who many years before had not only confidered, but written his fentiments on the Trojan war, firft publifhed his obfervations on M. le Chevalier’s treatife, and afterwards a differtation concerning the war itfelf, and the expedition of the Grecians as defcribed by Homer; with the view of fhewing that no fuch expedition was ever undertaken, and that no fuch city in Phrygia exifted. (The elegant treatife of Mr. Wood on the genius and writings of Homer, was edited, for his deceafed friend, by Mr. Bryant. Tape) The BRY The clamour excited by thefe pamphlets almoft exceeded belief. The author was attacked in all companies without mercy, and even by men from the prefs, who fhould have thought more foberly, for having indulged fo exceffive a fcepticifm, as could not, in its moft direét effects, but be pernicious to the caule of divine revelation. Such cenfures, however, when duly weighed, could be difgraceful only to their authors, whofe want of temper, or of judgment, ren- dered them unable to difcriminate. Amongtt Mr. Bryant’s principal opponents were Mr. Gil- bert Wakcfield, Mr. Morrit, and Dr. Vincent : but though the champions for the war itrenuoufly affailed their antago- nift, feveral of Mr. Bryant’s objections remain as yet un- an{wered. In the following year Mr. Bryant fubmitted to the public a work of a different kind and character, under the title of «© The Sentiments of Philo Judwus concerning the AOTOS, or Word of God, together with large Extraé&ts from his Writings, compared with the Scriptures in many other par- ticular and effential Doétrines of the Chriftian Religion.” But, learned and curious as this treatife unqueitionably is, it appears to have interefted the general reader lefs perhaps than any of his other productions. In addition to thofe al- ready noticed may be added his “ Obfervations on famous controverted Paflages in Juftin Martyr and Jofephus,” and a pamplet addreffed to Mr. Melmoth, written with lefs tem- er than might have been wifhed. Mr. Bryant clofed his bours with a quarto volume of Differtations on the pro- phecy of Balaam ; the ftanding ftill of the fun in the time of Jofhua ; the jaw bone of the afs with which Sampfon flew the Philiitines; and the hiftory of Jonah and the whale: fubjects in themfelves exceedingly curious, and treated with much ingenuity; but thefe tra¢ts upon them having been written above thirty years before, Mr. Bryant in reviling fo altered, as, through a defeét of memory, to render the re- marks in one part inconfiitent with thofe in another, which materially diminifhed the value of the whole. Other writings to a confiderable extent ftill remain in the hands of his executor, who is faid to have fubmitted them for publication to a competent judgment. In forming a general eftimate of Mr. Bryant’s literary charaGter, it will be found that, as aclaffical {cholar, he had few equals; his acquaintance with hiftory aud the topics of eneral information was of very uncommon extent, but from the want of Oriental literature and the ftriéter feiences he ielded too often to the impulfes of a vigorous fancy. It will, notwithftanding, be found from repeated perufals of his writings, that he defervedly ranks amongft the foremoft of his age ; and from having confecrated his great talents and acquilitions to the fervice of religion, will be ever en- titled to the veneration of mankind. In his perfon Mr. Bryant was lower and more delicately formed than men in general, and confequently lefs capable of ftrong exercife ; but, in early life he had great agility, par- ‘ticularly in f{wimming, a circumflance which enabled him to fave Dr. Barnard, afterward head mafler of Eton, when drowning. In his ordinary habits of life he was remarkable for his temperance, and though his time and ftudies were rincipally devoted to literature, and the purfuit of truth, yet his converfation with thofe he received and converfed with was uncommonly fpritely, as he never failed to mix enter- taining anecdote with inftru@tion. In his perfon he was articularly neat, and in his deportment courteous. His iberality wat often confpicuous, and the fpirit of religion diffufed itfelf through all his aétions. As few comparatively live fo long, inftances of fuch exemplary merit can but rarely be found. Eleéted from Eton to King’s; in 1736, Vou. V. BRY he proceeded bachelor of arts in 17403; in 1744, took the degree of maiter, and died, after a long refidence, at Cy- penham, near Windfor, on the 14th of November, 1804, of a mortification in his leg, occafioned by a burt from the tilung of achair in reaching down a book from its thelf. At his own defire, Mr. Bryant was interred in his parifh church, beneath the feat he there occupied. BRYANT’S Cove, m Geography, lies on the eaft coat of Newfoundland, half a league S.W. from Harbour Grace, and two and a half leagues to the fouth-weit of Spanith bay, in which there is good tifhing for boats. Bayant’s Lick, a fouth-eait branch of Green river, the mouth of which is about 27 miles E. of Craig’s fort, and 10 E. of Sulphur fpring, in Mercer’s county, Kentucky. BRYANTHUS, in Botany (Gmel. Sib.) See Anpro- mEDA bryantha. BRYE, Joxn Tueopore pe, in Piography, excelled in the art of defigning and engraving. He was a native of Liege, but refided chiefly at Franckfort, where he carried on a confiderable commerce in prints. His tafte was formed ou the works of Sebald Beham. He feldom ufed the point, bat worked almoft wholly with the graver. His flyle of engraving was neat and free, excellently adapted to {mall fubje&s, comprehending many figures ; fuch as funeral pa- rades, proceffions, &c. His drawing was very correct ; his heads fpirited and expreffive, and the other extremities of his figures well marked. His back-grounds, though flight, are admirably touched. He died March ‘27, 1598. His great works were the plates for the firit four volumes of Boiffard’s Roman Antiquities; the plates for illuftrating the Manners and Cuftoms of the Virginians, copied by Pi- cart in his Religious Ceremonies of all Nations ; the plates to the Latin Narrative of the Cruelties of the Spaniards in America, publifhed in 1598, and his ‘ Deferiptio Indie Orientalis et Occidentalis,”’ 5 vols. fol. 1598; and among other detached prints his ‘* Proceffion for the Funeral of Sir Philip Sidney,”” engraved at London, 1578. Strutt. BRYENNIUS, Nicertorus, was a native of Oreftia in Macedonia, and married the princefs Anna Comnena, daughter of Alexius Comnenus, who raifed him to the rank of Czfar, but declined announcing him as his fucceffor in prejudice of his own fon. After the death of Alexius, the emprefs Irene and her daughter Anna at- tempted to elevate Bryennius to the empire, but he refufed to concur in the plot. Having been fent, in 1137, to be- fiege Antioch, he fell fick, and returning to Conitantinople died in that city. His hiftory of the reigns of Ifaac Com- nenus and of the three fucceeding emperors, was comprifed in four books, and’ publifhed with a Latin tranflation, by the jefuit Pouffines at Paris in 1661, to which the annota- tions of Du Cange were annexed in 1670. Bryenstus, Manvet, the lalt writer on mufic in the Greek language that has come to our knowledge. He flourifhed under the elder Palwologus, about the year 1320 ; and it is probable that he was a defcendant of the houfe of Brienne, an ancient French family, that went into Greece during the Crufades, at the beginning of the thirteenth cen- tury. Fabric. Bib. Gr. Du Cange. Batts Byzant. The work is divided into three books, all which are con- fined to harmonics: the firft is a kind of commentary on Euclid ; and the fecond and third little more than explana- tions of the doctrines of Ptolemy. Meibomius had promifed a Latin tranflation of this work, but dying before it was finifhed, Dr. Wallis performed the taik, and it now conttitutes a part of the third volume of his works, publifhed at Oxford in 3 vols fol. 1699. That the Greek mufic had undergone many alterations 31 fince BR WY fince the ancient treatifes which are come down to us were written, is certain from the change and increafe of its vaca- bulary. Bryennius (lib. si. fe&. 3) has given as names of intervals, a lift of barbarous terms not to be found in any preceding writer within our knowledge: and in the Greek gloffary of Du Cange, and the Abate Martini’s papers on the prefent mufic of Greece, a great number occurs that is not to be found either in writers of high antiquity, or in Bryennius: as lib iii. fe&t. 4. the words “Hyo:, and rrxlys0, appear for tonus and oebliquus ; and x2it0z, dedrepor, tpI797, TE zzpto;, are ufed to diftizguith the medes or tones; a proof that he was a moderna Greek. Padre Martini is of opinion that thefe terms were firlt introduced in church mufic, to exclude the Pagan titles of Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, &c. The technical language of the Greeks has always been copious, and in mufic perhaps its feeming redundance is more confpicuous than in any other art or {cience. But in other arts and fciences words are reprefentatives of things exifting ; whereas, in denominating the tones and inflexions of voice, which, to realize, require new creation, there can be no correfpondence between the type and fubftance. The colours, the forms, and objets which a painter wifhes to reprefent, are in nature; and the poet, in all the ebullitions of wild enthufiafm and fervid imagination, defcribes what he has feen and felt, or what is to be feen and felt, and for which common language muft fupply him with fymbols. But it has never entered the thoughts of man to give names to all the mi- nute fhades of colour between black and white, or to the gra- dations by which light is propagated between the time of total darknefs and the fan’s meridian. And yet, in a f{cale of founds, from the loweft mufical tone inthe human voice to the highetft, where octaves are not reprefented by fimilar figns and ap- pellatives, the names and chara&ters muft be numerous. The lines and clefs of the European mutic have certainly freed it from many perplexities with which it was embar- raffed, even in the artlefs times of Canto Fermo. BRYGI, in Anctent Geography, inhabitants of Thrace, who were fubdued by the Macedonians, and ferved under Xerxes, when he invaded Greece. BRYGMUS, in Medicine, a grinding or gnafhing of the teeth; a fymptom common in epilepfy, and fome other eonvulfive diforders : from Pevxx, to {nap, or gnafh, with the teeth. BRYONIA, in Botany. (Bevwnx, Diofcorides ; from Reva, germino, pullulo, expreflive of the vigorous and rapid growth of its annual ftems from the perennial root.) Lin. gen. 1093. Reich. 1494. Schreb. 1480. Geertner 551. Juffieu 394. Ventenat, vol. iii. 511. Clafs, monecia fyn- genzfia. Pentandria, Smith. Nat. Ord. eucurbitacee Linn. & Juff. Gen. char. Male flowers. Ca/. Perianth one leaf- ed, campanulate, five-toothed ; teeth oval-fhaped. Cor. five; parted, campanulate, faftened tothe calyx ; divifions ovate. Stam. Filaments three, very fhort, two bearing each two anthers, and the third with only one. Female flowers. Cai. Perianth as in the meles, fuperior, deciduous. Cor. as in the males. Pi/f. Germ, inferior. Style trifid, the length of the expanding corolla; ftigmas emarginate, patu- lous. Peric. Berry fubglobular, fmooth. Seeds, not nume- rous, fixed to the coat, fubovate. Schreb. Not more than fix, inclofed in their proper cells. Gert. Species, 1. B. a/ba. Linn. ‘ with black berries, and the inward fub{tance of the root of a pale box colour; leaves palmate, callous-feabrous on both fides.” This fpecies, though mentioned by many of the old botaniits, does not feem to be much known fince the time of Linneus. La Marck obferves that he knows nothing of it, aad feems to fpeak with fome degree of doubt with refpec to its exilt- BRY In this, however, he is certainly wrong; it muft have been known to Linnzus. Bofc fays that it isa truly diftin&t {pecies, but gives no defcription. It appears to be confined to the north of Europe, and not to be found in England or France, for though Plukenet fpeaks of it as not unfrequent about Cambridge, he was probably miitaken; it had not been obferved by Ray, nor has it been found fince in that neighbourhood by Profeffor Martyn, nor in any ence. other part of Great Britain. 2. B. dioica. Jacq. Ault. t. 199- Hall. Helv. 574. Allion. Ped. 455. Pollich. pal. gt5. Ray hit. 659. Syn. 261. Huds. Ang. 437. Smith Flor. Brit. 398. Eng. Bot. 439. ‘ Berries red; root yellowifh white within ; leaves palmate, callous-fcabrous on both fides; flowers dioicous.”’ Root large, flefhy, white. Stems annual, feandent, angular, rough, leafy, fomewhat branched, very long. Leaves alternate, petioled, palmate, five-lobed, angular, rough on both fides, with minute cal- lous points. Stipules none. Tendrils. folitary, finple, ac- companying the petioles. Peduncles axillary, fomewhat umbellate with few flowers. Corolla white, elegantly marked with green veins. Aathers connate by pairs with anodd one. Filaments all alittle united at the bafe. Ber- ries globular, fcarlet, fmooth. Seeds fix, elliptic, fpotted- The leaves in autumn have the f{mell of mufk. Smith. The roots have been artificially made to aflume a human fhape, and fhewn to the common people as roots of the celebrated mandrake, Atropa Mandragora, to which many fanciful virtues have been attributed. For this purpofe the earth is removed round the root of a thriving young plant, fo as not to difturb the lower fibres, and a mould, fuch as is ufed for plafter figures, is made faft with wires to receive the growing woody part of the root ; the earth is then replaced, and in the courfe of a f{ummer a root of the required {hape is pro- duced. 3. B. palmata, Linn. ‘‘ Leaves palmate, {mooth, five- parted, repand-ferrate.”? Root perenmal. Berries yellowifh, globular, rather large. Native of Ceylon. Introduced into England in 1778, by Meffrs. Gordon and Grefer. 4. B. laciniofa, Linn. Gert. tab. 88, fig. 2, copied by La Marck. pl. 796, fig. 2. ‘* Leaves palmate ; divifions lan- ceolate, ferrated, petioles muricate.”? Root perennial. Leaves cordate, palmate, rough above, roughifh beneath on the rib and nerves. Petioles almolt prickly ; not pedun- cles as it ftands in the Mantiffa, as copied by Reichard, and tranflated without a comment by La Marck. Corolla yellow, hairy, or tomentous within, {moth without. Germ {mooth. Fruit feffile, of the fize ofa cherry, marked withfix milk-white lines. Berry flefhy, three-celled, the pulp in each cell eafily fe- parable from it, gelatmous-membranaceous, two-celled, green. Seeds fix, one in each cell of the pulp. La Marck defcribes a plant cultivated in the Royal garden at Paris, which he fuppofes to be the Nehoémeka of the Hortus Malabaricus, and not fpecifically diltin&t from the /aciniofa of Linnzus, though Linneus has cancelled the reference to it as a fyno- nym in the Mantiffa, after having admitted it in the Species Plantarum. The plant in the French garden has deeply palmated /iooth leaves, but the petioles, as well as the potte- rior nerves, are armed with almolt thorny prickles. 5. B. Afri- cana. Linn. Herm. Parad. 107. tab. 108. Gertner, 2, tab. 88, copied by La Marck, Pl. 796. fig. 3. “* Leaves palmate, five-parted, {mooth on both fides; divifions pinnatifid.’? Upper eaves five-parted, {cabrous at the edge; divifions pinnatifid, almoft linear, acute. Berries folitary, roundifh, beaked, obtufely angular, yellow. Linn. Rind of the berry flefhy, rather thick, orange-coloured omthe outfide; pulp, membranaceous-{fpongy, eafily feparable from the rind, re- gularly divided into fix, fometimes only four cells. Seeds one in each cell, ovate-globular, compreffed at the Bat an BRYONIA. and efpecially towards the navel, to a oN edge, with very minute, whitifh briftles:or feales lying clofe to their furface. Gert. La Marck deferibes a plant, cultivated at Paris, which he takes to be the fame, in which the leaves are roughifh beneath. 6. B. erefica. Linn. “ Leaves palmate, rough with callous points on their upper furface.”” Root long, not fo as B. dioica, running deep into the ground, Stems flender, rotigh, furnifhed with tendrils. Leaves di- vided like thofe of the common fort, but lefs, ftreaked or {potted with white. /Yoqwers axillary, pale, ftreaked, on long pendant peduncles. ° Berries f{mall, femi-globular, di- vided at top into two parts, red, generally containing only two feeds. Miller, and La Marck. Native of Candia, whence the feeds were fent to C. Bavhin. Cultivated by Miller, before 1779. 7. B. bonarienfis, Mil.; ficifolia, La Marck. Dill. Elth. tab. 50. fig. 58. La Marck, Pl. 796. 1. «© Leaves femi-palmate, five-parted, with obtufe fegments, hairy.”” Root and flems like thofe of the common bryony. Leaves refembling thofe of the common fig, but {maller ; narrower and {maller at the ends of the branches, hairy, and yery rough, upper furface deep green, lower whitifh. Na- tive of Buenos Ayres. Cultivated in the Eltham garden, about 1726. Mil. 8. B. variegata, Miller. ‘* Leaves pal- mate, with lanceolate fegments, {potted on the upper, fmooth on the under fide; fruit ovate, fcattered.” 9. B. grandis. Lin. Mant.‘ Leaves cordate, angular, {moothith, landular at the bafe underneath; tendrils fimple.’? Stzm fhrubby, fmooth, large, branching, fcandent. Leaves roundifh, five-angled, not lobed, fmooth on both fides, fearcely denticulate, obtufe, alternate, petioled. Flowers large, whitifh, androgynous, lateral; peduncles ene-flow- ered. Jerry roundifh, red, {mooth, five-celled. Seeds few, oblong, obtufe, compreffed. Native of India and Cochin- china, Introduced into England in 1783, by Mr. I. Gre- fer; into France, by M. Sonnerat. 10, B. cordifolia. Linn. « Leaves cordate, oblong, five-lobed, toothed, fcabrous ; petioles long, with two teeth at the bafe of the leaf? Stem angular, rough. Native of Ceylon. La Marck fufpeéts it to be a variety of the preceding. 11. B. Madera/patana, Berg. cap. 351. Cucumis Maderafpatana. Linn. “ Leaves cordate-triangular, toothed, {cabrous; berries globular, ax- ilary, in pairs.” Lia Marck. Stem flender, angular, thinly {prinkled with fmall callous protuberances. Leaves longer than the petiole, toothed at the edges, flightly villous be- neath, green, and rather rough. #/owers {mall, axillary, with a villous calyx, growing two or three together on very fhort peduncles. Lerries globular, many-feeded. A native of the Eaft Indies, Ia Marck fays, that it.is certainly abryony. 12. B. feabred/a. Linn. fil. 424.‘ Leaves cor- date, angular, aud lobed, callous-hifpid; tendrils fimple; berries globular ; feeds muricate,””? Martyn. Whole plant very fcabrous. Stems five-cornered, hifpid. Tendrils fiple. Leaves blunt, unegually toothed, a little curled at the edge; petioles hifpid. — Peduncles many ; axillary thort. Calyx bell-fhaped, five-toothed. Corollas {mall, very like thofe of melothria, yellow. It has altogether the ttature of melothria, but the whole plant is hifpid and rugged, and has the ftamens of bryony. A native Betis Eatt Indies found by Dr. Ke- nig, and introduced into England in 1781, by fir Jofeph Banks, bart. La Marck defcribes a plant under the fame {pecitic name, which he thinks nearly allied to the preceding, with a doubt whether it be the /cabre/la of the younger Lin- seus. It differs from Martyn’s plant in having its berries -perfectly fmooth; a circumftance which the younger Lin- nus has left undetermined. La Marck’s defcription was made froma dried{pecimen. 13. B. feabra. Livn. fil. 423. “+ Leaves cordate, angular, toothed, callous-pointed above, villous underneath, feabrous on both fides. Tendrils fimple. Berries globular, fmooth.”” Found at the cape by Thun- berg, and Maffon, and introduced into England in 1774, La Marck does not notice this {pecies, unlefs it be his /ca~ brella. 14. B. nana. La Marck. Lower leaves cordate- roundifh, very entire ; upper ones deeply three-lobed; lobes obtufe.” Allied to B. dfricana, but much fmaller, and with leaves lefs deeply cut. Stems flender, a little villous, {earcely more than a foot anda half high. Leaves alternate- petioled, green, {mooth above, feabrous, with callous points beneath. Nativeof Africa. Deferibed froma living plant without flowers in the Royal garden at Paris. 15. B. dby/- Jinica. La Marck, “ Leaves large, cordate, toothed; up- per ones lobed-angular; petioles and peduncles very villous,’? Stem fix or eight feet high, villous, efpecially near the top. Leaves foft, almoit {mooth, deep green above, a little glau- cous beneath; the lower ones cordate and toothed, the up- per ones with four or five angular, unequallobes. Flowers yellowifh, axillary, in pairs; peduncles fimple, fhort. Co~ rolla tive-parted, {preading, veined. A native of Africa. Defcribed from a living plant in the Royal garden at Paris. 16. B. Americana. La Marck. ‘ Leaves large, cordate, three-lobed; berries oval, with two or threee feeds.’ Raot tender, white, alittle bitter. Svems long, angular, twining, jointed, with a leaf, a tendril, and a flower at each joint. Leaves petioled, a little rough, with a few rather {pinous teeth, and refembling thofe of the common fig. Flowers pedunculate, with five divifions, greenifh without, white within. Berries oval, about the fize of an olive, red. Seeds two or three, bedded ina fpongy pulp. Plumier’s MSS. A native of the Antilles. 17. B. Japonica, Thunb. * Leaves cordate, undivided, and angular, toothed, unarmed-hifpid.’? Lobes of the leaves angular, fharp, with very minute hairs on the upper furface, pale underneath, dotted with feales, an inch long. It creeps on walls. Native of Japan. 18, B. racemefa. Miller, Plea. pl. 83. t. 97. ** Leaves cor- date, three-lobed, the upper ones ovate and fomewhat rug- ged ; flowers in racemes; berries nodding, oval.”? A native of Jamaica. 19. B. verrucofa. Ait. Hort. Kew. 3. 385. “ Leaves cordate, angled; the upper furface and the veins underneath callous fcabrous ; the callofities remote ; tendrils fimple; berries globular.’ 20. Bi latebrofa. Ait. Hort. Kew. 3. 384. _“ Leaves fubtrilobate, hairy, drawn to a point at the bafe.’”” This and the foregoing were obferved by Maffon in the Canary iflands, and introduced here in 1779. ‘The latter is cafily diftinguilhed from its congeners by the leaves not being in the leaf! cordate at the bafe, but decurrent along the ogi. 21. B. amplexicaulis. La Marck. “ Stem angular, fmooth; leaves flat, cordate, fubangular, embracing the ftem; berries folitary, acuminate.’ Stems. flender, f{candent; leaves alternate, cordate, flightly angular, {mooth on both fides, dotted above, glaucous below, on {hort per tioles; the upper fometimes divided into ftraight diverging lobes. Jowers {mall, axillary, folitary, peduncled, Germ tharp-pointed at thefammit. Lenry flethy, acuminate, very {mooth, nearly the fize of a hazel nut, A native of the Eaft Indies, communicated by M. Sonnerat, and deferibed from a dried {pecimen, 22. B. haflaia. Martyn. Lour. Co- chinch. 594. ‘ Leaves haltate, edged sib little teeth, fmooth; peduncles many-flowered”’ Stem herbaceous, flender, {candent, cirrhofe. JVoqwers androgynous, white, axillary, Calyx none. Carolla tubular, witha five-parted, upright border. Ji/amients placed at the bottom of the co- rolla, with three alternate, warted glands. Berry ovate, acute, fmall, red, one-celled; containing a few ovate, arilled feeds. Native of China about Canton, 23. B. sriloba, Martyn, * Leaves three-lobed, five-nerved; f{tipules round. MLE ifby B RY ifh, concave; peduncles one-flowered.’? Stem fhrubby, grooved, climbing by trifid tendrils. Leaves cordate, fer- rate-repand, fmooth on both fides. Stipules ferrate. Flowers androgynous, white, axillary, folitary. Berry ovate, fharp- ifh, {mooth, yellow, an inch and a half long, five-celled, many-feeded. Native of Cochinchina, 24. B. Cochinchi- nenfis. Martyn. Lour. Cochin. 595. ‘* Leaves five-cor- nered, rough; berries three-celled, ten-cornered.’? Stem herbaceous; four-grooved, branching, fcandent, cirrhofe. Leaves cordate, toothed, alternate, petioled. Flowers an- drogynous, white, large, axillary, folitary, on long pedun- cles. Calyx one-leafed; the tube at bottom cylindrical, at top ovate, dilated; border five-cleft with linear fegments. Corolla almott wheel-fhaped, fixed to the mouth of the calyx; fegments ovate-oblong. J i/aments placed on the middle of the tube of the calyx. nther one, large, oblong-ovate, placed on the three filaments in form ef a tripod. Germ in- ferior, ovate-oblong, grooved. Svy/e filiform, fhorter than the tube. Stigma oblong, three-cornered, trifid at the tip. Berry ovate, fharpifh at both ends, red, f{mooth. Seeds ovate-oblong, comprefled, fmooth. Profeffor Martyn ob- ferves, that it differs from the other bryonies, but mutt re- main here, unlefs it be made to conftitute a new genus. Propagation and Culture. The exotic fpecies require the ‘ protection of the bark or dry ftove, according to the tempe- rature of their native climate. They are propagated by feeds fown on a hot bed, and tranfplanted into pots filled with light frefh earth. Several of them will endure the open aiy in fummer, but in winter muft be theltered, and fhould then have little water. They generally flower in July, and in favourable fummers will ripen their feeds. "Thofe which are annual muft be fown on a hot-bed early in the {pring, and, when about three inches high, tranfplanted into {mall pots; afterwards fhifted into larger pots, and placed in the bark- ftove, where their branches may be trained to the wall, or againft an efpalier, that they may have fun and air, without which they will not produce fruit. When full of fruit, they make a pretty variety in the ftove. Miller. Medicaland Economical Ufes. The frefh root of the com- mon bryony, taken up in the beginning of fpring, abounds with a thin milky juice, which may be colleéted, for two or three days fucceflively, by baring the root of its earth, cut- ting the top tranfverfely, and forming a cavity in the middle to receive it. Both the root in fubftance, and the juice, have a difagreeable fmell and a naufeous, bitter, biting tafte: applied for fome time to the fkin, they inflame, and even veficate the part. On drying the one, or infpiflating the other, they lofe moft of their acrimony, and nearly the whole of their ill fcent. In fummer, the root is much lefs juicy and powerful. This ftrong and irritating cathartic, though now feldom prefcribed, is faid to be of great efficacy in eva- cuating ferous humours; and has chiefly been employed in hydropical diforders; but is reported to have good effects alfo in afthma, mania, and epilepfy. In {mall dofes it ope- rates as a diuretic, and is refolyent and deobftruent; given in powder, from a fcruple to a dram, it proves f{trongly pur- gative; the juice, in dofes of a fpoonful or more, has fimilar effects; but is more gentle in its operation, An extract, prepared by water, aéts more mildly and with greater fafety, and may be given from half a dram to a dram. Externally the frefh root has been employed in cataplafms asa refolvent and difcutient, alfo in ifchiadie and other rheumatic affec- tions. Woodville, Med. Bot. vol. iii. p. 518. A decoétion made with one pound of the frefh root is the beft purge for horned cattle. Withering. Bofe obferves (Nouv. Di&.) that it has much affinity with the root of jatropha manihot, and that a wholefome capava may be made of it by the fame Bey procefs as is employed in the Weft Indies on the manihot. Beaumé was the firft who difcovered, that, when grated in water, it yields a fecula exaGly the fame with that of the potatoe. During the fcarcity at the time of the French revolution, Bofe himfelf often eat of it, and found it very nourifhing. He could never entirely deprive it, by macera- tion, of its peculiar fmell and tafte; but the unpleafantnefs was overcome by a pretty high feafoning. The root mutt be gathered for this purpofe in autumn and winter; and a fingle one will often be a fufficient breakfaft for one perfon. The root of B. dby/finica boiled is faid to be eaten in its native country. BRYONTA (Plumier). Rayanta haftata. Bryonta alia (Sloane Jam.) acida et trifoliata. BryontA nigra (Sloane Jam.) See TourNneFoRTIA vo- lubilis. Bryonta (Dal. Pharm.) See Convoryutus JALAPA. Bryonia(C. Bauh.) See Tamus. Bryonta, in Conchology, a fpecies of Srromgus, about feven inches in length, fufcous, variegated with white and blue in clouds. This fhell is {pecifically defcribed as being of a conic form, with a mucronate, eight-dentated lip, and knotty fpire. Defcribed by Lifter. This fhell isextremely rare. Gmelin is in doubt whether it belongs tothe Strombus genus. Native place unknown. BRYONL& Simixis (Pluk.) in Botany. See Dios- coreg villofa. BRYONIOIDES (Dill. Elth.) See Srcyos angulata. Bryonroipes (Pluk.) See Cissus acida. BRYUM, (from @pvw, germino, pullulo,) firft ufed as a generic name by Dillenius in his catalogue of plants in the neighbourhood of Gieflen, printed at Frankfort on the Mayne in 1717, introduced by him into his edition of Ray’s Synopfis 1724, and finally illuftrated with full defcriptions and figures of all the then known fpecies in his admirable hiftory of Moffes, publifhed at Oxford 1741. It was given to a family of moffes diftinguifhed by the following charaéters. Stems generally ereét, and little if at all branched. Peduncles either terminal, or {pringing dire&tly from the ftemlefs root; and when apparently lateral proceeding from the termination of the laft year’s ftem, not furrounded at its bafe, like hypnum, with a peri- chetium or fealy involucrum, but having inftead of it an ob- long knob or tubercle. Capfules when young covered with afmooth calyptra. It was taken up by Linnzus in his Flora Lapponica and Genera Plantarum, both publifhed in 1737, and continued in all his fubfequent works, with no material change of the original generic charaéter, Dillenius enumerates eighty one fpecies in his Hiftoria Mufcorum, fixty-one of which appear as Englifh plants in the third edition of Ray’s Synopfis; but in the Species Plantarum the number is reduced to thirty-two, many of Dillenius’s fpecies being confidered only as varieties, and thofe which appear to be dioicous being removed by Linneus to Mnium. The twelfth edition of the Syftema Nature has only thirty- one, the B. capillare of the Species Plantarum being alfo removed to Trinium, The number has fince been greatly increafed, fo that Dr. Withering in the third edition of his Botanical Arrangement reckons ninety-two Britifh {pecies. : Hedwig, in his new fyftem of moffes which is generally received in Germany, and is beginning to make its way in England through the powerful influence of Dr. Smith and Mr. Dawfon ‘Turner, has contraéted the genus diftin- guifheb yd this name within much narrower limits, taking 7 out See Metoruara pendula, and See Cissus /ficyoidesy BRYUM. out of it his Gymnoftomum, Aniangium, Encalypta, Leerfia, Grimmia, Weiffia, Trichoitomum, Didymodon, Cynontodium, Tortula, Barbula, Bartramia, and part of his Splachnum, Fiflidens, and Dicranum ; and confining it to fuch fpecies as have the following chara€ter. Periflome, or fringe furrounding the mouth of the capfule, double ; outer toothed, teeth fixteen acute ; inner ciliate ; cilia difform, arifing from a keeled membrane. Male Flower, capituli- form, dioicous. It has however fince been again extended with various modifications by different authors. Schreber includes in it Hedwig’s Mnium and Webera, with this character. Cap/ule, ovate-oblong. Periflome, double ; outer with fixteen broadifh acute teeth; inner membranaceous, plaited and keeled, laciniate, with alternate broadifh and capillary divifions. a/c. capitate, or difcoid, or gemma- ceous. Dr, Smith’s Bryum comprehends Webera, Pohlia, and Meefia; and Mr. Turner adds Mnium. Dr. Smith’s netic character ftands thus: cap/ule, ovate-oblong, net urrowed. Peri/fome, outer with fixteen teeth dilated at the bafe ; inner membranaceous, varioufly toothed and laciniate. ‘Calyptra not furrowed. Pedicell termiual. He enumerates thirty-three Britith {pecies. 1. B. nutans, filky pendulous thread-mofs. Schreber, Swartz, Roth, Ehrt.; (/ericeum, With. Hull. Sibth.) Dill. t. 50. f.60. Eng. Bot. 1240. ‘Stem generally fimple ; leaves lanceolate acute, keeled ; capfule obovate, pendulous, obtufe.”’” Stems growing in thick tufts, erect, fhort, often fimple, moft leafy at their fummits. Leaves pale green, giofly, lanceolate, acute, keeled, one-nerved, tipped with a ferrulate point. ohlgg * 2-0 terminal, folitary, ere&t, fome- times two inches long, glofly, tawny purple, paler upwards. Cap/ule pendulous, Cote, a little attenuated or elongate at the bafe, rufty-coloured, not glofly. Lid convex, with a fhort, blunt point. Outer fringe yellowifh; inuer varioufly laciniated. Perennial. 2. B. aureum, gold thread-mofs, Mnium pyriforme, Linn.) Dillen. tab. 50..f. 60. Eng. t. 389. “ Stem perfedly + i ; leaves fetaceous, upper ones very long; capfule pendulous, pear-fhaped, fuddenly contracted about the middle.’’ Stems in tufts, ereét, fimple, half an inch high, filiform. Leaves pale yellowifh-green, capillary, loofe, keeled, very entire ; upper ones very long fpreading in form ofa ftar. Flowers terminal. Fruit-/lalks lend; eret, an inch long, capillary, of a gold colour, glofly, fomewhat waved. Cap/ule gold coloured, highly gioffy, pendulous, pear-fhaped, rather blunt, attenuated from the at the middle ; lid rather conic, fhort, fomewhat pointed; calyptra awl-fhaped, white. Fringe yellow without; white within, teeth in a double feries. Annual. 3. B. e/on- atum, Dickf. Fafe. 2. 8. (Pohlia Hed. Mnium Pohlia Froff.) «Stem generally fimple ; leaves linear-lanceolate, thickened at the a . Capfule rather nodding, cylindrical, elongate at the bate” Stem ereét, hort, fimple, but at length a little branched. Leaves deep green, {preading, lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, acute, one-nerved, very entire, curled when dry. che! ogee an inch and a half long, folitary, nearly ereé&t, purple, yellow near the top. Cuap/ile a little nodding but not pendulous, cylindrical, curved, brown, a little contracted at its orifice, lengthened at its bafe into an obconical apophyfis of nearly its own length; lid conical, acute, thort ; fringe outer very fhort, brown; inner white, toothed in a fingle Eries. Perennial. Obf. Dillenius confounded this fpecies with nutans. 4. B. trichodes, long, capillary, thread-mofs, Linn. (Mnium uliginofum, With. eefia uliginofa, Hed.) Dill. Tab. 49. f. 58. “ Stem general Emple 5 leaves linear, obtufe; capfule obovate, incurved, fomewhat nodding ; fruit-ftalk very long.’? Stems in tufts, fcarcely an inch les fometimes much fhorter, ere&t, black with a ferruginous dewn at the bafe. Leaves ere@ but {preading, of a full yellow green, gloffy, obtufe, very entire, keeled. Fruit-/alks terminal, folitary, very long, erect, capillary, red, but brown at the bafe, and yellowith at the top. Cap/ule inclining, obtufe on a fhort apophytis. Lid conical, obtufe, very fhort ; fringe outer fhort, inner reticulated twice as long as the outer. Calyptra awl-fhaped, ftraight. Perennial... 5. B. deallatum, pale-leaved thread- mofs (Meefia Swartz, Hed.) Dickf. Tab. 5. f. 3. «Stem very fhort, fimple; leaves lanceolate, reticulated, a little ferrated at the top; capfule obovate, nodding.” Stems in tufts. Leaves pellucid, acute, one-ierved. Siruit-flalhs folitary, terminal, ere&, an inch anda half long, red. Cap/ule curved, opake, with a very contracted apophytis. Lid convex, with a fhort point, red ; fringe outer fhort, ferru- ginous; inner reticulated, twice as long as the outer. 6. B. cylindricum, Dickf. Tab. 11. f. 4. Stem fimple; leaves lanceolate-linear, ferrated towards the top; capfule rather erect, cylindrical.” Stem fearcely half an inch high, ere&t. Leaves of a pleafant green colour, ereét but {preading, acute, keeled, one-nerved. Fruitflalk eveé&, terminal, an inch long, red. Cap/fule pale brown, fmall, leader, with an obconic apophyfis of its own magnitude, fringe pale. 7. B. carneum, Lion. (B. delicatulum Hed. Mnium carneum Hoff.) Dill. Tab. 50. f. 69. “ Stem generally fimple ; leaves lanceolate, acute, very entire, reticulated, placed rather remote from each other; capfule pendulous, top- fhaped.”? Stems not half an inch high, in tufts, ereét, red. Leaves alternate, pale green, pellucid, reticulated, very entire, one-nerved. Fuit-fla/ks terminal, folitary, half an inch long, a little zig-gag, of a pale rofe colour. Cap/ule endulous, flefh-coloured, opake; lid conic, fhort, obtufe ; ringe outer, rufty brown; inner, yellowifh, toothed in a double feries. 8. B. alpinum, Linn. Mant. Dill. Tab. 50. f. 64. “ Stem branched, ere; leaves ovate-lanceolate, acute, imbricated ; capfule oblong, pendulous.”? Stems in tufts, one or two inches high ; branches ered, {tiff, round, acute. aves imbricated denfely on all fides, beautifully variegated with green and purple, gloffy, very entire, pellucid, often with a very red nerve, when dry preffed clofe to the item. Fruit-/lalks lateral, folitary, an inch long, red, ftraight, rifing higher than the ftem. Cap/ules obovate-cylindrical, red when ripe; lid hemifpherical, um- bonate ; Hoge white or rofe coloured. 9. B. ca/pititium, Lion, (Mnium cefpititium With. Relh. Abb.) Dill. Tab. 50. £.66. except the variety F. G. leffer matted thread- mofs. ‘¢ Stem branched at the bafe, matted, leaves ovate- lanceolate, flat, ending in a hair; capfule obovate, pen- dulous.”” Stems. forming a devfe tuft, branched from the bafe ; branches trilinear, fimple, {preading, leafy, obtufe. Leaves of a pleafant green, very entire, one-nerved, the upper one larger, {preading in form of a ftar. Fruit-/lalls from the bafe of the branches, about an inch and a half long, capillary, erect, purple at the bafe, green at the top. Lid convex, umbonate, fringe yellow, teeth acumi- nate. 10. B. bicolor, Dickf. Fafc. 4.16. Dill. Tab. 50. f. 66. F.G. Stem very fhort, branched at the bale; leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate ; capfule ovate, obtufe, pendulous.”” Stems feattered, with long fufcous roots, Leaves yellowith-green, {mall, fpreading, flat, very entire, a little pointed but not ending in a hair. /ruit-flalks from the bafe of the branches, half an inch long, ereét, very red, glofly. Capfule rather large, thick, red at the bafe, fulvous at the top, often entirely blood red; lid hemifpherical, umbonate, glofly, fulvous or fcarlet; fringe nearly refem- bling that of B. carneum, 11. B. argenteum, Linn, (Mnium argent, Hoff.) filvery thread-mofs, “ Stem branched “7m : afe, BR YUM. hafe, matted; leaves ovate, concave, ending in a hair, imbricate; capfule oblong, pendulous. Stems in convex tufts, half an inch high, branched from the bafe ; branches thread-fhaped, ere&t. Leaves with a filvery glofs, clofely imbricated, very entire, one-nerved, ending in a fhort hair. Fruit-flalks from the bafe of the branches, fearcely an inch long, capillary, glofly, purpleat the bafe, yellow at the top. Capfule fhort, reddifh. Lid conical, very fhort, fulvous, fringe yellow. 12. B. Zierii, Dickf. Fafc. 2. Tab. 4. fig. 10. Eng. Bot. 1021. * Stem ere€t, branched ; leaves ovate, concave, imbricated, pointed; capfule club-fhaped, -drooping.”? Perennial. Stems in tufts; branches round, obtufe. Leaves foon white or flefh-coloured, gloffy, very entire, one-nerved. Fruit-/lalks from the bafe of the branches, not an inch long, nearly erect, reddifh. Cap/ule fcarcely pendulous, before maturity club-fhaped, green ; when ripe obovate, or ovate, with an obconie apophyfis ; lid conical, fhort ; fringe red. Calyptra awl-fhaped, acuminate. 13. B. julaceum, (argenteum @. Linn. Mnium holofericeum Hoff.) Dill. Tab. 50. f. 63. ‘ Stem branched at the bafe ; leaves ovate, concave, imbricate, obtufe; capfule club-fhaped, pendulous.” Perennial. Stem larger than in B. argenteum; branches flender, ereét, acute. Leaves gloffy, yellowith-green, (not filvery,) clofely imbricated, imall, very entire. J*ruit-/falk from the bafe of the branches, an inch or more long, a little flexuofe, red. Cap/ule brown ; lid convex, umbonate, gloffy, pale brown. 14. B. capillare, Linn. Sp. Pl. (Mnium Linn. FI. Suec. With., &c.) ‘¢ Stem branched at the bafe, matted; leaves obovate, ending in a hair, twifted when dry; capfule club-fhaped, pendulous.” Perennial. Refembling B. cefpititium but larger. Branches about an inch long, ereét, thickened at the bafe, ftellate. Leaves of a fine green, obtule, very entire, one-nerved. Fruit-ftalks an inch and a half long, firm, red. Cap/ule obtufe, between cylindrical and club-fhaped, large; lid ferru- q@inous, glofly, hemifpherical, with a hort, ftraight point, outer fringe fulvous with acuminate teeth. 15. B- annotinum, Summer thread-mofs (Mnium annotinum rie Dill. Tab. go. f. 68. ‘Stem branched at the bafe; leaves ovate- Janceolate, pellucid, keeled, fomewhat ferrated; eapfule obovate, pendulous.’ Perennial. Stems red, erect, leafy ; male fimple, often elongate, gemmiparous; feminine branched, Leaves fine green, under a lens reticulate, keeled, one- nerved, acute. Jrwit-/a/ks terminal, folitary, an inch and half long, red. Cuap/fule nearly pear-fhaped; lid conic, Short, acute, flefh-coloured ; fringe pale. 16. B. compadum, Dickf. Fafe..4. Tab. 11. fig. 11. ‘ Stem divided at the bafe; leaves lanceolate, keeled, ferrated near the tip; capfule ovate, pendulous.” Perennial. Stems in denfe tufts, half an inch high, fometimes fimple, naked below, red. Leaves yellowith-green, glofly, acute, fomewhat revolute, ferrated from the middle ; the lower ones fhorter and nearly theart-fhaped. Fruit-/lalks terminal, not an inch long, a little flexuofe, ferruginous. Cap/ule fhort, dilated at the margin, almoit top-{haped ; lid\convex, umbonate. 17. B. attenuatum, flender, proliferous thread-mofs. Dickf. Faf. 4. Tab. 10. f, 8. . « Stem fimple, proliferous; leaves itellate, ovate, very entire, reticulate; capfule club-fhaped, cylin- drical, ere&t.”? Perennial. Stems afcending, half an inch long, filiform, often throwing out new ftems which take root. Leaves crowded, acute, one-nerved, pellucid. ruit- fiaiks terminal, erect, half an inch long, yellowith. Cap- fules exe&t, Slender, pale brown, contracted at the ori- fice; lid convex, without a point. 18. B. hornum, {fwanneck thread-mofs (Mnium hornum Linn.) Dill. Tab. 51. f. 71. Curtis Tab. 71. ‘ Stem fimple; deaves lanceolate, denticulate-ferrated; firnit-ftalk curved ; 5 capfule ovate, drooping”? Perennial. Larger than the preceding fpecies. Stems in tufts, fimple, leafy, red, ferruginous and tomentofe at the bafe. Leaves fine green, pellucid, membranous, {preading acute, with a {trong red nerve, waved when dry. Mafizline flower largey terminal, difcoid, furrounded with large obtufe leaves ; femi- nine on a different plant. Jruit-/ta/t terminal, folitary, very long, ftraight, and red at the baie, curved, and yellowifh at the top, thickened under the capfule. Cap/ule large, droopingy turgid, retufe, of a pale ruit colour, with a fcarlet orifice 5 lid hemifpherical, with a fhort point ; outer fringe of a citron colour, with acute teeth, inner white. 19. B. crudumy (Mnium crudum, Linn.) Dill. Tab. 51 £. 70, * Stem fimple; leaves lanceolate, acute, very entire; upper ones narrow, denticulate ; capfule oblong, drooping.’’ Perennial. Tranfparent-green thread-mofs. Svems in tufts, fimple, erety {carcely an inch high, naked at the bafe, dark purple. Leaves crowded at the top of the ftem,° glofly, of a fine green, pellucid, {preading, flat, one-nerved; lower ones jhorter, upper narrower, and generally ferrated near the tip. ruit-/falé terminal, ere&t, aninch long, red. Cap/ule ferruginous, fearcely red at the orifice lid hemifpherical, with a flight tip, yellowifh ; fringe citron-colour; calyptra recurved, deciduous. 20. B. marginatum. Dickf. Fafe. 2. Tab. 5. fig. r. ‘ Stem fimple; leaves lanceolate, acute, denticulate, thickened at the margin; capfule ovate; lid conic.”? Thick-edged thread-mofs. Perennial. Stems an inch high, ere&i, red. Leaves with a red nerve and margin, Fruit-ftalks {olitary, erect, an inch long, flefh-coloured, Cap- Jule pendulous, retufe ; lid conic, awl-fhaped; calyptra awl- fhaped, reddifh, recurved. 21. B. interruptum. Dickf. Faic. 4. Tab. 2. f. 6. *¢ Stem “branched, interruptedly leafy ; leaves lanceolate, acute, completely ferrulated ; cap- fule pear-fhaped, rather erect.’? Interrupted thread-mols, Perennial. Stems in tufts, an inch and half high, branched in a determinate direCtion, red. Leaves fafciculated, yel- lowifh-green, glofly, reticulated, one-nerved; lower ones remote, {mall, fhort. Fruit-/lalks terminal, ered, red, fcarcely an inch long. Cap/ule brown, dilated at the mouth; lid hemifpherical, obtufely umbonate. 22. B. nigricansy Dickf. Fafc. 4. Tab. 2. f. 10. Stem branched at the bafe ; leaves lanceolate, {tiff, ferrated towards the tip; cap- fule top-fhaped, pendulous,’? Dark-green thread-mofs. Perennial. Stems in tufts. Leaves dark-green, imbrie cated, acute, keeled, dilated at the bafe. /ruit-/falks ter- minal, ferruginous, curved at the top. Cap/ules with a fpreading orifice; lid convex, obtufely umbonate ; fringe yellow. 23. Bryum? inclinans. Dickfon Fafe. 4. Tab. 2. f.9. ‘¢Stems branched; leaves briftle-fhaped, very entire, curled when dry; capfule ovate, inclining; apophyfis fmall,’? Inclining curled thread-mofs. Perennial. Stemerect. Leaves loofely imbricated, keeled, dilated at the bafe. Fruit-/lalks lateral, ereét, half an inch long. 24. B. cubitale, Dickf. Fafe. 2. Tab. 5. f. 2. Stem afcending, a little branched ; leaves lanceolate, very entire, decurrent ; fruit-ftalk knee- jointed; capfule club-dhaped, pendulous.” Elbow-fhaped thread-mofs. Perennial. Stems two or three inches high, leafy, clothed with a rufty down. Leaves fpreading, fine green, pellucid, acute, thickened at the edge with a ftrong red nerve. - ruit-ffa/k terminal, folitary, three or four inches long, yellowifh-brown, glofly. Cap/ule attenuated at the bafe. O4/. The largeft bryum hitherto difcovered. 25. B. ventricofum, (Bryum triquetrum. Hudf. Hull, Mniam Pfeudo-triquetrum Hed. Hoff. With.) Dickf. Fafe. 1. p- 4. Dill. Tab. 51. £73. “Stem branched in a determi- nate diretion; branches afcending; leaves alternate, lan~ ceolate, ferrated at the tip; capfule ventricofe, pendulous.” Swelling BRYU™M. Swelling bog-thread-mefs, Perennial, Stems in tufts, with long roots, clothed with a rufty down; branches numerous, afcending, red, loofely leaved. Leaves pale prores alternate, erect, {preading, acute, one-nerved, twilted when dry. Frwit- Jralks terminal, or fiom the tip’ of the branch of the pre- ceding year, aninch anda half or two inches long, erect, >urple at the bafe, yellowifh at the top. Capj/u/e ovate, Tastes little contraéted uader the orifice ; lid convex, with a fhort point; fringe yellow. 26. B. binium. | Schreb. Roth. Swartz. (B.triquetrum 6 Hudf. Mnium Binium Hoff.) Dill. Tab. li. f. 73. ~ “* Stem branched ; leaves alternate, Tcear-lanceolate, alittle ferrated at the top; capfule obovate, club-fhaped, pendulous.’ Long-ftalked bog-thread-mofs. Perennial, Larger than the preceding. Stem two or three inches high, irregularly branched, of a dark rutty colour. Leaves elongate, yellowifh green. Fruit-falks from the end of the two or three year-old branches, two or three inches Tong, dark purple, glofly, fometimes knee-jointed towards the bafe. Capfule narrowed at the bafe, contracted under the orifice, twice as large as in the preceding ; fringe yellow. 27. B. turdinatum. Swartz. ey B. triquetrum y Hud- fon, Maium nutans With. Hull. nium turbinatum Hed. Hoff.) Dill. Tab. li. £ 74. ‘¢ Stem branched, leaves ovate, awned, very entire, capfule pear-fhaped, pendulous.”” Pear- fhaped bog-thread-mofs. Perennial. ~ Stems {carcely aninch high, in tufts; leaves fine green, fpreading, alternate, ap- proximate, one-nerved. Fruit-/ta/és an inch long, purplith brown, alittle flexuofe. Sib attenuated at the bafe; lid convex, without a point; fringe ruft-coloured. 28. B. fellare. Roth. (8. ferpyllifolium, « Hudf. Mnium pro Kferum, Var. 2. With. Mnium flellare, Hed. Hoff.) Dill. Tab. lii. f. 78. ** Stem branched ; leaves ovate, acuminate, reticulated with round mefhes; the upper ones ferrate, ftellated; capfule oblong, drooping.” Se re a mofs. Perennial. Stem determinately branched, one or two inches high, Leaves fine green, with a ftrong red’ nerve; fcarcely reaching the tip. J*ruit-fla/k terminal, about two inches long, alittle curved, thickened at thetip ; lid hemi- f{pherical. 29. B. cu/pidatum. Swartz. Roth. Hull. Sib. ee ferpyllifolium 2 Linn. M. cufpidatum. Hedw. off. With. B. ferpyllifolium y Hudf.) Dill. Tab. liii. £79. ‘Stem fimple; barren one, procumbent, a little branched ; leaves ovate, ferrated; capfule ovate; lid he- milpherieal.”” _ Pointed-leaved thyme-thread-mofs. Pe- rennial. Stems leafy, of twokinds; the barren ones pro- cumbent, throwing out roots, three inches or more long; fertile ones ereét,-fimple, an inch long. eaves fine green, pellucid, under a Iens minutely reticulated, alter- nate, broad-ovate, fomewhat waved, acutely ferrated, ointed with a ftrong pale nerve. Fruit-/la/k terminal, an inch long, flexuofe, rofe-coloured. Cap/ule pendulous, fhort, ventricofe, retufe, yellow, with a {carlet orifice; lid without a point ; fringe lemon-coloured. 30, DB. punda- tum. Roth. Hull. Sibth. (Mnium ferpyllifolium, Linn. M. pundtatum, Hedw. With. B. ferpyllifolium, Hudf. Swartz). Dill. Tab. li. f. 81. Eng. Bot. 1183. “ Stem nearly fimple ; leaves obovate, very entire, dotted, reticu- lated’; capfule elliptical ; lid awl-fhaped.”? Dotted-leaved thyme-thread-mofs. Perennial: Habit of the preceding, but diftinguifhed at once by its dotted leaves. Stems an inch and half high, leafy, red, often flexuofe. Leaves broadly ovate, very obtufe, alittle pointed, thickened at the edge, red, repand, with a ftrong red nerve ; the upper ones: ftellate. “se ree! terminal, more than an inch long, purplith, bowed at the top ; capfule pendulous, green, with a purple orifice, finally brown; lid yellow, convex at the Safe, with arather obtufe recurved point, 31. B. rofratum, Schrad. (Mnium pun&atum, Var. fi. With. M. ellipticum. Hoff. B. ferpyllifolium @ Hudf.) Dill. Tab. lii. f. 80, * Stem fimple; leaves obovate-fpatulate, ferrulate; capfule ovate ; lidawl-fhaped.”” Long-beaked thyme-thread-mofs. Stem fhorter than in the preceding. Leaves lefs and nare rower, not reticulated. fruit-flalks folitary or aggregate, terminal, an inch and halflong, flefh-coloured purple at the bafe. Capfule pendulous, green flefh-coloured at the mouth; lid yellow, convex at the bafe, with an obtufe, recurved point, alittle fhorter than the capfule. 32. B. rofeum. Schreb. Swartz. Roth. (Mnium ferpyllifolium y Linn. M: proliferum, With. Hull. M. rofeum, Hedw. Weiff. B. proliferum, Sibth.. B. ferpyllifolium ¢ Hudf.) «Stem fome-+ what proliferous; leaves crowded, ftellate, ovate, acute; fprinkled with fmatl dots, feabrous* at the margin ; lid conical.’ Rofaceous thyme-thread-mofs. Perennial. Bars ren_flems elongate, procumbent, covered with fmaller, obtufe, alternate leaves. Fertile flems ere&t, an inch high, often proliferous, {quamous, and without leaves below, leafy above. Leaves alittle decurrent, flat, rough, or flightly crenulated atthe margin. 'rwit-/fa/hs terminal, often aggregate, an inch and half or two inches long, ftiff, red, glofly. Cap/ule pendulous, ovate-oblong, glofly ; lid, on the authority of Dillenius, conical, fhort. 33. B. ligulatum. Schreb. (Mniunr ferpyllifolium 3 Linn. M. undulatum, Hedw. With. Bryum undulatum, Sibth. Turner.) ‘Stems fimple, but finally branched at top; leaves oblong, waved, ferrated ; fruit- {talks aggregate.”? Long-leaved thyme-thread-mofs. Pe- rennial. Root creeping. Stems ereét, almoft inclining to fhrubby, leafy ; barren ones elongate ; fertile ones finally determinately branched ; branches itellate afcending. Leaves fine green, clofe-fet, alternate, decurrent, {preading, linear- oblong, obtufe, one-nerved, acutely ferrulate, foon growing flaccid when gathered, ruit-flalks aggregate, two inches long, fulvous, glofly. Cap/u/e pendulous, ovate, fhort ; lid conieal, fhort. The fyftem of Hedwig does not feem likely at prefent to be received in France. a Marck, in the Di@ionaire Me- thodique, does little more than enumerate and defcribe the fpecies of Linnzus, as they ftand in the lait edition of the: Syttema Nature. Bofe, in the Nouveau Dictionaire d’Hif- toire Naturelle, publifhed fo lately as 1803, fays, that the bryum of Linnzus is a very natural genus; but that the German botanilts, who never think that they have genera enough, have exercifed their fkill upon it, and have formed’ out of it feventeen genera, moft of them founded on cha« raéters which are {carcely difcernible with the beftlens, It’ muttbe acknowledged that there is fome-reafon for the: complaint ; and we feel a pride in reflé&ting that our two great Englifh cryptogamifts have fteered a: middle courfe,. and have produced a realimprovement in the feience ; avoid- ing at the fame.time the difficulties which are jultly objeted: to by the French naturalitt. ; As Hedwig’s-new genus bartramia, which was formed entirely at the expence of Linnzus’s bryum, has been omitted’ in its proper place, owing to the German fy{tem of mofles not having publicly received the powerful patronage of: Dr. Smith and Mr, Turner, when that part of our dic- tionary was written, it cannot now be, more properly in-: troduced than as an appendix to the prefent article. The other genera: will be found. under their refpective letters of: the alphabet, Bartramia, Hedw. Gen. Char. Cap/ule {pherical, furs. rowed when ripe, Outer fringe of fixteen teeth, dilated at: the bafe ; inner membranaceous, plaited, varioufly laciniated, . Calyptra {mooth ; lid deprefled, Brith fpesics. DB. halleriana, Hedw. Swartz. Roth. (Bryum Bey (Bryum laterale, Hudf. Light. With, Hull. Dickf. Ehrt. B. pomiforme, Var. i. Scop. Mnium laterale, Hoff.) Hal- ler Hift. vol. iii. tab. xlvi. f. 8. Eng. Bot.g97. * Fruit- ftalks lateral, curved, fhorter than the leaf; leaves linear, awl-fhaped, one-nerved, with an even furface.” Lateral bartramia. Perennial. Svems in tufts, ereét, two or three inches high, branched, leafy. Leaves {preading, denfe, of a fine green, rather inclining to one fide, foft, thin, keeled, ferrulated towards the tip, dilated at thebafe. Fruit-flalks axillary, folitary. Capfule globofe, at length laterally con- tracted, and longitudinally marked with fixteen ftrong fur- rows, a httle drooping, ferruginous; inner fringe plaited, almoft entire, a little torn at the opening ; lid convex, fhort; calyptra conical, foon falling off. 2. B. pomiformis, Hed- wig. Swartz. Roth. (Bryum pomiforme, Linn, &c.) Dill tab. xliv. f. 1. Haller tab. xlvi. f. 7. Moris. vol. iii, tab. vi. f. 6. ¢ Fruit-ftalks ere@t, longer than the ftems ; leaves awl-fhaped, one-neryed.” Apple bartramia. Peren- nial. S¢ems in denfe tufts, branched, faftigiate, leafy, often an inch high. Leaves fine green, fpreading, linear-awl- fhaped, witha ftrong nerve, ferrulated near the tip, not much dilated at the bafe, ftriated when dry. Fruit-/lalks folitary, terminal at firft, but foon becoming axillary, an inch, or an inch and a half long, red. Capfules ere&t, glo- bofe, green ; when ripe brown, a little curved and drooping, longitudinally furrowed; fringe fhort; outer red; inner very thin; lid convex, very fhort ; calyptra conic-awl-fhaped, foon falling off. 3. B. fontana, Swartz, Smith, and Turner, (Maium fontanum, Linn. Hedw. With. &e. Bryum fon- tanum, Hudf. Sibth.) Dillen. tab. xliv. f. 2. Flor. Dan, 298. Eng. Bot. 390. ‘ Fruit-ftalks ere&t, longer than the {tem ; leaves ovate, very entire; branches fafciculated, erect, thread-fhaped.’? Fountain bartramia. Perennial, Stems in denfe tufts, often a {pan high, determinately branched, leafy, towards the bottom clothed with a rufty down. Leaves yellowith green, imbricated on all fides of the ftem, fhort, acuminate, keeled, one-nerved. Flowers divicous, terminal; males forming a dife, furrounded b larger leaves and new little branches. Fruit-/alks folitary, three inches high, red, {pringing from the divaricationa of the branches. Cap/ules obliquely drooping; ovate- f{pherical, brown, with many furrows, lid convex, with a fhort, acute, crooked point; fringe fhort, brown; inner one in a double feries. 4. B. arcuata, Smith. (Mnium arcuatum and hypnum chryfocomum, Dickf. Bryum arcuatum, Hall.) Dill. tab. xxxix. f. 36. Eng. Bot. 1237. “¢ Fruit-{talks recurved ; leaves lanceolate, one-nerved, fur- rowed, ferrulated; branches f{cattered, {preading.”? Curve- ftalked bartramia. Perennial. Stems ereét, branched, leafy, clothed with a denfe rufty down; branches numerous. Leaves imbricated but fpreading, yellowifh green, glofly, acuminate; Fruit-flalks folitary, terminal, at length lateral, fhort, red, with a fimall fealy perichetium. Cap/ule droop- ing, globofe, ereen, gloffy, furrowed ; lid a little convex, with a fhort, obtufe point, fearlet ; outer fringe fhort, ful- vous, with obtufe teeth ; inner membranaceous, white, with fixteen divifions, correfponding with the outer teeth. BRYUM, Ja@uce folio, a name given by fome to the oyfter-green. See TREMELLA. BRYUNE Bay, in Geography, lies on the eaft fide of Greenland, in N. lat. 65° 46'. In this bay is a little ifland called «* Kangak’’ or Forehead, where a colony was founded in 1755, by Andrew Olfen, a fa&tor belonging to the com- pany of merchants. The harbour is one of the beft and fafeit in the country, lying half a leagae from the open fea, between two fimall iflands, but the adjacent country is barren, and has no rein-deer. Befides the ordinary fifh, feals, and birds, the fea affords occafionally the whale, BUA which come here in January and February, but. they are feldom taken by the Greenlanders, and never by Europeans, for want of proper boats and tackle. BRZESC. See Brsesr. BRZESK or Birsetsx, atown of Lithuania, in a ter- ritory of the fame name, one of the diftri€ts of the province of Polefia, called alfo the palatine of Brzefkie, or Birfetik, is feated on the river Bug, in a marfhy fituetion, and hasa caitle built upona rock. Near it is aroyal palace with a good garden. In this town is a famous Jewifh fynagogue, to which the Jews refort from all the countries of Europe. A Greek bifhop refides in this town, and a provincial dict is alfo heldin it. N. lat. 52° 12! E. long. 24°. In the month of O&ober, 1794, a battle was fought near this town between the Ruffiansand the Poles: the battle lafted eight hours, andthe Poles were totally defeated. Out of 13,000 of the beft Polifh troops, only 500 were made pri- foners, as they refufed quarter; and the reft, 300 men ex- cepted, were cut to pieces ; fo that the field of battle, for fome miles, was covered with the dead. BRZESNO, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Bole- flau, 5.miles E. of Jung Buntzlau. BRZEZANY, Bretany, or Brezan, a well built town, with a caftle, of Poland, in the palatinate of Red Ruffia, 24 miles N.N.E. of Halicz. N. lat. 49° 45'. E. long. 25° 20!. RRZEZIN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Bielfk ; 44 miles N.W. of Bielfk. BRZEZINY, a {mall town of Poland, in the palatinate of Lenczicz; 48 miles S.E. of Lenczicz. BRZISTEW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflau; 11 miles S.E. of Jung Buntzlau, BRZOSTECK, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Sandomirz ; 56 miles S.S.W. of Sandomirz. BSURA, a river of Poland, which runs into the Viftula, 12 miles E. of Plocfko. BU, a townof France, in the department of the Eure and Loire, and diftri& of Dreux, 2 leagues N.E. of it. BUA, or the J/le of Partridges, a {mall ifland in the northern part of the Adriatic, near the coaft of Dalmatia, joined to the town of Trau by abridge, 20 miles W.N.W. of Spalatro. , BUADH-VAILL, g. d. mouth-piece of viGtory, called alfo, in the old Irifh tales and romances, Benwowen and Barr-vaill, is fuppofed by Mr. Oufley to have been a ipecies of trumpet. It is made of a light fine-grained wood, proba- bly willow, and is 6 feet 4 inches long ; the wider end mea- {ures 3} inches diameter, from whence it gradually tapers to a point at the other end, where a mouth-piece is fuppofed to have been fixed. This inftrument, which is particularly defcribed and illuftrated by figures in the fourth volume of the Irifh Tranfaétions, was found, in 1791, in the county of . Mayo, lying horizontally in the body of a turf bog, at the depth ot about g feet from the furface. The precife age of this inftrument, the wood of which was perfectly found, is not afcertained. Mr. Oufley fuppofes it to have been at leaft previous to the fettlement of the Englifh in Ireland, as it isnot mentioned by Cambrenfis, or any fubfequent au- thor. Lord Dillon, on whofe eftate it was found, concludes, from the great accumulation of bog over it, that it muft have been in the fituation in which it was difcovered for many ages, and thisis further confirmed by the rudenefs of its contrivance and workmanfhip, which indicates ‘its re- mote antiquity. BUALLT. See Burttn. fi BUAMACHUCO, a town of South America, in the country of Peru, and jurildiction of Caxamarquilla, chiefly inhabited by Indians. BUANES, BUB .. BUANES, a town of France, in the department of Landes ;_5 miles W. of Aire. BUARCOS, or Buarcas, a town of Portugal on the fea coaft, in the prevince of Beira; 7 leagues S.W. of BUARID, a {mall ifland in the Red fea, near the coalt of Arabia, 4 miles W. of Loheia. BUBALE, in Zoology. See Busarus. BUBALINUS Serrens, a name affigned by fome au- thors to the uacandaya of the Ceylonele, a very terrible fort of ferpeat, according to report, common in that part of the world. Itis molt mifchicvous among cattle, a cir- cumftance implied by the name it bears in India. The par- ticular kind of ferpent bearing this name is not exactly known to us. pecs BUBALUS, the Buffalo. Gmelin defcribes this ani- mal, Bos Bubalus, after Linnzus, as having the horns re- fupinate, or lying backwards, turned inwards, and flat on the frovt, or anterior part. The Buffalo appears to be fo clofely allied to our com- mon ox, that without an attentive examination it might be eafily miftaken for a variety of that animal. In point of fize it is rather fuperior to the ox, and upon an accurate infpeCtion it is obferved to differ in the fhape and magnitude of the head, the latter beimg larger than in the ox; the forchead is more elevated, the muzzle of a longer form, much larger, {quare, and lefs depreffed. But it is chiefly by the ftruGure of the horns that the Buffalo is diftin- uifhed, thefe being of a fhape and curvature altogether ifferent from thofe of the ox: they are of a gigantic fize in proportion to the bulk of the animal, and of a compreffed or deprefled form, with a fharp exterior edge; for a confi- derable length from their bafe thefe horns are ftrnght, and then bend flightly upwards: the prevailing colour of them is dulky, or nearly black. The buffalo has no dewlap: his tail 1s fmall, and deftitute of vertebre near the extre- mity, and his ears long and pointed. The teats of the buffalo, which are four in number, Defmefne conccives to be fufficiently indicative of this fpecies, without adverting to any other character; for thefe, he remarks, are not dif- fed, as in other animals, in two longitudinal parallel lines, ton the contrary range ina fingle row in a tran{verfe di- rection. This animal has an appearance of uncommon flrength. The bulk of his body, and prodigious mufeular limbs, de- note his force at the firft view. His afpeét is ferocious and malignant, at the fame time that his phyfiognomy is ftrongly marked with’ features of flupidity : his head is of a pon- derous fize, his forchead convex, his eyes diminutive, and his muzzle flat, and what ferve to render his vifage ilill more favage are the tufts of frizzled hair which hang down from his cheeks and the lower part of his muzzle. I Moft commonly the buffalo is entirely of a blackifh colour with the cxception of the hair at the top of the fore- head, and the tuft at the extremity of the tail, which are of a yellowith white colour. ‘The tkin itfelf is alfo of a black colour, and from this general caf it is but very feldom obferved to vary ; though we meet with defcriptions in the works of travellers of white, grey, and reddifh, or bay buf- falocs. In E they arc, however, fometimes whitith on the infides limbs, and Sonnini records an example of one which he faw in Egypt, which had all the legs, belly, and fides, perfedtly white. It varies, however, greatly as to the length and thicknefs of its hair, and is fometimes feen nearly naked, "This animal is originally a native of the hotter parts of India and Africa, from whence it is {aid to have been in- Vou. V. 7 BUB troduced into Italy in the feventh century ; and is now com- letely naturalized to ‘the climate of the South of Europe. r. Pennant fuppofes the Bors yg of Aritotle to have meant buffaloes, Gmelin is of the fame opinion, referrin for his Bubalus to Boss cyews iv “Acarywreas. Mrifi. Hip, An. &c.; and he confiders alfo the Bos Jndicus of Pliny as the fame animal. This conjeGture has the fan@ion of much re- {peciable authority, but there are naturalifts of no mean celebrity who are difpofed to difccuntenance it. Buffon endeavours to prove that the animal we are acquainted with at this day under the name of buffalo, was altogether un- known to the ancient Greeks or Romans ; aud further, that the buffalo was not tranfported from its native countries, the hotteft parts of Africa and the Indies, to be naturalized in Italy, before the feventh century. In fupport of the former of thefe aflertions, he adduces the filence of all authors prior to that age. For the fecond, he obferves that the wild buffaloes of the hotter parts of Afia and Africa are precifely of the fame kind as our buffalo. He compares the defcription of this animal with the remarks cf travellers and navigators who have {poken of the buffaloes of Perfia and the Mogul empire, Bengal, Egypt, Guinea, and the Cape of Good Hope ; and from this comparifon infers that in all thofe countries the buffalo is of the fame individual fpecies as our European buffalo, fubjeé& only to fome inconfiderable variation. The buffalo. grows in fome countries to an extremely large fize. Mr. Pennant quotes a pair of horns in the Bri- tifh Mufeum in proof of this, which are fix feet and a half long, and-the hollow of which will hold five quarts. Jerom Lobo, in his account of Abyffinia, affirms that fome of the horns of the buffaloes of that country will hold ten quarts, and Dillon faw fome in India which were ten feet long: they are fometimes wrinkled, but generally fmooth. © The diftance between the points of the two horns of the buffalo is commonly about five feet. Wild buffaloes occur in many parts of Africa and India. In Malabar, and the iflands of Borneo and Ceylon, they are abundant, and are confidered as exceflively fierce and dangerous animals. The buffaloes of Abyfflinia grow to twice the fize of our largeft oxen, and are called elephant-bulls, not only on account of their valt fize, but from their naked black fin refembling that of an elephant. In a ftate of wildnefs the buffaloes live in the forefts, and go about in great troops. The hunting of thefe ani- mals 1s a favourite, but very dangerous purfuit, among the Indians, and requires the greateft fhare of dexterity. ‘The hunters never venture in any numbers to oppofe thefe fero- cious animals face to face, but conceal themfelves in the thickets, or among the branches of the trees, from whence they trike their javelins upon the buffaloes as they pafs below them. Thefe people are very fond of the fieth, which is affirmed by oe to be hard and indifferently fla- voured. They drive a confiderable trade in the fkins and horus of the buffalo, which for many purpofes is far more ufeful than thofe of the ox. In the Mogul dominions it is no uncommon circumflance to enfuare the wild buffalo, the lion, or the tiger, in nets, when the people amufe themfelves before they put them to death by forcing them to combat each other, aud it is faid that inflances have oe- curred in which the buffalo has proved victorious over thefe powerful antagonilts, by attacking one when he had over- come the other. Thunberg, in his travels through Japan, Speaks of hawing feen, in the environs of» Miaco, buffaloes with a hn upow the hack ; but from this peculiarity it has been thought moft hkely that it was the Zebu which that traveiier obferved, and not a variety of the buffalo. The domeftic buffalo is much cultivated in Egypt, where ;K * according BUB according to Sonniniit yields plenty of excellent milk, from which butter is made as well as feveral kinds of cheefe. « The buffalo (fays that writer) is an acquifition of the modern Egyptians, with which their anceitors were unac- quainted. It was brought over from Perfia into their country, where the fpecies is at prefent univerfally fpread, and is very much propagated. It is even more numerous than that of the common ox, and is there equally domeftic, though but recently dometticated, as is eafily diftinguifhable by the conftantly uniform colour of the hair, and {till more by a remnant of ferocity and intratability of difpofition, and a wild and lowering afpeét, the chara¢ters of all half- tamed animals. ‘The buffaloes of Egypt, however, are not near fo wild nor fo much to be feared as thofe of other countries. They there partake of the very remarkable gen- tlenefs of other domeftic animals, and only retain a few fudden and occafional caprices. The fight of any thing red, which is faid to make them fly into fits of ungovern- able fury elfewhere, makes no impreflion on thofe of Egypt. The inhabitants of the country, befides their red turban, wear alfo in general another fhawl of the fame colour, which envelopes the neck and cheft, and I never obferved that the fight of either at all affected the buffaloes. They are fo fond of the water, that I have feen them continue in it the whole day. It often happens that the water which is fetched from the Nile near its banks has contrafted their mufky fmell.”’ Thefe animals multiply more readily than the common ox: they are alfo more robult, better capable of bearing fatigue, and, generally fpeaking, lefs liable to diftempers. They are therefore employed to advantage in different kinds of labour. Buffaloes are made to draw heavy loads, and are commonly direGted or reftrained by means of a ring pafled through the nofe. ‘T'wo buffaloes yoked, or rather chained, to acart, are able to draw as much as four flrong horfes, As they carry their neck and head low, the whole weight of their body is employed in drawing ; and their mafs much furpaffes that of a labouring hoxfe. In its habits the buf- falo is much lefs cleanly than the ox, delighting to wallow in the mud; and, next to the hog, may be confidered as the dirtielt of dometticated quadrupeds. His voice is deeper, more uncouth and hideous than that of the bull. The milk of the female buffalo is {aid by fome authors to be not fo good as that of the cow, but it is more plentiful, and isufed for the purpofes of the dairy in the warmer regions. In the fixth fupplemental volume of Buffon, it is affirmed that the milk is far fuperior to cow’s milk, not only in tafte butcolour, and that it makes the moft excellent butter, cheefe, &c. The kin and horns are of more value than all the reft of the animal ; the former being of extreme ftrength and du- rability, and confequently well adapted for various purpofes in which ftrong leather is required; the latter are of a fine grain, ftrong, and bear a good polifh, and are therefore in much efteem with cutlers and other artificers. Italy is the country where buffaloes are moft common in a dometticated ftate, being ufed there, as in India, both for the dairy and the draught. The parts in which they are moft fuccelsfully cuitivated are the diftri& of the Pontine marfhes, and thofe of Sienna. The Spaniards are attentive to this race of cattle, and indeed the cultivation of this ufeful animal feems to be pretty general in all countries on the borders of the Mediterranean fea both in Europe and Africa. For fo robuft a creature, the buffalo is of a delicate con- ftitution, and fuffers equally by an excefs of cold or heat. In the fummer it retires to fhady places, or into the water in which it takes the greateft delight ; and in winter retreats to the warmer coverts, or the recefles and fhelter of the BUB forefts. This inftinétive quality of the animal feems to imply that the buffalo originated rather in temperate cli- mates than in fuch as are either very hot or cold. Befides the maladies that are common to the ox and other cattle, the buffalo is fubjeét to one of a particular fort, with which it is attacked only in the early part of its life, This is called by the French éarbone, an expreifion that implies it to be moft common in the male. The fymptoms of this diforder are eafily dete€ted by a confiderable {welling that takes place in the throat and under-parts of the muzzle, and fometimes by the whole body becoming inflated. The poor animal thus afflicted refufes all kinds of nourifhment ; his eyes trickle; his tongue appears covered with a thick white {cum ; and when he attempts to walk, he moves with difficulty at a flow pace, with a lame or limping motior. They breed in the fourth year, producing young for twa years together, and remaining fterile the third. The buffalo has feldom more than one young at a birth, or two at the utmolt; and they commonly ceafe breeding after their twelfth year. Their term of life is pretty much the fame as that of the common ox. The fmall naked Indian buffalo of Pennant, and its ana- logous variety, the dwarf buffalo, appear to us to belong ra- ther to the fpecies Bos Caffér, than to the above; and will be therefore confidered feparately under that article. Sce Carrer. BUBASTIS, or Busastus, in Ancient Geography, a famous town of Lower Egypt, feated on the moft caitern branch of the Nile, which, from the name of this city, was called by the ancients the “‘Bubattic” river, or canal. The prophet Ezekiel calls this place ‘¢ Phi-Befeth.””? M. d’An- ville fuppofes, that the Bubaftic canal of Ptolemy was not. that which proceeded from Bubattis to the fea, this being the Pelufiac canal ; but that which paffed from this city to- wards the fouth, and, joining with the Trajan canal, dif- charged itfelf into a lake called “ Lacus Amari.’ In this place was a magnificent temple dedicated to Diana, who, in the Egyptian language, was denominated ‘ Bubattis ;?? and hence has been derived the name of the city. Busastis, in Mythology,-a name or attribute afcribed by the Egyptians to Ifis, or the moon, which, being perfoni- fied, was regarded as a diftin& deity, and gave name to the city above-mentioned, whither the people reforted from all parts of Eyypt, at a certain period of the year. The fymbol of this deity was a cat, which was fed by the priefts with fa- cred food, and, when it died, embalmed and carried in pomp to the tomb prepared for it. To this fabulous circumitance, the veneration manifefted by the Egyptians for the cat has been afcribed. In the language of the pricfts, Bubattis was reprefented as the daughter of Ifis ; and hence the Greeks, who honoured the moon by the name of Diana, beftowed it alfo on this Egyptian divinity. Accordingly Herodotus (lib. ii.) fays, that Bubaftis was called Diana by the Greeks 3 and to her the Egyptians attributed the office of affifting pregnant women. ‘The Greeks and Latins afcribed the fame power to Diana. See Horace, lib. iii. od. 22. According to the Greeks, Diana was the daughter of Jupiter and La- tona ; and Bubattis {prung, according to the Egyptian my- thology, from Ofiris and Ifis. Bubaitis was called by the Greeks alfo Ilithyia, or Lucina, from her preliding over child-birth ; and the Egyptians adored her under this name in the city of Tlithyia, fituated near Latopolis. Plutarch, in his treatife of Ifs and Ofiris, fays, that at the feftivals celebrated in honour of Bubaftis, they burnt men alive, call- ing them 'Typhons, and throwing their afhes to the winds, Amafis, fays Porphyry, in his difcourfe of abftinence, who cites the fame fa&t, abolifhed thefe fanguinary facrifices, and eftabliihed BU B eftablifhed figures of wax of the natural fize for the human viétims. Herodotus, on the other hand, contends (lib. ii.), that the Egyptians were never guilty of this crime. ‘ Howcana people,” fays he, “* who can fearcely prevail upon themfelves to facrifice a few animals, fhed human blood upon the altars of their gods?” In order to reconcile thefe contradiftory teltimonies, Savary conjectures, that the paftoral Arabs, who fubjugated Egypt, long before the arrival of the Ifraclites, brought with them that barbarous cuftom, which had been eftablithed among them from remote antiquity ; and as an evidence of the probability of this opinion, ic is fuggetted, that the Egyptians abftained from thedding human blood, as foon as the Pharach Amafis had taken Heliopolis from thefe ferocious conquerors, and had driven them to the frontiers of Arabia. Ic has been queftioned, how Bubattis could be called the daughter of Ifis, as fhe was alfo the fymbo! of the moon. The Egyptian theology, fays Savary, explains this apparent contradiction. Ifis was the general appcllation of the moon, Bubaftis a particular attribute. The fun, in conjunétion with the far of the night, formed the celeftial marriage of Ojiris and Ifis; the crefcent, which appears three days after, was allegorically ftyled their daughter. In this fenfe, the Hebrews called the fame phenomenon “ the birth of the moon ;” and to the fame purpofe Horace fays, (od. 23. lib. iit.) : “ Ceelo fupinas fi tuleris manus, Nafcente luna, ruitica Phidyle,” &c. Hence we may deduce the reafon why, in the city of Ili- thyia, where Bubattis was adored, the third day of the lu- nar month was confecrated by a particular werfhip. On this day the moou aflumes the form of a crefcent ; and therefore the Egyptians celebrated a folemnity in honour of Bubattis, which in their tongue fignified ‘© New Moon.” The crefcent with which her head was crowned, obvioufly exprefles the intention of the priefts in creating this fymbo- lical divinity. Savary’s Letters on Egypt, vol. ii. BUBASTUS (Cramer), in 2ntomology, a variety of Spuinx didyma, Fabr. See Dipyma. BUBBLES, Butt, in Phyjfics, little round drops or veficles of any fluid filled with air, and formed, cither on its furface, upon the addition of more of the fluid, as in raining ; or in its fubftance, upon a vigorous inteltine com- motion of its parts. Bubbles are dilatable or compreffible, i. e. they take up more or lefs room, as the included air is more or lefs heated, or more or Icfs prefled, from without ; and are round, be- caule the included aura a¢ts equably from within all round. Their coat, or cover, is formed of the minute particles of the fluid, retained cither by the velocity of the air, or by the brifk attraction between thofe minute parts and the air. See Corovur. Thefe little bubbles, rifing up from fluids, or hanging on their furface, form the white {cum at top; and thefe fame bubbles form the tteam, or vapour, flying up from liquors in boiling, &c. the manner of which fee under Boitinc, Varour, ke. suenLe, in Commerce, is a cant name given to a fort of projects, for the railing of money on imaginary grounds 5 very frequent in the years 1718, 1719, 1720. The pretended defigu of thefe undertakings was, to raife a ftock, for the retrieving, fetting on foot, or carrying on fume promifing add ufeful branch of trade, manufaéture, machinery, or the like. In order to which, propofals were given out, fhewing the advantages of the defign, and invit- ing perfons into it. The fum neceflary to carry on the af- fair, together with the profits expected from at, were dis BU 5 vided into a certain number of fhares, or fubferiptions, to be purchafed by perfons difpofed to adventure therein—The real defign, in fome, was to raife a fum for the private ad- vantage of the projectors, to be laid out by them in the South-fea ftock, &c. in hopes, by the rife thereof, to be able to refund the fubferibers’ money, with profit to themfelves. In others, the defign was abfolutely to defraud the adven- turers of their fubfcription money, without any view to re- ftitution. ‘There was a third kind fomewhat different: the projectors of thefe, to proceed the more fecurely, propofed to have books opened, and fub{criptions taken at fome time to come ; and in the mean time took money by way of premium, to entitle perfons to be admitted fubferibers, as foon as the affair fl.ould be ripe for dividing into fhares, Several thoufand fhares were thus very frequently befpoke in one day ; and premiums, from one fhilling to fome pounds, paid thereupon to the profits of the projectors. The number of bubbles, and their qualities, are very ex- traordinary ; fome of them, too, authorized by patents ; and, in others, the projectors and their proprietors formed into corporations; fome for fifheries, fome for infurances, fome for the digging of mines, &c. A flatute was enaéted (6 Geo. I. c. 18), which fubjeéted all unwarrantable under- takings, by uolawful fubfcriptions, to the penalties of a ‘* premunire ;”” and a proclamation was iffued in 1720, for {upprefling thefe bubbles; but they were not fufficient for rellraining’ and abolifhing them. At length, in the fame year, writs of “ {cire facias”’ were iffued againft feveral com- panies by name, and in general again{k all other projects promulgated contrary to law ; and the crown-lawyers were {trictly enjoined to profecute all fuch as had opened books of fubferiptions, and all who fubfcribed to them, or who made or accepted any transfer in them. The publication of the * fcire facias,””? by authority, in the Gazette, ftruck fo general a panic amongtt the couduGtors of all thefe bubbles, that the fuddennefs of their fall was no lefs aftonifhing than their extent and magnitude. BUBBLING Warers. Sce Warer. BUBBOLA, in Ornithology, a fynonymous name of the hoopoe, upupa epops, which fee. BUBEREZNOUSKOL, in Geography, a town of Ruf- fian Tartary, on the river Zulux, 32 miles north of Arka- dinfkaia. BUBIL, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Turpus, of a brown colour, with a black longitudinal band behind the eye. Gmel. ‘This inhabits China, and is the only fong-bird that is naturally an inhabitant of the Chinefe dominions. It is the fame fpecies as the doudil already deferibed. Sce Bov- BIL. BUBLITZ, in Geography, a town of Hinder Pomerania, in the principality of Cammin, 4 miles 5. 1. from Coflin. ‘This {mall town, belonging to a bailiwick of the fame name, lies on the Gozel, not far from the borders of Poland. Try 1605, and again in 3682, it was wholly confumed by fire. BUBO, in Anatomy, is fometimes ufed to denote that part otherwife called inguen, or groin. Buwo, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Srexix, or owl of the eared tribe, known in this country by the name of the great eared, or horned owl. ‘his bird is the largett {pecies of its tribe, being in point of fize almoft equal to the eagle. Wil- lughby for this reafon calis it the eagle-owl. ‘The body of this creature is of a tawny colour, very beautifully variegated with lines, ftreaks, and {peckles of black, brown, cinergous, and ferruginons. The wings are long ; the tail fhort, and marked with dufky bars; legs thick, covered down to the extremity of the toce with a thick and clofe down of a teltas 3 Ka ccaus BUB ceous colour, The .claws are large, much incurvated, and of a dufky colovr. This bird is of a folitary difpofition, refiding almoft con- ftantly im the depths of extentfive forefts, in ruined edifices {landing in lonely fituations, or among rocks that are diff- cult of accefs. It therefore abounds moft in woody and mountainous countries. There are few inftances of its hav- ing been obferved in Britain. Once or twice it has been fhot in Scotland, and another time in Yorkfhire. In France itis rather more frequent, but is {till lefs fo there than in Ger- many, Sweden, and Lapland. Befides the European vanety, which is found generally diffufed over the continent, there are three other very diftin varieties of the frix bubo. The firt is the Athenian ewl, bubo Athenienfis of Linnzus, which Latham and other ornithologifts agree in admitting to be nothing more than a variety of bubo. his is /e grand duc d’ Itahe of Briffon, and great horned owl from Athens figured by Ed- wards. Albin names it the black-qwinged horn-owl, in al- lufion to the blackifh colour of the wings; the whole plu- mage being of a darker colour than in duo, but the wings efpecially. This bird is further diftinguifhed by the legs which are fhorter and weaker, but the claws are large and fharp ; the face is of a whitifh grey colour. Another varicty, le grand duc dechauffé of Briffon, differs only from the Athe- nian variety in having the legs bare of feathers, and both the legs and feet weaker. ‘The exiftence of the laft mentioned variety refts principally upon Marcgrave, who defcribes it under the Brafilian name of jacuruta. He informs us it is the fize of a goofe, with a head like that of a cat; the eyes fhining like cry{tal, with a yellow circle. Near the aperture of the ears it has feveral pointed feathers, two fingers long, which being moveable can be erected at pleafure. The tail is broad, the wings not reaching to the end of it. Legs covered to the fect. Colour of the bird variegated with yellow, blackifh, and white. This is the variety 3. dudo magellanicus of Gmelin. It thould be further added, that the Virginian owl is con- fidered by Buffon to be a mere variety of the fpecies budo ; the two birds differing only in the pofition of the ear-like tufts of feathers on the head. We mutt allow, that it ad- mits a doubt whether the Virginian owl be in reality a di- ftin& fpecies from dubo, or not. Buso, in Surgery, is a term derived from the Greek 8e6u», inguen, which among the ancients had various fignifi- cations; viz. the inguinal region or groin; an inflammation and {welling of the abforbent glands in the groin ; an in- flamed or aitctie gland at the bend of the elbow, or under the armpit ; a phlegmonous tumour behind the ear, in the neck, or in fome other external part of the body, ac- companied with febrile fymptoms, &c. Vide Definit. Me- dicar. Gorrhei, et Gaconom. Hippocr. Fe/fii, Art. BG2y. As the remote caufes and confequences of buboes are va- rious, fo there have been numerous pathological diftinctions introduced ; many of which, however, are of but little im- portance to the practical furgeon : for example, benign bubo, malignant bubo, pefiilential bubo, /ympathettc bubo, venereal bubo, /erofulous bubo, variolous bubo, /cirrhous bubo, ery- Sfrpelatous bubo, edematous bubo, phlegmonous bubo, idiopathic bubo, confecutive bubo, &c. &c. The principal indications of cure are not fo much governed by the fuppofed character and name of the lpcal diforder, as by the nature and tendency of its remote caufe: which being deteGed and removed, will very feldom leave any doubt as to the choice we fhould make of topical remedies. ‘To defcribe all the poffible caufes, fymptoms, concomitants, and fecondary effects of buboes, m whatever part of the body they may arife, with their va- rious modes of treatment, would be to write a large volume. BUB Our prefent bufinefs will be, to give only a fhort account of the principal diagnoltic figns of buboes, and their chirurgi- cal management in ordinary cafes. Buboes are diftinguifhed from other tumours by one or more of the following circumilances: 1. By their ufual ftuation. They are only to be found in the courfe of the lymphatic veffels; 1, e. chiefly along the inner fides of the leg and thigh, afcending to the groin; alfo upon the under furface of the arms, going towards the ax- illz ; or, upon either fide of the neck, and underneath the lower jaw. 2. By their form and frudure. 'Thefe glands are ufually roundifi or oblong: at the beginning of the inflaramation, and for fome time after, they are hard, or but flightly-com- preflible; they are moveable among the cellular membrane, by which they are furrounded ; they have very little fenfibility on being touched, until the inflammation advances contiderably 5. they are not, at firft, attended with rednefs, or difcoloura- tion of the fuperincumbent fkin; and when they are fairly fuppurated, the matter (being confined within a diftiné cap- fule) does not recede upon preflure, like the pus ina lumbar abfcefs, &c. 3. By their progrefs and termination. They are-commonly flow in taking on the inflammatory ftate, and in advancing to complete maturation. The fymptoms will frequently re- main a long time, even when their exciting caufe has been apparently removed ; and the difeafed abforbent glands will be apt to inflame repeatedly, with longer or thorter inter- miffions, after their natural ftru@ture has been once de- ranged. 4. By the manner of their firfl appearance. Buboes often appear in clufters, accompanied with induration and enlarge= ment of the neighbouring lymphatic veffels, which refemble tenfe chords under the fin; they never arife fuddenly, like ruptures and falfe aneurifms, affuming a large bulk in a very fhort period ; they may generally be afcribed to the prefence of an acrid matter, or other caufe of local irritation, affeG@- ing the adjacent orifices of the abforbent veffels; though, occafionally, buboes will originate from morbid action ex- cited in the glands themfelves by cold, &c. or by fome vitiated and poifonous fluid, which, after circulating through the fyf- tem of blood-veffels, is depofited in the glandular fubftance. We have known a {mall crural hernia in a ftrangulated and irreducible ftate, miftaken by a celebrated practitioner for an enlarged and indurated lymphatic gland. An incipient true aneurifm has been alfo treated asa {uppurating bubo, and even been advifed to be opened with a lancet, to the great hazard of the patient’s life. Another miftake, not much lefs ferious than thefe, we have likewife witnefled; viz. that of the operation for an aneurifm being propofed at an hofpital, in a cafe where the patient had had deep glandular abfcefles or buboes fituated over the femoral artery, which might there- fore communicate a feeling of pulfation to the examiners. This patient, having been terrified at the propofed opera- tion, left the hofpital abruptly, and languished for fome months under repeated evacuations of pus, &c. from the dif- eafed glands. His diforder was not clearly underftood, un- til after the man’s deceafe, when it was minutely infpeéted, and proved to be as ftated above. Such cafes fhew the great difficulty, as well as the importance, of forming a jutt dia- gnofis of glandular affeCtions under particular circum- itances. We fhall now fuggeft a few hints for the general manage- ment of buboes. Treatment of a fimple Bubo. All kinds of buboes may be included under two heads ; the fimple and the complicated. In the former, we are to BUB to ot te there is no malignity arifing from the prefence and aétion of any poifonous matter or acrimonious fluid in the babo; for when that is the cafe, regard mutt be paid to the exifting caufe, and peculiar means fhould be adopted, with a view to remove the latent virus from the fytlem. A fimple bubo generally terminates, either by refolution or fuppuration. ‘There are circumftances, under which no art can prevent a fuppuration ; but, whenever it can be pre- vented, we fhould endeavour to refolve the tumour, by what are called difcutient or antiphlogiftic means. The moft powerful remedies of this clafs are, local bleeding by leeches, cold faturnine applications, perfect reft of the member af- fe&ted, faline purgatives, and moderate or fpare diet. But, if the inflammation be not confiderable; if the tumefied gland remain indurated ; and there be no obvious fource of topical irritation, which we hope to get rid of by the gland maturating ; we may then, with a defign of refolving the induration, employ lightly ftimulating means: fuch as, dry cupping, eleétrical fparks, volatile liniment, camphorated oil, mercurial friGions, warm farinaceous poultices, and fo- meatations, &c. At the fame time we fhould direét the pa- tient to ufe rather a generous diet, with warm clothing, and moderate exercife. Supp>fe, however, that the difeafed gland goes on to a ftate AF se giierstcn, which often will happen in fpite of all the efforts we can employ to obviate it; a queltion arifes, when the pus has furmed, whether or no the abfcefs fhould be opened? Some furgeons advife us, in all cafes, to leave buboes to themfelves, to let them burft, and never interfere with the natural procefs. This condu@, or rather negli- gence, we do not wholly approve ; for it often occurs, that the pus infinuates itfelf widely before it finds vent ; and it then, perhaps, only oozes by little and little, while the fkin remains loofe, flaccid, and unhealthy. On the other hand, if a fimple incifion be made with a lancet through the fkin, the fore will not always heal readily, and the furgeon incurs blame for not perfefting what he began. The common rule to be adopted, and which we have ob- ferved to be followed with the beft effe&ts, is to let the tu- mour break of itfelf, if it be fituated in the face or neck, where we always wifh to avoid a fear; but in other cafes to open the abfcefs with a cauftic, in preference to the knife, fo as to deftroy a {mall circular portion of fkin. Tf the gland underneath be very much indurated, and the fuppura- tion does not foon come on kindly, nor the healing procefs advance, we apply red-nitrated mercury, either by itfelf, or mixed in fome ointment, every day, until the fore afflumes a more healthy afpeé ; flill continuing the cataplafms, fo long as the morbid hardnefs remain. See Caustic and Asscess. Should the edges become callous and indolent, not being difpofed to cicatrize, they may be now and then touched with the cauftic, or with an efcharotic lotion. At- tention mult be paid likewife to the patient’s ordinary ftate of health, and fuch a plan of condu& purfued, as may be indicated by the exifting circumftances. Treatment of the complicated Bubo. A bubo may be dependent on another difeafe ; and is then to be confidered not as a local or primary affection, but as fymptomatic of the original malady. Buboes are ex- tremely common, as a fymptom of the venereal difeafe, plague, fcrofula, meafles, &c. n the lues venerea, indeed, it but feldom (in comparifon with other fymptoms) occurs as a fequel of the general con- tamination, bot moitly precedes it. The fyphilitic infection very frequently produces buboes in the firit inflance, before the whole fyftem has been vitiated ; though, in fome few cafes, this order is reverfed. And, whenever we believe the BUB veuereal bubo to be a primary or local diforder, unattended with abforption of the virus, our treatment fhould be much more lenient and topical than in other cafes, where we fuf- pe& the contrary. See Lues Venere, and Syprizis. We are perfectly convinced, that great mifchicf has been done by the indifcriminate and free ufe of mercury in venereal buboes, efpecially if they have exifted only a fhort time. Innumerable facts prove that other means, befides a courfe of mercury internally, will cure venereal buboes ; and in par- ticular we may appeal to the effects produced by nitric acid, as recently detailed by Dr. Rollo, Mr. Pearfon, Mr. Platt, Dr. Beddoes, and Mr. Blair. With reference to this fubje&, and to fhew that a falivation has not been univerfally regarded as neceffary for the cure of fyphilitic buboes, we fhall quote the words of the medical gentlemen of St. Thomas’s hofpital, who thus exprefs their opinion in a little work printed for the ufe of their pupils, A. D. 1775.—* If the patient has a fuppurating bubo, you fhould not only wait until it be fuppurated and opened, but until it be fo near healing, that you may be fure it wili be cicatrized before the falivation be over. From a negle& of this caution, you will fometimes have tedious, painful, and phiagedenic fores remaining. Mercury will oftener exafperate than difpofe them to heal.”” See General Rules in railing a Salivation, &c. p. 4. Whatever be the nature of the difeafe which occafions buboes to arife, we fhould principally dire&t our attention to that difeafe, and not to the treatment of the local fymp- toms. Confequently the remarks we have to offer on the management of peitilential buboes, fcrofulous buboes, &c. &e. mult be referved for other articles in the Cyclopedia. See Pracue, Fever, Scrorura, and MEastes. BUBON, in Botany, (BovSaxov Hippoc. and Diofcor. from 2avSay, the groin, or a tumour to which that part is liable, and which it was fuppofed to cure). Linn. gen. 359 Reich. 380. Schreb. 482. Wiliden. 546. Gert. 12. Tab. 23. fig. 2. La'Marck, Pl. 194. Juff. 221. Ventenat vol. iii. p. 19. Clafs and order pentandria digynia. Nat. Ord. umbellate, Linn. umbellifere, Jul. Gen. Char. Cal. Umbel univerfal, of about ten rays, the middle ones fhorter; partial, of from fifteen to twenty rays. Involucre univerfal, of five leaves or more. Leaves lanceo- late-acuminate, fpreading, equal, much fhorter than the umbel, permanent ; partial with rather more leaves, of the fame fhape, as long as the partial umbel. Perianth proper, fearcely vilible. #/owers all fertile, forming an a umbel. Cor. petals five, janceolate, infleGied. Stam. fila- ments five, fimple, as long as the petals ; anthers fimple. P//. germ ovate, inferior; ftyles two, briftle-fhaped, permanent, fearcely the length of the coro], fpreading and refle&ted ; itigmas obtufe. Pericarp, none; fruit dividing into two, crowned. Seeds two, ovate, flat on one fide, convex on the other, ftriated. Eff. Char. Fruit ovate, ftriated. Species, 1. B. macedonicum, Macedonian parfley. Linn. Hort. Clif. 95. Blackwel, Tab. 382. Gert. fru. F. 102. Apium Macedonicum. Bauh. Pin. 154. ‘Tourn. 305. Ray. hilt. 463. N° 4. Petrofelinum Macedonicum, Lob. Ic. 708. Dod. Pempt. 697. Ger. 864. 2. f. 1. emac. 1016. f. 2. Park. g24.1. ‘ Leaflets rhomb-ovate, deeply toothed ; tecth acuminate ; umbels very numerous ; feeds rough with hairs.” Biennial in its native climate, but in England it feldom flowers till the third or fourth ycar, and then dies. Stem a foot and a half, or two feet high, cylindrical, with numerous pubefcent, whitifh branches. Leaves fmooth, pale green, refembling thofe of parfley, but with pubefeent petioles ; thofe from the root growing almoft horizontally, fpreading B DS {preading near the furface of the ground. Umbels terminat- ing, the ftem and branches fmall, whitifh; peduncles and leaves of the involucre pubefcent. Miller and La Marck. Seeds ovate-acuminate, of a bay-brown colour ; convex, ftri- ated their whole length with five elevated lines, and befet with hoary hairs, on one fide; flat or flightly concave on the other. Native of Greece and Barbary. Its feeds have a pleafant aromatic taile and fmell, and are efleemed diure- tic, emmenagogue, and carminative. They are an ingredi- ent in Theriaca. 2. B. Galbanum. Lovage-leaved Bubon, Linn. Hort. Clif. 96. Jacquin. hort. 3. 21. tab. 36. Berg. cap. 77. Woodville Med. Bot. v. 1. tab. 12. Oreofelinum, Afric. Tourn, 319. Anifum Africanum Pluk. Phyt. tab. 12. fig. 2. Morif. hift. 3. p. 297. Ferula Ray. Sup. 252. * Leaflets ovate-wedge-fhaped, acute, finely ferrated ; um- bels few; feeds fmooth; ftem fhrubby, glaucous.’? An evergreen fhrub from eight to ten feet high. Svem cylindni- cal, jointed, fmooth, covered with a glaucous exudation, which comes off when handled ; towards the bottom, woody and naked ; towards the top, fending off leaves and branches. Leaves aiternate, bipinnate, fmooth, of a pale green colour, inclining to glaucous. Umbels terminal from the flem, aed pendant branches ; leaflets of the general involucrum, about twelve, lanceolate, membranous, and bent downwards; of the partial one fix, fpreading. /ocwers fmall, greenifi yel- low. Sveds {mooth, marked with three clevated lines, without a membranous wing. Native of the Cape of Good Hope: cultivated by Gerard in 1596. It is from this plant, that the drug called galbanum is faid by Linnzus to be obtained. Linnzus afferts this on the authority of Plu- kenet, and has been followed by the London, Edinburgh, and other medical colleges. But Herman, who was an in- telligent phyfician, and praétifed many years in the Ea‘t In- dies, and at the Cape of Good Hope, is of opinion, that the infpiffated juice of feveral kindred plants 1s brought to Europe, and vended under the fame name. Galbanum is commonly imported from Turkey and the Eaft Indies, in, large, foftifh, du@ile, pale-coloured maffes, which by age acquire a brownifh-yellow appearance: thefe are intermixed with diftinét white grumes or tears, which are accounted the beft part of the mafs; but the feparate hard tears are extcrually of a ferruginous colour, and always preferred to the mafs itfelf. It has a itrong unpleafant f{mell, and a warm bitterifh acrid tafte. Like other gummy refins, it unites with water by trituration into a milky liguor, but does not perfe€tly diffolve in water, vinegar, or wine. Rec- tifed fpint takes up a greater quantity, but not the whole. A mixture of two parts of rectified fpirit, and one of water, diffolves all but the impurities. Medically confidered, it may be faid to hold a middle rank between afafztida and ammoniac: but it is much lefs fetid than the former, and is therefore accounted k{s antifpafmodic, nor is it fuppofed to have expectorant powers equal to thofe of the latter: it has the credit, however, of being more ufeful in hyiterical diforders, and of promotiag and corre&ting various fecre- tions and uterine evacuations. It has been applied exter- nally to expedite the fuppuration of inflammatory and indolent tumours, and as a warm flimulating plafter. It is an ingre- dient in the pilule e gummi, the emplaftrem lthargyri cum gummi, of the Londoa- pharm. and in the empl. ad clavos pedum of the Edin. Miller, La Marck, and Woodville. 3. B. levigatum. Hort. Kew. 1. p. 352. ** Leaflets lanceo- late, very obtufely and obfoletely crenate; feeds fmooth ; flem fhrubby.””? A native of the Cape; introduced’ into England by Mr. Maffon, 1774. 4. DB. gummijferum. Linn. Spec. Ferula Africana galbamifera folio myrrhidis Comm. hort, Zp. 115. t. 595. Leaflets gafhed, acuminate; the BU B lower ones broader; feeds fmooth; flem fhrubby,’’ nearly alliedto B. galbanum. A native of the Cape, cultivated by Miller in 1731. 5. B. rigidius. Linn. Hort. Clif, 95. (Fe- rula durior Bocce. muf. 2. p. 54. t. 76. Bar. rar. t. 77). «© Leaflets linear.”?’ A low perennial plant with the habit of a {mall ferula. Stem about a foot and a helf high, cylin- drical, ftriated, but little branched. Lower leaves large, tripinnate ; leaflets linear, ftiff, andfhort. Flowers yellow, in loofe umbels. A native of Sicily. Propagation and Culture —B. macedonicum is propagated by feeds, fown in light fandy earth, cither early in the autumn, or in April: if the feafon prove hot and dry, the ground fhould be fhaded in the middle of the day, and frequently watered. In the beginning of October, the plants fhould be tranfplanted into a warm dry border, and a few of them put into pots tobe fheltered under a frame, in cafe the win- ter be fevere. The feeds of galbanum and gummiferum fhould be fown in pots filled with light loamy earth, as foon as they arrive. If it be in autumn, they fhould be kept during the winter in a bed of tanners’ bark, where the heat is goné. In fpring, the plants will come up, and in Apmil, ~ fhould be carefully tranfplanted into frefh pots filled with the fame kind of earth. After having remained in the bark till they have taken root, they fhould be gradually enured to the open air, and may be placed in June with other ex- otic plants in a fheltered fituation. In winter, they mult be kept in a green-houfe, where they fhould have but little water. Milier’s Did. Buson, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, in Caballia, over againft Caria. This city, according to Pliny, (1. v. c. 27.) was fituated in the vicinity of Great Cibyra, and had, with this and two other cities, formed a league, offenfive and defenfive, called the “league of the four cities.” When the pretor Murena, in the year of Rome 670, dif- membered the {tate of Cibyra, the town of Bubon was an- nexed to Lycia. According to Steph. Byz, this town, and alfo that of * Balbufo,” derived their names from the pirates who founded them. BUBONIUM, in Botany, Tabern. See Inuva Sauicina. BUBONIUS, Lapis, in Natural Hiflory, a figured ltone, in fhape refembling an owl’s head, of a flinty fubltance, black within and cineritious without ; it was thus denominated by Dr. Plott, having not before been named by naturalilts. Plott’s Oxford, ch.v. §. 45. BUBONOCELE, in Surgery, is a tumour in the groin, formed by the protrufion of the inteftines, or omentum, through the openings defigned for the paflage of the {fperma- tic cord, in the male, and the round ligament in the female. It appears firft in the groin, at an aperture, fituated mid- way between the fymphyfis pubis and fuperior {pinous pro- cefs of the ilium, and which may be properly called the fuperior abdominal ring, and then pafling obliquely down- wards and inwards, it emerges at the inferior abdominal ring in the tendon of the external oblique muicle, and appears within the ferotum, Whilft placcd in the -groin, furgeons ufually call it the inguinal hernia, and when it has extended into the ferotum, itis termed fcrotal hernia. ‘The protruded parts are contained in a fac formed by the perito- neum; and whilft the tumour remains in the groin, it is placed under the tendon of the external ablique mufele ; but when it defcends into the ferotum, it is covered, both by a fafcia given off by the external oblique mufcle, and by the cremafler. he fpermatic cord ufually paffes behind the fac, through its whole courfe, but it has been found in fome inflances divided by it, and in others, pafling before the tu. mour. The epigattric artery is placed near the mo:rh of the fac, fomctimes. on the inner, but moft frecuently on its 8 ; outer BUB onter fide, This hernia may be diftinguifhed from other difeafes of the fcrotum, with which it is Hable to be con- founded, by the following marks : Pho 1. By its dilating under coughing. 2. By its difappear- ing in the recumbent, and re-appearing in the erect poitures. 3. By the gradual progrefs of the difeafe from the groin to the fcrotum. 4. From its feel, which is irregular, and doughy, where omentum is centained, but elaftic and regular, if it contains inteltine ; and where the inteftines return into the cavity of the abdomen, it recedes with a guggling noife. The inguinal hernia is more frequent on the right, than on the left fide, probably, becaufe our ftrongeit exertions are made on that fide; and the inguinal hernia in the male is more frequent than any other {pecies, on account of the magnitude of the abdominal rings. This hernia exilts in the three following ftates: 1. Reducible, where the parts can be returned into the cavity of the abdomen. 2. Irreducible, when they cannot be returned. 3. Strangulated, when they are inflamed and obftructed by the effects of preffure. In the reducible ilate, a iteel trufs mutt be applied, the pad of which fhould prefs upon the upper abdominal aper- ture; for the obje&t in wearing it is to clofe the communi- cation between the hernial fac, and the abdomen, by adhe- fion, which can only be effected by the preflure being applicd upon the mouth af the fac. Truffes are faulty in this re- {peét, being made to prefs upon the pubis, initead of mid- way between the pubis and fpinous procefs of the ilium. A double truf3 is required if there are two hernie ; the con- ftru&ion of which differs from the others, in having two pads initead of one. When irreducible, it grows to an enormous fize, the fcro- tum often becomes difeafed, and the perfon is always liable to accidents. It is therefore neceffary that fome means fhould be adopted to prevent its increafe. If it is an omen- tal hernia, a fteel trufs may be fafely worn, which will pre- vent any further prvtrufion; but if it is inteftinal, a bag trwfs fhould be applied, which ought to lace on its fore part, and thus, by preferving a conflant preffure upon the part, any increafe of the tumour is prevented, and even its fize will gradually diminifh. } The ftrangulated ftate is produced by the preflure, either of the abdominal rinz, of the mouth of the hernial fac, of the edges of the aperture furrounding the mouth of the fac, or by a cord formed by adhefion within the fac, which be- comes entwined around the intelfline. Whatever is the caufe, it becomes neceflary to liberate the part from preflure, or the perfon cannot long fur- vive. For this purpofs, it is proper to put the patient in a fupine pofition, with the body a little bent, and the thighs railed to a right angle with the fpine, fo as to relax the rings through which the hernia has pafled. The furgeon then embracing the lower part of the tumour with his right hand, and applying the fingers of the other oppofite the orifice of the fac, kneads the {welling into the cavity of the abdomen. If this plan, after a trial of a quarter of an hour, does not fuccecd, the patient fhould be bled copioufly, and put ina warm bath, andwhen faint from the operation of beth thefe caufes, another attempt to return the tumour is to be made. If this is unfuccefsful, a tobacco clyer compofed of half a draclim of tobacco, infufed in a pint of boiling water, is to be injefled, and after fome minutes fhould be repeated, if the frft has produced but little effc&t in exciting naufea and fainting. Another, and often fuccefsful mode of attempt- ing the reduGtion, is by the application of ice enclofed in a BUB bladder, and laid on the part; but if the abdomen is fore upon preffure, no time fhould be loft in any of thefe trials, but an operation to liberate the bowels fhould be immedi- ately performed, in the following manner: the petient is to be placed on a table three feet fix inches in height, the body to be horizontal, and the legs hanging from the knees over the table, and the furgeon, ftanding between them, makes an incifion from the upper part of the tumour through the fkin, and then fucceffively and cautioufly, through the fafcia and crematter mufcle, and this expofes the fibade of the hernial fac. This being pinched up between the fingers, is to be opened by a very {mall incifion, and a direCtor being introduced, the fac is to be cut to within an inch of the ab- dominal ring, in the oblique mufcle to its lower part. The intefline or omentum is thus expofed, and a fmall quantity of fluid generally cfeapes. The finger is then to be paffed into the fac towards the abdomen, and the feat of the {lric- ture examined. If the ftricture is at the abdominal ring, the probe-pointed biftory fhould be pafled between the fac and the ring, and the latter only cut in the direction of the tumour, and no danger whatever refults from doing this. And, if the ftriure arifes from the preflure of the parts forming the upper aperture, the knife is itil to be pafled in the fame direction as before, but further under the tendon of the external oblique, and the upper part of this aperture is to be cut in the fame direGlion as the former. But when the mouth of the fac itfelf girts the contents, it mult be di- vided as follows: The finger is to be thruit within the fac to the ftri€ure, and then the probe-pointed biflory carried along the middle of the finger is infinuated within the ftric- ture, which is to be cut upwards or forwards at the middle of the anterior part of the hernial fac. The epigaltrie ar- tery has been found on cither fide of the mouth of the fac, but it is never fituated on its anterior part, and this, there- fore, is the part which fhould always be cut, When a band is entwined around the inteftine, or omen- tum, it is ealily feen, and as readily divided. The fhri@ure being divided, and the intefline or omentum being found free from mortification, they are to be returned into the cavity of the abdomen by fmall portions, and by gentle preffure ; but if the quantity of omentum is large, a portion of it fhould be cut away, and ligatures applied upon the divided veffels. When the hernia is very large, and has been long irredu- cible, it is right to divide the ftriQure at the abdominal ring, (which is in a large hernia the ufual feat of the {tric- ture) without opening the hernial fac. he incifion for this purpofe is to be made through the fkin, over the neck of the tumour, fo as to expole the ring and the fafcia, which it fends off: an opening is to be made through the fafcia, and a direétor fates ieder the abdominal ring, which being di- vided, the contents of the tumour will balberaned from pref- fure. When an inguinal hernia is fo {mall as to extend no further than the upper part of the ferotum, the operation is to be begun mid-way between the pubis and thelium over the tu- mour, and the incifion carried as far asthe hernia extends. The tendon of the external oblique mufcle which is expofed by the divifion of the fkin, is next to be cut through, and the hernial fac being then feen, is to be opened in a very cautious manner. The ftriGture which is fitvated, either in the fac itfelf, or occafioned by the edges of the upper ring, is then to be cut in a direGtion parallel with the linea alba. The inguinal hernia in the female is not fo frequent an oc- currence asin the male, becaufe the abdominal rings are lefs, It paffes through the fame apertures as in the male, and when large, extends itfelf into the labium pudendi, It requires the BUB “the fume trufs in the reducible flate, as that worn by the miale, and when ftrarigulated, it demands the fame means for reduction. If the operation is required, it is to be per- formed in the following manner. An incifion is to be made from the upper part of the tumcur to the lower, and along its middle, and when the fin is thus divided, a fafcia is expofed which covers-the fac, which being next cut through, the fac becomes expofed, and is to be carefully opened, and the ftri€ture felt for. If it is fituated at the ring of the ob- lique mufcle, the probe-pointed biftory muft be paffed be- tween the fac and the ring, and the ring cut upward ; but if the ftriciure is at the mouth of the fac, the biftory is to be paffed within the fac, and the ftri€ture is to be divided at the anterior and middle part of the mouth of the hernial fac. BUBROMA, in Botany, (from favs an ox, and Bpwpa food,) Schreb. 1216. Willden. 1389. Martyn’s Miller. (Guazuma Juif. 276. Ventenat 3. 195. La Marck, Bofc.) Clafs and order polyadelphia dodecandria. Nat. Ord. co- lumnifere, Linn. Malvaceae Jufl. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth three-leaved ; leaves ovate, concave, acute, reflected, deciduous; two a little larger. Cor. Petals five, concave or hollowed, in the fhape of a pouch at their bafe, lengthened at their fummit into a long bifid awn, inferted into the neCtary at the bafe. Nedarya bell-fhaped pitcher, divided into five equal, lanceolate, fharp, minute, upright fegments, f{preading a little at the tip. Stam. Filaments five, filiform, upright, bent outwards at the tip, outwardly faflened to the neétary, and alternate with its fegments, trifid at the tip; anthers three on each filament, two at the tip on each fide, the third a little lower, each placed on one of the divifions of the filament ; the cells margined. Pi/!. germ fuperior, roundifh, hifpid ; ftyle fili- form, about the length of the ftamens; ftigma fimple, bearded, but not divided. Pericarp, capfule, (Drupe, La Marck) fubglobular, woody, muricated all round with club-fhaped tubercles, punched with a tenfold feries of fmall tranfverfe holes, five-celled, valvelefs, not opening ; _parti- tions woody-fibrous; cells covered on the infide with a thin membrane. Sveds numerous, angular, almoft reniform, at- tached in a double row in each cell to the common central receptacle. Obf. Jaffiea, Ventenat, La Marck and Bofe. call the five fegments of the netary, barren filaments, and defcribe its lower part as a tube formed by the union of all their ten fila- ments. Schreber fays, that the capfule is terminated by a five-rayed leafy ftar ; but there is no appearance of fuch an appendage in La Marck’s figure, nor is it mentioned by any other author. According to Swartz, the rind 1s perforated like a fieve, referring, doubtlefs, to Schreber’s ten-fold feries of little tranfverie holes, improperly tranflated by Mr. Martyn, dots, through which, we prefume, the ripe feeds efcape; and, if we rightly underfiand Schreber’s rather ob- {cure defcription, there is one for each feed. Ef. Char. Perianth three-leaved. Petals five, lengthened into a bifid awn. Anther: three on each filament. Stigma fim- ple. Cap/fule muricate, perforated with holes, five-celled, valvelefs. Species, B. Guazuma, elm-leaved Bubroma, or baftard cedar. (Theobroma Guazuma, Linn. hort. Cliff. 379. &c. Reichard, Swartz obf{. 291. Brown Jam. 306. 1.) La Marck, Pl. 637. A tree forty or fifty feet high. Trunk nearly the fize of a man’s body, covered with a dark-brown, furrowed bark. Branches extending nearly horizontally ; fmaller ones leafy, tomentofe. Leaves alternate, ovate, acu- minate, a little heart-fhaped, obtufely and unequally ferrated, glofly, bright green on their upper, and pale on their under BUC furface, with a ftrong midrib, and feveral tranfverfe veins ; petioles tomentofe, a little thicker than the leaf; ftipules linear-awl-fhaped, approximating tothe branches. Racemes corymbofe, axillary. Flowers {mall, pale yellow; awn purplifh. A native of the Eaft and Weft Indies. In the Wett Indies it is planted in rows to make a fhady walk. For this purpofe, it is pollarded at the rainy feafon, when nine or ten feet high ; within a month of which operation, it is covered with foliage, and forms a head more than fix feet in diameter.- As it is liable to fuffer by the wind, its upper tranches are lopped every five or fix years. Cattle are fed on its leaves and fruit in dry feafons, when other forage is fcarce. Its feeds are very mucilaginous, but agreeable to the palate. The wood is light and eafily cnvellehe ‘and is” employed in coach pannels. A decoétion of the inner bark is very glutinous, and very like that of the elm. It is faid to be excellent in the elephantiafis, a diforder to which the negroes are much fubje&. Propagation and Culture-—This tree was cultivated in England by Mr. Miller, in 1739. La Marck’s defcription was formed from a living plant which flowered in the ftove of the royal garden at Paris, about 1788. The feeds mutt be fown in a hot bed in the fpring, and when the plants are fit to be removed, fhould be put into feparate pots, and treated in the fame way as the coffee-tree. BUBRY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of Morbihan, and diftrict of Lorient, ro miles N.N.E. of Hennebond. BUC, Georcs, in Biography, an Englifh antiquarian, was the defcendant of an ancient family, and was born in Lincolnfhire towards the clofe of the 16th century. Inthe reign of James I. he was made one of the gentlemen of his Majetty’s privy chamber, and knighted. The work by which he was chiefly diftinguifhed was his “ Life and Reign of Richard IIT. in five books,”’ in which he takes great pains to vindicate that prince’s charater. But in this attempt he evinces more zeal than judgment, and his work is a pedantic, rhetorical panegyric, rather than a judicious and impartial hiitory. It is printed in bifhop Kennet’s col- le&tion of the Englith Hiftorians, London 1706 and 1719. He was alfo the author of “ The Third Univerlitie of Eng- land; or, a Treatife of the Foundations of all the Colleges, ancient Schools of Privilege, and of Houfes of Learning and Liberal Arts, within and about the moft famons Citie of London, &c.” written in 1712, with a view of fhewing that all the arts and fciences are taught in the metropolis, and annexed to the edition of Stow’s Chronicle by E. Howes, London, 1631. He compofed likewife a treatife of The Art of Revels.” Camden reprefents him as a perion of excellent learning, and acknowledges obligations tohim. Biog. Brit. BUCA, in Conchology, an old name for buccinum. Buca, in Ancient. Geography, a town of Italy, in the country of the Frentani, fituate on the fea-coatt. BUCANECEPHALUM, in Botany. Pluk. See Sar- RACENIA. : BUCAO, in Ornithology, a name given in the Philippine iflands to a fpecies of fcreech-owl, which is the fize of a peacock. It is very common in thofe iflands, but wholly unknown to us. It is a very beautiful bird, but makes a hideous noife in the night. BUCARDITES, er Bucarnpira, in Natural Hiflory,’a name given by many authors to a {tone in fome degree re- fembling the figure of an ox’s heart. It is ufually of the fub{tance of the coarfer ftones, and is no other thara quanti- ty of the matter of fuch flone received while moift into the cavity of a large cockle, and thence afluming the figure of 6 the BUC the infide of that fhell, the depreffion of the head of the cockle, where the cardo or hinge of this fhell is, makes a long and large dent in the formed mafs, which gives it a heart-like fhape. Plott mentions a éucardites, which he found at Stretford in Staffordfhire, which weighed twenty pounds, though broken half way, curioufly reticulated, with a white fpar-coloured lone. Nat. Hitt. Oxf. chap. v. § 145. BUCARDIUM, in Concholozy, with old authors, a name applied to the bull’s heart chama, Chama cor of Lin- nmzus; and, in a more general fenfe, as a generic title for all the cordiformes, or heart fhells in the chama, the venus, and the arca genera. Bucarde of the French, compreheuds the fubcordiform fhells of the genus Cardium. BUCARELLLI, in Geography, a large bay on the North- weit coaft of America, difcovered by Don Juan de Ayala, a Spanifh navigator, in 1775. It was named “ The entrance of Bucarelli,” by Don de la Bodega and Don Maurelle, in honour of friar Don Anthony Maria Bucarelli, of Urfua, viceroy of Mexico, and was vilited again in 1779, by two frigates under the command of Don Ignace Arteaga and Don de la Bodega, in 1779. The entrance of this bay is fituated, according to the determinations of La Peroufe in 1786, in about 136° 15’ W. long. from Paris, and accord- ing to the obfervations made by Capt. Cook in 1778, of the coafts nearthis entrance, very nearly 227° E. long. from Greenwich, or 1354° W. from Paris, andin N. lat. 55° 15’. The Spanifh commandant caufed a complete furvey to be made of this gulf, which runs upwards of eight leagues inland, contains feveral large iflands, and prefents in its circumference 11 fine harbours, where fhips may anchor with fafety. Maurelle fays, that he does not know a fingle port in all Europe that could be preferred to that of Santa Cruz, which was the name they gave to the port at which their frigates anchored, and which is fituated at the entrance of the gulf on its eaft coait. Maurclle met with but few habitations in his expedition; feeing only one village, fituate at the top of a f{tcep mountain, which could only be afcended bya flight of fteps, or rather wooden ladder, whence, if the foot flipped, one muft fall down the precipice. For an ac- count of the inhabitants, &c. See Cross Sound. BUCAROS. Sce Accarrazas. , BUCCA Freres, in Botany. Mich. See Ruprsa. BUCCALES gandule, in Anatomy, the mucous glands of the mouth, which are fituated beneath the membrane: which lines the cheek. See Mouth. BUCCANEERS, or Bucaneers, aterm frequent in the Welt Indies, properly ufed for a kind of favages, who prepare their meat on a grate, or hurdle, made of Brafil- wood, placed in the fmoke, at a good height from the fire, and called duccan. Whence, alfo, the little lodges, raifed for the preparation of their food, are called duccans; and the action of drefling it buccaning. Meat buccaned is faid to have an excellent tafte, the ver- mil colour of a rofe, and a charming {mell ; all which it re- tains many months. Ocxemelia, from whom we have this, adds, that the neighbouring people fend their fick hither ; that, by eating their buccaned meat, they may be re- covered. The origin of the word is referred to the people of the Caribbee iflands, who ufed to cut their prifoners of war in pieces, and lay them on hurdles with fire underneath, which they call duccaning, i.e. roafting and fmoaking together : hence our buccaneers took both their name, and their cuftom; with this difference, that what the former did to men, thefe did to animals caught in hunting. “ ee Savary tells us, called the buccaneers ia OL. Vv. BUC their territories matadores, that is, Ai//ers; and monteros, that is, Sunters: the Englith call theirs, cow-Lillers. ~ The buccaneers are of two diftin@ profeffions: the one ray hunt bulls for their fins; the other beafts for their efh. The art of buccaning, Oexemelia defcribes thus: the beat being flaid, and the bones ftripped out, the fieth is cut into pieces of the length of the arm, and falted; and the next day laid on the buccan; which confifts of twenty or thirty bars laid acrofs, half a foot from each other: under this they raife a thick fmoke, adding the fkin and bones of the beaft, to heighten it. This is found vaftly better than any fimple fewel: becaufe the volatile falts of thofe parts are by this means communi- cated to the flefh, and give it fuch a relifh, as that, after a little of this buccaning, the niceft palate will cat it without further preparation. Buccaneers are ufually confounded with freebooters, from whom, in ftri€tnefs, they ought to be diflinguifhed. The ancient inhabitants of Hifpaniola, and the other Caribbee iflands, after their conqueit by the Europeans, confifted of four ranks or orders of perfons, viz. uccaneers, or bull-hunt- ers, who fcoured the woods; frechooters, who {coured the feas as pirates ; 4u/bandmen, who tilled the lands ; and /laves. Of thele the two firft diltinguifhed themfelves moft by their military difpofition, and the ravages they made, efpecially among the Spaniards. The name is particularly given to the French inhabitants of the ifland of St. Domingo, whofe fole employment is to hunt bulls or wild boars; in order to fell the hides of the former, and the fiefh of the latter: . The French buccaneers acked their hides in bundles, which they called loads, and which confifted of thofe of full-grown bulls, of young bul- locks, and of cows. Each foad was formerly fold for about fix pieces of eight rials; the French coins not being current in the ifland of St. Domingo. The boar meat, previoufly feafoned, was alfo fold by the bundle or pack, weighing commonly 60 pounds, at the rate of fix pieces of eight per pack. It was packed up in palmetto leaves, the weight of which was deducted ; fo that each pack contained €olbs. of buccaned meat. Thete buccaneers had alfo a great trade in the lard of boars, which they melted and depofited in large pots, which they called “ potiches.”” This lard, which is called mantegua, is alfo fold for about eight pieces of eight per pot. Of this article there were a great confumption and trade in the French fettlements of the iflands of St. Domingo, and in thofe of Tortuga ; befide which they fent great quantitiés of them to the Antilles, and even into the continent of French America. “There was alfoa great deal of it fold for the fupport of the crews of the fhips that came from France for trading, or which the privateers of ‘lortuga fitted out for cruifing againft the Spaniards. The Spaniards alfo, who had their buccaneers, under the appellation of “ mata- dores,” or ‘* monteros,’”’ and who were employed in bull- hunting, prepared their hides after the manner of the French; and thefe hides found a ready market at the Havannah, a famous harbour in the ifland of Cuba. From hence they were brought by the flota and galleons, which touched at this port, in their return from Vera Cruz and Porto Bello, to Spain, and under the denomination of Havannah hides, were efteemed the befl of any that were brought from Ame rica to Spain. Sometimes the word buccancer fignifies alfo thofe famous adventurers of all the nations in, Europe, who joined toge- ther to make war againft the Spaniatds in America: and, 3.1L under BUCCANEERS. under that name, their hiftory has been publifhed in the year 1686, by Alexander Oliver Oexemelia. Thefe adventurers had taken poffeffion of the {malt ifland of Tortuga, as early as the year 1632, and found little dif- ficulty, after having excluded the Spaniards, and fortified themfelves in this ifland, in eftablifhing themfelves on the northern coaft of Hifpaniola. They at firft fubfifted chiefly by the hunting of wild cattle. Part of the beef they ate frefh, and part they dried; and the hides they fold to the matters of fuch veffels as came upon the coaft, and who furnifhed them, in return, with cloaths, liquors, fire-arms, powder, and fhot. Their drefs confifted of a fhirt dipped in the blood of the animals they had flan; a pair of dirty trowfers ; a leathern girdle, from which hung a fhort fabre, and fome Dutch knives; a hat without any rim, except a flap before, in order to enable them to pull it off; and fhoes made of raw hides; but they wore no ftockings. When the wild cattle became fearce, thefe buccaneers were under a neceflity of turning their induftry to other objets. The more fober minded among them applied to the cultivation of the ground, which abundantly requited their toil; while thofe of a bold and reftlefs difpofition affociated themfelves with pirates and outlaws of all nations, and formed the molt terrible band of ravagers that ever infelted the ocean. To thefe ravagers, however, rendered famous by their courage and their crimes, France and England are indebted, in fome meafure, for the profperity of their fettlements in the Weft Indies. Thefe piratical buccaneers, afluming the name of the «¢ Brothers of the coatt,”’ formed themfelves into {mall clans or focieties ; and made their excurfions in open boats, each of which generally contained between 20 and 30 men, ex- pofed to the intemperature of the climate, and encountering alternately the burning heat of the day, and the chilling damps of the night. ‘The natural inconveniences, conneéted with this mode of life, were augmented by others arifing from their licentious difpofition. A love of freedomand in- dependence, by which they were aétuated to a degree of frenzy, in common with other favages, rendered the bucca- neers. averfe from all reftraints which civilized men impofe upon themfelves for their common happinefs ; and as the au- thority, which they had conferred on their captain, was chiefly reftri€ted to giving orders in battle, they lived in the greateft diforder. Like favages, having no apprehenfion of want, and taking no care to guard againft famine by pru- dent economy, they were frequently expofed to all the ex- tremities of hunger and thirlt. But deriving, even from their diftreffes, a kind of courage that defied all danger, they were tranfported with an aftonifhing degree of enthufiafm whenever they faw a fail. On the mode of attack they feldom deliberated, but it was their cultom to board the fhips that fell in their way as foonas poflible. The f{mallnefs of their own veffels, and their dexterity in managing them, preferved them from the fre of the enemy. They prefented only to the broadfide of a fhip their flender prows, filled with expert markfmen, who fired at the port-holes of the enemy with fuch exa€inels, as to confound the moft ex- perienced gunners. And when they could fix their grappling tackle, the largeft trading veffels generally were obliged to ftrike. In cafes of extreme neceflity, they attacked the fhips of every nation ; but thofe belonging to Spain were affailed as vhe principal objects of their piracy. They thought, that the cruelt:cs, which the Spaniards had exercifed on the na- tives of the new world, furnifhed a fufficient apology for any violence that could be committed againit them ; nor did they ever embark on any expedition without publicly praying to. Heaven for fuccefs, nor return loaded with booty without folemnly returning thanks to God for their good fortune This booty was originally carried to the ifland of Tortuga, the common rendezvous of the buccaneers, and at firft their only place of fafety ; but afterwards the French went to fome of the ports of Hifpaniola,.where they had eftablifhed themfelves in defiance of the Spaniards, and the Englifh to thofe of Jamaica, where they could difpofe of their prizes to greater advantage, and lay out their money more to their own fatisfaGtion, either in bufinefs or in pleafure. Before the diftribution of the fpoil, cach adventurer, holding up his hand, protefted that he had fecreted no part of what he had taken ; and if any one was convicted of perjury, which fel- dom occurred, he was punifhed by being expelled the com- munity, and by being left, at the firft opportunity, on fome- defert ifland, as a wretch unworthy to live in fociety, even among the deftroyers of their fpecies. After having provided for the fick, the wounded, and the maimed, and after having fettled their refpe€tive fhares, and diftributed fuch as belonged to thofe who had no relations or friends, in charity to the poor, and to churches; they ~ indulged in all kinds of licentioulnefs. When they were afked, why they diffipated fo heedlefsly and rapidly the {poil which they colle4ed with fo much perfonal danger? they replied, ‘* Expofed as we are toa variety of perils, our lives are totally different from thofe of other men. Why fhould we, who are alive to-day, andrun the hazard of being dead to-morrow, think of hoarding ? Studious only of enjoying the prefent hour, we never think of that which is to come.’” The fhips that failed from Europe to America feldom tempt- ed the avidity of the firft buccaneers, as the merchandize they carried could not readily have been fold in the Weft Indies in thofe early times. But they eagerly watched the Spanifh veffels on their return to Europe, when they were known 6 be laden with treafure. They commonly followed the galleons and flota, tranfporting the produce of the mines. of Mexico and Peru as far as the channel of Bahama; and if any fhip was accidentally feparated from the fleet, they inftantly befet her, and fhe feldom efcaped. - And they even ventured to attack feveral fhips at once, which were com- monly furrendered, when they came to clofe quarters; for the Spaniards confidered them as demons, and trembled at their approach. The Spaniards, indeed, who found them- {elves a continual prey to thefe furious ravagers, were almoft reduced to defpair; they leffened the number of their fhips, and the colonies gave up their connections with one another. The buccaneers were thus emboldened ; and inftead of con- fining themfelves to thofe invafions of the Spanith fettle- ments, which ‘had for their object a fupply of provifions, they determined, more efpecially as their opportunities of making captures by fea were diminifhed, to procure by land that wealth which they could not obtain on the ocean. Ac- cordingly, they formed themfelves into large bodies, and plundered many of the richeft and ftrongeft towns in the New World. Maracaybo, Campeachy, Vera Cruz, Porto Bello, and’Carthagena, on this fide of the continent, and Quayaquil, Panama, and many other places on the coafts of the South Sea, feverely fuffered from their depredations. In a word, the buccaneers, the moft extraordinary affocia- tion of men that ever appeared on the face of the globe, but whofe duration was trantitory, fubjected to their arms, with- out a regular fyftem of government, without laws, without any permanent fubordination, and even without revenue, cities and caftles, which had baffled the utmoft efforts of na- tional force ; and if conquelt, not plunder, had’been their ob- ject, they might have made themfelves matters of all Spanith simerica. Among the buccaneers, who firlt acquired diftinGtion in this . BUCCANEERS. this mode of plundering, was Montbars, a gentleman of Languedoc, who conceived from his youth a violent anti- pathy to the Spaniards, on account of the enormities they ad committed in the conqueft of the New World, and who, determining on retaliation, embarked about the middle of the 17th century, on board a French fhip for the Weft In- dies, in order to join thefe enemies of Spain. An enthufi- afm which originated in humanity, at length became the fource of the moft unfeeling barbarity ; for a much did the Spaniards fuffer from the fury of this enthufiaft, that he ac- + ae the name of the “ Exterminator.” Michael de afeo and Francis Lolonois were alfo greatly renowed for their exploits both by fea and land. The moft important evterprize, in which thefe leaders, with eight veffels and 660 affociates, engaged, was that of the gulf of Venezuela. This gulf runs up into the land for about 50 leagues, and communicates, by 2 narrow ftrait, with the lake of Mara- caybo. They began (A.D. 1667,) with ftorming and taking the cattle, called “ La Barra,””? which defended this ftrait, and putting to death the garrifon, confifting of 250 men ; and they then advanced to the city of Maracaybo, built on the weftern coalt of the lake, at the diftance of about 10 leagues from its mouth. But on their arrival, the inhabitants had abandoned it and removed their moft valuable effeéts. Here they fpent a fortnight in debauchery and riot ; fo that when they proceeded to Gibraltar, a town at the extremity of the lake, to which the flying inhabitants had retired, they found it newly fortified, and after reducing it at the expence of much blood, they took poffeffion only of an empty town. Exafperated at this fecond difappoint- ment, they fet fire to Gibraltar; and Maracaybo would have fhared the fame fate, if it had not been ranfomed. But ioufly to this ranfom, they defpoiled it of its bells, images, and all the ornaments of the churches, intending, as they faid, to build a chapel in the ifland of Tortuga, and to confecrate that part of their [poil to facred ufes. But of all the buccaneers, French or Englifh, no one was fo uniformly fortunate and fuccefsful, or executed fo many daring enter- prizes, as Henry Morgan, a native of Wales. While de Bafco, Lolonois, and their companions, were fquandering, at Tortuga, the {poils they had acquired in the guif of Vene- zuela, he failed from Jamaica, to attack Porto-Bello : and he conduéted his meafures fo well, that foon after his landing, he furprifed the centinels, and made himfelf mafter of the town, (A. D. 1668,) before the Spaniards could put them- felves into a polture of defence. In order to reduce the ci- tadel, whither the inhabitants had conveyed their moft va- luable property, and the plate of the churches, he recurred to the following artful expedient: he compelled the priefts, nuns, and other women, whom he had made prifoners, to plant the fcaling ladders againft the walls of the fortrefs, from a perfazbon that the gallantry and fuperftition of the Spaniards would not fuffer them to fire on the objects of their fave and veneration. In this imagination, however, he was deceived. The Spanith governor ufed bis utmoft effoyts to deftroy every one that approached the works; fo that Morgan was reduced to the neceflity of carrying the place by ftorm. Having thus fucceeded, he took poffeffion of a valt quantity of rich merchandize, and alfo of ballion and {pecie amount- ing to one hundred thoufand pounds fterling. With this booty Morgan and his affociates returned to Jamaica ; and formed a new enterprize againft Maracaybo. Accordingly he collected 15 veflels and. y60 men; and with this arma- ment (A. D. 1669,) enttred the gulf of Venezucla un- obferved, filenced the fort that Akeni the paflage to the lake of Maracaybo, and found the town totally deferted; but le difcovered the chief citizens, and the greater part of their wealth in the neighbouring woods. He proceeded to Gibraltar, which was left defolate ; however, whilf he was attempting, by the moft horrid cruelties, to extort from the inhabitants, whom he had feized, a difcovery of their hidden treafures, he was informed of the arrival of three Spanifh men of war at the entrance of the lake. Having recon- noitred the enemy, he conlidered his condition as defperate. Neverthelefs, he concealed his apprehenfions, and fent a let- ter to the Spanifh admiral, boldly demanding a ranfom for the city of Maracaybo. The anfwer returned by the admi- ral was refolute ; infilting on his furrendering his booty and prifoners, with leave to return to his own country, or if he refufed. announcing his fixed purpofe of putting every man to the fword. Morgan and his affociates deliberated ; and they at length determined to rifk any confequence rather than refign their booty, which they had ‘gained with fo muck tae As the admiral adhered to his declared purpofe, organ informed him, that if he would not allow him to pafs, he would find means to effet his efeape without his permiffion. He accordingly divided the fpoil, fo that each might have his own portion of it to defend; and having filled a veffel, taken from the enemy, with combuitibles, he gallantly proceeded to the mouth of the lake; and having burnt two of the Spanifh fhips and captured one, he made a feint of difembarking men, in order to attack the fort by land, and thus diverted the attention of the garrifon, whillt he paffed the bar with his whole fleet, without receiv- ing any damage. Morgan, having difpofed of his booty at Port-Royal in Jamaica, put to fea again (A. D. 1670,) with a larger flect, and a more numerous body of adventurers ; and after reducing the ifland of St. Catharine, fleered for the river Chagre, by which he intended to advance to Pana- ma. At the entrance of the river ftood a {trong fortrefs 5 an arrow was {hot from the bow of an Indian, and lodged in the eye of one of his affociates ; but Morgan, pulling the arrow from the wound, wrapped one of its ends in tow, put it into his loaded mufket, and difcharged it into the fort ; and this arrow falling on the roof of one of the houfes, which, according to the cuftom of the country, were con- ftru&ted of .wood, and covered with ftraw, fet fire to it; and thus the Spaniards were thrown into the utmoft contter- nation. After the death of the governor, who bravely perifhed with his fword in his hand, at the head of a few refolute men, the place furrendered to the affailants. Mor- en proceeded up the river to Craces, and thence by !and to anama, and, after feveral rencounters, took quiet poffeffion of it, and deliberately pillaged it for fome days. Here he met with a fair captive, who inflamed his favage heart with love ; and finding all his folicitations ineffe€tual, he made-a forcible attempt on her perfon. “ Stop, roffian,” the ex- claimed wildly, and {pringing from his arms ; ** ftop ! thinkeft thou to ravifh from me my honour, as thou haft wrefted from me my fortune and my liberty ? No! be affured that my foul fhall fooner be feparated from this body :’’ and the drew a poniard from her bofom, which fhe would have plunged into his heart, if he had not avoided the blow. Enraged by this vir- tuous refitance, Morgan threw the female into a loathfome dungeon, and endeavoured to fubdue her by feverities. But his followers became clamorous on account of his detention of them to no important purpofe, and conftrained him to re- linquifh this amorous purfuit. Before their return, the booty was divided, and the fhare of Morgan himfelf amount- ed to 100 thoufand pounds fterling. This wealth he carried to Jamaica, and never more engaged in any pines enter- prize. Some have faid (fee Edwarde’s Hitt. of the Weft Indies, vol. i. p. 169,) that king Charles IL, though he iffued public orders for the fupprelicd of the holtilities of the 3L2 bucca- BUC buccaneers, exaGed and received a fhare of their booty ; and that this circumftance induced him to manifelt peculiar fa- vour to Morgan, to receive him gracioufly on his vilit to England, and to confer upon him the honour of knight- hood. Several other expeditions were formed by the ku:- caneers of the 17th century, again{t the Spanifh fettlements. Van Horn, a native of Oftend, who ferved almolt through life among the French, was very ative in his depredations. Affociating, on one occafion, with 1200 other perfons of the fame defcription, and manning a fleet of tix veflels, he failed to Vera Cruz, and, favoured by the darknefs of the night, reached the place and landed without difcovery. He and his companions made themfelves matters of it without refiftance ; and having confined all the citizens in the churches, whither they had fled for fhelter, they placed at the door of each church barrels of gun-powder, and a buc- caneer with a lighted match to fet fire to them, upon the leaft appearance of an infurrection. They then proceeded to pillage the city; and having carried off whatever they could find of value, they made a propolal to the prifoners, to ranfom their lives and liberty by a contribution of 437,500]. Half this money was paid them; but whilft they were expeéting the other moiety from the interior parts of the country, they were alarmed by the fight of an European fleet of 17 fhips, and reduced to the neceflity of making a retreat, which they accomplifhed, by boldly failing through the Spanifh fleet, carrying with them 1500 flaves. Other expeditions were concerted againft Peru ; and if the intrepi- dity of thefe numerous marauders had been directed by a fkilful and refpe&table commander, they would have dif- poffeffed the Spaniards of this important colony. But their charaéter prevented their union in a large and compact body, and their fteady profecution of the fame obje&t. However, they fucceflively attacked the moft confiderable places on the coaft of the South Sea, enriched themfelves by plunder, and committed a great number of enormities. Others of the buccaneers aflociated with Gramont, a native of Paris, who had diftinguifhed himfelf in a military capacity in Europe, and embarked with him, in 1685, to attack Campeachy. Having landed without oppofition, after fome refiftance on the part of the Spaniards, they made themfelves matters of the city; and after carrying off the treafures which they had collected in the town and its environs, and depofiting them in their fhips, they propofed to the governor of the province to ranfom his capital. Upon his refufal they determined to burn the place, and to demolifh the citadel. Accordingly they deftroyed to the value of a million of logwood, which was a very confiderable part of their fpoil, and after this act of folly and frenzy, they returned to St. Domingo. At a fubfequent period, viz. in 1697, 1200 buccaneers joined a f{quadron of feven fhips, that failed from Europe, under the command of Pointis, to attack the famous city of Cartha- gena. In this enterprize they fucceeded, took the city, and acquired booty to the amount of 1,750,Q00l. After they had fet fail, their rapacious. commander attempted to de- prive them of their fpoil; upon whieh they refolved to maf- facre him ; but being diverted from their purpofe by one of their number, who propofed returning to the city, where their fhare of the plunder had been left by Pointis, they im- mediately failed towards Carthagena. Having entered the city without refiftance, they confined all the men in the great church, and demanded payment of 218,750l. which they alleged to be their fhare of the booty, of which they aad been defrauded, accompanying their demand with threats of vengeance if it was refilted. A venerable prieft afcended the pulpit, and by his eloquent addrefs perfuaded his hearers to furrender all the gold, filver, and jewels in their poffeffion. i Boe * But the fum raifed falling fhort of that wahich was demadedy an order was iffued for plundering the city. The adven- turers, having amaffed as much treafnre as they could find, fet fail; but-unfortunately they met witha fleet of thips be- longiug to Holland and England, both which nations were then in alliance with Spain, fo that feveral of the pirates were taken crfunk, withall the cargo which they had on board their fhips ; and the reft efcaped to St. Domingo. This was the laft memorable event in the hiltory of the buccaneers. ‘The total feparation of the Englifh and French buccaneers, in confequence of the war between the two nations, which fol-. lowed the revolution in 1688, very much weakened the force of thefe powerful plunderers: and the king of Spain alfo being then in alliance with England, reprefled the pira- cies of his fubje&ts in the Welt Indies. However the French buccaneers continued their depredations, and with no {mall fuccefs, till the peace of Ry{wick, in 1€97 ; when all differences between France and Spain having been adjuft- ed, hoftilities were every where fufpended; and not only the aflociation, but the very name of this extraordinary clafs of men, became extin@. They were loft among the other European inhabitants of the Wett Indies. Before this period, however, the French. colony in Hif- paniola had arrived at a confiderable degree of profperity; and Jamaica, into which the {poils of Mexico and Peru were more abundantly poured, was already in a flourifhing condi- tion. The buccaneers found at Port Royal better recep- tion and greater fecurity than any where elfe. They could there land their booty with the utmoft facility, and {pend, in a variety of pleafures, the wealth produced by their pi- racy; and as prodigality and debauchery foon reduced them again to indigence, that grand incitement to their fanguinary induitry induced them eagerly to concert frefh depredations. ‘Thus the fettlement derived benefit from their perpetual viciflitudes of fortune, and was enriched by their rapacity as well as by their profufion; by the views which led to their want, and alfo by their abundance. The wealth, which flowed into Jamaica through this channel, gave great activity to every branch of culture; and after the piracies of the buccaneers were fuppreffed, it proved a new fource of riches, by enabling the inhabitants to open a clan- deftine trade to the Spanifh fettlements, whence it had its origin. BUCCARI, Buxari, Boxert, or Buxry, in Geography, a town of Morlachia, in that diltri€ of Hungarian Dalmatia called Zengh, or Segna, belonging to Auftria, and feated on a rocky eminence in the north-eaft part of the Adriatic. This town was declared by the emperor a free port for the commerce of the Eaft Indies in 1780. The harbour, or rather the gulf of Buccart, or Bukaria, is commodious and fafe; but a little expofed to the fouth-eaft wind, which fometines makes it dangerous. From this place great numbers of cattle are fhipped for Italy. N. lat. 45° 20’. E. long. 15° 13’. BUCCATA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Conors (Myopa, Fabr.). The prevailing colour of this infe& is ferruginous ; abdomen hooked, and grey ; face veficular and white ; wings clouded. Linn. Inbabits Europe. - BUCCATUS, a fpecies of Orstrus, of a grifeous co- lour, with the face white, and dotted with black. Inhabits South Carolina. BUCCELLARTI, formed from buccellus, a kind of loaf, or cake of a circular figure, an order of foldiery under the Greek emperors, appointed to guard and diftribute the am- munition-bread.. ‘The buccellarii were alfo called, in refpec of their country, Gallogreci, or Helenogalate, q.d. Greeks of Galatia; fometimes Jarpandini. Authors BUC Aothors are mneh divided as to the office and quality of the buccellarii: fome give the denomination to parafites in the courts of princes and great men, maintained at their table and expence. In reality, among the Vifigoths, buccellarius was a general name for all clients or vaflals, who lived at the expence of their lords. Spelman rather fuppofes them to anfwer to what among us are called ‘“ te- nants by military fervice.’-—Others reprefent the buccel- larii as ftationary foldiers in the provinces, who, when the emperor commanded, marched before and behind him as his body guard.— According to others, they were men whom tke emperors employed in putting perfons to death fecretly. ; BUCCELLATUM, formed from éduccea, or buccella, a morfel, or mouthful of meat, in Aacient Military Writers, denotes camp bread or biiket baked hard and dry, both for lightnefs and keeping. Soldiers always carried with them enough for a fortnight, and fometimes much longer, during the time that military difcipline was kept up. BUCCHOREST, or Bucxuarest, or BAKarest, in Geography, a fortified town of European Turkey, and capi- tal of Walachia, feated on the river Dembrovitz ; the ufual refidence of the waywode, and the fee of a Greek archbifhop.. The Lutherans hold their affemblies here, under the protec- tion of Sweden. The number of inhabitants is eltimated at 60,000. N. lat. 44° 50’. E. long. 26° 45’. BUCCINA, an ancient military metalline inftrument, crooked like a horn, ufed in war; efpecially for pro- claiming the watches of the night, and giving notice to the foldiery when they were to mount, and when. to quit the ard. The word comes from 4ucca, month, and-cano, I fing ; be- caufe played on by the mouth: others fuppofe it formed from Guxcm, or Cuxaym, which fignifies the fame ; formed from 2;, bullock, and cana, I fing ; becaufe anciently made ef bullocks horns: others from the Hebrew du, a trumpet. Varro will have it to have been originally formed by onoma- tepaia, from dou bou, alluding to the found it gives.. Others, with more probability, derive it from duccinum, the name of a thell-fith. The buccima is ufually confidered as a fpecies of tuba, or trumpet; from which, however, in Ev ge it appears to have differed, not only in refpect of figure, which in the tubavwas ftraight, and in the buccina recurved orcrooked; but in found, that of the buccina being fharper and audible to a greater diftance than the trumpet-found. The buceina approached neareft to the cornu, or horn: ori- ginally the two feem to have been the fame; though in after times a difference arofe ; the name buccinum being reftrained to the leffer forts, and the cornu to the larger.—Some alfo take the buccina to have been lefs crooked than the cornu, which made a full femicircle. Varro affures us, that the buccine were alfo called cornua, horns; becaufe originally made of the horns of cattle, as is itill done among fome pzople. Servius intimates, that they were at firft made of goats or rams-horns ; and accordingly, in Scripture, the like inftruaments ufed both in war, and in the temple, are called * rams-horns,’’ seren-jobal, and /o- phereth haijobelims or buccinz of rams. This initrumest was in ufe among the Jews, to proclaim their fealt-days, new moons, jubilecs, fabbatic.years, and the like. At Lacedemon, notice was given by the buc- cina when it was fupper-time; and the like was done at Rome, when the grandees had a buccina blown both before they fat down to table, and after. The found of the buccina was called Juccinus, or bucinus, and the mufician who played on it, buccinator. BUC _ Buceixs alfo denotes the {pace or extent to which the found of the buccina may be heard. Buccina curis, in Middle Age Writers, denotes the tympa- num or drum of the ear. BUCCINATOR, he that founds or winds the buccina. Among the Romans there was a public flave, denomi- nated buccinator nominum, whofe office. it was to attend the public crier. : ’ Buccinaror Mufeulus, in Anatomy, arifes from the alveolus, containing the lait grinder of the lower jaw, from the coronoid proces, and from the tubercle behind the focket of the laft grinder of the upper jaw; its fibres proceed over the membrane of the mouth, where it lines the cheek, and terminate extenfively in both the lips and in the angle of the moyth. It may draw the lips backwards towards its potte- rior attachments, and when the lips are made fixed parts by the action of the orbicularis oris, it will thruit any matter in- tervening between the cheek and the cavity of the mouth into that cavity, for the purpofes of matlication and deglu- tition. Buccinator, in Entomology, a {pecies of Hypracuna> of an obovate form; colour red, black behind ; tail cylindri- cal, yellow, and narrowed at the bafe. Degeer has this as acarus saudatus. It is found on banks. The body is black beneath, eyes reddifh, legs black. BUCCINUM, in Botany. Dodon. gal. See Dexput- nium Confolida. Buccinum, in Conchology, a genus of univalves, defcribed by Linnzusas having the fhell {piral and gibbous ; the aper- ture ovate, terminating in a fhort canal inclining to the right, with a retufe tail or beak; and the pillar lip expanded. Animal inhabiting the thell a limax. Linneus comprehends a vaft number of {pecies in his genus buccinum, which, for the fake of methodical uni- ormity and perfpicuity, he places under feyeral dilting: fe&tiona; a mode of arrangement in which he has been clofely followed by his editor, Gmelin, in the laft edition of the Syftema Naturz. We.thall follow the latter writer, as ufual, inthe: firft :aftance, and afterwards notice certain alterations that have been made in the arrangement of the buccinum genus by other naturalilts. Ampullaceay the fir family, is diftinguithed by having the fhell inflated, rotundate, thin, fubdiaphanous, and frajrile. This fe&tion includes the {pecies oleatiam, galea, perdix, pomum, dolium, caudatum, niveum, and clathratum. Caffidea caudata, in which the tail or beak is exferted, fhort, reflected ; lip unarmed externally. Many {pecies are included in this feétion; namely, echinophorum, plicatum, cornutum, rufum, tuberofim, flammeum, telticulus, decafla- tum, areola, tigrinum, undulatum, civatricofum, teflellacum, pennatum, maculofum, bilineatum, gibbum, ventricofum, ftrigofum, rugofum, penderofum, recurviroftrum, trifalcia- tum, fenegalicum, ochroleucum, ilriatum, cailis, frigatum, tyrrhenum, and abbreviatum. Caffidea unguiculata. Shells of this family have the pofterior part of the lip prickly on the outlide, but in other refpeéts refemble thofe of the lult feétion; the {pecies are erinaceus, glaucum, vibex, tcflulatum, nodulofum, fimbria, papillofum, and glans. Callofa. Thele thells have the pillar lip dilated and thickened. The f{pecies of this tribe are few; namely, arcularia, pullus, gibbofulum, mutabile, and neriteam. Detrita, inv which the pillar lip has the uppearance of being worn flat; harpa, coftatum, perficuin, monodon, patulum, hamaltoma, lapiilus, finavagdulus, tuba, pyram, {padiceum, umbilicatum, candidum, foala, craffum, marginatum, laby- nathus, BUC rinthus, ruflicum, varium, filofum, coronatum, fqualidum, craflum, and fornicatum, are the {pecies of this family. Levigata, {mooth, and not included in the preceding fec- tions. Spiratum, pyrozonias, leve, ocellatum, pyramidale, glaberrima, ftrigofum, trifafciatum, leucozonias, cancellatum, obtufum, glabratum, ftromboides, praerofum, aultrale, orbita, and turgitum. Angulata, angwated, and not included in the foregoing fe&tions. Undofum, affine, tranquebaricum, verlicolor, cruentatum, fulcatum, rumpfii, bezoar, gracile, undatum, ciliatum, viridulum, carinatum, folutum, tenia, lineatum, maclovienfe, foliorum, textum, {trigofum, anglicum, porcatum, levifimum, igneum, plumatum, lyratum, clathratum, reticu- latum, niveum, fcalare, indicum nodulofum, pifcatorium, S. mauritii, armillatum, plicatulum, valgatum, ftolatum, nanum, exile, chalys, verrucofum, alatum, nigro-punctatum, nitidum, levigatum, lamellofum, feutalatum, hauttorium, ventricofum, teftudineum, catarrhaéta, tahitenfe, and lamel- latum. Turrita, f{mooth and fubulate. The fpecies of this kind are maculatum, crenulatum, heflicum, vittatum, ftigilatum, duplicatum, lanceatum, dimidiatum, murinum, tigriaum, acus, fuccinétum, commaculatum, haftatum, aciculatum, phallus, flumineum, afperum, muricinum, tuberculatum, punétulatum, acicula, fafciolatum, niveum, mucronatum, digitellus, obliquum, chalybeum, fluviatile; radiatum, lividum, edentula, pugio, canaliculatum, variofum, cufpidatum, cine- reum, virginicum, proximatum, monile, cingulatum, and geminum. The definition of the genus buccinum, as laid down by Linnzus, is liable to objection in feveral refpeéts. It includes a number of fhells fo very diffimilar in general form, and am- biguous in their moft effential character, that we cannot eafily reconcile ourfelves to retain the whole within the limits of a finglegenus. But we are ftill perfuaded that all the {pecies which can conveniently be comprifed under either of the fub- divifions ought to be retained, and thofe only to be removed from the buccinum genus which can with more propriety be referred to the other analogous genera of univalves. Bru- guiére divides the Linnzan hells of this tribe into four diftin@ genera; to the firft of which he gives the name of Buccin, or buccinum, the others he calls vis, ca/ques, and pourpres. La Marck has innovated farther {till on the Lin- nzan order; or, rather, he has laboured to overthrow the fyftem of the illuftrious Swede altogether, and in its place to eftablifh the arrangement of his own. The fhells which Bruguiére retained under the title of buccin, La Marck divides again into four new genera ; namely, buccin, harpe, tonne, and eburne. The fhells of the buccinum kind are commotly furnifhed with an operculum ; the animal, as before obferved, a imax or fnail, fabje& to fome flight difference in its form in differ- ent fpecies. They are oviparous, and the males are faid to be {maller and higher in colour than the females. BUCCIORSERAI, in Geography, a town of Hindoftan, in the circar of Dooab; 18 miles S.E. of Etaya. BUCCO, in Anatomy, aname given by Riolanus, and fome others, to the mufcle more ufually called buccinata, and contrahens labiorum. Bucco, in Ornithology, a genus of birds inthe Pic order, diftinguifhed by having the bill fharp edged, compreffed on the fides, notched on each fide near the apex, bent inwards, with a long flit beneath the eyes. Nollrils covered with incumbent feathers: feet formed for climbing. Gmel. The fpecies of the bucco genus are tamatia, cayennenfis, eapenfis, elegans, macrorhynchos, melanoleucos, philippi- nenfis, niger, parvus, grandis, viridis, Lathami, fufcus, oO BUC coir ns zeylanicus, dubius, and cinereus; which ee. BUCCULA, in Anatomy, the flefhy part under the chin. Some extend the name farther to the whole lower part of the face, comprehending the under part of the lower lip, with the chin and the flefhy part under it. Buccura, in Antiquity, denotes the umbo of a fhield, or the part prominent in the middle thereof. - It is thus called, becaufe ufually made in the form of a mouth or face, either of a man or fome animal. The like figures were fometimes alfo found on other parts of armour, efpecially on the orice and thoraces. BUCENTL, in Geography, atown of European Turkey, in the province of Moldavia; 38 miles N. N. W. of Ga- latz. BUCENTAUR, the name of a large ftate-veffel, ufed by the Venetians, in the ceremony of efpoufing the fea, performed each Afcenfion-day with much pomp. The word comes from fsxstavpS-; compofed of Gz, a particle of augmentation, ufed to denote an enormous greatnefs, and xeraup@-, centaur. Juftiniani adds two other etymologies: the firft from is,-and taurus, or rather cen- taurus, the name of one of /®neas’s veflels in Virgil: the other from bucentaurus, for ducentaurus, a word forged to fig- nify a veffel capable of holding two hundred men. P. Jufliniani gives a very precife defcription of the bucen- taur, which is adorned with five pillars on both fides, and gilt from the prow to the ftern, alfo covered over head with a kind of tent, made of purple filk; and he adds, that its origin is carried up as high as the year of Chrift 1311, though others trace it higher, to the year 1177, when the emperor Frederic Barbarofla came to Venice, to make peace with the republic and the pope: at which time the pope, in confideration of the fervices the ftate had done him, in fheltering him in their city, when he had been driven out of his own, granted them feveral privileges ; and made a pre- fent to the doge of a gold ring, which is the origin of pea yearly caft by the doge, from the bucentaur, into the Ca. It is on Afcenfion-day, that the doge, being advanced in the bucentaur a little way into the gulph, throws a gold ring into the fea, and fays, ‘‘ We marry thee, O fea, in token of that true and perpetual dominion which the repub- lic has over thee.’’ In this veflel the doge receives the great lords, and per- fons of quality that vilit Venice, accompanied with the am- baffadors, and counfellors of ftate, and all the fenators feated on benches near him. The archduchefs Maria Jofepha, married to the prince of Saxony, on the day of her entry into Drefden, was received in a magnificent galley, finely rigged, and called a bucentaur, becaufe built after the model of that of Venice. A veffel of the fame name, as large and magnificent as that of the Venetians, was conftrucied by order of the elec- tor of Bavaria, and launched ina lake fix leagues in length. BUCEPHALA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Bomsyx, the anterior wings of which are cinereous, with two ferru- ginous ftreaks, and a large yellow terminal fpot at the tip. Gmel. &c.; called in Englifh the buft-tip moth. Feeds on the lime, oak, willow, &c. BucePuata, or Bucephalia, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on the welt fide of the river Hydafpes, built by Alexander on the fcite of his camp before his engagement with Porus, and fo called (as Arrian fays) in honour of his horfe Bucephalus, which was killed, as fome fay, in that action, or who died, according to Arman, of old age, being about 30 years old, and was buried on this fpot. Hefychius fays BUC fays, that this horfe derived its name from being branded on the buttock with the head of an axe. As he had been lon the companion of the toils and dangers of his matter, he thare extraordinary tokens of regard. When he was lott for atime in the country of the Uxii, Alexander iffued a proclamation, commanding his horfe to be reftored, and threatening to ravage the whole country with fire and fword. The com- mand was inftantly obeyed. “ So dear,” fays Arrian, “© was this horfe to Alexander, and fo terrible was Alexan- der to the Barbarians.” Arian. de Exped. Alex. lib. v. P- 219, 220. ed. Gronovii. Buceruata, aname given to a {mall town on one of the iflands of the Grecian ichipelii, now called ** La Ca- vale,’’? which Alexander caufed to be built there in honour of his horfe Bucephalus. Bucerxara, in Ornithology, the name of a fpecies of Anas that inhabits North America. In the Ar&ie Zoology it is called the buffel headed duck. This kind is of a whitilh colour, with the back and wings black: the head large or tumid, filky, and hining. . Buffon calls this /e petit canard a groffe téte. The bill is $hort, and either blue or brown: head black, gloffed with green, or purple: collar and upper part of the breaft white ; lower part, with the abdomen, clouded brownifh: area of the wing white: tail cinereous: legs fulvous. BUCEPHALON, in Botany. Plum. See Tropnis. BUCEPHALUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Crypro- cEPHALUs of acyaneous colour, having the mouth, margin of the thorax, and the legs red. Fadr. Called by Schaller, Chryfomela bucephala. BUCER, Maatix, in Biography, an eminent German reformer, was born in 1491 at Scheleitadt, in the province of Alface. At the age of feven years he entered into the order of the Dominicans; and having ftudied logic and philofophy at Heidelberg, he afterwards applied himfelf to divinity, and became a proficient in the Greek and Hebrew lanouages. At Heidelberg he held fome conferences with Luther in 1521, and having previoufly perufed fome of his writings, and alfo thofe of Erafmus, he was profelyted to the proteftant party. Of his converfion he gave evidence by marrying ; and his wife was a converted nun, by whom he bad 13 children. He fettled at Strafburg, and offi- ciated there both as minifter and theological profeffor for 20 years ; and to his labours the progrefs of the reformation in that city was much indebted. His talents and reputation caufed him to be employed in many conferences and nego- tiations; and in 1548 he was fent for to Augfburg to fign bi agreement between the papifts and proteftants, called the “ Interim ;” but his oppofition to that proje& involved him ina variety of troubles. At this time he was invited to England by archbifhop Cranmer, and appointed a pro- feffor of theology in the univerfity of Cambridge. King Edward VI. for whofe ufe he compofed a book, entitled “© Concerning the Kingdom of Chrift,” manifefted great regard for him; and when he complained of the cold of this climate, prefented him with 100 crowns towards purchafing a German flove. He died of a complication of diforders in 1551, and was interred at Cambridge with diftinguifhed funeral honours. In the bigotted reign of queen Mary, his body was dug up and burnt, and his tomb demolifhed ; but it was fet up again by order of quecn Elizabeth. His eru- dition was various and extenfive; of which he furnifhed ample evidence by his numerous writings, and by his learned le&tures. His ftyle, however, was obfcure, nor was it always ealy to comprehend his meaning. He was moderate in his temper, and particularly folicitous for preferving unity among the forciga churches, Om occafion of the diffe- BUC rences that took place between Luther and Zuirglius, and _ their refpetive followers, he inclined to the fentiments of the latter ; but by his endeavours to reconcile them, he in- curred reproach from the zealots of both parties. His zeal for maintaining peace and concord betrayed him into an ambiguity of language, and conciliatory artifices, which gave offence both to his friends and enemies. He feems to have been inclined to allow the merit of good works, nor was he adverfe to epifeopacy ; and on both thefe accounts he was regarded with fome degree of fufpicion by Calvin and his followers. He was much oppofed by the popifh party at Cambridge; and as he did not poffefs the talents of an acute and ready difputant, Peter Martyr advifed him to.avoid all public difputes. Gen. Dict. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hitt. vol. iv. é BUCERAS, in Botany. Brown. Jam. See Bucipa. Buceras, Haller. See TriconeLLa Penum Grecum. ° BUCEROS, in Ornithology, the name of a genus in the order Pic, called in Englith hornbill. Birds of this kid) have the bill convex, curved, fharp at the edge, of a large fize, and ferrated outwardly; a horny or fomewhat bony protuberance on the upper mandible, near the front of the head: noftrils behind the bafe of the bill. Tongue acute and fhort. - Feet grefforial. ‘ Of this genus there are twelve fpecies, namely bicornis, abyflinicus, africanus, malabaricus, hydrocorax, rhinoceros, galeatus, panayenfis, manillenfis, nafutus, albus, andobfcurus. Obf. The laft is named plicatus by Latham, who alfo adds four new fpecies to the buceros genus, ginginianus, orienta- lis, grifeus, and viridis. BUCHAN, Wittiam, in Biography, do&or in medi- cine, of a re{pe&table family in Roxburghhire, was born at Ancram in the year 1729. Having paffed through the ufual fchool education, he was fent to the univerfity at Edin- burgh. His inclination leading him to mathematics, he became fo confiderable a proficient in that branch of feience, as to be enabled to give private leffons to many of the pupils. Having made choice of medicine for his profef- fion, he attended the le¢tures of the feveral profeflors, necef- fary to qualify him for praétice ; and as he continued in the univerfity nine years, and was of a ftudious turn of mind,. his progrefs in knowledge may be fuppofed to have been equal to his application. He now removed to Sheffield in Yorkhhire, hie he commenced pra¢titioner, in conjunétion with another gentleman, who had invited him thither. Soon after he became a candidate, and fucceeded in gaining the appointment of phyfician to the Foundling Hofpital at Ackworth. From the opportunity he enjoyed here of feeing, and attending to the difeafes of children, he was pro- bably induced to give for his inaugural thefis, on his taking the degree of doétorin medicine, “ De infantum vita confer- vanda.” It was then much approved, and the fub{tance of it now forms a feétion in his ** Domeltic Medicine.” He is faid from the regulations introduced by him for the management of the children in the hofpital, to have confiderably reduced the proportionate number of deaths of the children fup- ported by that inflitution. ‘This, however, did not prevent government from withdrawing their fapport to the hofpital, which was in confequence given up, and the doétor, with lis wife and fon, removed to Edinburgh, and continued to prac- tife medicine there for feveral years, during which he em- ployed his leifure hours in compofing his ** Domeltic Medi- cine,” a work too well known to need being particularly de- fcribed. It is written on the plan of Tiflot’s * Avis aux Peuples,”’ to which it is certainly not inferior, It has been faid, that by familiarizing the method of treating difeafes, as it is attempted to be done by works of this kind, the medical: BUC medical profeffion would be degraded, and the profeffors of the art would lofe a portion of their refpeétability, and of their profits: but experience has fhewn that none of thefe events have followed; neither have we much reafon for believing that the public are better judges of the merit of their medical advifers fince the appearance of this popular work, which is one of the advantages we were taught to expeat from it. If it has been profitable to any confi- derable degree, it may feem rather to have operated as a prophyladtic, teaching the method of preventing difeafes by regimen, than theart of diferiminating them, or the mode of curing them when prefent. However that may be, fince the year 1771, when the “‘Domeitic Medicine” was firft pub- Uthed, it has paffed through nineteen editions, each of them, we are told, of 5020, or more copies. It has alfo been tranflated into all the moder languages, and procured for the author a gold medal, and a commendatory letter, more valuable than the medal, from the emprefs of Ruffia. On the death of the iate Dr. Gregory, Dr. Buchan offered himfelf as a candidate for the late profeflorfhip, but did not fucceed. Mr. Fergufon, teacher of natural philofophy, dying foon after, he left the do€tor his apparatus, with which, in conjunction with his fon, he gave le@ures at Edinburgh twice each feafon, for three years. In the mean while his fame being extended by the fale.of his book, he was induced to come to London abont the year 1778. He had now opportunity of fuperintending the reprinting of his “‘Domettic Medicine,”’ to which from time totime hemade {uch alterations and additions as increafing experience had enabled him to colleét, which entitled him to further remu- neration from the bookfellers. In 1786 he publifhed ‘¢ Cau- tions.concerning Cold Bathing, and drinking Mineral Wa- ters,”’ 8vo. ‘This was followed in 1796 by ‘* Obfervations concerning the Prevention and Cure of the Venereal Difeafe.”’ The next year he.publifhed ‘ Obfervations concerning the Diet of the Common People.’”? This has been incorpo- rated with his Domeftic Medicine. His laft work publifhed in r800, is on *fthe offices and duties of a mother.” He died on the 25th of February, 1805, of a dropfy in the cheft, at the houfe of his fon, in Percy ftreet, and was buried in the. cloifters, on the weft fide of Weftminfter abbey. Bucwan, in Geograp/sy, a diftri& or territory on the eaft coalt of Scotland, lying partly in the county of Aberdeen, and partly in that of Bamff. ‘The latter part extends north- wards from the Ugie to the fea, and weltward as far as Deveron, comprehending a tract of twenty miles in length by nine in breadth. The furface is moftly barren, though fome parts of it are well cultivated. The coaft is bold and rocky, and in fome places prefents almoft perpendicular precipices, This dillrict formerly belonged to the earl of Buchan; but upon the attainder of that family in 1320, Robert Bruce divided the lands among his friends; and though the title has been renewed in the prefent family of the Erfkines, the prefent earl of Buchan poffeffes but little property in the dillri@. See fir John Sinclair’s Statiftical Account of Scotland. BUCHANAN, Geores, in Piegraphy, a famous poet and hiftorian, eminently diftinguifhed among modern writers by the purity and elegance of his Latin {tyle, was the de- {cend nt of an ancient family reduced to indizence, and born in the fhire of Dumbarton, in Scotland, in 1506. The talents which he mamifeited in early life induced an uncle to fend him to Paris for his education ; but after purfuing his ftudies with fingular affiduity for nearly two years, the death of his uncle and his own ill {tate of health obliged him to re- turnhome. Urged, perhaps, more by his neceflities than by BUC inclination, he enlifted as a common foldier in the body of French auxiliaries brought over to Scotland with John duke of Albany; but foon difgufted with their mode of life, he attended the lectures on logic delivered at St. An- drew’s by John Major, and accompanied him to Paris. After ttruggling about two years with ind:gence and misfortune, he was appointed, in 1526, grammatical profeffor in the college of St. Barbe; and having remained in this fituation three years, he obtained the patronage of Gilbert Kennedy, earl of Caffils, and was introduced into his family as private tutor and domeftic companion. In this fituation he con- tinued five years; and availing himfelf of the intervals of leifure which he enjoyed, he tranflated Linnacre’s rudiments of grammar into Latin, which was printed at Paris by Robert Stephens, in 1536. Two years after his return to Scotland his noble patron died; and he was appointed by king James V. preceptor to his natural fon James, afterwards the: famous regent, earl of Murray. About this time he incurred the refentment of the Francifcan friars by a fatiri- cal poem, entitled ‘* Somnium ;” but the clamour of thefe monks ferved only to increafe his prejudice againft them, and to ftrengthen his inclinations towards Lutheranifm. As foon as the king difcovered, in 1538, that they were form- ing a confpiracy againft himfelf, he commanded Buchanan to write a poem againit them. His firft performance was lefs poignant than the king withed it to have been; and he was commanded a fecond time to write with greater feverity. Accordingly he publifhed his ‘ Francifcanus;’? written more in the ftyle-of Juvenal than of Horace, and abounding fo much with inveG@ive and ridicule, that thefe monks be- came his irreconcileable enemics, and excited the general in- dignation of the clergy againft him. The king himfelf was induced to withdraw his protection ; fo that Buchanan was tried for herefy, and in 1539 committed to prifon. How- ever, he foon found an opportunity of making his efcape, and fled, firlt to England, and afterwards to France. But at Paris he dreaded the influence of his avowed enemy, cardinal Beaton, who happened to be then in the city, and he withdrew to Bourdeaux, whither he was invited by An- drew Goveanus, a learned Portuguefe, who was principal of a new college in that city. Here he taught for three years in the public fchools; and he alfo compofed two tragedies, viz. “ Baptiftes, five Calumnia,’’ faid to have been tranflated by Milton, and publifhed in 1641, and “*Jephthes, fiveVotum,”? and tranflated the ** Medea,”’ and ‘ Alccttis’? of Euripides. During his refidence at Bourdeaux the emperor Charles V. pafied through the city, and was prefented by Buchanan with an elegant Latin poem, which gave him great fatisfac- tion. Cardinal Beaton made feveral attempts to render his fituation uneafy to him, but they were counteracted by the interpofition of his friends. However, in 1543, he left Bourdeaux on account of the peitilence, and for fome time took part in the education of Michael de Montaigne, the celebrated author of the * Effays.’? In the following year he went to Paris, and joined Turnebus and Muretus in con- duéting the education of the ftudents in the college of Bour- bon. In 1547, he accompanied Goveanus to the newly founded univerfity at Coimbra; but the death of his friend, after a happy union of one year, fubjected him to the en- mity of the bigotted natives, who accufed him of herefy, and confined him for a year and a half in the prifon of the Inquifition, from whence he was afterwards removed to a monattery. In this fituation he began his tranflation of *© David’s Pfalms” into Latin verfe, a work which has con- tributed in a high degree to his reputation as a poet. His tranflation of the ro4th pfalm has been particularly admired. In 1551, he was releafed, and the king, defirous of retaining him ' BUC him in the country, granted him a fmall penfion. But hav- ing no ftrong inducements to prolong his ftay in this coun- try, he embarked for England; where, notwithitanding fome advantageous offers were made to him, public affairs were in an unicttled {tate ; and he thought it molt advifable to remove to France, in 1553. Although he feems to have been fond of this country, he deplores in fome of his elegies the miferable condition of thofe who were employed in the department of in{tru€tion at Paris. In 1555, he was entrutted by Marihal de Brifac, who then commanded in Piedmont, with the education of his fon; and having continued in this ftation for five years, he devoted his intervals of leifure to the ftudy of the facred writings, and alfo to fome poetical compolitions, viz. his Ode”? upon the capture of Calais by the duke of Guife, his “ Epithalamium,” on the marriage of Mary queen of Scots to the dauphin of France, and part of his poem on the “Sphere.” In 1560, he ea to Scotland, and avowed his converfion to Proteftantifm, Which He was was then the eftablifhed religion of the country. foon after appointed principal of St. Leonard’s college in the univerfity of St. Andrew’s; where he alfo for fome time taught philofophy ; and at this period he made a co!- leétion of his Latin poems. Such was the refpec enter- tained for his uncommon abilities and learning, that, in 1567, he was appointed, though a layman, moderator of the general aflembly of the church of Scotland. When his former pupil, the earl of Murray, came into power, he formed an intimate conneétion with him and with the party, that was adverfe to queen Mary. He accompanied this nobleman to York, and to Hampton court, where he ated as an affiltant to the commiffioners that were deputed from Scotland to conduét the acculations againft the queen. Previous to this period he had been appointed by an affem- bly of the Scots nobility preceptor to the young king James VI. It was under his tuition, which continued for feveral years, that James acquired that {cholaltic know- ledge, on which he fo much prided himfelf ; and it is faid, that when Buchanan was afterwards reproached with having made his majeity a pedant, he replied, “ that it was the beft he couid make of him.”’ It is moreover reported, that Buchanan’s reverence for his royal pupil did not prevent his giving him a fevere whipping, when he perfifted againit re- monftrance in difturbing him whilft he was reading. In 1571, Buchanan publifhed his ‘* Deteétio Marix Regine,” arraigning the charafter and conduét of queen Mary, and exprefsly charging her with being concerned in the murder of her hufband, lord Darnly ; and of all our hiltorians he alone avowedly accufes the queen of a criminal paflion for David Rizzio. On this fubje€ it will be fufficient to ob- ferve in this place, that admitting, with the moft refpe@- able and impartial judges, the general guilt of Mary, Bucha- nan difcuffes the queftion sad enforces the charge alleged inft her with the vehemence and acrimony of a partizan. Such was the high eftimation in which Buchanan was held, that after the affaffination of his patron, the earl of Murray, ia 1§70, he continued in favour with thofe who poffefled power in the country, and was appointed one of the lords of the council, and lord privy feal. He had alfo a penfion of sool. a year fettled on him by queen Elizabeth; which can hardly be confidered as an adequate recompence for the fervices rendered by him, or fuitable to the high offices which he faltained, and of which his tenure was precarious and of no long continuance. In 1579, he publifhed his famous treatife ‘* De Jure Regni apud Scotos,’’ written in the form of a dialogue, and containing an explicit avowal of the right of fubjeéts to decide upon and controul the condu& of their rulers, This work, as we may Vor. V. BUC naturally imagine, was highly extolled by fome, and as violently cenfured and condemned by others. ‘The author, however, ventured to dedicate it to his royal pupil, although the doGtrine it contains was not very conformable to his views and inclinations. Whatever may be thought by con- tending parties of the principles which Buchanan has ad- vanced in this publication, the avowal of them precludes the fufpicion of his having been a€tuated by mercenary motives. During the laf twelve or thirteen years of his life he was employed in compoling his hiftory of Scotland ; and for the fake of obtaining greater leifure he retired from court and paffed fome of his lait years at Stirling. This work, entitled “ Rerum Sceticarum Hifloria,’? and com- prifed in 20 books, was publifhed at Edinburgh in 1582, not long before his death, which happened on the 5th of December in the fame year. ‘Towards the clofe of his life, his cireumflauces were much reduced; and it is faid, that when he was dying, he ordered the {mall fum of money that remained, aud which was infufficient for defraying the ex- pences of his funeral, to be given to the poor, expre fling at the fame time great indifference about the fate of his corpfe. Accordingly, be was buricd at the expence of the city of Edinburgh. The manner of his death has given occafion to his enemies for calumniating him as a libertine and an atheift ; but for charges of this kind, chiefly adduced by bigotted Catholics, there is no ju{t foundation. Sir James Melvil, differing with him in his political fentiments and connections, has neverthelefs done him the juftice to declare, that he died a fincere member of the reformed church. Againit hismoral charaéter, it hasbeen alledged, that he redu- ced himfelf by extravagance and debauchery to penury and in- digence, at the clofe of his life ; but to this charge it has been replied, that his inattention to pecuniary matters, and the profufenefs of his charity, might account for his indigence, without afcribing it to culpable prodigality. His advocates, however, allow, that when he poflefled wealth, he was, to an extreme degree, careleis of the future, and that he made no provifion for the feafon of dotage and helpleffnefs. It has been further urged againft him, that feveral of his poems indicate indclicacy and licentioufnefs; but his advocates have fought an apology for him from the age in which he lived, the tafte of which was in this relpedt very different from that of a later period. ‘The ancient fatirifts, fays Mr. Hume, often ufed great liberties in their expreflions ; but their freedom no more refembles the licentioufnels of Rochef- ter, than the nakednefs of an Indian does that of a common proflitute. With regard to his temper, Buchanan f{eems to have been harfh and unamiable ; and, as a party-man, viru- lent and little inclined to indulge fcruples. The perfecu- tions of priefts, and the oppreflion of misfortune, ferved to augment the natural Pettiipels and afperity of his dipofi- tion, and gave an edge to his {pleen. However, in his con- duét he frequently exhibits a noble independence ; and with refpeé& to the public principles which he adopted, there is no reafon to fufpeét in his avowal of them want of integrity ; however he might have been influenced in fome degree by partiality to his party, or deceived by the reports of others. The learned John ie Clere has very ably thewn (Biblio- theque Choifie), that there is much 5 to conclude, that many of the fevere cenfures which have been thrown out again{t Buchanan, were the refult of ignorance, of pre- judice, and of party animofity. Sir John Melvil, who was of the oppofite party, allows, that as far as he was concerned in public affairs, he diflinguifhed himfclf a his probity, suai his moderation. But whatever different opinions may have been entertained by perfons of oppofite partics concerning his difpofition and moral charaéter, all concur in 3 M applaud. BUC applauding himasawriter. ‘ His poetical character,”? fays a very competent judge, ‘ ftands extremely high ; yet his merit does not confift fo much in fublimity or lofty flights of the imagination, as in fplendour of diction, and harmony and varicty of verfification. He wrote in almolt every {pecies of compofition. His ‘* Pfalms” are in almolt all Kinds of meafure, and fome of them exquifitely beautiful. In tragedy, he is charged with want of elevation, and with familiarity of ftyle approaching to the comic. His didatic poem “ On the Sphere,” is elegant but unequal. His odes, epigrams, fatires, eulogies, and mifcellaneous pieces, poflefs merit. of various kinds, not without many defects. They fhew,-however, extreme facility in the ufe of language, and an inexhauttible vein of poetical expreffic Asa poet, fays Mr. James Crawford, he imitated Virgil in heroics, Ovid in elegiacs; Lueretius in philofophy, Seneca in tragedies, Martial ir epigrams, Horace and Juvenal in fatires. As an hiftorian, he is faid to have combined the brevity of Sallult with the elegance and perfpicuity of Livy. He has been charged, however, with an inclination to fable in his narra- tive, and with an undue attachment to the party with which he was conne&ted. Of his dialogue “ De Jure Regni,” it has been faid, that, notwithftanding fome objeCtionable fen- timents and inveétives, it contaius rational principles of government ; that it difplays uncommon acutenefs and ex- tent of knowledge; and that it was calculated to enforce found maxims of civil policy, at a period in which they were little underftood. OF his “ Scots Hiltory,”’ written in his old age, archbifhop Spotfwood fays, it was written with fuch judgment and eloquence, that no country can fhew a better ; though he adds, that Buchanan is juftly blamed for fiding with the faGtions of the time. The celebrated Thuanus obferves, that although, according to the genius of his nation, he fometimes inveighs againit crowned heads with feverity, yet this work is written with fo much purity, fpirit, and judg- ment, that it does not appear to be the production of a man who had paffed all his days in the duft of a {chool, but of one who had been all his life-time converfant in the moft important affairs of ftate. Of Buchanan’s hiftory, Dr. Ro- bertfon fays, (Hift. of Scotland, vol.i. p. 5, 8vo.) that * if his accuracy and impartiality had been, in any degree, equal to the elegance of his tafte, and to the purity and vigour of his ftyle, his hiftory might be placed on a level with the moft admired compofitions of the ancients. But, inflead of rejecting the improbable tales of the chronicle writers, he was at the utmott pains to adorn then; and hath clothed, with all the beauties and graces of fiction, thofe legends, which formerly had only its wildnefs and extravagance.” Thefe two works, as Mr. Mackenzie informs us, were con- demned in Scotland by aé of parliament. ‘ The happy genius of Buchanan,” fays the celebrated hiftorian juft cited (Hitt. of Scotland, vol-ii. p. 302.), ‘* equally formed to ex- cel in profe and in-verfe, more various, more original, and more elegant, than that of almoft any other modern w writes in Latin, reflects, with regard to this particular, the greateft luftre on his country.” Of his different works many editions have feparately appeared ; and a complete colleétion of them was publifhed at Edinburgh, in 1714, in 2 vols. fol. and reprinted at Leyden, in 1725, in 2 vols. 4to. Biog. Brit. To the memory of this truly great man an obelifk roo feet high was erected by fub{cription, in 1788, at Killearn, the place of his nativity, defigned by Mr. J. Craig, nephew to the celebrated poet Thomfon. BUCHAN-NESS, in Geography, the eafternmoft head- land in Scotland. N. lat. 57° 30’. W. long. 1° 46’. BUCHARIA, Buxnarias, or Boxuara, an extenfive al al. n.”? BUC region of Afia, lying between the river Jition to. the weft, and the defert of Cobi and other deferts bordering on China, to the eait. It is fuppofed to derive its name from the city of Bokhara (which fee) near the Jihon or ancient Oxus, which was the emporium of the commerce carried on by @the Europeans in that quarter; and afterwards extended to the adjoining country, beyond it. Bokhar, or Bukhar, as Abulzhazi Khan informs us, was a Mung! or Mogul word, importing a ** learned man ;°’ and as all thofe who formerly wifhed to be inftruSted in the languages and fciences went, for that purpofz, into Bukharia, the name was originally given toit by the Moguls, who conquered this country in the time ef Genghis Khan. ‘This extenfive region is divided into two parts, called Great and Little Bucharia, correfponding to the foathern diltri€ts of the two ancient Scythias, which were feparated by the ridge of mountains denominated the & es” and called by Sherefeddin the ‘* Karangoutac” mountains. Bucsaria, Great, is that extenfive and important region of Independent Tartary, which comprehends part of the Touran or Turau of the ancient Perfians, and was chiefly known to the Greeks and Romans by the names of Sogdiana and Baétriana; the former being the Arab “ Maweral- nahar,”’ or country beyond the river, i.e. the Jihon or Oxus, and correfponding to ‘* Tranfoxana,”” the name anciently given to thofe provinces which lay beyond this river ; while BaGiriana correfponds with Balk, and accordingly belongs to Iran, and notto Touran. Major Rennell cavtions us againft confounding, as fome geographers have done, the modern Bucharia with the ancient Baétria. Bucharia, he fays, is fituated beyond the Oxus or Jihon, and is the country an- ciently named ‘* Sogdiana,” from ‘ Sogd” the valley, a beautiful valley in which Samarcand (anciently Maracanda) is fituated: whereas BaCtria or Baétriana lay on the fouth of the Oxus, and comprehended the prefent provinces of Balk and Gaur, and probably part of Korafan. Great Bucharia extends more than 7co Britifh miles in length from north to fouth, by a medial’ breadth, if Fergana be included, of about 350; thus rather exceeding Great Britain in fize, but much inferior co the country named Little Bucharia. On the north it is bounded by the mountains of Argun and Kara Tau; on the weft by a defert, the river Amu, and other deferts, which divide it from Kharafm and Khorafan; and on the fouth, if it be extended fo as to in- clude Balk, by the mountains of Gaur or Paropamifus, and the Hindooh Koh ; and on the eaft by the chain of Belur. According to thefe boundaries, it is fituated between about 35° and 42° N. lat. and between about 60° and 70° E.long. The original population of this country was Scythian ; and the natives are ftill denominated by the fame Tartaric name of “ Tadjiks,” which the barbarous victors affigned to the Perfians. The Perfian monarchs were often engaged in wars with thofe of Touran, or the Scythians on this fide and beyond the Imaus, whofe queen, Thomyris, is faid to have flain Cyrus in battle. After the progrefs of Alexander as far as Cogend on the river Sihon (or ancient Jaxartes), this country became better known, being probably the furtheft mit of his courfe towards the north. When Genghis Khan died, A. D. 1227, he bequeathed Great Bu- charia to his fecond fon Jagatay Khan, and +t took the name of Jaghatay or Zagatay in honour of its new proprietor: which name it retained as long as the Khans defcended from him reigned in thefe parts. But in 1498, fultan Babur, a de- f{cendant of Timur, was expelled with his Monguls from Great Bucharia; and the Tartarian vidtors, called Utbeks, eftablithed a powerful monarchy in the country. Succeffive Khans held the fceptre from 1498 to 1658 ; and foon after this Fence 6 the BUC the extenfive and fertile country of Bucharia feems to have been dividedinto feveral governments, under numerous Khans. All the great towns, both of Great and Little Bucharia, from the borders of Kharafm as far as China, are inhabited by the Bukhars, or defcendants of the ancient poffe{fors, called by the Tartars, Tadjiks, Thefe are well made and very fair, allowance being made for the climate; they have generally large, black, and lively eyes; their countenances are open, their nofes aquiline, their hair black, and their beards buthy, The women are generally tall, and well-fhaped, with fine complexions, and very beautiful features, Both men and women wear calico fhifts and drawers ; over which the men wear a velt of quilted filk, or calico, reaching to the mid-leg, and tied about the middle with a filk-cape girdle or fath. In winter they are covered with a long cloth gown, faced and lined with fur. ‘The head is covered with a round cloth bonnet, having a large fur border; and fome wear turbans. Their boots refemble the Perfian bufkins, and they poflefs a fingular art of preparing horfe-hides for this ufe. The women wear long gowns that are full and loofe ; their hair hangs in treffes, and is adorned with pearls and other jewels. ‘Their bonnets are fmall, flat, and coloured. The Bucharians are a commercial people; and their caravans travel throngh the whole continent of Afia, and traffic with Ruflia, Thibet, China, India, and Perfia. Ruffia contains feveral colonies of Bucharians, who are fettled in many large towns of the fouthern provinces, and maintain a conftant communication with the merchants of their own country. Their principal marts are Tomfk, Kia¢ta, and Orenburg, which is the mott confiderable. Their caravans are expofed to pillage from the Kirgufe Tartars, through whofe country they are obliged to pafs. Their exports are gold and filver, chiefly in Perfian coins and Indian rupees, gold-duft found in the fand of the rivers of Bucharia, precious {tones, particularly rubies, lapis Jazuli, {pun and raw cotton, cotton ftuffs in great abundance, both Indian and Bucharian, half-filks, unprepared nitre, native fal-ammoniac, lamb-fkins, raw filk in {mall quantities, rhubarb, and large droves of fheep and horfes, which are bought for fale by the Kirghufe Tartars. Pallas fays, that above 60,c00 ileep and 10,000 horfes are yearly fold at Orenburg. The Bucharians receive in return cloth, leather, beads, and trinkets, hardware, indigo, cochineal, &c. The Bucharians never bear arms; but on this account they are defpifed by the Tartars, as a cowardly and weak people. The Jagatay Tartars, who are the defcendants of the T'ar- tars who firlt pofleffed this region, are now comprifed under the general name of Ufbeks. The Ufbeks are commonly reputed the moft civilized of all the Mohammedan Tartars, although, like the reft, they are great robbers.’ Both men and women are clothed, like the Perfians, as low as their boots ; and the chiefs wear plumes of white heron feathers on their turbans. Their moft delicious difhes confift of “ pillaw,” which is rice ftewed in broth, and horfe-ficth. Their common drink is kumifs and arak, both made of mare’s milk. Their language is a mixture of the Turkifh, Perfian, and Mongolian tongues. ‘Their arms confift of the fabre, dart, lance, and bow, of a larger fize than ordinary, which they manage with much ftrength and dexterity. For fome time paft they have ufed mufkets. When they go to war, many of their cavalry wear coats of mail, and a little buckler for defence. They value themfelves on being the moft robuft and valiant of all the Tartars ; and even their women, who furpafs the other Tartars in beauty, are not averfe from warfare, but will fometimes attend their hufbands to the field. Although many of thefe inhabitants of Bu- cebaria refide in huts in the fummer, yet in winter they in- habit the towns and villages. The religion of the Usheks > BUC and Bueharians is the Mahometan of the Sonni fe& ; and the government of the Khans is defpotic. The amount of their population is not precifely afcertained ; but it is pro- bable that upon an emergency an army of 100,0co men might be muilered. We have no accurate ftatement of the revenue of thefe fertile provinces; but it is not improbable that the revenue of Great Bucharia is at leaft equal to that of Khorafan, which, by Mr. Hanway’s account, is equal to half a million fterling annually, ‘The climate in general appears to be excellent ; the heat even of the fouthern pro- vinces being tempered by the high mountains capped with perpetual fnow; and the proximity of the Siberian deferts and the lofty Alps, renders the fun much more temperate than that of other countries, fuch as Spain, Greece, and Afiatie Turkey in the fame parallel. The face of the country prefents a great variety; but though there are numerous rivers, hills, and mountains, there feems to bea deficiency of wood. Near. the rivers the foil is produdtive, fo that the grafs fometimes exceeds a man’s height ; and in fome parts confiderable induftry is fhewn in the cultivation of rice aud other grain. In the hands of any other perfons be- fides thofe of the Tartars, this country ‘might rival any European region. There is not a more flourifhing ora more delightful country, fays a famous Arabian geographer, than this, efpecially the diltri@ of Bokhara. From the ancient caltle of this city a feene of luxuriant and beautiful verdure prefents itfelf on every fide of the country; fo that the {pectator would imagine the green of the earth and the azure of the heavens were united ; and as there are green fields in every quarter, fo there are villas interfperfed among the green fields. In all Khorafan ard Maweralnahar there are not any people more long-lived than thofe of Bokhara. The rivers and lakes of this country are numerous and confiderable in fize ; and its mountains are lofty and extenfive. For the principal rivers, fee Amu, Socp, Morcan, Kisire-Dartay Dewasu, &c.; and for the principal range of meuntains, fee Betur. The cities in Great Bucharia eda give name to the provinces, or receive their appellation from them. In the north is the province of Fergana, the capital of which is Andegan. he other chief provinces are the weftern part of Shah, and a diftri& called by M. d’Anville Ofruthna, from a town of the fame name, and by Ebn Haukal, Se- trufhtah. The moft fertile province is Sogd; and next to this are Vath, Kotlan, and Kilan. The Alpine region that feparates this country from Little Bucharia, is Belur ; and the moft fouthern provinces are Tokareftan and Gaur. The chief city of Great Bucharia is Samarcand, and vying with this for dignity is Bokhara. See each of thefe articles refpettively. See allo Bark, Zour, Bapaxsuan, Taxmen, &e. Bucwartia, Litile, is fo called, not becaufe it is more limited in extent than Great Bucharia, being in reality much larger; but becaufe it is inferior to it as to the number and importance of its cities, the quality of its foil, and the amount of its population. ‘This country correfponds te the “ Scythia extra _Jmaum” of the ancients, and to the “ Serica” of Ptolemy, The Scythians beyond the Imaus are defcribed by this geographer as reftricted to a confined {trip of teriitory on the eaftern fide of the Imaus, and divided by an imaginary line from the Seres, who were undoubtedly the people of Little Bucharia. But as ancient knowledge here terminated, it is Bete that the Scythians beyond the Imaus not only held the eaf- tern ridges of thefe mountains, as a barbavous race con- tinues to do without molefting the indultry of the diflant plains, but that they were diffufed along the ridge of 3M2 Alek, BUC Alak, and the wide region called Geté, extending as far as the mountains of Bogdo, till they were expelled or fubdued by more numerous or powerful nations from the eaft. But as it is now allowed by all geographers that the range called Belur Tag reprefents the Imaus, and that this range runs from north to fouth, forming the ealtern boundary of Great _Bucharia, it will be evident from Prolemy’s d anthers oblong, obtufe. Pi. germ ovate-oblong; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the tube ; ftigma obtufe. Peric: capfule acuminate, two-celled, many-feeded, opening at the top in two divifions ; partition contrary. Seeds angular ; re- ceptacle faitened to the middle of the partition. Eff. Char. Cal. five-toothed. Cor. funnel-fhaped ; border five-cleft, nearly equal. Stam. four unequal. Cap/. two- celled ; partition fimple, contrary to the valves. Sveds nu- merous, {fmall. Gert. Sp. 1. B. Americana, Linn. Syft. Nat. “ Leaves toothed, lanceolate, three-nerved.””? Stem fearcely branched. Spike with flowers remote from cach other. Stamens, two in the throat of the corolla; two in the middle of the tube. The plant grows black with drying. Native of Virginia and Canada. 2. B. elongata, Willd. ‘ Leaves nearly linear- lanceolate, entire ; calyx a little hairy, longer than the cap- fule.”? Swartz. A native of Jamaica, Vera Cruz, and Gui- ana. 3. B cernua, Linn. Mant. ‘ Leaves cuneate, five- toothed, fmooth; flowers fpiked; ftem fhrubby.”? Stem half a foot high, regularly branched, a little jointed by the fears of the leaves, purplifh. Leaves oppofite, often ternate, feffile, with two acute ferratures on each fide the tip, even. Spikes terminal, folitary, oblong. Flowers feflile, ereét, with a linear acute braéte fhorter than the calyx, and two fhorter lateral briftles. Ca/yx tubular, oblong, femiquinque- fid, equal; fegments connected by a membrane. Corol. white; tube filiform, twice as long as the calyx, recurved > border flat, five-cleft ; fegments fubovate. Anh. below the jaw ; ftigma inclofed, reflex, rather thick. On mountains at the cape of Good Hope. 4. B. cuneifolia, Linn. Supp.. “« Leaves wedge-fhaped, {mooth, feven-toothed at the tip.” Found by Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope. 5. B. cordifolia, Linn. Supp. ‘* Stem four-cornered ; leaves op- polite, heart-fhaped, three-nerved, ferrated ; racemes termi- nal, approaching to fpikes.” Referred to this genus by the younger Linnzus, though very different in habit, and more refembling a vervain, on the authority of Koenig, who found it about T'anjour. 6. B. grandiflora, Linn. Supp. ** Scabrous; leaves oppofite, feflile, oblong, entire ; pe- dungles axillary, eter. two-leaved ;. calyx. finnel- fhaped.” A very beautiful plant. Stem ereét, {mooth, very fimple. Leaves five-nerved. Pedunclestoward the fummit of the ftem, folitary, fhorter than the leaves, with two oppofite linear-fubulate braétes about the middle. Calyx five-toothed,, lung, but fhorter by half than the tube of the corolla, which, gradually. BUC gradually enlarges into a large, flat border, with fiverounded jJobes. Obf. The younger Linnzue, not having feen the fruit, was not certain of the genus, efpecially as it has fome relemblance to the gerardiass; and, like them, becomes en- tirely black in drying. Native of South America. Mutis. 7. B. ethiopica, Linn. Mant. * Leaves three-toothed ; flowers peduncled ; {tem rather fhrubby.’? Stem half a foot high, much branched. Leaves oppofite, feffile, lanceolate, about the lize of thole of polygonum aviculare, generally with a tooth on each fide near the tip. F/owers toward the top of the branches, lateral, oppofite ; peduncles one-flowered, longer than the leayes, ere€&t. Calyx monophyllous, five- toothed, a little hifpid. Corolla yellow, twice as long as the tube of the calyx. Cap/ule bilocular, ovate-oblong, fcarcely longer than the calyx. 8. B. viftofa, Hort. Kew. «* Leaves linear-lanceolate, diftantly toothed, a little gluti- nous; flowers peduncled; ftem fhrubby.”? Native of the cape of Good Hope. - Found by Maffon, and introduced into England 1774. 9. B. capenfis, Linn. Mant. ‘ Leaves toothed, linear, alternate ; calyx pubefcent.”? Stem annual, about five inches hich, ftraight, with four or five fimple branches near the top. Leaves generally alternate. F/owers feffile, in fhort, terminal fpikes. Calyx a little inflated. Corol. yellow ; tube flender, flizhtly villous; two of the fta- mens projecting a little beyond the throat of the corolla. Stem, branches, leaves, and calyxes clothed with a fomewhat vifcous down. La Marck, froma dried fpecimen. Allied to rhinanthus capenfis, Linn. Native of the Cape. 10. B. afiatica, Linn. Spec. Plant. ‘¢ Leaves very entire, linear ; calyx feabrous.””? Stem obtufely four-cornered ; branches al- ternate, with the habit of an euphrafia. Leaves linear ; up- per ones alternate, lower oppofite. Tube of the corolla fili- form, inclofing the ftamens ; border two-cleft, one fegment nearly upright and trifid, the other open and heart-fhaped. Vahl. (Symb. 3. p. 81.) defcribes the leaves as covered on the upper furface, and at the rib and margin of the lower, with numerous white feales, producing very f{mall, folitary hairs ; and the calyxes as folitary, nearly feffile, ftriated ; the {trie toothed with numerous minute, rigid hairs. La Marck has, in his Herbarium, a plant refembling euphrafia India Orientalis of Plukenet, and which he prefumes is buch- nera afatica. It is rough to the touch; and the calyxes are ftriated in a very remarkable manner. Native of Ceylon and China. 11. B. evphrafiodes, Willd. ‘ Leaves linear, very entire, fcabrous with hairs; fegments of the corolla linear, obtufe.”? Vahl. Refembles euphrajfia longiflora. Stem acutely four-cornered, branched; branches oppofite, higher than the flem, preffed clofe to it, and almoft imbricated. Leaves fhort, oppofite and remote below, alternate and crowded above. Calyx feffile, axillary, about the length of the leaves. Tube of the corolla villous ; fegments linear. Vahl. Native of the Eatt Indies. 12. B. gefnerioides, Willd. ‘* Leaves oblong, ciliated, preffed clofe to the ftem, f{quamiform ; tube of the corolla curved.” Stem half a foot high, branched at the bafe, at firlt fight appearing naked. Leaves very minute. /oqwers feffile, axillary, longer than the leaf, fur- nifhed on each fide with a linear, obtufe bra@e, ciliated at the margin. Calyx five-cleft ; fezments lanceolate, ciliated. Corolla nearly of euphrafia longiflora; tube fmooth; feg- ments of the border oblong. Cap/ule oblong, obtufe, bilo- eular. Willdenow, from a dried [pecimen. Native of the Eaft Indies. 13. B. pinnatifida. Linn. Suppl. Leaves pinnatifid, fmooth.” Found at the cape of Good Hope by Thunberg. 04/. La Marck is inclined to think that buch- nera manulea, and erinus, are properly only one genus. They differ from hebenfreitia and /elago in having a two-celled, po- lyfpermous capfule. BUC Bucunera humifufa (Forfkal). See BeowAttra, where, on Forfkal’s authority, it is placed by La Marck, and faid to have a one-celled capfule; but Vahl, on the other hand, afcribes to it a bilocular capfule with a partition oppofite to the valves, very like that of Juchnera afiatica, from which plant, he fays, it differs only in its proftrate ftem and obo- vate leaves. It does not appear, that either La Marck or Willdenow had feen a fpecimen. BUCHODZ, Perer Josern, in Biography, a phyfician, who rofe by his merit to the firlt rank, in eminence, in his profefiion, was born at Mentz, about the year 1736. After receiving a liberal claffical education, in which he is faid to have made a more than ordinary proficiency, he was fent to Pont-a-Mouffon, and was admitted to the degree of doctor in medicine at the univerfity there, in 1759. Being foon diftinguifhed for fuperior abilities and induttry, he was in fucceftion made phytician to Staniflaus, king of Poland, to the duke of Lorraine, &c. and teacher or demonttrator in botany to the Royal College of Phyficians at Nancy. He was alfo affociated as foreign member to moft of the medical and philofophical academies on the continent, to which he from time to time communicated his obfervations. His works are numerous, all on botanical fubjeéts. The titles of a few of them follow : “* Difcours fur la Botanique,” Paris, 1760. ‘“* Traité hiftorique des Plantes qui croiffent dans la Lorraine, et les trois evechés,’”? Nancy, 8vo. from 1763 to 1769, 9 vols. The work was abruptly broken off incomplete. He was affifted in forming it, by the papers and the Hortus Siccus of his father-in-law, Marquet, to which he made large additions. The firft volume contains difcourfes on botany, with explications of the fyftems of Tournefort and of Linneus; the fecond, purging; the third, pectoral ; the fourth, fternutatory ; the fifth, emme- nagogue ; the fixth, plants exciting perfpiration. In each volume are engravings of the moft remarkable plants in each clafs, with occafional experiments to afcertain their proper- ties. Medicine rurale et pratique,” Paris, 1768, 12mo. containing ufeful information, and enabling the poor to fele& proper remedies for their complaints. ‘* Secrets de la Na- ture et de l’Art pour les Alimens, la Medicine, la Veteri- naire, avec un ‘['raité fur les Plantes qui peuvent fervir a la Teinture, &c.’? Paris, 1769, 12mo. 4 vols.‘ DiCtionaire raifonné des Plantes et des Arbuftes de France,”’ Paris, 1770, 4 tom. For the titles of the remainder of his works, fee Haller. Bib. Botan. BUCHOLTZ, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weitphalia, and county of Verden: 18 miles E.N.E. of Verden. : BUCHOREST. See Bucuaresrt. BUCHORN, an imperial town of Germany, in the circle of Swabia, feated on the north fide of the lake of Conftance. The inhabitants are Lutherans. Here are warehoufes for goods configned io it for the paflage of the lake. It is diitant 13 miles E. from Conftance. N. lat. 47° 41’. E. long. 9° 20%. : BUCHOV, a town of Hungary; 2 lefko. } BUCHOW. See Buck. BUCHWALD, Barruazar, Joun, in Biography, a German phyfician, publifhed, in 1720, ** Specimen Me- dico-praGticum Botanicum,’’ 4to Hafniz, containing the defcriptions and accounts of the medical properties of many of the common plants, with dried fpecimens of the plants affixed to the leaves. ‘ De Diabetis Curatione, pre- primis per Rharbarbarum, 4to 1737,” alfo ‘ Vifci Ana- lyfis, ejufque in diverfis Morbis Ufus, 4to 1753.”? Haller. Bib. Botan. BUCHY, miles W. of Bo- BUC BUCHY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- ment of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriG& of Rouen, 4, leagues N.E. of it. The town contains 673, and the canton go6o inhabitants; the terri- tory comprehends 1624 kiliometres and 30 communes. BUCIDA, in Botany (originally called by Brown, Bu- ceras, ox-horned, but changed by Linneus into Bucida, without affigning a reafon). Linn. Sp. Pl. Reich. 602. Schreb. 758. Willd. 881. Juffieu 75. Clafs and order de- eandria monogynia. Nat. ord, Holoracee Linn. Eleagni Joff. Gen. char. Cal. Perianth one-leafed, pitcher-fhaped, obfoletely five-toothed, fuperior, permanent. Cor. none. Stam. filaments ten, capillary, longer than the calyx and inferted into its bafe. -dather upright, heart-fhaped. Pi/. germ inferior, ovate; ftyle the length of the ftamens : ftigma obtufe. Peric. berry dry, ovate, one celled, crowned with thecalyx. Seed one, ovate. Effent. char. Cal. fine toothed, fuperior. Cor. berry one-feeded. - Spec. 1. B. Buceras. Olive bark tree, Linn, Brown Jam. t. 23. f& 1. Sloane Jam. t. 189. f. 5. La Marck, pl. 356. “ Spikesclongate; leaves wedge-fhaped, {mooth.”? Vahl.Stem. a tree, thirty feet high, about one in diameter. Branches diva- ricate, or ficxuofe, roundifh, fmooth, and even. Leaves only at the divarications and fummits of the branches, crowded together, petioled, obovate or ridge-fhaped, obtufe, very en- tire, veined, {mooth, near two inches long. Spikes, or rather fpike-like racemes numerous, fimple, peduncled, axillary near the ends of the branches, about the length of the leaves. Flowers fmall, yellowifh, alternate, feffile, hoary without, tomentofe within. The ftyle or upper part of the germ, eipecially at the extremity of the raceme is fometimes extended to the length of an inch or more, and curved fome- what in the form of a bull’s horn; whence Linnzus and other authors have obferved its affinity to rhizophora. De- fcribed by La Marck from a dried {pecimen. “A native of the Welt-Indies and South America. In Jamaica it is called black olive; in Antigua, French oak; and in the French iflands, Grignon. Its bark is ufed for tanning leather: and its wood is excellent for chelts of drawers and other kinds of cabinet-makers’ work, as it is feldom at- tacked by worms. 2. B. capitata. Willd. “ Flowers with capitate fpikes; leaves ridge-thaped, ciliated.’’ Vahl. BUCINO, in Geography, a town of Naples; 6 miles W.N.W. of Cangiano. BUCIOCHE, in Commerce, a fort of woollen cloth manufactured at Provence in France, which the French fhips carry to Alexandria and Cairo. UCK, in Zoology, a male horned beaft of venery or chace, whofe female is denominated a doe. A buck the firlt year is called a fawn, the fecond a pricket, the third a forel, the fourth a fore, the fifth a buck df the ich head, and the fixth a great buck. See Decr and Huxtine. Bucx is alfo applied to the maics of the hare and rabbit kind. Hares commonly go to duck in January, February, and March, and fometimes all the warm months; fometimes they feck the buck feven or cight miles from the place where they fit. The duck rabbit is faid to kill all the young he can come at; on which account the doe is caretul to hide her offspring in fome remote corner, out of his way. The doe coney goes to buck as foon as fhe has kindled. She cannot fuckle her young till the has been with the buck. When he has bucked, he ufually tails backward, and lies as in a trance half dead, at which time he is ealily taken. BUC Bucr, or Busx, in Geography, a town of Poland, in - the palatinate of Beltz, 24 miles S.S.E. of Beltz. Bucx, or Bucnow, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and old mark of Brandenburg, 23 miles N.W. of it. BUCK-bean, in Botany, a corruption of bogbean, one of the Englifh names of menyanthes trifoliata, derived from the place of its growth, and froma flight refemblance of its leaflets to thofe of the common cultivated bean. Bucx ifland, in Geography, one of the {maller Virgin ifles in the Welt Indies, fituate on the coaft of St. Thomas, in St. James’s paflage. N. lat. 18° 15’. W. long. 63° 30’. Bucx-maff, in Botany, is ufed by fome for the maft or fruit of the beech tree. Buck-ftins. See Skins. Bycx-fall, in our Ancient Law Books, a toil wherein to take deer. By an ancient ftatute, no perfon is allowed to keep a buck-flall, who has not a park of hisown. Stat. 19. Hen. VII. BUCKEBURG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weltphalia, and county of Schauenburg, fur- rounded with walls, and having a cattle, where the tribunal of juftice is held. It contains one church, two colleges, and a houfe of orphans ; 3 miles eaft of Minden. BUCKEGBERG, a bailliage of the canton of Soleure in Swifferland, on the eaft fide of the Aar; its average an- nuad value is 1661. ; the inhabitants of this bailliage profefs the reformed religion, and in ecclefiaftical affairs they are under the prote¢tion of Bern, They take the oath of fidelity every third year to the government of Soleure: but if aggrieved in their religious eftablifhment, have recourfe to Bern. The fenate of Bern nomimates to the vacant bene- fices, but the prieits are under the neceffity of obtaining the confirmation of the chapter of Soleure. Bern alfo enjoys fupreme junifdiétion in criminal affairs. If a criminal is ar- relted for any capital offence, he is tried by the bailiff of Buckegberg and the jury of the bailliage ; but if condemned to death, he is delivered for execution to Bern, provided that republic difcharges the expence of the trial. Soleure enjoys all the other rights of fovereignty. N. lat. 47° 9’. E. long. ° 20/. BUCKEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft- phalia and county of Hoya; 2 miles S. of Hoya. BUCKENHAM, or New Bucxennam, a {mall town in the county of Norfolk, England, is feated on the river Warency. It obtains the a Fr of New, to diftinguifh it from another place of the fame name, which is more an« cient, and is called Old Buckenham. Both thefe places have been of fome note, but both have greatly declined. Henry I. created this a diitin@ parifh, and William d’ Albany built a handfome church’here. At Buckenham was for- merly a fplendid caftle, the fite of which was fubfequently occupied bya priory. The lords of the manor are butlers at the coronation of our kings. Here are two annual fairs, but the market has been difcontinued. The parifh contains 125 houfes and 664 inhabitants. Blomeficld’s Hiftory of Norfolk. BUCKET, in Hydraulics, a kind of veffel or recipient chiefly of ufe for the raifing or conveyance of water from wells, and other places. ‘The word is formed from the French bacquet, a pail or tub. In an army, buckets are carried with the artillery, in the fire-workers flores. Town buckets, for extinguifhing fires, are made of thick leather, ftrongly foaked and boiled. One method of raifing water, defcribed by hydraulic writers, is by the means of a chain of buckets. Bucket, BUG Bucket, fea-gage. See Sea-Gacet. BUCKHAVEN, in Geography, a village on the coaft of Fifefhice, in the parifh of Wemyfs, in Scotland. ‘This place is wholly inhabited by perfons engaged in the fifheries, as this part of the coaft is much frequented by haddocks. About 50 years back thefe fifh were caught here in fuch abundance, that they were fold at the rates of fixpence and ten-pence per hundred. The firft inhabitants of this place are {aid to have been fome Datch fifhermen, whofe veflel was ftranded here in the reign of Philip1I. In the year 1791, the village contained 601 inhabitants. Sinclair’s Statiltical Account of Scotland. BUCKIE, a confiderable fifhing village in the parifh of Rathven, county of Bamff, Scotland. Here is a tolerable harbour, to which belong 6 floops, 14 boats, and 1 yawl. Et is feated at the mouth of a river of the fame name, and contained, in 1793, 703 inhabitants. The property of the place belongs about equally to the duke of Gordon and the honourable baron Gordon. Sinclair’s Statiftical Account of Scotland. BUCKING, among Miners. See Ore. BuckinG, an operation performed on linen cloth, cotton, and yarn, to render them fomewhat white, by working them with lie made of afhes. Bucking of cloth is the firlt itep or degree of whitening it. See BLEACHING. To drive a buck of yarn, they firft cover the bottom of the bucking-tub with fine afhes of the afh-tree, then {pread the yarn thereon, then cover it again with afhes, and thus Stratum fuper firatum, till the yarn is all in; when they cover the whole with a bucking-cloth, and lay on it more afhes, and pour in warm water, till the tub be full, and let it ftand all night. Next morning they let the lye run into another veffel, and, as it waftes, fill up the tub with warm water from a kettle, and, as this wattes, fill it up with the lye that runs from the bucking tub, ftill obferving to make the lye hotter and hotter, till it boils. Thus are both the tub and kettle to be fupplied for at leaft four hours, which is called driving a@ buck of yarn. BUCKINGHAM, in Geography, the county town of Buckinghambhire, England, appears to bea place of confider- able antiquity, and has been the fcene of fome particular hittorical events. According to bifhop Kennet, it was at or near this town that the Roman general, Aulus Plautius, furprifed and routed the Britons, under the command of Caraétacus and Togodumnus, the fons of Cunobeline. In the early Saxon times, it became celebrated as the burial- place of the infant faint Rumbald, who was born at King’s Sutton in Northamptonfhire, and is reported, by catholic fabulifts, to have lived but three days, during which period he profeffed himfelf a Chriftian, and wrought many miracles. According to the Saxon Chronicle, Edward the Elder re- fided here in the year 918, and built two forts to repel the incurfions of the Danes. The town was ravaged by the Danifh foldiers in 941, and again in 1010, when, havin plundered the adjacent country, they retreated hither to fe- cure their fpoils. At the time of the Norman conquett, Buckingham is ftated to be the only borough in the county; yet it was then but an inconfiderable place. In the reign of Edward III. its importance was increafed by that monarch making it a mart for wool; but the trade being removed to Calais, it again declined; and in the 27th of Henry VIII. Buckingham was in the lift of decayed cities and towns which were relieved by aét of parliament. The removal of the affizes to Aylefbury itill leffened the confequence of Buckingham ; and in 1724, a dreadful fire completed its misfortunes, when, out of 387 houfes, 138 were confumed, BUC befides outhoufes and manufa&tories. The damage was eftimated at 40,0001. Since that period the trade has in a {mall degree revived, part of the county bufinefs being re- ftored, and the affizes fixed here by act of parliament in 1758, in which year a gaol was erected. The town-hall is a large brick building, furmounted by a gilt {wan, the arms of the borough. But the molt confpicuous and principal ornament of the town is the church, which ftands on the fummit of an artificial mount, which was anciently occupied by acaftle. This ftately fabric was begun in 1777, and completed in 4 years, at the expence of about 7cool. ; the greater part of which was contributed by the late earl Temple. The church is built of itone, and has a bandfome {quare tower attached to its weft end, ornamented with pin- nacles, embrafures, and a light tapering f{pire, which rifes to the height of 150 feet from the ground. ‘he interior is conftruéted on the fame plan as Portland chapel in Lon- don. A large gallery, fupported by Doric colurnns, pro- jects from three of its fides. From the gallery rife twelve more columns of the lonic order, fultaining a richly decorated ceiling. The corporation confills of a bailiff and twelve burgefles, in whom is velted the right of ele€iion for mem- bers of parliament. It does not appear that this town fent members previous to 36 Hen. VIII. though three perfons were fent, as early as 11 Edward III. to a council of trade held by that monarch at Weltminfter. A free-fchool was founded here, about 1540, by Ifabel Denton; the endow- ment of which has been increafed by fucceflive donations : and a Sunday fchool has been lately eftablifhed for the children of the poor. The extent of the town and parifh is computed at 3500 acres. The houfes, which are chiefly brick, and irregularly built, are eftimated at 545, and the inhabitants at 2605, who are divided into feveral religious feéts ; the prefbyterians, quakers, and methodifts have each a place of worfhip. Lace-making is carried on to a con- fiderable extent ; for as it requires but little ingenuity, and cheap materials, there is {carcely a female who is not provided with a lace-pillow and its neceflary implements. The profits of the bufinefs depend on the facility of execution; and the daily earnings are therefore different. Some women can gain from eighteen-pence to two fhillings a day ; but others not more than one fhilling. Their receipts have lately ex- perienced a confiderable drawback, from the eftablifhment of a manufactory at Nottingham, where lace is made by machinery, and being quicker executed, is retailed at a lower price; but its quality is not fo good as that made by hand. Buckingham is fituated 57 miles N. W. from Lon- don. It has a market on Saturdays, and feven annual fairs. About two miles north of Buckingham are the magnificent manfion and celebrated gardens of Stowe, the chief orna- ment of the county, and principal feat of George Grenville Nugent Temple, marquis of Buckingham. Domefday book contains the earlieft account of this manor, and ftates, that in the reign of Edward the Confeffor its value was 60s. and that it was held by Robert d’Oyly and Roger Ivory of the bifhop of Baieux. The prefent manfion is a large handfome {tructure, feated on a high fpot of ground, which flopes, in a foutherly direction, to a fine lake of water. The interior of this houfe is furnifhed in the moft elegant ftyle, and con- tains a large collection of pictures, and a very {pacious library filled with choice books, numerous manufcripts, kc. The pleafure grounds, which confift of about 400 acres, are orna- mented with numerous plantations, temples, &c. and are diverfified with various inequalities of ground. Beauties of England and Wales, vol.i. “ A Detcription of the Houfe and Gardens at Stowe,”’ 8vo. 1797. 2 Bueke BUC Bouexincwam, 2 county of America, in the ftate of Virgi- nia, bounded N. by James’ river, S.E. by Cumberland, S.W. by Campbell, and S.by Appamattox river; 65 miles long and 30 broad; containing 7053 free inhabitants, and 6336 flaves. Its court-houfe is 223 miles from Wahhington. Buckincuam Hoje, the moft welterly of the fettlements belonging to the Hudfon bay company in New South Waics, lies north-weiterly from Hudfon-houfe on the north- ern fide of Safkafhawen river, near its fuurce. N. lat. 54°. W. long. 110° 20!, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, one of the inland ccunties of England, appears to have been moltly peopled at the time of the Romana invafion, by a clafs of the Britons, which the hiftorians of that period named Catticnchlani. When the Romans had fubjugated the ifland, this part of it was in- cluded in that divifion named Fravia Casariensis. Af- ter their departure, it became the theatre of many battles and revolutions, and, atlength, in the Saxon dynafty, conttituted a part of Merci2z, to whofe monarchs it became fubje& during the continuance of that kingdom. Buckinghambhire is bounded on the north by Northamptonfhire; on the eaft by the countics of Bedford, Hertford, and Middlefex; on the fouth by Berkfhire: and on the weft by Oxfordhhire. Its extent has been varioufly eftimated ; but the mo corre& computation has been given in the General View of its Agri- cu.ture ; wherein it is faid to be 45 miles in length, 1S ia breadth, and 133 in circumfererce. It contains about 5 S,g00 acres of land, and is divided into $ hundreds, includ- ing 16 market-towns, 135 parifhes, about 21,000 houles, aud about 127,440 inhabitants, Its limits are moftly artiii- cial, the river Coln bounding only a {mall portion on the eaft fide, and the Thames feparating it from Bui kthire. The face of this county is much varicd. The fouthern rts are occupied by the Cailtern hillsand their appendayes. befe eminences are chiefly compofed of chalk intermixcd with flints, and th ugh very inferior to the northcra diftrid, with refpc& to richnefs of foil, have been rendered extremely produGive from the great attention given to the cultivation and improvement of the land. The prolific Vale of Ayl/bury {preads through the middle of the couoty, and furnifncs a rich pafturage to vait numbers of cattle, its amazing fertility being chicly employed in the fupport of the dairy and grazing fyftems. Vhe more northern parts are diverfified with gentle fand-hills, which enter frem Bedfordhhire. In the vicinity of the Chiltern hills, where the foil is light, and inimical to produétion without much labour, the molt fedu- lous care * beltowed, aod every mode of improvement adopted. In the vale of Aylefoury, and the more northern Givilions of the county, the altonifhing produce of the mea- dows rendering exertion Icfs neceflary, the farmer turns a deaf ear to every argument of an inftru@tive tendency. The foil of this county is principally compofed of rich loam, flrong clay, chalk, and loam upon gravel. Its chief application inthe Chiltern diftriG, is tothe growth of wheat, barley, oats, bean, and faintfoin ; the northero divifion, as we have already intimated, is chiefly applied to pafture and meadow, with a very {mali proportion of arable. The great Quantities of butter annually made on the dairy farms, are moftly purchafed by the London dealers, who contraét for it half-yearly. Vheaverage weight produced weekly from each cow, is eight pounds in fummer, and fix pounds in winter. In fome of the Gairies,a very ufeful machine, called a mill-churn, has lately been introduced, by which the fzt'guing operation of churning is greatly facilitated, the mil being worked by ahorfe. In other dairics a barrel- was ~ with two bandles, turncd by two men, who ou. ¥. Buc make from fix to fix {core pounds of butter at one chum- ing. The fkim and butter-milk are made ufe of to fatten {wine. In the neighbourhood of Medmenham, Great and Little Hampion, &c. many calves are fuckled; and at Aylcibary, and its vicinity, great attention is given to the rearing of ducks, to fupply the markets of the metropolis. For ploughing, and other laborious operations of agricul- ture, horfes are preferred to oxen. The latter have fre- quently been tried, but the flintinefs of fome parts of the foil, and the very heavy qnality of others, have cauled the farmer to decide mn favour of the horfe. In the fouthern parts, the fwing aud high wheel ploughs are chiefly ufed, and are drawn by four horfes ranged two abreaft. In the porthern divifion the loofe handle fwing and low wheel loughs, worked by five or fix horfes in a line, are prinei- pally ufed. The progrefs of agricultural improvement is confiderably checked on many eftates, by the reftri&tive con- ditions on which they are leafed; the tenants being confined to two or three crops and a fallow; with a probibition to the growth of clover and green food. The manures are ptinci- pally marl, peat-afh, yard and rabbit dung. On fonte of the ftrong ard cold foils, hair and hoofs are ftrewn with much advantage. Soot and afhes are equally beneficial to the wheat and young clover. Farms are generally let from 6ol. to 250l. a year ; foine amount to 5ool. ; and two or threeto 1000]. In the Agricultural View of the County, the common fields were eltimated at Q1.990 acres, but a large propoition haa fince been inclofed. The watte lacds are but inconfiderable, their extent not being more than 6060 acres, the greateft part contained in the heaths of Iver, Fulmer, Stoke, and Wycombe. The fouthern divifiow of the county produces large quantities of fine becch; near a fixth part of the land between the road to Oxford and the Thames is fuppofed to be covered with that wood. On Wavendon heath (now the property of the duke of Bedford) - feveral flourifhing plantations of Scotch firs have been made fince itsinclofure, about the year 1778. In the coppices on Whaddon chace are numbers of fine oak and afh trees. The chief manufatures are thofe ef paper and lace. The latter affords employment for nearly all the lower clafs of females in the county. The principal rivers are the Oufe and the Thame. The Oafe enters Buckinghamfhire on the weftern fide, pafics Water Stratford, and flows ina devious courfe to Bucking: ham ; thence winding to the north through a rich tra& of meadow land, purfucs its way to Stony Stratford, Newport- Pagnell, and Olney ; foon afterwards, turning fuddenly to the ealt, it leaves the county near Brayfield. The Thame rifes near the borders of the county in Hertfordfhire, and flowing through the vale of Aylefbury from eaft to welt, receives the waters of feveral {maller ftreams, and enters Ox- fordfhire near the town of Thame. The interchange of traffic has been much facilitated of late years by the Grand JunGion canal, which enters this county near Woolverton, and running eaftward, goes within a ‘afte of Newport. Pap- nell ; thence, flowing to the fouth, it paffes Fenny Stratford, Stoke Hammond, Linflade, and Ivinghoe, into Hertford. fhire, near Bulbourne. From a branch of the canal at Old Stratford, a cut has been made to Buckingham, and another from Bulbourne to Wendover. Buckinghamhhire is in the diocefe of Lincoln, with the exception of fix parifhes belonging to the {ee of Canterbury, aud four to the diocefe of Loudon. It fends fourteen mem- bers to parliament ; viz. two for the county, two for Bucke ingham, two for Aylcfbnry, two for High Wycombe, two for Amerfham, two for Wendover, and two for Great Mar. 3.N low. BUC low. It pays twelve parts of the land tax, provides the militia with 560 men, and isin the Norfolk circvit. Gene- ral View of the Agriculture of the County of Buckingham. BucktnGHAMSHIRE, a county of America, in the diftri& ef Three Rivers, in Lower Canada, on the fouth fide of the St. Lawrence river. BUCKLAND, a townhip of America, in Hampfhire county,and {tate of Mafiachufetts, containing tog 1 inhabitants; 106 miles W. from Botton.—Alfo a pof-town tn Prince Wil- liam county, Virginia; 42 miles S.W. from Wafhiugton. BUCKLE, in Matters of Trade, a little metalline ma- chine, whereby to retain and keep fait certain parts of the habit, as well as of the harnefs'of horfes, &c. The word is formed from the French Joucle, and that, according to Caflen-uve, from the barbarous Latin p/u/cula, which fignified the fame: According to Menage, from bucula, the anfa, or handle of a buckler, The buckle is a part of modern drefs correfponding to the fibula, among the ancients. Buckles are of divers forts, as fhoe and garter buckles; fome round, others {quare, or oval, or cut, each of which have their refpeétive artificers by whom they are made. The like may be faid of the great variety ‘of buckles belonging to the pack and hackney faddles. Buck te. girth, among Sadlers, isa four-fquare hood, with atongue, which is made fteady, by going through a hole of leather, and faftened with narrow thongs. : BUCKLER, a piece of defenfive’ armour, ufed by the ancients to fcreen theirbodies from the blows of their enemies. The word comes from the barbarous Latin ducularium ; of bucula, the umbo or middle point of this weapon, which had ufually a head or mouth, reprefented prominent thereon. The buckler is the fame with what we otherwife call fhield or target; and by the one or the other we indifferently render what among the ancients were denominated c/ypeus, feutum, and parma: though the three latter were different from each other. The /eutum was an oblong fhicld with an iron bofs or umbo projecting from the middle; 4 feet long and 27 broad, made of wood, joined together with {mall plates of iron, and wholly covered with a buli’s hide. The c/ypeus was a round fhield of a fmaller fize. The parma was a round buckler made of wood, and covered with leather. The buckler of Achilles is defcribed in Homer, that of f£neas in Virgil, that of Hercules in Hefiod; Ajax’s buckler was lined with feven bulls’ hides. The buckler among the Grecks, called Ams, was fome- times compofed of wicker-work, and fometimes of the wood of fig, willow, beech, or poplar; but moft commonly of hides, which were doubled into folds, and fortified with pieces of metal. In the middle of the buckler was a bofs, upon which was fixed another prominence. A thong of leather, and fometimes a rod of metal, reached acrofs the buckler and ferved for hanging it on the fhoulders, Some- times it’ was held by little rings; and it had afterwards a handle, compofed chiefly of {mall iron bars crofling each other, in the form of the letter X. When the wars were ended, and the bucklers fufpended in the temples of the gods, they took off the handles, that they might become unfit for immediate ufe. Little bells were fometimes hung upon bucklers to ftrike terror into the enemy. They were often adorned with various figures of beaits and birds, of the celeftial bodies, and of the worksof nature, The bucklers of the Argives feem to have been longer than the reft, and to have coyered the whole body, ‘Their form was ufually round. Phil. Tranf. N°24t, p. 206. See Suisrd, Sce alfo Armor, and Aams. BUC The ancients were particularly folicitous to preferve their bucklers in fight ; it being highly infamous, and even penal to return without them. It was on their bucklers that they carried off the bodies of their’ flain, efpecially thofe of diftinGion. The Spaniards ftill retain the {word and buckler in their night- walks, Bucklers on medals, are either ufed to fignify public vows, rendered to the gods for the fafety of a prince ; or that heise efteemed the defender and proteGor of his people.—Thefe were particularly called votive bucklers, and were hung at altars, &c. Buckcer, in Heraldry. See Sai. Buckver of a cafe, denotes a moveable head, whereby to- compreis the contents of it. _ In this fenfe we fay, a buckler of pilchards. Bucxrer Muflard, in Botany. See Biscurerra and Cryreora Fonthla/pi. BUCKOVINA, in Geography, a part of the ancient pro= vince of Dacia, became iubj-¢t to Auftria-in 1777, and was annexed to Galitz, vulgarly denominated Galicia. It con- tains no town.of any confequence; but Czernowitz is reckoned the principal. Hoeck eftimates the number of in- habitants at 130,000 ; thry fpeak Polifh and German; and their religion is the Roman Catholic. The annual revenue is reckoned at 490,000 florins. BUCKRAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the Soubah of Oude; 18 miles N.W. of Goorackpour —Alfo, a town of Hindoofttan, in the country of Bahar ; 25 miles N. of Patna. BUCKRAM, a thick fort of linen or hempen cloth, ftiffened with gum or glue, ufed in the linings of cloths, to fuitain and make them keep their form. Of buckram are alfo made wrappers for covering cloth and other commodities, in order to preferve them from being foiled, and their colours from fading. Buckram is fold wholefale by the dozen of {mall pieces, each about four ells- long, and of breadth correfponding to the piece from which: they are cut. BUCKS, in Geography, a county of Pennfylvania, in America, lying N.N.E. from Philadelphia, feparated from Jerfey by the river Delaware on the fouth-eaft and north. ea(t, and having Northampton county on the north-weft. It contains 27.496 inhabitants. Bucks is a well cultivated county, containing 411,900 acres of land, and :comprehends 28 townhhips, the chief of whichis Newtown. It abounds with lime-{tone, and in fome places are found iron and lead ore. At the north end of the county is a remarkable bill called Haycock, fituate in a townfhip of the fame name. This hil] is 15 miles in circumference, with a gradual afeent, and commands from its fummit a very delightful profpe&. The waters of Tohickon creek wahh it on all fides except the welt, Bucxs Harbour, a bay of the Atlantic, on the fouth coalt of the diflri@ of Maine, in America. N. lat. 44° 42! W. long. 63° 34! BUCKSHORN, in Botany. See Puantaco Corono« us. f BUCKSTOWN, in Geography, a.town of America, in Hancock county, aad diftri& of Maine, on the ealt fide of Penobfeot river, containing 624 inhabitants, 260 miles N.E. from Bofton. BUCKTHORN, in Botany. See Ruamnus. Bucxtuorn, fea, See Hirrorna, rhamnoides. BUCKTOWN, in Geography. a town of America, in Dorchefter county, Maryland, fitnate between Blackwater and Tran{quecking creeks, 12 miles from their mouths at Fifhing bay, and 82 miles S.E. from Cambridge.——Alfo, a township BUC townhhip in Cumberland county, and diftri& of Maine, near Portiand, containing 453 inhabitants. BUCK-WHEAT, in Botany. See Poryconum fago- pyrum. , Bucx-wueat, in Agriculture, is a fort of grain much cultivated in the field in fome diftri@s. It is earneitly recom- mended to farmers by Mr. Young, in his excellent Calendar of Hufbindry, as being yet only known by name in nineteen rifhes out of twenty throughout the kingdom. It pof- effes as many excellencies to good farmers, he fuppofes, as any other forts of grain or pulfe that are employed in cu!ti- vation; having the property of ameliorating the land, as well as that of preparing it for wheat or any other crop. it is equally valuable with barley, and where known fells at nearly the fame price; and, befides its utility in fattening fome forts of animals, is the bett of all crops for {owing grafs feeds with, as it affords them the fame fhelter as barley or oats, without depriving them of their neceffary fupport. The time of fowing it bas likewife an advantage in affording a full opportunity for getting the foil into a proper condi- tion. And there is fcarceiy one-fourth of the expence of a barley crop incurred in the feed. It is faid by fome to thrive well on any foil, even thofe of the pooreft kinds; and that in moft of the arable dittrids it is fown on the inferior forts of Iand, as when cultivated on the richer kinds, it is found to run too much to ftraw. Mr. Bannilter, however, obferves, in his Synopfis of Huf- bandry, that it delights in land which has been reduced into good order by tillage, and has likewife partaken liberally of the dung cart, for which reafon it often fucceeds a crop of turnips; and there is this advantage attending the cultivation of it, that as, from the tender nature of the plant, it re- quires to be fown late, it may follow a crop of turnips that has been fed off at a time when it would be highly impru- dent to fow the ground with barley. Mr. Young confiders this as a very profitable crop on all forts of land, except the very heavy kinds, that require late fowing, and where barley cannot be put in at a fufficiently early period; as he falpeéis there are not many foils on which a buck-wheat crop fown in May will not be more va- luable than one of barley fown at the fame time, though it is the common pra@tice in many diftri&s to put that crop in at fo late a feafon. The lands intended for this grain fhould undergo a proper tillage in April, fo as to render them fine and perfe€tly clean from weeds, efpecially where grafs-feeds are to be fown with it. The proper time for fowing buck-wheat, Mr. Bannifter obferves, is in May, * when there is no longer any danger to be apprehended from the frofts ; for fo tender is this ve- getable at its firlt appearance, as to be unable at an earlier to withftand the vernal cold ; and the flighteft froft, in their infant ftate, would infallibly cut off the young fhoots ; and, as from this circumitance it muft be fown at a feafon when dry weather may be expeéted, the crop does on that account not unfrequently milcarry.”” And Mr. Young af- ferts that it often fucceeds weil, when put into the ground in Jone, and even the beginning of July, which is confidered as an advantage in a crop that prepares the land for wheat. But the author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry remarks, that “‘ being fown late, the harveft likewife falls out very backward, by which the greater part of the crop is often devoured by the hogs in the"field; as this grain feldom ri- ee till towards Michaelmas, when the other corn ftubbles we been long open. Add to this, the injury likely to accrue from rain, which may be expedted to fall in great abundance BUC at this feafon, fo that the haulm, being extremely fucculent, does in the moft kindly harveft require a great deal of field room: but in a wet autumn it is a very difficult matter td get the crop home in good order; and in fech years he has known the fwarths of buck-wheat lying abroad throughout the greatett part of November.” Hence there is evidently great hazard in this grain, not only from its being expofed to the ravages of the hogs, when cultivated in open fidlds, as before mentioned, but from the thedding of the feed; cir- cumitances which will caufe the returns to be very trifling when threfhed. To this may be added the inferior value of the ftraw, chaff, &c. when compared with an oat or barley crop. The proportion of feed which is neceflary, muft vary in fome meafure according to the nature of the land; but, in general, a bufhel to the acre is fully fuflicient. It fhould be well harrowed in with a light fhort-tined harrow. This grain generally, as has been feen, bears a price equal to that of barley, and is ufed for fattening of {wine, poultry, and other domeltic animals. ** In its external form,’? Mr. Bannifter fays, ‘© it bears not the fmalleft refemblance to wheat ; and the method of culture, and the progrefs of its growth, are totally different from that grain: but, when ground, it produces a white flour, whence it may probably have gained the appellation. In Hertfordfhire and Buck-~ inghamfhire, it is a common mode of hufbandry to fow tur- nip feed with buck wheat ; but the Kentifh farmers ufually fow their woold or weld on their buck-wheat lands ; and as the feeds of either covet a light bed, and both of them re- quire to be fown late, the woold generally fuccceds well when railed among buck-wheat ; and fometimes buck-wheat, turnips, and woold are crowded together in one feafon.”’ This is, however, a praétice by no means to be generally adopted. The proper quantity of this grain, according to thia writer, * to fow onan acre, is half a bufhel; and fuch is the uncertainty of the return, that five quarters bave been pros duced from an acre in fome years, while in others not fo much as five bufhels.’? “ The green haulm of buck-wheathas a peculiar inebriating effeét on fwine. He has feen hogs, which bave fed heartily on it, come home in fuch a {tate of intoxication, as to be unable to walk without reeling.” This fort of grain is likewile, he fays, fometimes fown on ftiff lands, for the purpofe of ploughing in the ftalks as a manure. On fallows, where the land has a clayey bottom, this method may be purfued to advantage ; but it is to be noted, that the ground fhould be in pretty good heart, fo as to throw out a large burthen of haulm, otherwife no benefit can accrue from this mode of hufbandry.’* At the ftirring of the fallow in May, in this mode of culture, the feed fhould be fown pretty thick ; and when the ftalks have ar- rived to their full growth, they fhould be laid flat with the roller, and afterwards turned in with the plough ; and when the ground has continued in this ftate till towards Michael- mas, by which time the ftalks of the buck-wheat will be rotted, the feed furrows for the fucceeding érop fhould be be- run. This method of ploughing-in the green ftalks of buck-wheat contributes, it is obferved, much toward the melioration of ftiff foils, and difpofes them to work more kindly than they would otherwife have done, by overcomin that adhefion, which is the greateft evil that attends this {pecies of land.” The author of the ‘* New Farmer’s Calendar,” who affures us that he {peaks from much a@tual experience, fays, that “the invariable refult has fhewn its inferiority to every other grain, but fuperiority over other vegetable food, namely 3Nz2 carrots, BUC carrots, potatoes, and the like. In the ftate of herbage, cattle, he knows, will eat it; but’ it is from Hobfon’s choice, 2s a hundred trials have convinced him. its fitnefs for ploughing into the land is undoubted, on account both of its bulk and fucculence. The juice of it, however, is watry, and far enough from nutritious. Hogs, he has found from numerous trials, fatten neither fo fait with it, nor is the fiefh fo firm as that which hes been fatted upon corn. He has ufed it in large quantities ground, with hard-working horfes, both draught and faddie, but the difference of price by no means compenfated for its inferiority to oats and beans ; and befides, it did not always agree with them, as he fometimes fancied it had a kind of fiupefying effe&. In nutriment, however, he confefles, that it is fuperior to carrots for working-horfes. He tried it with a ftock of feveral hundred head of poultry ; and it was in the fame degree inferior both in the fattening and laying ftock. He does not hear that it is very highly prized even in the diftillery.”? In fine, he concludes, that buck-wheat is valuable upon land that will grow nothing elfe, and where it is produced with {mall ex- pence ; and that when ready, its belt application is to the market.”? “The experience of other practical farmers, how- ever, affords a more favourable opinion of the utility of this rain. . It has been faid, the fame writer further obferves, that this grain being black cannot be difcoloured by wet; which is by no means a practical remark, fince its difcolour confitts in the lofs of its fine black ; befide which, the grain feels cold and damp, to the great injury of the fample. Wet or dry, the only ufe for the haulm is under foot. ‘To thofe who expeét to get money by buck-wheat, he recommends early fowing, and even to allow it the manure neceflary for a following wheat crop ; he fhould thik, by fuch manage- ment, five, perhaps ten. quarters might be obtained from an acre of good land, which would remain in excellent order for wheat. Tis neceflarily fuppofes land in no want of late {pring-tillage. In this cafe, fhould a fufpicion be entertained of the crop running too much to haulm, it might, he thinks, be advantageoufly rowed and hoed. In the ** Rural Economy of Norfolk,’? Mr. Marfhall re- marks, that ‘* buck wheat is propagated as grain, and as a manure; and that, as the main intention of its propagation, whether as a crop or as. a melioration of the foil, is the fame, namely, the cleanfing of foul land, it may be convenient to keep the two objects in nearly the fame point of view. With refpec&t to fpecies there is only one ; this grain having not yet, he believes, run into any varieties fufficiently firking to have diflinguifhing names appropriated to them. It is fown almolt indifcriminately on all fpecies of foils; he, however, thinks that light poor land has the preference; it is, fays he, to this fpecies of foil that buck feems mot efpecially adapted. It likewife fucceeds every {pecies of crop; the flate of the foil as to foulnefs and poverty being generally more attended to than either the nature of the foil or the crop ip bore lait. The foil-procefs depends upon the fiate of the land, and the intention jointly ; if che fod be tolerably cleais, and the buck be intended to be ploughed nader as. manure, it is fown on one ploughing ; but, in ge neral, the ground 1s brok-n, as for barley or peasy to for- ward the fallow, and fecure the crop. The feed-procefs.is the fame for both intentions; except- ing that, for a crop, the feed.is fown firlt, namely, immedi- ately after barley-feed ; and that intended to be ploughed under is fown as foon-afterwards as the ground is ina ttate fit to receive the feed. It is univerfally fown above-furrow. ‘The quantity. of feed, fix pecks to two buthels an acre. The growth of buck is fo rapid as to outltrip and {mother. BUC almoft every fpecies of weeds ; an excelleney peculiar to this crop. The method of ploughing buck under, and the after- management of buck-fallows, are nearly as for wheat. The harveft-procefs is like that of barley, as is that of its far- mery and management ; except that the ftraw being fit for litter only, and the grain being wanted for the fattening of pigs in autumnand the beginning of winter, it is frequently threfhed out immediately after harveft, before the live ftock are taken into the farm-yard.”” Mr. Mofely of Suffolk cultivated this crop after tares, finding it highly advantageous as a preparation for wheat, by preferving the land after that crop had been removed, from the diffipating eff:Gs of the fun till the period of the wheat being fown. This is a combination of crops by which much is «flected in the opinion of Mr. Young ; “a coat of manure 1s gained at no expence, the year carried through from Michaelm2s to Michaelmas, and three craps put in on three ploughings, viz. tares, buck-wheat, and wheat.” Ie is not, he fays, eafy to form a more complete fyitem. It is recommended in the firft volume of the Annals of Agriculture, in feeding horfes, to try the efficacy of buck- wheat mixed with bran, chaff, or grains, either in the whole, or broken in a mili; as a bufhel of it, which goes further than two bufheis of oats, even with beans, mixed with at leaft four times as much bran, will be full feed for any horfe a week, and much leis hay will do. It is alfo further re= marked, ‘that in fattening hogs eight bufhels of buck-wheat mea! will go as far as twelve buthels of barley-meal. In the feeding of poultry and pigeons it is likewife highly ufeful and advantageous, as they eat it with great avidity, and thrive well upon it. BUCOLICA, is ufed by fome for the art of managing, feeding. and breeding cattle. ; BUCOLICS, in Ancient Poetry, Paftorals ; a kind of poems relating to fhepherds and their flocks. The word is derived from Bs, and xodov, cibus, meat; hence Baxortw, to feed cattle, and Bexoro;, bubulcus, a herd{man Bucolic poetry is the mot ancient of all the kinds of poes try; and is fuppofed to have had it origin in Sicily, amidft the mirth and diverfions of the fhepherds; and to have been infpired by love and idlenefs: by degrees, their rural gal- lantries were brought under rules, and became an art. The concerns of the flocks, the beauties of nature, and the plea- {ures of a country life, were their principal fubjeéts. Mof- chus. Bion, and Theocritus were the molt agreeable among the ancient bucolic poets. Fontenelle obferves, that Theocritus’s ftyle is fometimes a little too bucolic. Some authors attribute the invention of bucolic poetry to a fhepherd called Daphnis ; and others to Bucolius, fon of Laomedon: but this appears all fi tion. Some alcribe the invention of bucolic poetry to the herdf- men of Laconia, who not being able to hold the cuftom- ary feat of virgins in honour of Diana Caryatis, by reafon of the war with X-rxes, infituted Bsxorsccjos, or bucolic exercifes in lieu thereof. Hence alfo the origin of a fort of poetical champions, called Bsxorimsas, by the Latins /ufiones, who went about the country, contending for the prizes frequently propofed for the conquerors in this kind of combat ; of which rank Daphnis was the molt diftinguifhed. ‘They not only re- hearfed their verfes, but played on a kind of f/fula, or pipe, called fyrinx. Scal. Poet. lib. i. cap. 4. Pott. Arch. lib. it. cap. 20. Hil. Acad. Infcr. tom. i. p. 123, & 131, &c. Bucolic poetry is by fome called A/rabic,as being iuppofed to have firlt commenced among the ancient herdf{men in rid+ ing a fort of wazgons called afrabes. It is ulually divided into monoprofopium, or monologue, wherein only a fingle Ber 1 oR BUC fon fpeaks, and ameleum, or dialogue, wherein are feveral interlocutors. Bucolics, fays Voffius, bear fome refemblance to comedy, as they are both pictures and imitations of ordinary life ; but with this differences, that comedy reprefents the manners of the inhabitants of cities ; whereas bucolics exiibit rural oc- cup2ztions. Sometimes this kind of poetry has action, and fometimes only narration, and it is fometimes compoled of both. The hexameter verfe is the moft proper for bucolics in the Greek and Latin languages. Thecentus’s Ipyiura, and Virgil’s Ectocues, ‘are the chief of the ancient bucolics now extant. The firft modern Latin bucolics are thofe of Petrarch, about 12 in number, written about the year 1350. Their number multiplied fo foon, that a coileGtion of 38 modern bucolic poets in Latin was pnaoted at Balin 1546. Thefe writers judged this in- direet and difguifed mode of dialogue, confifting of fimple characters which {poke freely and plainly, the moit fafe and convenieat vehicle for abufing the corruptions of the church, The eclogues of Mantuan, which appeared about the year 1400, were the model of Alexander Barkiay (fee Barcray), aud became fo popular, that Maptuan acquired the eftimation of a claflic, and wastaughtinichoo's. But although Bark- Jay copics Mantuan, the recent and feparate publication in England of Virgil’s bucolics, by Wynkyn de Worde, might partly fuzge the idea of this new kind of poetry. Sce Wharton’s Hitt. of Eng. Poetry, vol.ii. p. 256. BUCORTA. in Geography, a river of Italy, which runs into the {ea near Pagliapoli, in Calabria Ultra. BUCQUET, Joun Baptiste, Micuet, in Biography, was born at Paris, February thetxSch, 1746. After pafling through the ufual fchool education, in the courfe of which he had eminently difinguithed himfelf, he was fent by his father to be initrnét-d in junfprudence ; but his difpotition leading him to the ttudy of natural philofophy, he {oon quitted the law, and applicd himfclf with zeal to acquire a know edge of anatomy, botany, chemiltry, and mineralogy, attending the leétures of the molt celebrated matters, and with fuch affiduity, that he was foon qualificd to become a teacher. His firlt courfe was on mineralogy and ch=miftry conjointly. Thele he treated :n a familiar manner; and as he had made himfclf perfetly acquainted with the fubjeéts of his leGure, and had a peculiar Beilicy in communicating the knowledge be had acquired, he foon became a popular teacher. This procured him the intimacy of the celebrated Lavoifier, with whom he went through a f{eries of experiments, to afcertain the properties of heat; they alfo anaiyfed a varicty of mi- nerals, at that time but little known. To enable his pupils the more cafily to profit by his le¢tores, he publifhed an * In- troduction to the Analyfis of the Vegetable Kingdom.”” He alfo feat to the Royal Academy accounts of various chemi- cal experiments, which were publifhed with their memoirs. He had now acquired fo much reputation, that on the death of M. Bourdelin, be was admitted a member of this aca- demy. He had before, viz. in the year 1776, become a member of a fociety, inflituted at Paris, for the improve- ment of medicine. To this fociety he fent the account of a procels for making opium tran{parent ; for making lapis caniticus; and a memoir on the action of volatile alkali in the deliquium, caufed by carbonic acid. By thefe various la- bours, purfued with ardour and intenfenefa, he had now, though a young man, fo impaired his health, as to render him incapable of performing his duties without having re- courle to powerful ftimulanta, which, while they gave a mo- mentary vigour, ftill farther fapped his coultitution. But as he was marricd, and had feveral children, for whom he had made but {cnder provifion, he determiged to perfevere, BUD He has been known, his biographer fays, to take two pints of ether and an hundred grains of opium ina day. In this way, fomething fimilar to that practifed by John Brown, of Edinburgh, he paffed the latter months of his life. His laft memoir, read to the academy was on inflammable air, and the means of rendering the hydrogen gas of marthes as pure as that obtained during the folution of metals. He died on the 24th of January, 1780, efcaping, by this early and prematore diffolution, the kcen and bitter pang be mutt have felt at fecing his friend Lavoifier hurried to the guillo- tine, an event which took place, to the regret of all lovers of {cience, a few years after. “Gen. Biog. BUCRETIUS, Daniex, a phytfician of eminence of Bruff-ls, was initiated into the knowledge of anatomy and medicine under Spigelius, who, a little before his death, eotrufted him with bis papers, containing his fyftrm of ana- tomy, with dire&tions to publifh them. This office Bucres tius performed with diligence, fupplying fuch parts as were not completed, partly from his own obfervations and labour, and partly from the plates of Julius Caperivs. Having completed this work, which was publifhed in royal folio, at Padua, in 1626, he went to Paris, and attended for fome months the diffeGions of Riolan. Riolan complaining to him, that Spigelius had introduced into his work many ob fervations, taken from his books, without making any ac- knowledgment from whence he had received them, Bucre- tius confefled he had done it, to do honour to his matter. Sometime after he retired into a monaltery, where he died of a dylentery, about the year 1630. Douglas.. Bibliog. Anat., / 4 BUCTON, in Anatomy, a word ufed by Severinus, and fome others, 2s aname for that part of the pudendum muliebre commonly called the Hymen. BUCY ue Lone in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Aifne, and diltri& of Soiffuns, 1 league N.E. from it. BUCZA, atown of Lithuania, in the palatioate of Brzefec, go miles E. of Brzefe. BUD, in Botany, in its ftri& and moft vfual acceptation,- as an Englifh word, denotes the protuberances which appear | in the axils of the leaves of trees and fhrubs, and fometimes when there is an excefs of vegetative power, on the trunks themfelves, unaccompanied by a leaf; and which contain the rudiments either of feparate leaves and flowers, or of both together, on an elongated receptacle, which gradually fhoots out into a young branch. Bur, as a {cientific term, it is convenient to include in it all the means employed by nature: for the renewal of plants, without the intervention of ferti- lized feeds. A bud, taken in this extenfive fenfe, is feated either on the afcending caudex, or on the defcending caudex, or on a tuberous radicle. On the afcending caudex, it is either a gem, or a cauline bulb: on the defcending caudex, it 1s either a root buib ora turio: on the tuberous radicle, it is vfually called aneye. Sve thofe words.- Bup, in Vegetable Anatomy. The tranfpiration of the leaves, during their expoiure to the light and heat, deter- mines the courfe of the juices of the vegetable powerfully towards their points of attachment. The tubes, which convey the fap, elaborate it; the cambium 1s gradually formed, and depofited around the bale of the leaves: it there gives birth to new tubes, which obeying the im- pulfe communicated to them, elongate towards the bark, . and penetrate it. As the {pring is the feafon moft favour.» able to the produétion of new parts, it is then that we: firll perceive what is called the eye of the dud, within the: axilla of the leaves, or that angle formed between their bafe: aud the branch, Jo the courle of the fummer,.the eyes enlarges, BUD. enlarges, and beeonses a bud : it continues to increafe during the autumn, and inthe winter fails into a ftate of torpidity ; in the enfuing fpring, however, it revives, and expands into a feast, or fucculent branch, which acquires folidity in the fummer, and becomes cloathed with leaves or flowers. The period required for the evolution of the -bids is fubje& to wary: it is fometimes retarded for five years; at other times accidental caufes accelerate this procefs. Thus, if the leaves, which accompany the buds, happen to perifh, their developement is fo much more rapid, that thefe buds produce branches fuftaining leaves and flowers in au- tuma, which, in the ordinary courfe of vegetation, would not appear before. the enfuing fpring. Thefe untimely produétions, however, are deftroyed by the firft froft. The buds of the fame treeare not all developed in the fame time, fome being more expofed than others to the ation of air and light. In general, thofe fituated at the extremity of the branches are the firfl to unfold themfelves. The pofition and figure of the buds are peculiar in each genus, ard often even ferve to charaéterize the fpeciss of plants. A kaowledze of thefe diftinSions ts found very ufeful by thofe who rear trees in nurferies. Bonnet arranged buds into five orders, according to their pofition upon the branch. In the firit they occur alternately asin the fiberd tree. In the fecond, they arife oppofite to each other as on the a/b. The third mode of arrangement is, when the buds furround the branches in a ring: the example of this which Mr. Bonnet quotes, is the pome- granate ; but all the young branches of this tree have the buds placed oppofite. The fourth pofition of the buds is, where they form, with refpe@ to each other, quincunxes, and, when taken together, compole a fpiral figure, which furrounds. the branches in the manner of a cork-{crew. This takes place in many /fruit-trees, but more efpecially in the plum-tree. In the fifth order are thofe trees which have the leaves furrounding the branches in a double fpire, as they appear in the pine. The true buds of the pines do not, however, grow in the axillz of the leaves, but on the extre- mity of the branches. In the trees with oppofite buds, the extremities of the branches are ufually furnifhed with three buds, the one in the middle bemg much the largeft; and when the buds are placed alternately, the branch is commonly terminated by a fingle bud. The dire@tion of the buds is different in different fpecies ; fometimes they ftand out fo much from the branch, that they form with it almoft a right angle, as may be feen in the /ilac: in other inftances, as the corne/-tree, they are clofely applied is all their length to the fide of the branch. In the Euonymus Europeus, the buds at the extremity of the branches are laid clofe, as thofe of the cornel-tree ; whilft thofe on the other parts of the branch are directed outwards. There are numerous other peculiarities in the form and appearance of che buds, which, although ufeful for the gardener to know, it would be tedious to enumerate in this lace. : No annual plant can, with propriety, be confidered as poffeffing buds; thefe parts being intended to furvive the winter, and contain the rudiments of the branches and flowers which are to be developed on the return of the feafon of vegetation. The true bud ought not, therefore, to be confounded with thofe {mall cones found in the axille of herbaceous plants, and which are converted into branches in a few days. The lilaceous plants, and other monocotyle- dons with bulbous roots, do not produce buds in the axilla of their leaves: the bulbs of thefe vegetables perform all the funGions of buds, and have, therefore, very properly. been ranked as fuck, and called by fome writer /abterranzons buds. Although we acknowledge the fimilitude of thefe two parts to each other in the fulleft extent, we prefer giving the defcription of bulbs under their proper name. See Buta. Betides the varieties of buds which ferve to diftinguifk different genera, and fometimes the fpecies of plants, there are other peculiarities which charaéterize the nature and offices of ‘different buds upon the fame tree: fome buds being intended to develope the leaves and branches; others to contain only the parts of fruétification ; and others again give origin to both leaves and flowers. Thofe of the firfi kind are called the /eaf-buds, or buds with wood; the fecond, the flower or fruit-buds ;’and the laft are termed the mixt buds. The cultivators of fruit trees are careful to difcriminate the different kinds of buds, as a guide in the various operations of grafting, pruning, &c. The leaf-buds, compared with the others, are flender, long, and pointed ; the fruit-buds are thick, fhort, and round ; and thofe of a mixt nature, have an intermediate form, being veither fo pointed as the one, nor fo round as the other. In a great number of trees, the flower buds are fituated upon the extremity of the little ramifications, called frvit- branches. See Brancues. Fig. 9. of Plate Il.in Vegeta- ble Anatomy, reprefeots a fruit-bud of the pear-tree, fubftained by one of thefe little branches; a the branch; 6 the bud; and on the neighbouring branch upon which this one grows, ‘is feen a wood-bud, indicated by c. In the peach-tree, and many others of the fame family, the wood and fruit-buds arife together from the fame branch : this is fhewn by fig. 10. of Plate Il. in Vegetable Anatomy : a is a fhort portion of a branch of the peach-tree, on which are placed three buds; 4, 6, the two external buds contain the flowers, &c. the intermediate one is the wood-bud. When the male and female flowers are fituated upon different parts of the fame plant. or upon f-parate in- dividuals, it is proper to diltinguifh the flower-buds into two kinds; as in many fpecics, the buds, which furnifh the catkins, are very unlike thofe which produce the fruits: thus, in the qwa/nut-tree, the fruits owe their origin to the buds placed along the length of the branches, whilft the catkins proceed from other buds fo very {mall that they are hardly perceptible, and which are fituated at the fide of thofe which furnifh the fruits. The buds of almoft every vegetable which is congenial to a northern climate, are cloathed with a number of feales, and acotton-like fubftance. The feales are Jad upon each other in an imbricated manner, or like the tiles of a houfe: Thofe fituated moft externally are ftrong, hard, and dry, and generally of a brown colour, but the feales which are covered by others are more pliant, tender, and fucculent ; and the nearer they approach to the centre of the bud, they acquire more of the herbaceous texture of young leaves: the internal feales 2re ufually of a pale green or white colour. The fcales are very generally lined with a downy or cotton-like fubftance. This becomes dry and coloured upon the external fcales; but where it is fhielded from the action of the air, it remains foft and white, not unlike the downy furface of fatin. ‘The form of each fcale is that of a fpoon or fhallow oval cup, with one extremity more thin and pointed than the other. The furfaces of the feales are ufually befmeared with a vifcid matter, of a gum refinous nature; this becomes involved in the down, and forms a perfect barrier to the tranfmiffion of air or moiflure to the internal parts of the bud; and not unfrequently the refinous matter is fo abundant, that it exudes upon the external furface of the bud, giving it all the appearance of being § coated : BU D. coated with varnifh, as may be obferved on the buds of the horfe-che/nut, the tacamahaca, &e. € thofe buds, which have their fuperficies imbued by a refinous fubftance, be removed from their fituation, and if the furface which unites them to the branch be covered with wax, they may be fuffered to lie in water for feveral months, without experiencing any alteration; nay, it is ftated by Michel, that this experiment has been prolonged for fome years, without the leaft injury to the buds. On profecuting the difleGtion of the bud to its centre, we difcover either the rudiments of the future branch, or the rts of the fruétification in extreme miniature. In the wood-buds the embryo of the branch confiits of fome fucculent filaments, or imperfectly formed leaves, folded together and {upported upon a tender footilalk, very fimilar to the plumule of the trunk contained tn the grain; and in the fruir-buds, the parts compofing the flower can be dif- cerned at a very early period, although in a very fott and haif organized ftate. Both the rudiments of the branch and flower undergo a continual, though fecret developement, during their exift- ence in the bud; which has been alcertained by diffeGtions of the buds, inflituted at different pericds of their growth. The little plumule of the branch can be difcovered as foon as the bud is fairly formed, and continues gradually to acquire more perfect organization, until it burits from its pidus in the full feafon of vegetation. The rudiments of the bloffoms of the pear-tree are to be feen in the month of January, in a group of eight or ten flowers, attached by filaments to a common peduncle. In the midft of thefe little flowers there are feveral minute, thin leaves, of various forms and of a pale green colour, which Duhamel conceives are defigned to perform the fame offices, with refpe@ to the embryo flower, that the feminal leaves anfwer in the feed. The ftamina may be obferved, at this period, within the flowers, but as yet almoft tranfparent. The petals are hardly difcernible, and the piftils cannot be detcGed. In the month of March the tops of the flamina are red; the petals, although {mall, may be clearly perceived, and even the pipins may be diltingnithed; they are white, and each nounfhed by a particular filament: it is probable, that the pipins, and ali the effential parts of the fruétifcation, are coeval with the bud itfelf, although their foftnefs and tranf- parency prevent their being diftinguifhed: fo juft was the obfervation of Grew, that the flowers of the fpring were formed in the preceding year. The ftruQure of the wood and flower-bude is exemplified io Plate 11. in Vegetable Anatomy. Fig. 11. exhibits the ex- ternal appearance of the bad choke Doi feachefiuk which is felected for the fake of its great fize. ‘The fcales are feen laid over each other, like the tiles of a houfe; their more pointed extremities being turned upwards, and all their edges in clofe contact, as the bud appears in winter, At the bafe of the bud may be {een fome projeGing ruga, and immediately beneath thefe the impreffions ieft from the attachment of the former leaves. ig. 12. fhows a longi- tudinal fetion of the fame bud; a, the brown {cales which form the external invel pes; 4, the teuder fcales fituated more internally, and becoming more thin, pliant, and folded, the nearer they are to the centre ; ¢, the imperfe¢tly-formed leaves of the young branch comprefled together, and in- volved by the white down or cotton-like fubllance; d, the bark of the branch which faltains the bud; ¢, the igneous ares of it: f, ts ph. Fig. 13. reprefents a bud of the rfe-chefaut, delpoiled of its icales in order to bring into view te foetal branch, which has its parts feparated a little, and cleaned from the down which invelopes them, that they may be more difin&ly obferved, ©The marks appearing beneath the plumule, point out’ the attachments of the {cales, which have been removed. The fourteenth, fiftecnth, fixteenth,ard feventeenth figures in Plate II. in Vegetable Anatomy. are intended to explain the ftructure of the fruit-bud. Fig. 14. is the fruit-bud of the peach-tree, divided longitudinally, and confiderably mag- nified ; a, a, indicate the imbricated feales which compote the external invelope of the bud ; J, J, refer to the cut edge of the calyx of the flower, which, in the embryo ftate, forms a complete cell, inclofing the parts of frn@ification ; c, c, are the ftamina, almoit pellucid ; d, the piftil. Fig. 15, exhibits one of the feales abltraGted from its fituation, and highly magnified ; it appears entirely covered by villous proceffes. Tig. 16. thews the flower-bud of the peach ree, a little larger than the natural fize, as it appears when divelted of its fealy coverings; a, isthe calyx, with its edges applied to each other, fo as to form a prrfe& cyt. Fig. 17. is the fame calyx drawn a little larger, and with its leaflets feparate from each other, and turned back to expofe the (tamina; and in the piftil within the calyx may allo be teen the rudiments of the petals. The buds of the pine differ in many refpe&s from thole of other trees. According to Mr. Tfchudi, who has deferibed thefe buds, they are placed always on the extremity of the branches ; they are commonly numerous, the bud, which is at the extremity, being fucceeded by others much f{maller than itfelf; they are all contained in one membranous fheath, formed of many cylindrical pieces, adjufted the one to the other, and accompanying the developement of the bud. When it firlt appears it 1s about two fingers in length ; it then continues to extend, foon becomes large, and the lit- tle leaves which have been hitherto feakd-up, unfold thems felyes, and the branch comes forth. It is poflible to difcover, a long time before the buds are matured, thofe which are to appear upon the extremity of the branch, It is difficult to decide with certainty what are the parts of the branch from which the buds, in the firft inftince, are derived. When the bud makes its appearance, it is fo imper- feétly organized, that it fcarcely admits of diff-&ion, or of being diitinguifhed into thofe parts which it is ultimately to exhibit. Accordingly, we find, that anatomifls have held very different opinions upon this fubje&. Pontedera cone ceived that the rudiments of the buds were lodged in the wood alone. Dubamel fuppofed that all the parts of the branch were continued into the bud; the internal part of the bark being prolonged to form the feales, and the bark of the plumule ; the ligneous fibres giving rife to thofe of the embryo branch, and the pith being extended into the interior of the different parts of the bud. On the contrary, Hill and others affert, that the buds are formed exclufively by the parenchyma. ‘The feales of the bud, however, appear to be leaves which have never arrived at maturity : this is the opinion of Mirbel, which he illuftrates with much inge= nuity ; he fuppofes that the leaves, which afterwards appear as the fcales of the bud, are rendered abortive, by the abate- ment in the circulation of the fap, which takes place on the approach of winter ; for, if the motion of the fap were to be cither totally fufpended, or not impeded at all, no {cales would form, which is exactly what may be obferved in a few trees which inhabit cold countries, and in moft plants that are natives of hot climates. Ir, allo, the top of a tree be cut off before the evolution of the buds, thofe which are afters wards developed are unfurnifhed with fcales. Around the bafe of the bud there is always a degree of tumefaétion of the branch, which is called a burr; this ig formed at the eruption of the bud, and enlarges in all direc tions, Pwo tions before the fcales fall, and the parts contained in the bud are unfolded. The durr is fuppofed to anfwer two very important purpofes ; with refpeét to the bud, the firft is to fupply the place of the leaves, by collefting a greater por- tion of the fap around the root of the bud, and thus fup- porting it during its hybernation, and yielding, during the . feafon of interrupted vegetation, a degree of provifional nourifhment to the embryo branch or flower, which is necef- fary for the fecret developement they are known to expe- rience. The other ufe of the durr appears to be to feparate the fcales of the bud from each other previous to ‘the ex- panfion of the fhoot ; this is accomplifhed by the enlarge- ment of the burr on the return of f{pring. It is evident, the flchtgft feparation of the fcales, at their or'gin, muft caufe a confiderable one of their unattached edges; without the effittance derived from the growth of the burr, it feems quite impoffinle that the tender plumule of the branch or the embryo flower fhould ever be able to force afunder the hard and unyielding feales that encafe them, more efpecially in thofe inftances where the fca'es are agglutinated to each other by the gum-relinous matter. In fome experiments which were undertaken by Senebier upon the buds of the che/nut, apple, and pear trees, he found, that by depriving the flower-budsof their {calesand little leaves, he did not interrupt the evolution of the ower, nor prevent their gong on to produce fruits. S-nebier accounts for the fiowers furviving the privation of their feales, by fuppofing that the burr in fome degree might fupply their place. The moft. extraordinary circumfances in the hiltory of buds, are the converfion of flower-buds into wood-buds. and thar of wood-buds into ‘flower-buds. The former is related as being effected by Mariotte in this manner: he deprived, in the latter part-of the month of Augutt, a rofe-tree of its branches and ali its leaves, and fuffered to remain only the buds, which ought to produce flowers the enfuing fpring; thefe buds continued to grow, but when the period of their developement arrived, inftead of furnifhing flowers they put forth leaves and branches. The converfion of ‘the wood-buds into thofe bearing fruit is accompiifhed by a variety of means, praétifed by common gardeners. Thus, if the upper part of a branch be cut away, the buds near the extremity of the remaining ftem, from ac- ‘quiring a greater proportional-fupply of nutriment, will pro- duce leaves and wood, which might otherwife have been flowering buds; and, on the contrary, if a vigorous branch of a wall tree, which was expected to bear only leaf-buds, be bent down te the horizon, or lower, it will bear fower-buds, with weaker leaf-buds. On this circumitance chiefly depends the management of wall-fruit trees, and of efpaliers. For the purpofe of converting leaf-buds into flower-buds it has been alfo recommended to bind fome of the molt vigorous fhoots with ftrong wire, and even fume of the large roots. Some gardeners feore the bark in a {piral direGion, or cut off an entire cylinder of the bark, three or four inches long, and replace itwwith a proper bandage. The bud appears to fulfil ncarly the fame purpofes in the vegetable economy as the feed. It contains the embryo of the branch or of the flower, and thields it from the operation of the air, the light, and moilture, and the viciffitudes of tem- perature, until it is enabled to withitand thefe influences by a full exercife of the funtions of vegetable life. By this means the internal parts of the bud are capable of gradually, though invifibly. developing themlelves, like the plantule of the feed, independently of the vegetable from which they have drawn their exiftence. The bud alfo, like the giain, admits of yemoval from its original connexions ; of having its actions {ufpended for an indefinite period, and afterwaids of having BUD them renewed at pleafure; of deriving, by tranfplantation or engrafting, its fuftenance from different fources; and, laftly, on being laid in the earth, of producing an interior plant in a fimilar manner as the feed, when placed in the fame circume ftances. As the feeds are the oviparous progeny of veges tables, the buds may be confidered as the viviparous offspring, They appear to differ chiefly in this circumftance, that the feeds always +efult from a fexual congrefs, and partake of the properties of both parents; whereas the buds proceed di- rectly from one varent, to which their produttions afters wards bear a perfe@ refemblance. Bup is ufed, in Country Language, for a weaned calf of the firft year; fo calied, becaufe the horns are then in the bud. . BUDA, in Geography, called by the#Germans Offin, the ancient metropolis of Hungary, is feated on an eminence on the weft fide of th- Danube, and is conneGed with Peith, fituate on the oppofite fide of the river, by a bridge of boats about 3ths of a mile in length, and confifting of 63 large pontoons. The old city is feated ona plain extending itfelf from the fuburbs of New Buda to the fpace that lies between the Pus mountai»s end the Danube, and was formerly called ‘* Sicambria.”” But this is now a wretched place, and affords nothing remarkable befides the ruins of an old aquedu&, built either by the Romans or Hungarians. A wide fubteraneous paffage has been difcovered, with which the Turks feem to have been well avquainted, and which leads from this place to the citalel of Buda. New Buda is a royal freetown. It was formerly the capital of the king- dom, and, in its conneétion with Pefth, the largeft and finelt of alithe Hungarian towns, and the refidence of the kings, The houfes are moflly conltructed of {quare ftone 3 but fince the Turks took poffcflion of it, they fulfered the fineft build. ings to fink intodecay, The lower part of the city, called the ‘ Jews town,” extends like fuburbs from the upper city to the Danube. The higher town occupies the decuvity of a mountain, and is fort:fied with walls and towers, The caftle, feated on an eminence towards the ealt fide, com- mands the greaieft part of it, is encompafled by a deep moat, and is defended by av old fafhioned tower, to which fome new fortifications have been added. One fuburb is enclofed with hedges. ‘The mot fumptuous of its prefent ftructures are the caravanferas, mofqucs, bridges, and baths. The chief public and private buildings are in Pefth, and within the fortrefs ; the royal palace in particular is a large and ftately edifice, ‘The form of Pelth is quadrangular ; and it bas, befides the royal paluce, a military holpital, with feveral churches and convents. Ata littie diftance from it isa field, in which many diets have been held, and where the ftates of Hungary formerly met on horfeback, and in arms, to ele& their king. Amorg the decayed buildings of Buda, the church of the Afcenfion of the Virgin Mary is the principal, near which the Jefuits have an academical college and femi- nary. The Carmelite nuns have a convent, avd the Fran- cifcans have churches. Both Catholics and Calvinifts are aliowed the free exercife of their religion; and the Jews have a fynagogue near the ca(tle garden. But the moft famous edifices of Buda are its baths ; of which there are two forts, the upper or Trinity baths, and thofe of Mufta- pha, who was governor of the place, and built them with ftone, covering them with lead. Some of thefe waters are of fuch moderate temperature, that they may be ufed in _their natural ftate cither for drinking or bathing ; but others are fo hot, that they muft be mixed with cold water, or conveyed to cool in other baths, before they can be uled. The adjecent country is fertile, though not well cultivated; and affords good red wine and excellent melons. a le BUD This city was the refidence of the Hungarian monarchs, till it was taken by the Turks, ueder the Sultan Solyman, in 1526; but though they were difpofleffed of it the next year by Ferdinand, archduke of Auftria, they recovered it again in 1529- Although it was afterwards frequently be- fieged, it continued under the dominion of the Turks till the year 1656, when it was befieged and taken, after an obfti- nate refiftance and great flaughter, by the duke of Lorrain. From this time it kas remained under the dominion of the houic of Anttria. In 1784, the feat of the provincial go- vernment, and the public offices, were reflored from Pref- burg to Buda ; and, therefore, this city, joined with Petth, may ttill be regarded as the capital of Hungary. The po- pv ation of Buda is eflimated at 20,000; but if Peith be included, it may be_computed at 34,000. Dr. Townfon, (Travels in Hungary, 410. 1796.) {tates itat 38.000. The univerfity of Buda, as we are informed by this traveller, pof- feff-s an income of about 20,000. fterling, of which only 4oool. are applied towards paying the falaries of the pro- feffors. Befides the ufual chairs which exiit in every ugiver- fity, there are thofe of natural hiftory, botany, and econo- my. The iaftruments for natural philofophy, and the mo- dels of machines are good ; and the mufeum of natural hif- tory, which contains the colleétion of the late profeffor Pil- ler, befides that of the univerfity, may be ranked among the fine colle&tions of Europe. Buda is diftant 125 miles E.S.E. from Vienna, and 15° N.N. W. from Belgrade. N. lat. 47° 30'. E. long. 19° to’. Bupa, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Wilna ; $0 miles E. of Wilna. BUDAUS, Wixttam, in Biography, one of the moft learned men of the 15th century, anda defcendant of an ancient and honourable family, was born at Paris, in 1467; and having paffed through the grammar fchools at Paris, and having {pent three years at Orleans, in the ftudy of the law, to little or no purpofe, he conceived a difguft at the preva- lent barbarifm of literature, and devoted himfelf wholly to youthful pleafures. At length, however, he was feized with an ardent paffion for literary purfuits, which induced him to abandon every amufement, and to dedicate his whole time and attention to ftudy, fo that he fcarcely allowed himfelf the neceflary intervals for his meals and reft.. By means of unwearied affiduity, firft without any affiftance, whence he called bimfelf aviopatns, and climaSns, i.e. felf-taught, and late taught, and afterwards with the advantage of initru€tions from Hermonymus, whom he retained at a large falary, and from Lafcaris in Greek, and James de Fevre in mathematics, he acquired fingular reputation as a fcholar. and particularly for an acquaintance with the Latin and Greek languages. He had reafon, however, to regret that want of early prac- tice, which is adapted to form eafe and elegance of language ; and hence his ftyle, both in French and Latin, though ftrong and lofty, was harfhand perplexed. His firft litera- ry performances were tranflations of fome treatifesa of Plu- tarch ; and, in 1508, he publifhed “ Notes on the Pan- de&s.”? Bat bis principal reputation among the learned was owing to his treatife ‘* De Affe,’’ which contributed in a very eminent degree to facilitate the Rudy of the ancient coins, weights, and meafures, The fame which he thus eflablifhed, excited envy among his contemporaries; and Erafmus, though he acknowledged his merit, became jea- lous of him, {fo that a difagreement took place between thele two diltinguifhed perfons, which prevented Budaus’s citing Erafmus in his works. By avoiding the topics which might occafion a fufpicion of his faith, he precluded thole objeétions to the revival of learning, to which the interefted and 7 ae were at that time difpofed to recur. Upon OL. Vv. BUD his firft introdu€tion to the French court, he was employed by Lewis XII. in two embaffies to Italy, and appointed the king’s fecretary ; and in the reign of Francis I. who dif- tinguifhed himfelf by his patronage of learned perfons, he obtained the place of mafter of requeits, tegether with the office of librarian and fecretary to the king ; and was deput+ ed on an embafly to Leo X. He wasalfo chofen provott of the merchants of Paris. At his fuzgeltion, in concurrence with that of Du Bellay, Francis founded the Royal College for giving initruétion in the languages and feiences. Dur- ing his progrefs with the king in Normandy, in 1540, he was feized with a fever, and this termi: a‘ed in his death, after his return to Paris, in the 73d year of his age. His funeral was performed, in con’o mity to his exprefs orders, privately, and by night; and this circumflacce gave his enemies occafion to charge him with having adopted the fen. timents of the reformers, though he had explicitly, and even acrimonionfly condemned them in fome of his publications, He bai alfo occafionally declaimed with vehemence againft the court of Rome, and the corruptions of the clergy. The fulpicion, however, was confirmed by the removal of his ith to Geneva, where fhe, and two of his fons, avowed themfelves protettants. Of his charaGter it is {aid, that it was fair and honourable; though Bayle obferves concerning him, that he was more fcared than beloved in the republic of letters; and that in hisdifputes with E:afnus he was the leak moderate of the two. His works were colleéted and printed at Bafil, in.1557, in 4 vols. fol, Belides the treatifes already mentioned, he wrote ‘* Commentaries onthe Greek and Latin Languages ;” anda * Treatife on the Inftrudtion of a Prince,’’ dedicated to Francis I. Gen. Di&. BUDARIN, in Geography, a town of Ruffian Tartary, in the government of Caucafus, on the weft fide of the Ural ; 36 miles S.S.W. of Uralfk. BUDAWUN, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Malwa; 240 miles S. of Delhi, and 132 N.E. of Ougein. BUDAYEON, a town of Hindooitan in the country of Oude; 24 miles S.W. of Bereilly, and 70 N.E. of Agra. BUDDEUS, Joun-Francis, in Biography, a learned and diligent profeffor and writer, was born at Anclam, in Pomerania, in 1667: and after having acquired a large fund of learning in the languages, as well as in philofophy and divinity, he firft gave private leétures at Jena, and in 1692, was appointed profcflor of Greek and Latin at Coburg. From thence, he was removed by the invitation of Frede- ric, eleGor of Brandenburg, to the chair of moral and pos litical profeffor in his newly founded univerfity of Halle. After continuing in this {tation 12 yeers, he re-affumed the profeflorfhip of theology at Jena, where he died, in 1729. Befides the diligent difcharge of his profeffional duties, he maintained an extenfive correfpondence, and wrote many works. Of thefe the principal are, * Elementa Philofophiz raclice, inftrumentalis et theoreticz,’? 3 vols. 8yvo., which ferved for a long time as a text-book in the protef- tant German univerfities: “* A Syitem of Theology,’’ 2 vols. 4to. much efteemed by the Lutherans; ‘ The preat German Hiltorical Diionary,”’ 2 vols. fol.; “ A Treatife on Atheifm and Superftition,”’ Syo,, tranflated into French; and ‘* Mifcellanea Sacra,’’.4 vols. 4to. Nouv. Di&. Hitt, BUDDEKANO, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan, inthe country of Agimere, feated on the river Pudder ; 87 miles W. of Oudipour, and 100 N. of Amedabad. N. lat. 24° 30’. E. long. 72° sol. BUDDENBORG, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wellphalia, and county of Marck; 2 milea N.W. of Lu- nen. BUDDESDALE. Sce Boruspave. 30 BUDs BUDDING. BUDDING, in Gardening, is a method of propagation, practifed for various forts of irees, but particularly thofe of the fruitkinds. It is the only method which can be had re- courfe to with certainty, for continuing and multiplying the approved varieties of many forts of fruit andother trees : - as although their feeds readily grow, and become trees, not one out of a hundred, fo raifed, produces any thing like the origiual; and but very few that are good. Bst trees or ftocks raifed in this manner, or being budded with the pro- per forts, the buds produce invariably the fame kind of tree, fruit, flower, &c. continuing unalterably the fame after- wards. This mode of propagation is particularly ufeful for peaches, nectarines, and apricots, which fucceed better by budding than grafting; and are ufually worked upon p'um ftocks, raifed from feed, and fometimes, from thofe raifed from fuckers, layers, and cuttings. Thefe forts of trees are often likewife budded upon ftocks raifed from the kernels of thefe kinds of fruit; they are, however, more ftrong and durable, in general, when grafted upon plum ftocks. Plum and cherry trees are alfo often propagated by budding, as well as grafting ; the fecond fort is, however, generally the moft profperous by the latter method, as being more apt to gum and go off by budding. Thefe different trees being of the fame genus, grow upon ftocks of each other, but much the beft upon their own ftocks, as plum upon plum, and cherry upon cherry ftocks. Apples and pears may likewife be propagated by the budding method, as wellas by grafting; but as they grow freely by grafting, which is the moft eafy and expeditious, they are more commonly increafed in that method. In fhort moitt kinds of fruit trees, as well as others, that are capable of being propagated by grafting, alfo fucceed by budding ; grafting is, however, more adapted to fome forts, and bud- ding to others. Various forts of foreft and flowering trees, deciduous as well as evergreen, may likewife be propagated by budding, which is acertain method to continue particu- lar varieties, fuch as many of the variegated leaved kinds, zs the variegated hollies, and many other forts, The bud- ding in almoft all forts, is performed on young trees raifed from feed, fuckers, layers, &c. which when raifed purpofely for budding and grafting upon, are called ftocks, and which after becoming about half an inch thick in the bottoms of the ftems, ora little more or lefs, according to circum- ftances, are of a proper fize for the purpofe, though it may be performed upon ftocks from the fize ofa goofe quillto an inch or more, being moltly done upon ftocks or trees of the fame genus. The ftocks for this ufe, are commonly, as has been ob- ferved, raifed from feed, as the kernels or ftones of thefe different forts of fruit, &c-fown in autumn or {pring in beds in the nurfery an inch or two deep, which, when a year or two old fhould be tran{planted into nurfery rows, two feet afunder, and fifteen or eighteen inches diftant in the rows, to ftand for budding upon, keeping them to one ftem, and fuffering their tops to run up entire; when of two or three year’s growth, orabout the fize of the little finger at bottom, or a little more, they are as has been feen of due fize for budding upon. Stocks raifed, from fuckers arifing from the roots of the trees of thefe different forts, layers, and Cuttings of them, are alfo made ufe of; but they are not fo good for the purpofe. Budding may likewife be performed occafionally upon trees that already bear fruit, when in- tended to change the forts, or have different forts on the fame tree, or to renew any particular branch of atree; the operation being performed on the young fhoots of the year, or of one or two years’ growth only, The moft proper feafon for performing the operation of buddmg, is from about the middle of June, untilthe middle or latter end of Auguit; fome, however, begin to bud in June, but the buds inferred fo early are apt to fhoot in the fame year, and thefe not having time to harden, are liable to be killed in winter. The buds for this ufe fhould in general be teken only from the young fhoots of the year, as thofe of the fame fummer’s growth, which muft be cut from the trees of the forts intended to be propagated, always choof- ing them from healthy thriving trees; and if fruit trees, from fuch as bear the fineft fruit of their refpeGtive kinds and varieties. A quantity of the beft moderately ftrong young fhoots fhould be cut each day as they are wanted; and as they are gathered, the leaves cut off, but not quite clofe, referving about a quarter of an inch of their toot-fta'ks, trimming off alfo the foft unripened top end of each cuttings covering them from the fun and air, and taking them out as wanted. As each cutting furnifhes many buds, they are to be cut off about an inch and a half long, one at a time, as they are inferted in the ftocks. Thofe in the mid- dle part of the cutting are preferable to thofe towards each end, though in cafes of {carcity of cuttings, every one of them may be ufed. One bud only is in general inferted in each ftock; fome, however, place two on each fide oppo= fite each other. The moft proper height to bud ftocks varies according to the intention, but from about three or four inches to fix feet or more from the ground is praétifed. To have dwarf trees for wails and efpalicrs, &c. they muft be budded from within about three to fix inches from the bottom, that the may firlt furnifh branches near the ground ; for half ftan- dards, at the height of three or four feet; and for full ftan- dards, at from about five to fix or feven feet high; the ftocks being trained accordingly. The neceflary implements and materials for this purpofe, area {mall budding knife for preparing the flocks and buds forinfertion, having a fiat thin haft to open the bark of the ftocks in order to admit the buds; and a quantity of new bafs ftrings well moittened, to tie them with. In performing the operation of budding, the head of the ftock is not to be cut off, as in grafting, but the bud in- ferted into the fide, the head remaining intire till the {pring afterwards, and then cut off. A {mooth part on the fide of the ftocks at the proper height, rather on the north fide, away from the fun, fhould be chofen; and then with the knife, an horizontal cut made acrofs the rind, and from the middle of that cut, a flit downwards about two inches in length, in the form of the letter T, being careful left the ftock be wounded. ‘Then having cut off the leaf from the bud, leaving the foot-ftalk remaining, make a crofs cut about half an inch below the eye, and with the knife flit off the bud with part of the wood to it, fomewhat in the form ofan efcutcheon, pulling offthat part of the wood which was taken with the bud, being careful that the eye of the bud be left with it, as all thofe buds which lofe their eyes in ftripping, fhould be thrown away as good for nothing ; then having gently raifed the bark of the ftock where the crofs incifion was made with the flat haft of the knife clear tothe wood, thruft the bud in, placing it fmoothly between the rind and the wood of the ftock, cutting offany part of the rind belonging to the bud, which may be too long for the flit; andafter having exa€tly fitted the bud to the ftock, tie them clofely round with bafs ftring, beginning at the un der part of the flit, and proceed to the top, taking care not to bind round the eye of the bud, which fhould be left open and at liberty. When the buds have been inferted about three weeks or a month, examine which of them have taken 5 BUD taken ; thofe which appear fhrivelled and black being dead, but fech as remain frefh and plump are joined ; and at this time, loofen the bandage, which, if not done in time, is apt fo pinch the ftock, and greatly injure, if not deftroy the bud. The March following, cut off the ftock about three inches above the bud, floping it that the wet may pafs off, and not enter into the ftock. To the part of the ftock Which is left, fome fafteo the fhoot which proceeds from the bud, to prevent the danger of its being blown out, but this muft continue no longer than one year; after which, it mutt be cut off clofe above the bud, that the ftock may be covered by it. Some advife it to be cut clofe at firft, which is probably the beft pra@ice. Bat though it is the ordirary pratice to divelt the bud of that part of the wood which was taken from the fhoot with it, yet in many forts of tender trees, it is better to preferve a little wood to the buds, without which they often mif- carry. The not obferving of this, has occafioned fome to ime- give, that fome forts of trecs are not to be propagated by budding, which, if performed in this method, might have fucceeded. Where this has beer done, the whole effort of the ftocks being dirc€ted to the inferted buds, they foon pufh forth ftrongly, one fhoot from each; many fhoots alfo arife from the ftocks, but thefe muf be conttant!y rubbed off as often as they appear, that all the power of the ftocks may be colle&ted for the vigorous growth of the bud fhoots, which now commence trees; and which, by the end of the fummer, will, in fome forts, be advanced three or four feet in height. Inthe autumn or fpring following, the young trees may be tran{planted into the places where they are to remain, or remain longer in the nurfery, according to the purpofe for which they are defigned. In trees that are de- figned for fruit on walls, efpaliers, or as dwarfs, the firlt fhoots from the buds fhould, in the {pring after they are pro- duced, be headed down to four or five eyes to force out fome fhoots near the bottom ; but if defigned for half or full ftandards, and budded at proper heights, the firft fhoots of the buds may either be fhortened as above, to four or five eyes to provide lateral branches near the top of the flem, to form a {preading head, or be fuffered to grow up in height, and branch out in their natural way, by which they will form more ercét heads of loftier growth. Such full or’ half ftandards as are defigned for walls,and were budded high on the ftocks, muft alfo neceffarily have the firft fhoots headed down in the {pring following, to force out lateral fhoots to furnifh the allotted {pace of walling ; and on the other hand, where trees are defigned for any fort of ftandards, and budded low on the ftocks, the firit ts of the buds fhould be trained up for ftems toa ropes before they are ftopped, and then topped to throw cots to form heads of the defired heights. Sce Inocuvation. BUDDLE, in Mineralogy, a name given by the Engtih Greffers of the ores of metals, to a fort of frame made to re the ore after its firlt feparation from its grofleft foul- nefs. The ore is firft beaten to powder in wooden troughs, through which there russ a continual ftream of water, which carries away fuch of it as is fine enough to pals a grating, which is placed at one end of the trough ; this falls into a long fquare receiver of wood, called the /aunder: the hea- vielt and pureft of the ore falling at the head of the laun- der, is teken out feparately, and requires little more care or trouble ; but the other part, which {preads over the middle and lower end of the launder, is thrown into the buddle, which is a long fquare frame of boards, about four feet deep, fix long, and three wide; inthis there ftands a man bare- footed, with a trampling fhovel in bis hand, to caft up the 7 BUD ore about an inch thick, upon a {quare board. placed before him as high as his middle; this is termed the duddie-lead ; and the man dexterovfly, with one edge of his fhovel, *cuts and divides it longwife, in refpe& of himfclt, about half an inch afunder, in thefe little cuts; the water ccming gently from the edge of an upper plain board, carries away the filth and lizhter part of the prepared ore firft, and then the metalline part immediately after, all falling down in the buddle, where, with his bare feet, he ftrokes it and {mooths it, that the water and other heterogeneous matter may the fooner pals off from it. When the buddle by this means becomes full, the ore ie taken out; that at the head part, being the fineft and purett, is taken out feparate from the reft, as from the launder. The reft is again trampled in the fame buddle; but the head, or, as it is called the forehead, of this buddle, and of the launder, are mixed together, and carried to another buddle, and trampled as at firft. The foreheads of this lait buddle, that is, that part of the ore which has fallen at the head, is carried to what they call a drawing buddle, whole difference from the reft is only this, that it has no tye, but only a plain floping board, on which it is once more wafhed with the trampling fhovel. Tin-ore, when it is taken from this, is called black tin, and this is found to be completely ready for the blowing-houfe. Phil. Tranf. N°69. See. Drefing of Ore. BUDDLEA, in Botany (in honour of Adam Buddle, an eminent Englifh botanilt at the latter end of the 17th cen- tury, whofe Herbarium is now ¢epofited in the Britifh Mufenm) Linn, gen. 140. Reich. 146. Schreb. 184. Willd. 220. Gert. 275. Juff. 118. La Marck. Illuf. 182. Clafs and order, tetrandria monogynia. Nat. ord. Scrophularie Jufl. Perfonate Vent. Gen. char. Cal. Perianth very {mal!, four-cleft, acute, erect, permanent. Cor. one-petalled, bell or funnel-fhaped, four-cleft, ereét, longer than the calyx, feaments ovate or obtufe. Stam. Filaments four, very fhort, inferted below the divifions of the corolla: anthers very fhort, fimple. Pif. Germ {uperior, ovate: ftigma obtufe or bifid. Cap/. ovate, two-furrowed, two-celled, two-valved (each finally dividing into two, Juff. partition double, parallel to the valves, Gert.) Effen. char. Cal. four-cleft. from the divifions. feeded. Species 1. B. americana. Linn. Brown. 144. Sloan. Jam. 139. Hill. 2. p. 29. T. 173. f. 1. ** Leaves ovate, ferrated ; [pikes panicled, terminal.”” La Marck. A fhrub, nine or ten feet high. Branches tomeutofe. Leaves oppefite, acute, narrowing at their bafe into the petiole, green above, whitifh beneath. Flowers yellow, (mall, bell- fhaped, feffile on the common peduncles. Lam. A native of the Weft Indies, fent to Sir Hans Sloane from Jamaica by Dr. Houftounin 1730. 2. B. occidentalis. Linn. Pluk. t. 210. f. 1. is referred to by Linnzus, but La Marck thinks that that figure does not exprefs any fpecies of this genus. Gert. t. 49. f. 7. Lam, Illift. Pl. 69. f. 1. “ Leaves lanceolate, acuminate, flightly ferrated ; {pikes interrupted, fomewhat panicled.”” Lam. It differs from the preceding in having longer, narrower, and le{s ferrated leaves, white flowers, and interrupted {pikes, Lam. Swartz doubts whee ther it be more than a yariety. Miller in addition to the diltinétions mentioned by La Marck, fays that it has long, narrow, {pear-fbaped leaves between the {pikes ; whereas thofe of the former {pecies are naked. Sent to Mr. Miller from Carthagena by Dr. Houftoun, 3, B. detonicafolia Lam. Illuft. ‘ Leayes ovate-oblong, flightly {colloped, 202 much Cor. four-cleft. Stam, Capf. two-celled, two-furrowed, many Jam. BUD much wrinkled ; fpikes interrupted, panicled.’ Leaves pe- tioled. obtufe. Jof. Juff. Native of South America. 4. B. thyr- Joides. Lam. Ivf. ‘* Leaves lanceolate-linear, ferrated, tef- file; raceme {pikelike, terminal.”’ /eaves erect, tomentofe be- neath, Chaldee Native of Monte Video. 5. B. virgata. Lion. Jun. Supp. Thunb. Prod. 30. “« Leaves linear-oblong, ob- tufe, entire, or obfcurely toothed; branches flender, ere&t; ra- cemes terminal. Habit of Hyflop. Branches and leaves hoary, with a fine down. Linn. Jun. Leaves like thofe of lavender ; the upper ones growing gradually fmaller. Lam. Found by Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope. 6. B /alicina. Lam. Tiluft. “ Leaves oblong-lanceolate. a little toothed, petioled, white, with down beneath; {pikes flender, terminal.’”’ Native of India, fpecific charaGier formed from a fpecimen without flowers in the Herbarium of Juffieu. It is probably the fameas the B. falicifolia of Wilidenow taken up from Vahl with the following fpeeific chara&ter. ‘* Leaves lanceolate, ferrated outwards, tomentofe beneath ; racemes terminal ; pedicles many-flowered ; flowers nodding.” 7. B. volubi- dis, Lam. Ill. ‘ Leaves linear, acute, very entire ; ftem twining ; cymes axillary, downy-ferruginous.” Found by Commerfon in the Ifle of Bourbon. 8. B. globofa. Hort. Kew. V.1.p. 150. Lam. Willd. (B. capitatata, Jac. ic. rar. 2. p. 332. Palquin. Feuill. peruv. 2. p, 71. tab. 38.) ** Leaves lanceolate, fharp-pointed, fcolloped, downy be- neath ; heads glcbofe.”? Lam. A branched, ever-green fhrub, from eight to ten feet high. Leaves about five inches long, finely fcolloped at their edges, narrowed at the bafe, oppofite, connate, reticulated with veins like thofe of the common fage. Flawers {mall, bell-fhaped, yellow, of a pleafing fmell, on a common globular receptacle. Heads of flowers peduncled, axillary and terminal. A native of Chili, introduced into England by Meffrs. Kennedy and Lee in 3774. 9. B. madagafcarienfis, La Marck, tab. 69. fig. 3. Willd. «* Leaves lanceolate, entire, petioled, tomentofe be- neath ; flowers in terminal racemes.”? eaves oppofite, en- tire. Racemes compound. Flowers feveral together, on common peduncles, which gradualiy diminifh in length, tll the flowers become {effile near the top of theraceme. Calyx fhort. Corolla funnel-fhaped. A native of Madagafcar, found by Sonnerat, and defcribed by Iamarck from a dried {pecimen in the Herbarium of Commerfon. 10. B. /a/vifo- lia. Hort. Kew. Lam. Willd. (Lantana /alvifolia, Linn.) *€ Leaves ovate-lanceolate, {colloped, wiinkled, nearly fef- file ; racemes compound.”” a Marck. A fhrub five or fix feet high. Branches tomentofe, four-cornered. Leaves op- pofite, fometimes ternate, fharp-pointed, wrinkled and reti- culated like thofe of fage, a little tomentofe. Stipules fub- ovate, in pairs. Racemes terminal, and axillary on the upper part of the branches. Flowers in f{mall, tomentofe, oppo- fite, peduncled fafcicles or corymbs, with brates at their -bafe, and at the bafe of the common peduncles. Calyx very fhort. Corolla tubular, flender, pale purple, covered with a mealy down, tube three times longer than the calyx ; border with very fhort divifions, A native of the Cape of Good Hope; cultivated by Mr. Millerin 1760. The fruit was un- known to Linnzus; and does not appear to have been feen by any fucceeding botanilt, not having been brought to perfection in any of the Englifh or French gardens. La Marck was induced to place it in this genus by the fimilarity of its flowers to thofe of B. madagafcarienfis. 11. B. diver/ifo- fia, Willd. (B. indica. Lam.) ‘ Leaves ovate, entire, petioled: corymbs axillary, yery fhort, clothed with a fer- Tuginous down.” A fhrub. Leaves oppofite, on fhort pe- tioles, a little tomentofe, and ferruginous on their lower fur- face. Flowers from fix to nine ; in {mall, oppolite corymbs, Shorter than the Teaves. Calyx tomentofe, very fhort, and BUD almoft truncate. Corolla tubular, tomentofe on the outfide, flender. Style the length of the corolla. Fruit unknown A native of Java, communicated by M. Sonnerat, and des feribed by La Marck from a dried fpecimen. 12. B. in- compta. Linn. jun. Supplement. Willd. La Marck Did. but omitted in the fubfequent illuftrations. ‘‘ Leaves fafci- culated, ovate, hoary ; branches zig-zag, ftiff; racemes ter- minal.”? Found by Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hops. 13. B. affatica. Martyn’s Miller. Lour. Coch. Leaves lanceolate linear, wrinkled, fmooth, {pikes full.?? Stem {ufo fruticofe, three feet high, with afcending branches. Leaves long, not interrupted. Ca/yx with awl-fhaped, upright feg- ments. Corolla with rounded divifions. Style equal to the ftamens. Stigma longifh, bifid. Native of Cochin-china. 14. B. ¢ernata. Martyn’s Miller. Lour. Coch. ‘ Leaves ternate, acuminate; peduncles one flowered.”” Stem fuffrue ticofe, two feet high, upright, round, branched. Leaflets. lanceolate, ferrated. Flower white, axillary. Segments of the calyx converging. Nedaryhairy. Stigma bifid. Native of Cochin-china. Propagation and culiure. The americana, occidentalis, globola, and falvifolia, are the only fpecies which have hitherto been cultivated in Europe. The americana and occidentalis muft be raifed from feed fent in their cap/fules- from their native country, which fhould be fowed in {mall pots, and very lightly covered with rich, light earth. The pots fhould be plunged into a moderate hot-bed, and gently watered every third or fourth day. If the feeds are freth and good, and fown in the f{prixg, the plants will come up in about fix weeks, and may generally be tranfplanted in about two months after. They fhould then be planted feparately in fimilar pots and earth, fhaded from the fun, and occafionally watered. After they have taken root, they fhould have frefh air every day, according to the warmth of the feafon, and be moderately fupphed with water. About the middle of Augult it will be proper to fhift them into, larger pots, and to turn over the tan in the bed, that the heat may be renewed. In the autumn they mutft be removed into the flove, where they mult conftantly remain plunged in the tan-bed. In the winter they fhould have little water, and muft be kept warm; but in fummer they fhould have frefh air, and be frequently fprinkled all over with water. They will flower about the fourth year from the feeds. The globofa and falvifolia may be propagated by cuttings on an old hot-bed in July, covered with a beil-glafs, and fhaded from the fun. In a month they may be planted ia pots; and when they have taken frefh root, fhould be re- moved toa fheltered fituation till the winter, when they muit be preferved in the confervatory, or dry ftove. The globofa will flower well, and live through a mild winter out of doors in a warm fheltered border. BUDDLING of calamine, denotes the operation of cleanfing it from filth, by wafhing and picking it, prepara- tory to the baking of itin the oven. Phil. Tranf, N° 1908. p- 675. See CaLamine. Buppwine difh, a {mall, fhallow veffel, like the bafons of a pair of fcales, for the wafhing of ores of metals by the hand. BUDDRA, in Geography, a river of the peninfula of India, which rifes in the Myfore country, and joining the Toom near the county of Hooly-Onore forms the Tocm- buddra river. BUDDRINANT, or Baprenaut, a town of Thibet, on the eaft fide of the river Alikmundra, or Aluknundra. N. lat. 32°. E. long. 80° 20!. BUDDS Vattey, a place in the county of Morris, and ftate of New Jerfey, in America, fituate on the head waters of Rariton, BUDE BUD BUDE river and aven, lic on the north coaft of Corn- wall, about S.S.W. and S.2W. from Hartland point, on the coat of Devon. BUDEA, or Bupacum, in dacient Geography, a town of Maganefia.—Alfo, a town of Afia Minor in Phey aie. Steph. Byz. Budea was one of the appeilations given to Minerva. BUDEL (Ridirger), in Zoology, the water-dog: (Canis) Variety aquatilis. BUDELICH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and ele€torate of Treves ; or by the French Tenant in the department of the Sarre, and chief place ef a canton, in the ciftri& of Treves ; rr miles E. of Tieves; the town contains 195, and the canton 6560 inhabitants; and the territory comprehends 24. communes. N. lat. 49° 52! E. long. 6° 55/. BUDERICH. See Buricu. BUDESHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and elef&torate of Mentz ; one mile E. of Bingen. ; BUDETIN, a town of Hungary ; 16 miles E. N. E. of Bol-fko. BUDGE, in Law. See Boucne of court. Bunce-barre/s, arc {mail barrels well hooped, with only one head, the other end having nailed on it a piece of lea- ther, to draw together upon ftrings, like a purle. Budze-barrels are ufed for carrying powder along with a gun or mortar; as being lefs dangerous, and alfo eafier than whole barrels. They are alfo ufed upon batteries of mortars, for holding meal-powder. BUDGELL, Eusrace, in Biography, the relation and friend of Addifon, and an ingenious writer, was the fon of Gilbert Budgell, D. D. of St. Thomas near Exeter, and was born about the year 1685. He was educated asa gen- tleman commoner at Chriftchurch College, Oxford, and af- terwards entered at the Innocr Temple, London, with a view to the profeffion of the law. But an inclination to pleafure, and alfo to polite literature, diverted his attention from ftudies appropriate to the bar; and in 1710, he ac- companied Addifon to Ireland, as one of his clerks. By affociating with p-rfons of tafte and fafhion, and cultivating an acquaintance with the belt writers, ancient and modern, he acquired the accomplifhments of the gentleman and [cho- lar. But though he was diftinguifhed by a lively imagina- tion, tenacious memory, genteel addrefs, and graceful elo- cution, his confummate vanity depretiated his other talents, and became a prominent feature of his charaGter through life. His firft exhibition as an author was in the Speétator ; and the papers marked X in the firft feven volumes are attri. buted to him. The cighth volume is faid to have been wholly conduéted by Addifon and Budgell. Dr. Johnfon, however, fays that his papers were either written by Addi- fon, or fo much improved by him, as to be rendered in a manner his own; and, it is obferved, that their ftyle re- fembles that of Addifoo. The humorous and admired epi- logue to the Diftrefled Mother, ufually afcribed to Budgell, is alfo faid to have been the compofition of Addifoo. About this time, Budgell wrote feveral epigrams and fongs, which together with Addifon’s fincere attachment to him, recom- mended him to general notice and efteem. But, notwith- flanding his literary connetions and engagements, and his acceffion to a family eftate, encumbered indeed with debts, of gs5ol. a year, he was unremitting in his attention to the duties of his office. Inthe preface to the Guardian, he is reprefented as having a concern in that work, in conneétion with Addifon and fir Richard Steele; but his papers are not now difcriminated. In 1714, he publithed a tranflation from the Greek, of “ Fhe Characters of Theopbraftus,” BUD which was commended by AdJifon, and which appeara to have been executed with ingenuity and elegance. Iu this year, he was advanced to the offices of under fecretary to the lord lieutenant, chief fecrctary to the lords juftices of Ireland, and deputy clerk of the council in that kingdom. To thefe was added the honour of a feat in the Irith parlia- ment, where he diftinguifhed himfelf as a fpeaker. When the rebellion broke out in 1715, he was entrufted with the charge of tranfporting troops to Scotland, which he exe- cuted in a manner equally able and difinterefted. In the beginning of the year 1717, when Addifoa became fecre- tary of {tate, he was promoted, under his patronage, to the office of accomptant and comptroller general of Ireland. But this tide of profperity took an unfavourable turn foon after this latter appointment, when the duke of Bolton was appointed to the vice-royalty. When the duke’s fecretary infifted on quartering upon him a friend, his indignation was roufed ; and he attacked both the fecretary and the lond lieutenant in a virulent lampoon, which he publifhed againft the advice and remonftrance of Addifon, and which caufed him-to be deprived of his place as accomptant. Upon his: return to England, he determined, in oppofition to the counfel of his beft friends, to publifh his cafe, and, by this fecond aé& of indiferetion, he increafed the refentment of his enemies. By a popular pamphlet written in 1719 againft the famous peerage bill, he incenfed the earl of Sunderland ; and, at this time, the death of Addifon, his fteady friend and faithful counfellor, terminated all his expectations from the court. His circumftances, however, were ealy and af- fluent, and he might have lived with dignity and independ« ence. But deluded by the infatuation of the fatal year 1720, he embarked in the South Sea fcheme, and loft 20,cool. Having taken an adtive part in the concerns and debates of the company, and publifhed pamphlets on the occafion, that were well received, he atiracted the notice of the duke of Portland, who had been a fufferer in this bub- ble as well as himfelf ; and he was taken under his [pecial patronage, with the promife of accompanying him as his fe- cretary to Jamaica, of which ifland he was appointed gover- nor. But the implacable refentment of the court frultrated his expectations, for the duke was exprefsly forbidden to take him out as his fecretary. This cruel treatment irritated. his temper; and with a view of giving importance to his oppofition, he fpent nearly soool. in various unfuccefsful efforts for obtaining a feat in parliament ; and he was aided by the duchefs-dowager of Marlborough in 1727 with the fum of roool. for this purpofe. His attempts failed; his affairs of courfe became deranged ; and he involved himfelf in a variety of quarrels and law-fuits, which entailed upon him diftreffes that difgraced and embittered the clofe of his life. In 1732, he publifhed an hiftorical work, entitled “ Memoirs of the Life and Character of the late Earl of Orrery, and of the Family of the Boyles,’ which, whatever valuable information it may contain, does not bear the chia- raCter of impartiality. It is needlefs to mention his other publications, which, though well received, are now for- gotten, or to add that he contributed feveral papers to the “ Craftfman,” and that he eftablifhed a weekly pamphlet called the Bee,’? which had no long duration. Is repu- tation was funk very low; and a circumftance occurred which totally ruined it. On the death of Dr. Matthew Tindall, the author of “ Chriltianity as old as the Crea- tion,” in the publication of which he was thought to have had fome concern; a bequeft to Budgell of 21001. appeared in his will. This legacy, fo difproportionate to ‘Tindall’a circumftances, fo injurious to his nephew, the Rey. Nicho- las Tindall, the tranflator of Rapin, and fo contrary tid hia DOW BUD known intentions and condué, furprifed thofe who heard of it, and excited a fufpicion of unfair dealing, very reproach- ful to Budgell. The will was contefted and fet afide. To this tranfaGtion, Pope, who has introduced Budgell into the Dunciad, and fatirized him in feveral parts of his works, evidently alludes in one of his epiftles : «© Let Budgell charge low Grub-ftreet on my quill, And write whate’er he pleafe except my will.” At length, this unfortunate man, unable to ftruggle any longer with his embarraffed circumttances and indelible dif- grace, adopted the refolution, ftrengthened by the pride of his temper, and his difbelief of revelation, to put an end to his life; and on May 4th, 1737, he took a boat at Somer- fet ftairs, and having ordered the waterman to fhoot the bridge, he threw bimfelf overboard, with ftones in his pockets, and immediately funk. He had previoufly at- tempted to perfuade a natural daughter to fhare his fate; but fhe, preferring a continued life to this fhocking mode of terminating it, became afterwards an aGtrefs at Drury Lane theatre. On the bureau of Budgell was found a flip of pa- per, on which were written thefe words : ‘¢ What Cato did, and Addifon approvw’d, Cannot be wrong.” But this charge againft Addifon is wholly groundlefs ; for he attempted to obviate the ill effets that might be fup- pofed to arife from Cato’s example by a dying difapprobation of his own condu&t. Biog. Brit. BUDGERONS, in Geography. See BoesERoons. BUDGEROWS, in Sea Language, the denomination given to travelling boats, or pleafure barges, ufed by the Eu- ropeans as well as by the principal natives in Bengal. On the outtide they are conftru&ed like the Burs; but with- in, they are much better adapted for convenience. The {pace from the middle to the {tern is occupied by one or two apartments, having windows on the fides, and from fix to feven feet high ; and fome of them 14 feet wide; the ftern- moft of them i3 the bed room. Thefe budgerows are of various fizes; from 25 to 6o feet in length, and longer. They are rowed by a number of men, from 6 to 20, with oars, which are long poles, to the end-of which a little oval board is nailed, in lieu of a leaf, and which do not ftrike the water crofs-ways, but obliquely backwards. They are fteered bya large paddle or oar, extending fo feet from the ftern; and forwards ftands a maft, upon which is hoifted a fquare fail, when they go before the wind ; and they have likewife a top-maft with a f{quare top-fail for fine-weather. When they have a fide wind, they drive down athwart the ftream, not having a keel or timber enough under water, as they are flat-bottomed, and draw fcarcely a foot, or a foot anda half of water. Some of them draw from four to five feet. The Englifh gentlemen in Bengal have much im- proved the budgerows, by introducing a broad flat floor, {quare fterns, and broad bows~ They are thus rendered much fafer, fail near, and keep their wind; and there is no danger attending their taking the ground. Befides, they are adapted for carrying more fail. The motion acquired by the oars of a large budgerow hardly exceeds eight miles a day, at ordinary times. A gentleman in his budgerow 1s ufually attended by a ‘* pulwah” for the accommodation of the kitchen, and a {mall boat, called a “* paunchway,” for conveying him either on fhore, or on board, as it often hap- pens that the budgerow cannot come clofe to the place where he wifhes to land; or to embark. BUDHBA, in Mythology. See Boon. BUDHOURS, or Buppaens, in Ichthyology, a provin- cial name given by the Irifh to a large fort of trout that is BUD found chiefly in the vat waters, Lough-Neagh, in Treland. Thefe are fometimes taken ot thirty pounds weight each. The budhurs appeat to be nothing more than the common trout, Sa/mo Faria, that have attained to this vaft fize, of which we have initances in other waters befides that of Lough Neagh. A trout, to the full as large as the budhurs are in common, namely of twenty-four pounds weight, was captured very lately in the river Thames near Hampton. Don. Brit. Fith. BUDIN, or Bupyn, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Schlan; eight mties N. of Schlan. BUDINGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and county of Ifemburg; 10 miles E.N. E, of Frankfort on the Mayne. BUDINI, probably the Bupenr of Ptolemy, in Ancient cography, a people placed by Herodotus in European Scy- thia, adjoining to the Sauromates. Thefe people were very numerous, and remarkable for their red hair and blue eyes. Their food was Aefh and milk. Herodotus fays, that their principal city was Gélone, built in a wood, where temples were confecrated to the gods of Greece, and in which were celebrated triennial feafls in honour of Bacchus. The in- habitants of this city were of Greck origin, and their lan- guage was a mixture of Greek and Scythian. OF thefe Badini the Scythians demanded fuccour for oppofing the army of Darius. BUDINUM, or Buprinus, the ancient name of a mountain of European Sarmatia. Ptolemy. BUDISSEN, in Geography. See BautTzeEn. BUDLANIOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Podolia; 36 miles N. W. of Kaminiec. BUDNZEANS, in Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, a {e& of Polifh Unitarians, fo called from the name of their leader, Simon Budneue. They not only denied all kinds of religious wore fhip to Jefus Chrift, but afferted, that he was not begotten by any extraordinary at of divine power; being born, like, other men, in a natural way. Budneus, after having pro- felyted a great number of perfons in Lithuania and Ruffian Poland, was depofed from bis minifterial funétions in the year 1584, and publicly excommunicated, with all his dif- ciples ; but afterwards abandoning his peculiar fentiments, he was re-admitted to the communion of the Socinian fea. Crellius afcribes the origin of the above opinion to Adam™ Neufer. Moth. Eccl. Hitt. vol. iv. p. 525. BUDOA, or Bupva, in Geography, a fortified fea-port town of Dalmatia, fubjeét to the Venetians; the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Antivari. It is feated between the gulf of Cattaro and the town of Dulcigno, on the coalt of Albany. It was unfuccefsfully befieged by the Turks in 1686. N. lat. 42° 12’, E. long. 19° 22!. BUDRIO, a {mall town of Italy in the Bolognefe, the vicinity of which produces large quantities of fine hemp3 10 miles N. of Bologna. N. lat. 44° 27!. E. long. 11° 35’. BUDRUN, a fortified town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Natolia, near the fea coaft, with a harbour in the gulf of Stanchio. BUDSDO, in the Hiffory of Mythology, one of the two principal fets in the ifland of Japan, the other being deno- minated Sinto. The fe& of Budfdo was imported from Hindooftan, and is fuppofed to be the fame with that of Budha or Boopu, reported to have been born in Ceylon, about 1000 years before the birth of Chrift. Paffing through China and Corea, it has been mingled with foreign maxims, but the tenet of the metempfychofis remains ; wicked fouls being fuppofed to migrate into the bodies of animals, till they have undergone a due purgation. : BUDUN, isthe name of one of the Ceylonefe gods: he is {uppofed to have arrived at fupremacy, after fucceflive : ’ tranfmis BUE : tranfmigration, from the loweft fate of an infe&t, through the various f{pecies of living animals. There have been three deities of this name, each of which is fuppofed to reign as Jong as a bird removesa hill of fand, half a mile high, and fix miles round, by a fingle grain in a thoufand years. See SaxraDawenpra: fee alfo Boopa. BUDWEIS, or Bupecowice, in Geography, a royal and well fortified city of Bohemia, in the circle of Bechin, feated on the river Moldaw, enjoying the ftaple-rights of falt, and having in its vicinity mines of gold and filver; and, as it is faid, pearls, which are fifhed for in the river Mol- Gaw. It was erected into a bifhopric by the emperor, in 1787. The king of Pruffia laid ficge to it with 8020 men, under general Naffau in 1744, and took it; but did not long retain it; 66 miles S. of Prague. N. lat. 42°15!. E. long. 14° 19’. BUDWIZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Znaym, 84 miles S. E. of Prague. BUDZADGEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the rovince of Natola; 40 miles N. E. of Ifnick. BUDZIAC Tartary. Scre Bessanapia. — BUDZIENICZE., or Bupzenice, a town of Lithua- nia, in the palatinate of Minfk ; 56 miles W. of Rohaczow. N. lat. 52° 40’, E. long. 28° 20! BUECH, a river of France, which runs into the Du- rance, near Sifteron, inthe department of the Lower Alps. BUEIB, a town or village of Egypt, called the §* Straits,” feated on a mountain in the road of the pilgrims; 30 miles N. E. of Cairo. Bvers. called the “ Narrows,” a town or village of Upper Egypt, feated on the welt fide of the Nile ; 32 miles 8. E. of Afna or E/neh. BUELA, a townof Perfia, inthe provisce of Koraffan; about 313 miles N. W. of Herat. N. lat. 37° 40’. E. long. -o 2! f ‘BUENAYRE. See Bonaire. BUENA-VISTA. See Bonavista. BUENE-VENTURA. Sce Bonaventure. BUENOS Avyzes, fo called on account of the peculiar falubrity of its climate, a Spanifh territory or vice-royalty of South America, eftablifhed as fuch in 1776, is reckoned by Ulloa the fifth bithopric belonging to the audience of Charcas. This name comprehends the whole country from the eaftern and fouthern coaft of that part of America, to Cordova and Tucuman on the welt, to Paraguay on the north, and on the fouth to the fea and the Terra Magella- nica or Patagonia, the vertex of that triangular point of land which forms South America. Thiscountry is watered by the great river La Plata, firft difcovered in 1515, by Juan Diaz de Solis, who, with his two attendants, was maflacred by the natives; and partly fubdued, in 1526, by Scbaftian Gabor. Buenos Ayres abounds with hdrned cattle and wild borfes, which find a fhelter from the heat of the fun, and an ample fupply of food in the immenfe plain, called by the Spamards “ Pampas,’’ which commences about 20 miles from the capital, and extends 100 miles weftward to the foot of the mountains, and about 500 miles fouthward towards Chili. This plain is wholly covered with very high grafs, and is for the moft part uninhabited and deftitute of trees, - From the travels of Helms we learn, that the largelt tamed ox is fold for one piaftre, or about 3s. 6d., and that a good horfe may be purchafed fortwo pialtres. The hides of thefe animals cor ftitute a principal article of trade in this country. The rivers and fea fupply all kinds of fifh; the country abounds with game ; ‘and fruits of every quarter of the globe grow here in the utmoft perfeGtion ; fo that with regard to the falubrity of the air and the various enjoyments BUE of life, a finer country cannot be imagined. Although the climate is healthy and pleafant, there is a great difference in the feafons. In the fummer the air is ferene, and the exc ffive heat of the fun is moderated by breezes which blow every morning. Inthe winter ftorms often occur, with rain and dreadful lightning and thunder. The capital of this country is Bacnos Ayres, and within its government are three other cities, viz. Santa Fé, Las Corientes, and Monte-video. Buenos Ayres, Nueflra Senora de, the capital of the country of the fame name, and of. the kingdom of La Plata, was founded by Don Pedro de Mendoza in 1535, who was at that time governor, on a fpot called Cape Bianco, on the fouth fide of Rio de la Plata, adjoining toa {mall river ; from which the plain on which it ftands, alcends gently. Soon after its firft eftab\ifhment, it was abandoned ; but rebuilt in 1582,and erected into a bifhopric in 1620. It is faidto contain about go0ohonfes, and from 2410 30rthoufand inhabitants, who are chiefly Spaniards and native Americans. Tt is well fortified and defended by a numerous artilicry. Al- though the breadth of this city, like other towns firuated on rivers, is not proportional to its length, its ftreetsare flraight and of a proper width. The principal (quare is very large, and built near the fmall river; and in the front of it is a cattle, where the governor conftantly refides. The houfes, which were formerly conftru€ted wich mud-walls, thatched with ftraw, and very low, are now much improved ; fome being built with chalk, and others with brick, moft of them tiled, and having one ftory befides the ground floor. The cathedral, which is the parifh church for the greater number of the inhabitants, is a fpacious and elegant ftru€ture; and the chapter is compofed of the bifhop, dean, archdeacon, and two canons. At the farther end of the city is another church appropriated to the Indians. Here are alfo feveral convents, and a royal chapel in the caftle where the governor refides, This is the great refort of the merc! ants of Enrope and Peru, who traverfe the country trom hence by Cordova and Tucuman to Potofi; and for the accommodation of travellers there is an uninterrupted poft-road, with poft- horfes and proper relays of horfes and carriages acrofs the continent to Peru. No regular fleet comes to this place ; the whole intercourfe with Europe being carried on by 2 or 3 regifter fhips. The returns are chiefly gold and filver of Chili and Peru, fugar, and bides. The contraband trade, however, has been found the molt advantageous; and this has been principally carried on by the Portugnefe, who keep magazines for that purpote in thofe parts of Brazil which lie nearett to this country. “Che moft valuable commodities are brought here to be exchanged for European goods ; fuch as the Vicugna wool from Peru, copper from Coquimbo, gold from Chili, and filver from Potefi. - From Corientes and Paraguay are conveyed hither tobacco, fugar, cotton, thread, eliow wax, and cotton cloth; and from Paraguay, the herb fo called, and fo highly valued for tea, which is drank every where in South America by the higher ciaffes, and which fupplies a branch of trade, amounting, as it is faid, to a million of pieces of eight annually, wholly paid in goods, as no money is allowed to pafshere. ‘Che commerce between Peru and Buenos Ayres is chiefly for cattle and mules, to an immenfe value. This citv is fituated about 77 leagues from Cape Santa Maria, which lies on the north coaft near the entrance of the mver de la Plata; and its little river not having water fofficient for thips of burdeo to come up to it, they anchor in one of the two bays on the fame coaft. That fartheft to the ealtward is called Maldo- nado, 9 leagues from the above cape, and the other nemed Monte-video from a mountain near it, and diftant 20 leayues from the faidcape, ‘I'he navigation to the city is dangerous for BUF fer want -of depth of water, and on account of fhoals and rocks in the river, and the frequent recurrence of ftorms. It is, therefore, ufual to anchor every night, and to have the fhip’s way founded bya pilot. Within 3 leagues of the town, the goods are removed on board fome light veflel; and wait for their cargoes, whilft they are refitting at Icunado de Barragan, fituated 7 or 8 leagues below. S. lat. 34° 25! 26". W. long. 58° 31! 15", BUENTO, a town of Africa, in-the kingdom of Mo- momotapa. BUFETAGE, bufetagium, or bufetaria, a duty paid to the lord, for the drinking, or rather felling of wine in taverns, The word is formed from duvetage, or duveterie, of the French dcire, to drink. Du-Cange Gloff. Lat. tom. i. BUFF, in Commerce, a {crt of leather prepared from the fkin of the buffalo, or bubalus ; which*being dreffed in oil, after the manner of fhammy, or chamois, makes what we call duff /Rin; anciently much ufed among the military men for a kind of coats or doublets; and itil retained by fome of our grenadiers, as well as the French gens d’armes, on account of its exceeding thicknefs and firmnefs. It is alfo ufed for wailt-belts, pouches, &c. Baff-flin, or buff-leather, makes a very confiderable ar- ticle in the Englifh, French, and Dutch commerce, at Corftantinople, Smyrna, and along the cozft of Africa. The fkins of elks, oxen, and other like animals, when dreffed in oil, and prepared after the fame manner as that of the buffalo, are likewife denominated buff, and ufed for the fame purpofes.—In France there are feveral confiderable manufaGtories employed in the prepara- tion of fuch fkins; particularly atc Corbeil, Paris, and Rouen: their firft ettablifhment is owing to the Sieur gabas, a native of Cologne. The manner of preparatioa fee under SHAmMy. The fkin of the American moofe deer, when well dreffed, makes excellent buff. The Indians make their fnow-fhoes of this flkin. Their way of dreffing it, which is reckoned very good, is thus: after they have haired and grained the h de, they make a lather of the moofe’s brains, in warm water, and, after they have foaked the hide for fome time, they ftretch and fuppleit. Phil. Tranf. N° 368. Burr river and bay, in Geography, lie on the north-ealt fide of Jamaica; within which is Crawford’s town, in St. Gecrge’s parifh, and county of Surry. NN. lat. 18° 27/. W. long. 76° 32!. : Burr. See Burrres. BUFFA, fee Burrooy. See Grarpint. BUFFALMACCO, Buonamico, in Biography, an hiftorical painter, was born at Florence in 1262, and was for fome years a difciple of Andrea Taffi. He poffeffed a fingular talent for droll humour, and is faid to be the firft who devifed the ufe of a label drawn from the mouth of a figure for reprefenting that figure as {peaking ; though fentences wrote over the heads of figures had before been praCtifed by Cimabue. He died in 1340. Pilkington. BUFFALO, in Zoology. See Bunarus. BUFFALOE, in Geography, a townfhip of America, weit of Sufquehannah river in Penofylvania. Burratosr, a river of America, in the Tenneflee govern- ment, which runs S. W. into Tenneffee river, in N. lat. 35° xro!.— Alfo, a water of the Ohio, which enters it at the fouth bank, 60 miles above the mouth of the Wabath. Burraroe Creek, a creek of North America in New York, conneG@ed with Niagara river near its mouth, oppo- fite to lake Erie. The Seneca Indians have a town 5 miles from its mouth, which is able to furnifh So warriors. This creck is navigable 5 miles. N. lat. 42° 52/. BUF Burraroe Lake, alake of North America, fituate-near Copper-mne river, in the country of the Copper Indians, N. lat. 66°.—Alfo alake of North America, which receives the Beaver river, about 25 miles long, and from 2 to 10 wide. N. lat. 55° 55’. W. long. 108° 55’. Burratoe Lick. See Great Rincse. Burraroe Lowlands, a tra of land, in Northumber- land county, Pennfylvania, about 8$ miles S. E. from Prefque ifle. Burratoe’s Bay, lies within the point of the cape of Good Hope, acrois which from point to point is a ledge of rocks continuing northward to the fouth point of the ens trance into Simon’s bay, on the weft fide of Falle bay. Burraroe’s Point, lies abeve Rongufoula river, on the approach to Hughly river in Bengal, about haif way in the bight between Jeflore and Culpe rivers. Ships ftop here which do not venturehigher up into the Hughly river. BUFFAROLO, a town of Italy, in the Milancle; 17 miles W.of Milan. BUFFEL, Burrerus, Burrir. See Bos Busatus, BUFFET, or Beaurer, was anciently a {mall apart. ment or'recefs, feparated from the reft of the roem by means of flender wooden pillars, in which were depofited china, glafs-ware, &c. It was fometimes called a cabinet. The term has fince been fometimes applied to a large table, more ufually called a ‘*fide-board,”’ furnifhed with drawers, and ferving either for convenience or fhew, to receive plate, bot- tles, glaffes, &c. In France, among perfons of diltinétion, the buffet is a detached room, decorated with piGures, ex- hibiting fountains, cifterns, and vafes, and commonly faced with marble or bronze. Among the Italians, the buffet; called ‘*credenza,”’ is inclofed within a baluftrade as high as the elbow. BUFFETTO, in Geography, a town of Swiflerland, in the Valteline, feated on the fouth fide of the river Adda, N, lat. 46° 2!. E. long. 9° 50!. BUFFIER, Craupe, in Biography, an ingenious writers was born of French parents, in Poland, in 1661, and edu- cated at Rouen. He entered among the Jefuits at Paris in 1679, and afterwards fixed his refidence at the college of the fociety in that city. Befides his engagements with the compilers of the Memoires de T'revoux, he wrote a great variety of works, fome of which have been much efteemed. But his moft celebrated performance is his ‘‘ Traité de pres miers Verités, &c.’? or treatife of firft truths, and of the fources of our judgments; in which the opinions of philofophers on the firit notions of things are examined ; Paris, 1724, I2mo. The principles of this work are the fame with thofe adopted and expanded in the writings of Drs. Reid, Ofwald, and Beattie, under the denomination of Common Sense. His “ Elements of Metaphyfics, made intelligible to all Readers,” 1725, 12mo. isa work formed upon the fame plan. He was alfo the author of a ‘* French Grammar upon a new Plan,’? which was well received. His principal works have been colle&ted and publifhed under the title of ‘* Cours des Sci- ences fur des Principes nouveaux et fimples, &c.’”? or a courfe of {ciences on new and fimple principles, for the pur- pofe of forming the language, the underftanding, and the heart, in the ordinary commerce of life, 1732, fol. This laborious and ufeful writer died in 1737. Nouv. Dia. Hift. BUFFLES, or Burr, in Geography, an ifland of Africa, on the fouth coaft of Benin, in the mouth of the river Camarones, or Camonoars. BUFFON, Georce-Louis re CLerc, Count of, in Bio- graphy, an eminent naturalilt and writer, was the fon of a coun- fellorof the parliament of Dijon, and born at Montbard in Bure 4 gundy, “BUF ndy, ember the 7th, 1707. He manifefted an early Frclin to the feiences, which diverted him from purfuing the profeffion of the law, to which his firlt ftudies at Dijon were devoted, and for which his father had defigned him. The fcience which feems to have engaged his earlielt attach- ment was aftronomy ; with a view to which he applied with fuch ardour to the ftudy of ceometry, that he always carried in his pocket the elements of Euclid. At the age of 20, he travelled into Italy, and in the courfe of his tour he directed his attention to the phenomena of nature more than to the produ€tions of art; and at this early period he was alfo ambitious of acquiring the art of writing with eafe and elegance. In 1728 he fucceeded to the eftate of his mother, eltimated at abont 12,0001. a year; which, by rendering his circumftances affuent and independent, enabled him to ia- dulge his tafte in thofe {cientific refearches and literary pur- fuits, to which his future life was devoted. Having con- cluded his travels, at the age of 25, with a journey to England, he afterwards refided partly at Paris, where, in 1739, he was appointed fuperintendant of the royal garden and cabinet, and partly on his eftate at Montbard. Al- though he was fond of fociety, and by no means infenfible to the attraGions of the fair fex, he was indefatigable in his application, and is faid to have employed 14 hours every day in ftudy. We learn from the biographical anecdotes relat- ing to him, colleéted by Herault de Sechelles, and publithed in Peltier’s “ Paris, pendant l’Année 179%, et l’Année 1796,” that he would fometimes return from the fuppers at Paris at two in the morning, when he was young, and order a boy to call him at five; and if he lingered in bed, to drag him out on the floor. At this early hour it was his cuftom, at Montbard, to drefs, powder, dictate letters, and regulate his domettic concerns. At fix he retired to his ftudy, which was a pavilion called the tower of St. Louis, about a furlong from aa houfe, at the extremity of the garden, and which was accommodated only with an ordinary wooden defk and an arm chair. Within this was another fantuary, denomi- nated by prince Henry of Pruffia “ the Cradle of Natural Hiftory,” in which he was accuftomed to compofe. On this retreat no one was fuffered to intrude. At nine his breakfaft, which confifted of two glafles of wine and a bit of bread, was brought to his ftudy; and after breakfaft he wrote for about two hours, and then returned to his houfe. At dinner he indulged himfelf in all the gaietics and trifles which occurred at table, and in a freedom of converfation, which obliged the ladies to withdraw. When dinner was finifhed, he paid little attention cither to his family or guelts ; but having flept about an hour in his room, he took a folitary walk, and then he would either converfe with his friends or fit at his defk, examining ed that were fub- mitted to his judgment. This kind of life he paffed for 50 years; and to one who exprefied his aftonifhment at his great reputation, he replied, “ Have not I {pent fifty years at my defk?”? Atnine he retired to bed. In this courfe he prolonged his life, notwithftanding excruciating fufferings occafioned by the gravel and ftone, which he bore with fin- ular fortitude and patience, to his 8ift year; and retained Eis fenfes till within « few hours of his diffolution, which happened on the 16th of April, 1788. His body was em- tained and prefented firft at St. Medard’s church, and afterwards conveyed to Montbard, where he had given orders in his will to be interred in the fame vault with his wife. His funeral was attended by a great concourfe of academi- cians, and perfons of rank and literary diftin@tion ; and a crowd of at lealt 20,000 fpe@ators afflembled in the ilreets through which the hearfe was to pals. When his body was opened, 57 ftones were found in his bladder, fome of which Vou. V. BUF were a; large asa {mall bean; and of thefe 35 were cry ftallized in a triangular form, weighing altogether 2 ownces and 6 drams. All his other parts were perfedily found; his brain wae found to be larger than the ordinary fize; and it was the opinion of the gentlemen of the faculty who examined the body, that the operation of lithotomy might have been per- formed without the leaft danger; but-to this mode of relief M. Buffon had invincible objeGions. He left one fon, who fell a viGiim to the atrocities under Robefpierve. Tis fon had ereéted a monument to his father in the gardens of Mont- bard ; which confifted of afimplecolumn, withthisinfeription : s° Excelfe turri humilis columna Parenti {uo filius Burron, 1785." The father, upon feeing this monument, burft into tears, and faid to the young man, “ Son, this will do you honour.” Buffon was a member of the French Academy, and per- petual treafurer of the Academy of Sciences. With a view to the prefervation of his tranquillity, he wifely avoided the intrigues and parties that difgracefully occupied molt of the French literati in his time; nor did he ever reply to ‘the attacks that were made upon his works. In 1771 his eftate was ereCted into a comté ; and thus the decoration of rank, to which he was by — indifferent, was annexed to the fuperior dignity he had acquired as one of the moft diftinguithed members of the republic of letters. Before we give an account of his works, we fhall mention a few particulars relating to his perfon and character. His figure was noble and manly, and his countenance, even jn ad~ vanced age, and notwithitanding excruciating pains, which deprived ee of fleep fometimes for 16 fucceffive nights, was calm and placid, and exhibited traces of fingular intelligence. Vanity, however, which feemed to have been his predominant paffion, extended even to his perfon and to all its exterior ornaments. He was particularly fond of having his hair neatly drefled, and for this purpofe he employed the frifeur, in old age, twice or thrice a day. To his drefs he was peculiarly attentive; and took pleafure in appearing on Sundays before the peafantry of Montbard in laced clothes. At table he indulged in indelicate and licentious pleafantries, and he was fond of hearing every gofliping tale which his attendants could relate. In his general intercourfe with females he was as lax and unguarded as in his converfation. During the life of his wife, he was chargeable with frequent infidelities ; and he proceeded to the very unwarrantable ex- treme of debauching young women, and even of employing means to procure abortion. His confidence, in the latter period of his life, was almoft wholly engroffed by a. made- moifelle Bleffeau, who lived with him for many years. His vanity betrayed itfelf on a variety of occafions in relation to his literary performances. Thefe were often the fubjeds of his difeourfe, and evenof hiscommendation. When he was recommending the perufal of capital works in every depart- ment of tafte and feience, he added, with fingular prefump- tion and felf-confidence; ‘ Capital works are fcarce; 1 know but five great geniufes ;—Newton, Bacon, Leibnitz, Montefquieu, and my/z/f?? He was in the babit of reciting to thefe who vifited him whole pages of his compoiitions, for he feemed to know them almott all by heart ; but not- withttanding his vanity, he liftened to objections, entered into a difeuflion of them, and furrendered his own opinion to that of others, when hig judgment was convinced. He exprefled himfelf with rapture concerning the pleafures accruing from ftudy ; and he declared his preference of the writings to the converfations of learned men, which almoft always difap- pointed him; and therefore he voluntarily fecluded himfelf trom focicty with fuch, and in company was fond of trifling. He maintained, however, an extenfive correfpondence with res fevera) BU FF ©.N. feveral perfons of rank and eminence ; and particularly with prince Henry of Pruffia, and with the late emprefs of Ruffia, who ably.criticifed fome of his opinions, and favoured with great zeal in her dominions his refearches in natural hiftory. Of his literary vanity he gave evidence even towards the clofe of life ; alleging that he feared not death, and that the hope ofimmortal renown was the moft powerful of death-bed con- folations. He took great pains in forming the ftyle of his writings; and as compofition was to him a difficult tafk, he repeatedly revifed his works before he publifhed them. Such was his attention to ftyle, that he could not bear the leaft deviation from accuracy and propriety in the ufe of language. “The flyl¢,” faid he, ‘is the man; our poets have no ftyle; they are coerced by the rules of metre, which makes flaves of them.’? To this circumftance it was owing that he abandoned poetry which he attempted in his youth, and reftricted himfelf to profe. Two things,” fays he, “* form ftyle, invention and expreflion. Invention dependson patience ; contemplate your fubjeét long; it will gradually unroll and un- fold—till a fort of ele¢tric {park convulfes for a moment the brain, and fpreads down to the very heart a glow of irritation. Then are come the luxuries of genius, the true hours for produétion and compofition—hours fo delightful, that I have {pent 12 and 14 fucceflively at my writing-defk, and. ftill” been in a fate of pleafure.- It is for this gratification, yet more than for glory, that Ihave toiled. Glory comes if it can, and moltly does come. This pleafure is greater if you confult no books ; I have never confulted authors, till I had nothing left to fay of my own.’? Such was his regard to fame, that he deftroyed every paper which he thought ufelefs or unfinifhed ; and thus preferved his reputation from being maflacred by pofthumous publications. Ys Of the free fentiments which he had imbibed with regard to religion, his works afford ample evidence. They fuf- ficiently indicate his attachment to the fyitem of materialifm. « Religion,” faid he to one who was reading to him verfes on the immortality of the foul, ‘* would be a noble prefent, if all that were true.””? Notwithftanding the licentioufnefs of his religious opinions, as well as of his moral conduét, he conformed to the external rituals of religion, adding, as fome will fay, hypocrify to his impiety ; when he was at Montbard, he received the annual communion in his feignorial chapel, attended high mafs every Sunday, and diftributed a louis weekly among different defcriptions of pious beggars. “ There muft,” he faid, * be a religion for the multitude ; and we fhould avoid giving offence.” “ I havealways,’”’ he added, in converfation with a friend, ‘‘ named the Creator ; but it is only putting, mentally, in its place, the energy of nature, which refults from the two great laws of attraction and impulfe. When the Sorbonne plagued me, I gave all the fatisfa@ion which they folicited ; it was a form which I defpifed, but men are filly enough to be fo fatisfied. For the fame reafon, when I fall dangeroufly ill, I fhall not hefitate to fend for the facraments. This is due to the public reli- gion. Thofe who a& otherwife are madmen.”? Thus, as he boafts, he avoided fharing the mifchievous attacks which Voltaire, Diderot, Helvetius, and others had made upon religion, whilft, by the avowal of fuch licentious fentiments in converfation, and by the opinions circulated in his writings, he was perpetually fapping its foundations, and counteracting every obligation of truth and integrity. But let us divert eur attention from the principles and character of Buffon, which have been fufficiently developed, and which no reflect- ing perfon can contemplate without difguft, to his works. In this view of him he appears with much greater advantage. His firft publication was a tranflation from the Englith of * Hales’s Vegetable Statics,” in 1735; which was followed in 1740 by a tranflation from the Latin of “ Newton’s Fluxions.”” His ‘ Theory of the Earth”? was firft pub- lifhed in 1744, which was included in his moft comprehen- five celebrated work entitled ‘‘ Natural Hiftory, general and particular,’? which commenced in 1749, and at its comple- tion in 1767 extended to 15 vols. gto. or 31 vols. 12mo, Supplements were afterwards added, amounting to feveral more volumes. In the anatomical part the author was aided by M.d’Aubenton; but in.all the other parts Buffon him- felf difplays his learning, genius, and eloquence, and he alfo indulges his fancy, in exploring and delineating the whole economy of nature. He begins with a theory of the earth, which, as well as the other planets, he fuppofes to have been originally a mafs of liquefied matter, dafhed out of the body of the fun by the violentillapfe of acomet. He then covers it with ocean, from which he forms ftrata by depofition, and mountains by the flux and reflux of thetide. Subterraneous fires, eruptions, and earthquakes, produce other changes ; and the world we now inhabit is but the ruins of a former world. For a more particular account and examination of his theory, fee Eartu and Praners. In his account of the population of the earth with living creatures, he invefti- gates the analogies between vegetable and animal life ; and in explaining the myftery of animal generation, he allows ample range to his imagination in a variety of hypothefes and conjectures. He c®nceives certain “ living organic mole- cules,”? of the fame nature with organized beings, to exift equally in animal and vegetable matter; and thefe, in the procefs of nutrition, to be received into ‘‘ internal moulds,’ of which animal and vegetable bodies are formed, where they are aflimilated into the fame fub{tance as the parts to which they are tran{mitted, and thus nourifh them. When this nutritive matter fuperabourds, it is detached from all parts of the body, and depofited in a fluid form in one or more refer- voirs. ‘This .conititutes a prolific matter, which is ready for producing a new animal or vegetable, of the fame fpecies, when it meets with a proper matrix. The fuppofed feminal animalculz are only thefe organic particles, which are fimilar in both fexes, but muft unite in order to. produce a new ani- mal by the procefs of generation. See GENEKATION. Buffon’s natural hiftory of animals commences with that of man; whom he traces from the cradle to the grave, through the developement and maturation of his bodily organs and mental powers, the nature and operation of his fenfes, and the feveral varieties of his fpecies, introducing and intermixing in the refearch many curious difeuffions. He then invetti- gates and unfolds the nature of brute animals in general ; and marks the diftinétion between them and men, by denying them a foul, and a memory, properly fo calle’, and making all their ations to {pring from external impreffions. The clafs of quadrupeds occupies the whole remainder of this firft work. ‘To his hiftory of quadrupeds he added, in 1776, a fupplementary volume, which, befides an ingenious diflerta- tion on mules, contains the hiftory and figures of feveral new animals, and valuable additions to moft of thofe defcribed in ‘the original publication. Difdaining the arrangements of fyftematic naturalilts, he has rejected all the received princi- ples of claffification, and has thrown his {ubjeéts into groups, laxly formed from general points of refemblanee. Not con- tent with deviating from eftablifhed modes of diltribution, he ridicules the authors of fy{tematic arrangements, and particu- larly the late ingenious and indefatigable Linneus, whofe zeal and labours in iaveftigating and clafiing natural objects entitle him to the higheft applaufe. It is hardly neceffary to remark, that he has adapted his ftyle to the particular fubjeéts of his difcuflion. Whilft the mere enumeration of faéts, ordefcriptions of the figure, dimenfions, and colour ofani- mals, : BUFFON. “mals, admit of no other ornament than that of perfpicuity; topics of philofophy and argument require a higher ‘and more figurative expreffion; and addreffes to the and finer feelings of men, allow full fcope to the exercife of genius and of tafte. Of thefe different ies of writing, the works of Buffon afford nume- rous examples. It has been obferved, however, that his ftyle occafionally rifes above the level of his fubje& ; and this is particularly the cafe, when he is paiating in glowing ‘colours the manners and habits of the len, the horfe, the elephant, and others of his favourite fubjeéts. By the in- dulgence of this paffion for high painting, he has been be- trayed into a deviation from the limits of fimple truth, and has been led to wander into the regions of fancy. In parti- cular and minute obfervation he excels, and by his in- defatigable refearches he has made a very copious addition to the treafure of authenticated fads. In fome cafes he has been mifled by an undue attachment to theory, as well as by the ambition of diftinguifhed eloquence. “ On various to- pics,” fays a judicious biographer, he had formed gene- ral theorems, which he was inclined to fupport againit ex- ceptions by denying or neglecting the inftances produced on the other fide. Farther, he not unfrequently gives the mere inferences from his opinions as if they were known and tried faéts; thus dangeroufly confounding hypothefis with _ that experience which is the only true bafis of all natural meters 2 He often attributes more to the operation of certain es, fuch as change of climate, domeftication, and the like, than fober reafon can warrant; and even, accord- ing to the tenor of his argument, fometimes afcribes oppo- fite effects to the very fame caufe. Thefe blemifhes mate- rially leffen the confidenee with which his work can be ufed 23 authority, and later inquirers are continually deteCting errors in his ftatements. Yet the great mafs of matter will probably always remain unimpeached ; and certainly no writer has ever done fo much to render natural hiftory en- tertaining, and to elevate its rank among the objeéts on which the human intelle& is employed. In one point, however, he will by many be thought to have derogated the true dignity and value of his fubjeQ. Hes every where the enemy of the doctrine of final caufes, and fubtti- tutes, to a defigning and benevolent author, the fortuitous operations of a certain unconfcious ** Nature,’? which as oft exhibits examples of blunder and defeét, as of fkilful and happy contrivauce.”? ‘ Studionfly to overlook fo beau- _ tifol mS of the economy of things, as the adaptation of “means to ends, rely as inconfiftent with the philofophical “as the religious f{pirit,” which may, poffibly, in fome in- ftances, have betrayed him into error. This “ fault is ag- gravated in Buffon by the pleafure he occafionally takes in declaiming upon the defeéts of nature, in a ftrain which would feem to impute malignity of intention to the Author of being, and which he appears to have derived from the thallow philofophy of his predeceffor Pliny. The moral reader of Baflon will Iikewife be frequently offended with the ffnefs of his defcriptions in all points relative to fex : in which he not only coe. ee an anatomical plainnefs of language, but, what is much wo adopts a ftudied fen{u- aliim, the obje&t of which is to exalt thie value of fexual ratifications, and make a propenfity to them oue of the indications of noblenefs of nature.’” “ After the completion of his hiftory of quadrupeds in 1767, Buffon was interru in’the progrefs of his labours by a fevere and tedious pofition ; and therefore the two firit volumes of his “ Hi of Birds” did not appear till the ear 1771. Inthe pofition of the greatelt part of thefe was indebted to the kbours of M. Gueneau de Montbeil- lard, who adhered fo clofely to Buffon’s mode of thinking and of expreffion, that the public could not perceive any ifference. The four fubfequent volumes were the joint pro- duétion of both writers ; and each author prefixed his name to his own articles. The three remaining volumes were written by Buffon himfelf, with the affittance of the abbé Bexon, who formed the nomenclature, drew up moft of the deferiptions, and communicated feveral important hints. The work was completed in 1783, but on account of the much greater number of {pecies of birds than of quadrupeds, the want of fyftematic arrangement is more to be regretted in this than in the other hiltory. A tranflation of Buffon’s “ Natural Hiftory,?? by Mr. Smellie of Edinburgh, com- prifed in’S vols. 8vo. was publifhed in 1781; to which a oth volume was added in 1786, containing a tranflation of a fupplementary volume of Buffon, and confifting chiefly of curious and interefting facts with regard to the hiltory of the earth. .The tranflator has omitted the anatomical difleGions and menfurations of M. D’Aubenton, which greatly enhanced the bulk, as well as the price of the ori- ‘inal, and which the author himfelf had omitted in the laft Basie edition of his performance. There are likewife fome other omiffions, which are not very important ; refpeCtin the method of ftudying natural hiftory, methodical diftribu- tions, and the mode of defcribing animals. ‘Thefe omiffions have been amply compenfated by the tranflator’s addition of fhort diftin&tive defcriptions to each f{pecies of quadrupeds, of the figures of feveral new animals, and of the fynonyms, as well as the generic and {pecific characters given by Lin- neus, Klein, Briffon, and other naturalifts, together with occafional notes. A tranflation of Buffon’s “* Hiftory of Birds,” in 9 vols. Svo. with notes and additions, was alfo publifhed by Mr. Smellie in 1793. . In 1774, Buffon began to paphts a * Supplement”® to his Natural Hiftory, confilting of the ‘ Hiltory of Minerals,” The firft volume contains an account of his BuRNING glaf, for which, fee that article. Thefe fupplemental volumes, of which the 5th, in 4to., appeared in 1778, contain many curious and valuable experiments, as well as much theory, too lax for the rigour of modern {cience. The concluding volume may be confidered asa kind of philofophical romance. It comprehends what the author fancifully denominates the “© Epochas of Nature,”’? or thofe great changes in the ftate of the earth which he fuppofes to have ince refulted from his hypotheis of its original formation out of the fun. Of thefe epochas he enumerates feven, of which fix are fup- pofed to have been previous to the creation of man. In the defeription of thefe epechas, as to both their caufes and ef- fects, the author has indulged the {port of fancy, and formed a fort of fairy tale, which he has contrived to render amufing and 1 tive. Such as we have recounted are the prin- cipal ks of this great author, which have been colleéted and publifhed in 35 vols. 4to. and 62 vols. 12mo.; and of the whole or parts of which new editions occafionally appear. After he had completed his ‘ Hiltory of Minerals,” he had formed a defign. of compofing the “ Hiftory of Vege- tables ;”” but this project was defeated by his death. Several of the fubjeéts that occur in his “ Natural Hillory,”’ and its fupplements, haye been difcuffed in feparate memoirs, and may be found in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, for the years 1737) 1738, 1739) 1741s and 1742. Some account of them will be found in different articles of this diétionary, See particularly AccipenTaL Golurt, Hzat, Macwetism, Timur, &c. Nouv. Di&. Hit. Eneyclopedie Phyfique, tom.i, Lett. de Herault Sechelles, whi fupra, Smellie’s Tranilations. Gen. Bigg. BULPFONL, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Pauco, called by 3 P2 Latha BUF Latham the Cayenne ring-tail, as being an inhabitant of that part of the world. It is fpecifically diftinguifhed by having the cere blae ; legs yellow ; body above dark brown, beneath reddifh-buff ; eye-brows yellow ; tail fafciated with pale, and dufky brown. Gmel. &c. Length of this bird two feet. BUFFOON, a droll, or mimic, who diverts the public by his pleafantries and follies. -Menage, after Salmafius, derives the word from éuffo ; a name given to thofe who ap- peared on the Roman theatre with their cheeks blown up 3 that, receiving blows thereon, they might make the greater noife, and fet the people a laughing. Others, as Rhodi- ginus, make the origin of buffoonery more venerable ; deriv- ing it from a feat inftituted in Attica, by K. Enctheus, called BUPHONIA. Buffoons are the fame with what we otherwife find deno- minated fcurre, gelafiani, mimilogi, miniffelli, goliardi, jocula- tores, €3c. whofe chief fcene is Jaid at the tables of great men. Gallienus never fat down to meat without a fecond table of buffoons by him. Tillemont alfo renders panto- mimes by buffoons; in which fenfe he obferves, the fhews of the buffoons were taken away by Domitian, reftored by Nerva, and finally abolifhed by Trajan. Crevier’s Hiit. of the Emperors, vol. vil. p. 45. BUFFY COAT, or fize of the blood, in Medicine. See Boop, appearances of. BUFO, in Entomology, a {pecies of Bomnyx, that inhabits Germany. The wings are yellowifh, with a broad brown band, and yellow fpots. ~Fabr. Buro, a fpecies of Curcutto, that inhabits Siberia. The colour is fufcous ; wing-cafes flightly reticulated, with a white ftripe in the middle. Frabr. Buro, in Zoology, the fpecific name of the common toad, rana bufo of Linneus, and other Latin writers. Gmelin adopts the concife defcription of the Linnean Fauna Suesica, “ corpore lurido fufcoque,”’ for this fpecies. But, befides the body of the toad being lurid and fufcous, the back is marked with tubercles, which ought likewife to be diftinétly noticed in its fpecific charaéter. The defcription given of it by Roefel is not amifs, * Bufo terreftris, dorfo tuberculis exafperato, oculis rubris.” Hift. Ran. Authors make three or four varieties of the common toad. The var. B of Gmelin, is dufo calamita of Laurenti; the back of this kind is olivaccous with an unequal, clear, yellowith- red, band down each fide. y, another variety, Laurenti defcribes under the name of dufo viridis, the body being marked with confluent green {pots, and warts: thofe warts which rife within the area of the green {pots are of the fame colour, while the reft, which are fituated in the fpaces be- tween them, are red, upon a bicoloured ground. 2. bufo obftetricans of Laurenti is diftinguifhed by being of a {maller fize than either of the preceding. In Aét. Parif. 17et, this laft variety is deferibed under the title of ufo terrefiris minor. Independently of thefe, which may be confidered as permanent varieties of the common toad, it fhould be ob- ferved, that different individuals exhibit a great diverfity in their general colours, markings, the fize of the dorfal tuber- cles, and other particulars.. The olivaceous hues with darker variations prevail moft commonly. In the early part of fum- mer they are fometimes found with the fhoulders and limbs marked with reddifh fpots, and the under parts of the limbs and body tinged with yellow. The toad, fays an ingenious writer, is the moft deformed and hideous of all animals: the body is broad, the back flat, and covered with a pimply dufky hide, the belly large, fwagging, and {welling out, the legs fhort, and its pace laboured and crawling ; its retreat gloomy and filthy: in thort, its general appearance is fuch as to {trike one with I BUF difguft and horror. Yet it is faid by thofe who have refolu- tion to view it with attention, that its eyes are fine.; to this it feems that Shakfpeare alludes, when he makes-his Juliet remark, ‘* Some fay the lark and loathed toad change eyes,” as if they would have been better beftowed on fo charming a fongiter, than on this raucous animal. Pennant. The eyes are uncommonly beautiful, being furrounded by a reddifh- gold coloured iris, and the pupil, when in a flate of contrac- tion, appearing tran{verfe. Rana bufo aud its varieties appear to be confined exclue fively to the European continent. It inhabits woods, gar- dens, fields, and damp fhady places, and frequently makes its way into cellars, or any obfcure receffes in which it.may oc- cafionaily conceal itfelf ; and where it may find a fupply of food, or a fecurity from too great a degree of cold.. In the early part of {pring, like others of this genus, it retires to the waters, where it continues during the breeding feafon, and depofits its ova or {pawn in the form of double neck- lace-like chains or {trings, of beautifully tranfparent gluten, and of the length of three or four feet,in each of which are difpofed the ova in a continued. double feries through- out the whole length, having the appearance of fo many {mall jet-black globules or beads. ‘hefe globules are, ia reality, no other than the tadpoles, or larve convoluted into a globular form, and waiting for the period of their evolu- tion, or hatching, which takes place in the {pace of about fourteen or fifteen days, when they break from the furround- ing gluten, and, like the tadpoles of frogs, {wim about in the water, and are nourifhed by various animalcules, gluten, leaves of aquatic plants, &c. When thefe have arrived at their full growth, the legs are formed, the tail gradually becomes obliterated, and the animals leave the water, and betake themfelves to the furface of the ground. ‘his ge- nerally happens early in the autumn. The time of their propagation is very early in the {pring : at which feafon the females are feen crawling about op- preffed by the males, who continue on them for hours, and adhere fo faft as to tear the fin from the parts to which they ftick. The number of females appears to be greatly difpro- portionate to that of the males in general, It is afferted by Mr. Arfcott, a gentleman of Devonfhire, who favoured Mr. Pennant with a circumftantial account of a favourite toad kept for nearly forty years in his houfe, and a curfory hiftory of the toads, that he has commonly known thirty males to one female: twelve or fourteen of the former he has feen clinging round a fingle female at one time. But this is even far lefs remarkable than the obfervation of the late Mr. John Hunter, who afflured Mr. Pennant, that dure ing his refidence at Belleifle, he had diffe€ted fome hundreds of toads, and yet never met with a fingle female amongft them. That the female toad receives the obftetrical affiftance of the male on fome occalions is a fact eftablifhed on the beft authority. Mr. Demours, in particular, has given a full and accurate account of fuch a circumftance in the Memoirs of the French Academy, that deferves attention. It has been more than once repeated by later writers, but cannot ftill, with propriety, be omitted in this place. The memoir is thus tranflated by Dr. Templeman : “¢ In the evening of one of the long days in fummer, Mr. Demours, being in the king’s garden, perceived two toads coupled together at the edge of an hole, which was formed, in part, by a great {tone at the top. “Curiolity drew him to fee what was the occafion of the motions he obferved, when two facts, equally new, furprifed him. The firft was the extreme difficulty the female had in laying her eggs, infomuch that fhe did not teem BUF feem capable of being delivered of them without fome affift- ance. he fecond was, that the male was mounted on the Back of the female, andvexerted all his ftrength with his hinder feet in pulling out the eggs, whillt his fore-feet em- braced her breait.. : ieee * In order'to apprehend the manner of his working in the delivery of the female, the reader mult obferve that the paws of thefe animals, as well thofe of the fore-feet, as of the hinder, are divided into feveral toes which can perform the office of fingers. « Témutt be remarked, likewife, that the eggs of this fpecies of toads are included each in a membranous coat that is very in which is contained the embryo: and that thefe which are oblong, and about two lines in length, being faftened one to another by a fhort, but very ftrong cord, form a kindsof:chaplet, the beads of which are diftant from each other about the half of their length. It is by drawing this cord with his paw, that the male performs the funétions of a midwife, and acquits himfelf in it. with a dexterity that one would not expect from fo lumpifh aa apimal. “© The prefence of the obferver did not a little difeompofe the male: for fome time he {topped fhort, and threw on the curious impertinent a fixed look that marked his difquietnefs and fear; but he foon returned to-his-work.with more pre- cipitation than before, and a moment after he appeared. un- determined whether he fhould: continue it or not. The fe- male likewife difcovered her uneafinefs at the fight of the ~ ftranger, by motions that interrupted fometimes the male in his operation. At length, whether the filence and fteady pofture of the fpectator had diflipated their fear, or that the cafe was urgent, the male. refumed his work. with the fame vigour, and fuccefsfully performed his.funCtion.”” oThe hideous appearance of the toad, Mr. Pennant remarks, is fach as to have rendered it in all ages an. object of horror, and the origin of moft tremendous inventions. Elian makes its venom fo potent, that, bafilifk-like, it conveyed death by its very look and breath ; but Juvenal is content with making the Roman ladies who were weary of their hufbands, form a potion from its eatrails,.in order to getsrid of the good man : * Occurrit matrona-potens, que molle-calenum: Porre@tura viro mifcet fitiente rubetam.”” Sat. I. This opinien begat others of a more dreadful nature ; for in after times fuperftition gave it preternatural powcrs, and BUF animals, fuch as buzzards, owls, Norfolk plovers, ducks, and fnakes, neither of which, Mr. Pennant concludes, would touch them were they in any degree noxious. It appears, however, from the experiments of Laurenti, that although the toad does not poifefs any poifonous pro- perties, it is not perfe@ly innoxious to the fmaller tribe of animals. He found that {mall lizards, on biting the com- mon toad, were for fome time difordered and paralytic, and even appeared dead, though they completely recovered after- wards. He alfo obferved, that dogs, on feizing a toad, and camying it for fome little time in their mouth, will appear to. be affeéted with a very flight {welling of the lips, accom- panied by an increafed evacuation of faliva; the mere effeét of the lightly acrimonious fluid which the toad, on irritation, exudes from its fkin, and which feems at leaft to be produc- tive of no dangerous fymptoms in fuch animals as happen to talte or fwallow it. For a further account of this creature, fee the articles Toap,and Raya. BUFONIA, in Botany, faid by Dr. Smith, in Englih Botany, to have been fo named by Linneus after the cele- brated Count Buffon atthe inftigation of Sauvage, but with the invidious addition of the trivial name tenuifolia, to ex-. prefs the /lenderne/s of that great zoologilt’s claim to a botanical honour, and with the malicious omiffion of one f in the generic name; whence it feems rather to be derived from the Latin word Bufo which fignifies a toad. Ventenat actually adopts this etymology, and fays the name was given it on account of its growing in mar/by places. Dr. Wither- ing feems to have entertained the fame idea when he called it-toad-grafs. . Gzytner, Schreber, Profeffor Martyn, and Dr. Smith have added the. other f; but we have preferred the original. fpelling_of Linnzus, which has been followed by moit other authors. Linn.. Reichard i180, Willd. 260. Gart. 1243. Jufl. p. 300. Vent. vol. jii. p. 238. Clafs and -order, tetrandria digynia. Nat. ord. Caryophyl- lea, Juls. Vent. Gen, Char. Ca/. perianth four-leaved, ereét,. permanent : leaflets awl-fhaped, keeled, membranaceous at the margin, Cor. petals four, oval, ere&, equal, fhorter than the calyx. Stam. filaments four, equal, the length of the germ. An- thers twin. Pi. germ ovate, compreffed : aytes two, the length of the flamens: ttigma fimple. Peric. capfule oval, comprefled, one celled, two-valved. Sveds two, oval, com- prefied with a fwelling, convex on one fide. Ef, Char. Calyx four-lcaved : petals four: capfule one- made it a principal ingredient in the incantations of nocturnal, celled, two-valved, with two feeds. hags: ° ‘Toad that under-the cold. ftone Days and nights has, thirty-one, 2 _ Swelter’d venom fleeping got, Boil thou, firft i? th’ charmed pot.” Shakfpeare. _p. 191. But.thefe, and other fimilar fables.of its venomous pro- ies, Mr. Pennant obferves-in another place, have been ie fince exploded. The notion of its being a poifonous animal, he conceives to have arifen from its exceflive. defor- mity, joined to the faculty it-has of emitting a juice from its pimples, and a dufky liquid from its hind-parts. That it poficffes any noxious qualities, this writer was unable to bring forward proofs in the fmalleft degree fatisfactory, though we have heard many ftrange relations on that point. On the contrary, he knew feveral of his friends who have taken them into their naked hands, and held them long, without receiving the leaft injury. It is well known that quacks have eaten them, and have befides fqueezed their juices into a glafs and drank them with impunity. We may ‘o fay, that thefe reptiles are a common food to many Obf. It is fometimes deficient in the numberof its ftamens. Species... 1..B, tenwifaiia, Linn. Sauvage Monf. 141. Ger. Prov. 400, Villars Dauph. 650. Hudfon H. Aug. 43% With. ed.. 3. v. ii. p. 305. Smith H. Brit. v.. i. Gert. Tab. 129. [. -16, La Marck Pl. 87. f. 3. bad. Eng, bot. 1312. ‘ Stem panicled; flowers lateral and terminal ; calyx ftriated.”? La Marck Illu{t. annua). Stems one or more, fix or eight inches high, flender, cre&, branched, round, leafy, fmooth. Leaves erect, oppolite, awl-fhaped, three ribbed connate, with a broad fheathing bafe. Flowers white, peduncled, forming a fpikelike pani- cle. Calyx-leaves, lanceolate, with a white edge. Germen fuperior ; /lyles fhort, diftant ; figmas capitate. Seeds large and rough. A native of dry fituations in Spain and the fouthern provinces of France, which invalidates Ventenat’s reafon for deriving the generic name from bufo, a toad. Its chief claim to a place in the Englifh Vlora refls on the au- thority of Plukenet, who bas certainly figured it, and af- ferts that it was found by the fea-fide near Bofton in Lin- colnfhire. On this ground Ray, who had fcen it near Montpellier, BUG Montpellier, but not in England, admitted it into ‘the fecond edition of his Synopfis. Dillenius, in the third edi- tion, fays it was found alfo by Doody, on Hounflow heath ; but it has not fince been difcovered in either of thofe places. 2. B. perennis, La Marck Wluf. Pl. 87. f. 2. “© Stems branched and bearing flowers near the top ; calyx leaves feariofe at the edge” perennial. Peduncles longer than in the preceding f{pecies, forming a panicle without the ap- pearance of a fpike. Frequent in dry ftony places in Auvergne. BUFONIS, in Zoology, a fpecies of ascarts found in the inteftines of the toad. The body of this kind is fili- form, and the tail rounded. It is viviparous. Goeze. Buronts, a fpecies of THNIA, or tape worm, that in- felts the inteftines of the toad. The anterior part is roundifh, behind filiform: head continued obiufe: joints invefted: with a thin membrane, cylindrical, and oblong ; margin filvery. Gmel. It is Tznia difpar. of Goeze. Obf. The colour is white, and opake. Length of the worm fix inches. BUFONITA, in Natural Hiflory, the vToap-flone. This is a foffil that has been received not only among the lift of native itones by the generality of authors, but even has held a place among the gems, and is ftill worn in rings by fome people: it 1s, however, as much an extraneous foffil, as any animal remaining of that kind. There has been a ftrong opinion in the world, that it was found in the head of an old toad; and that this animal voided it at the mouth, on being put on a red cloth. The general colour of the bufonita is a deep, dufky brown ; but it varies greatly in this refpe& in feveral {peci- mens, fome of which are quite black, others of an extremely pale, fimple brown, a cheftnut colour, liver colour, black, grey, or whitifh. The bufonite are ufually found immerfed in beds of ftone ; and fo little doubt is there of what they have originally been, viz. the petrified teeth of the /upus pifcis, or wolf fifh, that part of the jaw of the fifh has fometimes been found, with the teeth petrified in it. See GronpEur. The bufonitz are faid to be cordial and aftringent : many other fanciful virtuesare afcribed to them, which the prefent practice has rejeéted. Dr. Kramer fays, pulvis bufonum, when applied by way of poultice, with barley-flour and urine, is an excellent re- medy for ripening peftilential buboes, but that it has no fuch effe€& im venereal, or any other than peftilential bu boes. BUG, in Entomology. See Cimex. Buc, ia Geography, a river of Poland, which rifes in Red Ruffia, and after a winding courfe through the centre of the kingdom, joins the Viftula between Plociko and Warfaw. Buc-caterpillar, in Entomolocy, a name given by Bonnet to a {mall kind of caterpillar, which fmelis exatly like a bug. This is not the only {pecies which yields a fenfible {mell, for there is another which, at the time of the change into the chryfalis ftate, emits a very pleafant rofe-like {cent ; and their cafes, which are made of earth and filk, retain that f{mell for a long time after, even for feveral years. Many other infects in this {tate are known to have a peculiar fcent. See Larva. BUGA marble, in Natural Hiftory, a name given by the Spaniards to a fpecies of black marble, called by our arti- ficers the Namur-marble, and known among the ancient Romans by the name of marmor Luculleum. It is common in many parts of Europe, and is ufed by the Spaniards in 6 BUG medicine as well as in building; the powder of it being faid to bean excellent ftyptic, applied to frefh wounds. BUGALET, in Sea-language, a {mall veffel- with two maits, .ufed on the coaft of Britanny. The forematt is very fhort ; and on each malt is carried a fquare fail, and fome- times a top-fail over the main fail. Thefe veffels have a bowfprit, and fet one or two jibs. BUGARONIE, Care, in Geography, lies on the coal of Afvica, in the Mediterranean, between Bugia bay on the Weft, and Cape Ferra on the eaft. : BUGEAT, a town of France, in the department of the Correze, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of Uffel ; the town contains 629, and the canton 6011 inhabi- tants: the territory comprehends 3072 kiliometres and 12 communes. BUGEE, in Zoslogy, a fort of monkey mentioned by Ray in his Synopfis of quadrupeds. He tells us it is an Indian animal, and very rare even in India; that it is about the fize of the beaver, and much of the fame colour, but its tail and claws are wholly of the monkey kind. The fpecies meant by Ray is altogether uncertain. . BUGELUGEY, the name of a large fpecies of lizard, called by Clufius, and fome other authors; Liacertus indicus. This is Lacerta Ameiva of Gmelin. See AmEtva. , BUGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and middle mark of Brandenburg, to miles W. of Frankfort on the Oder. BUGENHAGEN, or Bucenuacius, Joun, in Bio- graphy, a learned proteftant divine, was born at Wollin in Pomerania, in 1485. From being a Catholic prieft and a violent oppofer of Luther’s doétrines on their firft promul- gation, he became a convert and zealous propagator of them in the north of Germany. At Wittenberg, where he was minilter, he was in high efteem both for his learning and moderation ; and his reputation induced Chriftiern LIT. king of Denmark, to invite him for the purpofe of fettling the reformation in that kingdom. In this arduous tafk he gave great fatisfaftion. He died at Wittenberg in 1558. OF his various works the moft worthy of notice are, “* Commen- taries on the Holy Scriptures,” in feveral volumes, 8vo. a ‘«* Harmony of the Evangelifts,”’ and a “* Hiftory of Pome- rania.””? Nouv. Di&. Hilt. Mofheim, E. H. vol. iv. p. 304. BUGEY, in Geography, a province or {mall diltrif of France, before the revolution, bordered on the eaft by Savoy, on the fouth by Dauphiny, on the weft by Breffe, aud on the north by. Franche Comté, and dependant on the government of Burgundy. It is about 20 leagues long, and t2 broad. Its capital is Belley. Before the time of Brennus, the Bugey, the traGt of land denominated Gex, and part of Brefle, formed a diltin€@ country; which is termed by Polybius the “ Celtic Delta,” in allufion to its triangular form. M. Peter I. 1. Bacon-Tacon in his * Re- cherches fur les Origines Ceitiques, &c.”? Paris, 1799, traces the primitive hiltory of Bugey to the firk ages of the world, and thinks that its mountains retain their original form; being a continuation of mount Jura, which is itfelf clofely conne&ted with the Alps.. He alfo endeavours to prove, that the worfhip of Ifis was, from time immemorial, ettablifhed inthe Bugey ; and that the topographical nomen- clature of the county is ftill in a manner entirely “ Ifiac.”? He is inclined, likewife, to fuppofe, that the inhabitants of this diitrié&t, 600 years before our zra, accompanied Bellov- efus, from the firlt part of whofe name is derived Belley, on his memorable expedition into Italy, where he founded the cities of Cremona, Vicenza, Aquileja, Pavia, Mantua, &e. From various concurring circumitances this author & alfo London and Dover. ¢ BUGGANZ, Baxa-Banya, or Buxanetz, a royal, free, and mine town of Hungary, in’ the Bath diltri@, formerly famous for its gold and filver mines, but now fub- fiting by tillage. It was facked and burnt by the Turks in 1664 ; 32 miles W. of Gran. é BUGGARD, a town of Denmark, in the ifland of Funen, 16 miles W. of Odenfc, or Ottenfee. BUGGENHAGII, in Jchthyclozy, a {pecies of cyprt- sus, diltinguifhed, according to Bloch, by having nineteen rays in the anal fin. The length of this fih is about twelve or fourteen inches : the body is of a blackifh colour above : compreffed on the fides, and filvery feales large: flefh white. This fort is found in the lakes of Germany and Sweden. BUGGERS, Bulgarii, anciently fignified a kind of he- retics, otherwife called Paterini, Cathari, and Albigenfes. The word is formed of the French Bougres, which figni- fied the fame, and that from Bougria or Bulgaria, the coun- try where they chiefly appeared. The Buggers are mentioned by Matthew Paris, in the reign of Henry III. under the name of Bugares. Circa dies autem illos invaluit heretica pravitas eorum qui vulgariter di- cuntur Paterini & Bugares, de quorum erroribus malo tacere quam logui. Buacer, or Buccerer, came afterwards to be ufed for a Sodomite ; it being one of the imputations laid, right or wrong, on the Bulgarian heretics, that they tauzbt, or at leaft prattiled, this abominable crime. Cafen. Orig. p. 27. Menag. Orig. p. 114. Trev. Did. Univ. tom. i. p. 1149. voc. Bougre. Du-Cange, Gloff. Lat. tom. i. p. 637. voc. Bulgari. ucGcer, Bulzarius, is alfo a denomination given to ufurers, a vice to which the fame heretics are faid to have been much adiéed. Du-Cange, Glofl. Lat. tom. i. P- 637. BUGGERY, in our Laws, fignifies the crime of fodomy ; it is faid to have been introduced into England by the Lom- bards, by whom it,is ufually fuppofed to have been borrowed from the Bougres, or Bulgarians. Sir Edward Coke defines buggery, carnalis copula contra naturam, et hoc per confufionem ees (viz. by a man’s or woman’s coupling with a brate it) vel fexuum, by a man’s having to do with a man, or a@ woman with a woman. The delicacy of the Englifh law treats this crime, in its very indi€tments, as not fit to be named, “ peceatum illud hor- ribile, inter Chriflianos non nominandum.” Rot. Parl. 50. Edw. If. n. 5%. A fimilar taciturnity was obferved by the edi& of Conftantius and Conflans. Cod. 9. 9. 31. This crime the voice of nature and of reafon, and the ex- prefs law of God (Lev. xx. 13. 15.) determine to be capital. OF this we have a fignal inflance long before the Jewith dif- penfation, in the deftrudtion of two cities by fire from hea- ven; fo that this is an univerfal, not merely a provincial precept. Our ancient law in fome degree imitated this pu- nifhment, by commanding fuch mifcreants to be burnt to death (Brit. c.9.); though Fleta (1.i.¢.37.) fays, they fhould be buried alive ; esther of which punifhments was indifferently ufed for this crime among the ancient Goths. Sticrn. de jure Goth. 1.3. c. 2, But now the general pu- . a ** e * BUG nifhment of all felonies is the fame, namely by hanging : and this offence (being in the times of popery only fubject to ecclefialtical cenfures) was made felony without benefit of clergy by ftatute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 6. revived and confirmed by 5 Eliz. c. 17. And the rule of law is, that if both are arrived at years of dilcretion, agentes et con/entientes pari pena plefantur. 3 Inft. 59. Ifthe perfon on whom it is committed be a boy under the age of difcretion (generally reckoned at fourteen), it is then felony only in the agent. All perfons prefent, aiding and abetting in this crime, are principals ; and the ftatutes make it felony generally. There may be acceflaries before and after the fact ; but they are not, like principals, excluded from benefit of clergy. ¥ Hale’s Hilt. P.C. 670. In every indi&ment for this offence, there muft be the words, “rem habuit veneream et carnaliter cognovit, &c.”? By the articles of the navy (art. 29. ftat. 22 Geo. II. c. 33.), this crime, committed by any peérfon in the fleet, is punifhed with death by the fentence of a court- martial. Buggery is ufually excepted out of our a&s of general pardon. This ‘ crime againit nature,’ fays judge Blackftone (vol.iv. p.215.), ought to be ftri@ly and impar- tially proved, and then as {tri€tly and impartially punithed. But it is an offence of fo dark a nature, fo ealily charged, and the negative fo difficult to be proved, that the accufa- tion fhould be clearly made out ; for, if falfe, it deferves a punifhment inferior only to that of the crime itfelf. Threats of charging perfons with this crime, or atual accufations, are methods to which the profligate frequently recur for the purpofe of extorting money, which is an aét of felony. BUGGESSES, in Geography. See Bont, and Bover- NESE. BUGIA, or Bovyeran, a large fea-port town of Afri- ca, in the kingdom of Algiers, and province of Conftan- tina. Jt is built upon the ruins of a large city, the fup- poled Salde of Strabo, conftruéted by the Romans at the foot of a high mountain that looks towards the north-eatt : a great part of the walls runs up to the fummit of the mountain, where is a caftle that commands the place, befides two others at the bottom, built for a fecurity to the port. It is one of the garrifoned towns of the kingdom, where three fuffrahs continually refide; but though the garrifon confilts of from two to three hundred men, it is not fufficient to overawe and prevent the depredations of the Kabyles, who difturb the town on every market-day, and are guilty of unfufferable rapine and barbarity.. The town is watered by a large river, called by Marmol and Dapper, “ Huet el ps a or the ‘ great river,” which is fuppofed to be the “ Nafava’”? of Ptolemy, as it difcharges itfelf into the fea a little to the eaftward, after having received a great number of rivulets. The harbour, called by Strabo the port of Sarda, or rather Salda, is formed by a narrow neck of land, that runs out into the fea; a great part of which was for- merly faced with hewn ftone. Over this was conduéted an aqueduét for fupplying the port with water, by difcharg- ing it into large bafons; but the well, aqueduét, and bafons are deftroyed: and the tomb of Seedy Bufgree, one of the tutelar faints of the place, is the only thing remaining worth notice. Bugia is a populous place; and the inhabitants carry on a confiderable trade in 8 ee oe mattocks, and fuch utenfils, which they manufacture of the iron fupplicd by the adjacent mines. Vhe Kabyles likewife furnith every market with great quantitics of oil, wax, and dried figs which are fhipped off for the Levant, and fometimes for Eu rope. They alfo fupply foap and timber fit for building. N. lat. 36° 35’. E. long. 5° 20’. BUGIE, a fea-port town of Egypt, on the weft coalt of the Red fea, nearly oppofite to Sidon, the port town of Mecca, BUG Mecca, and about 37 leagues weft of it. “N. lat. 22° 15’. E. long. 38° 40’. _ BUGINVILLABA, in Botany (named by Commerfon in honour of Bougainviile, the celebrated French circumna- vigator). Willd. 767. Juff.g1. Clafs and order, ofandria monogynia. WNat.ord. NyGagineey Juff. Gen. Char. Calyx none. Corol. tubular, a little {welling at the bafe, and contraéted about the middle, permanent, four-toothed. Filaments eight, inferted on the receptacle fhorter than the corolla. Germen iuperior, oblong. —Pericarp -one- feeded. _ Species, B. /pedalilis, La Marck, Mutt. Pl. 2y4. A beau- tiful evergreen fhrub.. Stem armed with recurved prickles placed a little above the axils of the leaves. Leaves alter- nate, petioled, roundifh-ovate, acuminate, very entire, veined. Panicle terminal ; peduncles three-flowered. Flower inferted on the midrib of a roundifh bra&e, refembling a leaf, and longer than the flower, feated on the common pe- duncle, and adhering to the bottom of the corolla. A na- tive of Brazil deferibed and figured from a dried fpecimen fent by Commerfon. BUGLANEH, in Geography. See Bacuana. BUGLAS. See Jfand of Necroes. BUGLE, in Botany. See Ayuca. Bucue, among Sportfinen, formed probably from the Saxon dugen, to bend, denotes a hunting-horn. In Heraldry, the bugle-horn is generally borne ftringed and garnifhed ; which circumftance muft be mentioned in the blazon. Bute, is alfo.ufed for a fhining bead of black glafs. BUGLIO, in Geography, a town of Swifferland, in the Valteline. N. lat. 46°. -E. long. 9° 40’. BUGLOSS, in Botany. See Ancnusa. Bucxross, common blue vipers. See Ecuium vulgare. Bucuoss, cocw/lips. See Purmonarta officinalis. Bucuoss, wild vipers. See Ecuium Jialicum. Bucuoss, fmall wild vipers. See AsperuGo procumbens. Buctoss, fea. See PurmMonaria maritima. BUGLOSSA, Brunf. Bucxossa Italica. Trag. Buctossa /ongifolia. Cord. j Buctossa vulgaris. Ger. Em. See Boraco officinalis. See Ly- See Ancuusa officinalis. Buctossa urbana. Cord. Buctossa fylusfris minor. Ray. Ger. Em. copsis arwenfis. BUGLOSSUM, a genus inftituted by Tournefort, the fpecies of which have been diftributed by Linnzus and his followers among the genera /ithofpermum, anchufa, and ly- copfis. It-has been revived by Gertner with the follow- ing effential character: *¢ Calyx five-parted ; corolla fun- nel-fhaped, orifice clofed with arched feales; {tamens five; ityle one; nuts four, one-celled, perforated at the bafe.’’ Buctossum orientale flore luteo. Tourn. SPERMUM orientale. Bucrossum Samium frutefcens. Tourn, See Lituo- SPERMUM frutico/um. Buctossum Chium arvenfe. Tourn. MUM tenwifforum. Buctossum Germanicum. Fuchf. Buctossum /ylveftre majus nigrum. Bauh. Pin. Buctossum Creticum. Boerh. folia. Buctossum angu/lifolium minus. Bauh. Pin. Morif. See Ancuusa anguflifolia. Buctossum foliis linguiformibus. Hal, excl. Syn. See Ancuusa Jtalica. See Litruo- See Livrnosper- See Ancnusa off- cinalis. © See Ancuusa angu/fli- BUG Bucrossum perenne magis fativum. Moril. See Axcuy< sA Iialica. ; Bucuossum anguflifolium majus. -Bauh. Pin. See An cHusa Jfalica. Buc tossum vulgare majus. Bauh. Hift. See Ancuusa Ttalica. Buctossum Lufitanicum. Tourn. See Ancuusa undu- lata. ; Bucuossum latifolium fempervirens. Bauh.-Pin. Mor. See Ancuusa /omperwirens. Buctrossum, Fuchf. See Boraco officinalis. ocLossum datifolium, borrago, Bauh. Pin. RAGO officinalis. Bucuossum fjlucflre, caulibus procumbentibus. Bauh. Pin. Sce AspEruGo procumbens. Buciossum procumbens. Morif. See Lycopsis vefi- caria. Bucrossum /jlvefre majus. Bauh. Pin. pulla. Buctossum annuum humile. Morif. See Lycorsis va- tiegaia. Buctossum fylveffre minus. Bauh. Pin. See Lycopsis See Bo- See Lycopsrs “AFVEN/IS. Buctossum .Africanum. Pluk. See Ecurum fruti- cafum. Bucuessum Januginofum. Rumph. See TournEFORTIA argentea. ‘Buctossum echivides. Lob. See Prcris echioides. Bucrossum Jittoreum. Rumph. See Scz#vora /obelia. ‘Bucxiossum orientale angujlifolium, fore parvo caerulea. Tourn. is quoted by Linnzus for his /ycopfis orientalis, a {pe- cies which he feems to have formed for it: as he gives no other fynonym, and had probably never feen the plant. Willdenow refers it to his anchu/a parviflora, a new {pecies introduced by himfelf, and defcribed from a-dried fpecimen, with no fynonym but this of Tournefort ; and ‘very incon- fiftently inferts alfo the Aycop/is orientalis of Linnzus, and the fame fynonym, without a comment. The plant of Lin- nus is defcribed with ovate leaves, that of Willdenow with linear ones.; in other refpects there is no inconfiftence in the {pecific characters. r ’ BUGLOSSUS, in Jchthyology, one of the names of the ‘common fole, pleuroncétes folea, which fee. BUGNON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Lower Pyrentes, and diltri& of Orthes, x league N.E. of Navarreins. BUGUE, 2 town of France, in the department of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of Sar- lat, 4 leagues S.W. of Montignac. The town ‘contains 2475, and the canton 811g inhabitants; the territory in- cludes 1972 kiliometres, and 12 communes. BUGULA, in Botany. See Ayuca, and Creonia. Bucuta orientalis villofa. Tourn. See AyuGa orientalis. Bucuta alpina maxima. Tourn. Bucuta folio maximo. Beth. Bucuta /folis angulofis. Hall.J « Bucuta ee a i See Ayuca geneven/is. Bucuta. Dod. Bucuta flagilifera. Hal. Bucuta foliis imis linearibus. Hal.Q See Ayuca chame- Bucuta chamepites. Scop. pityse Bucuta odorata lufitanica. Mont. nia lufitanica. BUGULM, or Bucutminsx, in Geography, a town and diftri@ of Ruffia, in the government of Ufa, feated on the Bugulm, a rivulet that falls into the Ik; 112 miles W. of Ufa. BUGURUSLANK, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- meut See Ajyuca alpina. See AJuGA reptans. Corn. See CreEo- rea * . f Fee he Oe ig ee wot > | Teen on the Kinel; 148 miles W.S.W. of (GEAR ataungneedas 463. miles E. of. of 2 om BUHEL, or Bvuut, a town of Germany, in the circle acme and margraviate of Baden, 6 miles S.W. of len- Baden. BUHLITZ, atown of Germany, inthe circle of Up- per Saxony and Farther Pomerania. : BUI, a town of Ruffia, ina diftri& of the fame name, pertaining to the government of Koltroma, feared on the river Koftroma, at its jun€tion with the river Vara. Bui, a river of Ruffia, which joins the Kama near Mu- evo. BUIE, a ftrong town of Iftria, belonging to the {tates of Venice, the refidence of a governor; g mies S. of Capo @’ Titria: BUILDING, 4rt of. The art of building is, perhaps, the molt ancient of allarts; clothing is reje&ted or dipeated with by fome favages, and in fome favoured climates the arts of procuring food are rendered almoft unneceflary by the un- folicited bounty of nature; but weare acquainted with no people that do not form dwellings, places of fhelter and fe- curity during the night, of affembly to the family, and ftore- houfes of the property, however trifling, that none are with- out. It isnot even confined to man; birds, beafts, and in- feéts have their architeéture ; but their modes, infpired by inftiné, are invariable as the- operations of nature ; to man alone is a= the principle of improvement. The forms and methods of building depend effentially on the nature of the materials furnifhed by the country, and the fate of fociety among its inhabitants; and, accordingly, nations very remote in fituation, and diitant in time, have re- fembled one another in thefe particuiars. Vitruvius relates that the Colchians, in the kingdom of Pontus, where they abound in forefts, fix trees in the earth clofe together in ranks tothe right and left, leaving as much fpace between them as the length of the trees will permit; upon the ends others are laid tranfverfely, which enclofe the {pace for ha- bitation in the middle; then at the top the four angles are braced together with alternate beams, and the roof is alfo formed by beams laid acrofs from the extreme angles gra- dually converging, and rifing from the four fides to the mid- dle point at the top, and then covered over with boughs and loam. The interflices which remain in the walls, on ac- count of the coarfenefs of the materials, are ftopped with chips andloam. ‘The reader will obferve how accurately this paflage defcribes the log-houfes of the American back-fettlers. On the other hand, the Phrygians (conti- nues Vitruvius) who inhabit achampaign country, deftitute of timber, feleét little natural hills, excavate them in the mid- dle, dig an entrance, and widen the {pace within as much as the nature of the place will permit ; above they fix ftakes in a pyramidal form, and cover them with reeds or ftraw, heaping thereon great pilesofearth. ‘This kind of covering readers them very warm in winter and cool in fummer. The habitations of the Phrygians thus defcribed, appear to re- femble very nearly the fubterraneous dwellings of the Samoy- edes pally, fear va The kind of cabin, however, moft frequently found among barbarous nations, is of a conical fhape, formed by branches of trees interlacing ene another, and meeting in a point at the fummit, their exterior furface being covered with reeds, orleayes, or clay, Such are the wigwams of the North American Indians, and the kraals of the Hottentots and Caffrees, But to proceed to civilized nations. The edifices of the E sone which are regarded as the earlielt monuments of OL. BUI wrought flone, are alfo the moll diftinguifhed in that method. The immenfe quarries of Egypt probably infpired the taite, as they furnifhed the materials, while the periodical over- flows of the Nile facilitated their tranfport. Thus favoured by nature, the energetic induftry of the ancient Egyptians delighted in every thing wonderful and gigantic ; the pyra- mids, immortal as the country, proud tombs which have long outlived the memory of the mighty kings whofe afhes they contain ; granite temples, extenfive as towns, aud laboured as cabinets, temples which enclofe in their courts, or fupport upon their roofs villages of the modern inhabitants; mile- long avenues of {phinxes, coloffal ftatues, and obelifks. The art of building, amongthe Egyptians, was reduced to the fimpleft principles ; unacquainted with arches, the doorways and other openings were covered with folid lintels, and the temples rooted with ae flabs, the walls, columns, and en- tablatures were formed of {tones of the largeit fize, perfectly wrought, and laid in horizontal courfes, without cement or ligatures ; the walls were of enormous thicknefs, and gene- rally diminifhing upwards, with a regular flope, in the man- ner of fortifications. The paflage within the great pyramid is roofed in a fingular manner with courfes of fones projeat- ing over one another, like inverted {teps, till they meet at the fummit ; thus fhewing a method of ceiling with flone which may be regarded as intermediate between the ufe of lintels and of arches. Some of the tombs alfo prefent examples of vaults hollowed in the folid rock, and of niches. So far, and, according to our prefent information, no farther did the Egyptians proceed towards the difcovery of arches. But we expect with impatience the account to be publifhed by the National Inftitute of France, when accurate meafure- ments, correét drawings, and minute refearch, condued | under all the advantages of leifure and proteétion, will re. place the hafty fleetches and imperfeé remarks of individuals, who, though deferving of applaufe and gratitude for having dene fo much, under circumitances of danger and difcou~ ragement, have left {till more to be defired. The fize of the mafles of {tone employed in thefe conftructions is altogether altonifhing, and difplays mechanical fkill and energy, which leave far behind all the fimilar enterprifes of modern nations. ' Thus, in the temple of Hermopolis, one of the leatt of the remains, the columns are g feet 6 inches in diameter, the architrave is*compofed of five ftones, each 23 fect long, and the frieze oF as many ; the only remaining {tone of the cor- nice is inlength 36 feet. Of the hundred columns of the portico of the temple at Karnac, the lealt is in diameter § feet, and the greateft 124 feet. The two obelifks at Luxor, of rofe-coloured granite,. are {till 7o feet above the ground, and to judge by the depth to which the coloflal ttatues which accompany them are burjed, we may reckon about o feet more concealed from the eye, making inall 100 feet for the height of thefe monuments. Their prefervation is perfe& ; the hieroglyphics with which they are covered are cut in deep and in relief at the bottom, and fhew the bold hand of a matter, and a beautiful finith. (Denon’s Travels in Egypt.) But the account which Herodotus gives of the monolythic chapel of the temple of Latona, at Buttis, is the molt extraordinary ; it was 40 cubitsin every dimenfion, and was covered by another fingle flone, 40 cubits fquare, and 4 cubitsthick. The fame hiftorian alfo informs us, that this enormous load was brought on rafts from the ifland of Pliloe to Buttis, a diftanee of ago leagues. ‘This is undoubtedly the greateft weight that has ever been moved by the power of man. The wonders of human indaftry alfo characterize the moe numents of the ancient inhabitants of India; but theiy ef. forts were direted, almoft exclufively, to excavation, The 39 caveg ‘ BUILDING. caves of Elephantina and Salf-tte, the feulptured rocks of Mavalipuram, and, above all, the vaft temples {cooped in the granite mountains of Ellora, rival, in the incalculable labour of their execution, the works of the Egyptians. The remains of Perfepolis retrace the ftyle of Egypt ; from whence it appears, that the Perfians received the art of building in wrought ftone. Diodorus Siculus relates, that it was not till after the conqueft of Egypt that they built the famous palaces of Sufa and Perfepolis, and that thefe great works were directed by Egyptian architects. The fame tafte for gigantic conftru€tions and extraor- dinary works in large ftones is found among nations who, without communication with thofe already mentioned, mutt reccive it from nature alone. When the Spaniards conquered Mexico and Peru, they remarked that the natives were ac- cuftomed to build edifices with large ftones, perfectly wrought and jointed, and laid without mortar; they had alfo tranfported from great diftances mafles of extraordinary dimenfions. Stonehenge, and various works of the fame nature, in our own country and on the continent, may alfo be mentioned as efforts of energetic conftruétion, which had preceded every thing of finifh and ornament. ‘Thus it fhould appear that this mode of building has every where been adopted previous to that with {mall ftones and mortar. The inhabitants of countries deprived of ftone quarries fupplied the deficiency by means of bricks. Thefe were at firft ufed crude, being merely dried in the fun, during a con- fiderable time ; but at length the manufacturers found the method by baking them to form bricks as folid and durable as ftone. Of this material were built the walls of Babylon and the temple of Belus, the moft ancient example of this mode of conftru€tion which hiftory records, and which were reckoned among the wonders of the world. We alfo learn that bitumen was ufed as cement in thefe buildings, which renders it probable that at this period the method of reduc- ing calcareous itones into lime to form mortar was not known. It is, however, to the difcovery of lime, that we owe the durability and perfeétion of cementitious building. Bitumen forms a porous conneftion which the air diffolves and the aGtion of the fun evaporates, while calcareous cements are capable of acquiring a hardnefs fuperior to that of the gene- rality of bricks and building {tones. The buildiags of the Greeks were at firft of wood and clay ; but they foon fubfituted ftone and marble to the beams and poits which formed their original edifices ; and thefe were fo regular and beautiful, that they offered a model, which art never loft fight of in the moft fumptuous decorations. From this imitation arofe the orders of archite@ure, and a reafoned fyftem, which, affigning to every member its ufe and fitua- tion, preferved its original form, and perpetuated the me- mory of the ancient art of building. The Greeks, favoured by nature with abundant quarries of marble and other build- ing ftones of the beft quality, proceeded on the fame fimple principles of conftru€tion which charaéterize the Egyptian monuments: large blocks of {tone fquared with mathemati- cal accuracy, and laid without cement ; openings covered with lintels, with a few exceptions of arches and vaults in the theatres and gymnafia; pediment roofs frequently covered with marble tiles. The obfervations of Mr. Reverly, given in the preface to the third volume of Stewart’s ‘* Antiquities of Athens,’ deferve tranfcription. “I fhall adda few words on the conftruction of the buildings of Athens, which have not been mentioned in this work. The temple of Minerva isan example of this important part of their architecture. The columns are all conftruéted of fingle blocks in diameter, and in courfes of more than a diameter in height: the wall enclofing the cellof the temple, is formed of a fingle courfe of marble blocks in thicknefs, fhewing a face infide and out- fide, the vertical joints correfyonding over each other, and in feventeen horizontal courfes, reckoning from the bottom of the architrave tothe top of the upper ftep, rifing toa height of thirty-three feet. The capitals confift each of one fingle block, 2, 9, 9, high, and the architrave lies upon them without any other precaution being taken to relieve the weight from the projecting edges of the abacus, than the moft extreme accuracy in the two furfaces of the underface or foffit of the architrave, and the top of the abacufes, to render them perfe&ily parallel. The architraves are com- pofed of three blocks, from face to back, each extendin from centre to centre of the columns, and each block alfo the whole height of the architrave, and of equal thicknefs. The frieze is in two courfes in height, and each courfe wants fo much of being the whole thickuefs of the irieze, as allows the metope, withthe fculpture, which is cut ona thin flab, to lie againft it. The triglyphs tail-in mone height, but do not go through, I obferved that a triglyph, lying among the ruins, was fo formed, that the back of the block was confiderably narrower where it went into the fmeze than the breadth of thetriglyph, fo that each extremity of the triglyph projeéted on to the face of the flab of the metope feveral inches, thus forming a rebate, which enclofed the metope. The cornice is in blocks, which are the width of one mutule and one fpace, their ends forming a complete courfe onthe infide. The tympanum of the pediment is com- pofed of one courfe of upright flabs, in the outfide face, with horizontal courfes behind them. The pavement, of which great part remains, is in fquares of equal fize, large and thick ; the joints, as is the univerfal practice at Athens, are cut with the moft mathematical precifion, and-are ex- tremely difficult to difcover in thofe parts which have taken a dark tint.” ‘«* The perfe&t fiate in which thefe monu- ments remain, which have not been deftroyed by vio- lence, is one proof of the judgment with which they were conftruéted. The temple of Minerva would have been entire, except its timber roof, at this day, if a bomb had not been thrown into it by the Venetians, when it was ufed as the powder magazine of the Turks. The propylea, applied to the fame purpofe, was ftruck by lightning, and blown up. The {mail temple of Thefeus is almoft as entire as when it was firft erected. Even fo fmall a building as the Choragic monument of Lificrates is now entire, a circumftance arifing chiefly from the great judgment fhewn in its conitruction, by erecting it with large blocks, and confolidating the whole with a roof wifely made of one fingle piece of marble.”” The ereCtion of porticos required a frequent employment of very confiderable blocks, and accordingly implied great fkill in the art of tranfporting and elevating thefe maffes. Vitruvius celebrates the fimple and ingenious method prac- tifed by Ctefiphon, in conveying the fhaftsof the columns of the temple of Diana at Ephelus from the quarries, which were in fingle ftones, fixty feet long; thefe, by means of axle-trees, adapted at each end, were made to revolve in the manner of a garden-roller. The ancient Etrufcans have left monuments of the fame tafte in the art of building: however, it is to them that is ge- nerally afcribed the method of building with {mall ftones and mortar,at leaft, it is in the country which they inhabited, that are found the moft ancient veitiges of this mode of conitruc- tion. This method was carried to perfe€tion by the Romans, who were alfo probably the inventors of domes. Their firft temples were round and vaulted, as thofe of Quirinus, Romu- lus, Faunus, Cybele, Veita, &c. Coffutius was the firft Roman architect who built after the manner of the Greeks, about 209 BUILDING. “doo years before the Chriftian era. From this period, though the Romans adopted the Grecian archite€ture, they did not rejeé& their original mode of conftruction. Their moft confiderable edifices are built with-pebbles and rubble ftones, grouted in mortar, with the arches and angles and facings of brick, or {mall rubble ftones fquared, and ffrength- ened at intervals, with regular bonding courfes of ftone or brick running through the whole thicknefs. The walls, fo built, were generally incrufted with ftucco or marble. This method of building is much more expeditious and econo- mical than conftruGtions of wrought itone, which occafion a confiderable walte of materials, extraordinary labour in drefling and fquaring, and neceffitate great expence in re- moving and elevating. By this method the Romans, em- ploying all kinds of workmen, and materials to the {malleft fracments, were enabled to raife the prodigious number of edi which farpafs, in extent, the monuments of any other le. + defcribes the different kinds of wall ufed in his time in this manner. The forts of walls are the reticulated, which is now generally ufed, and the ancient, which is alfo called the incertain. Of thefe two, the reticulated is the handfomeft ; but the jomts are fo ordered, that in all parts the courfes have an infirm pofition ; whereas, in the incertain, the materials reft firmly one upon the other, and are inter- woven together, fo that they are much ftronger than the re- ticulated, though not fo handfome. Both forts are formed of very {mall pieces, that the walls, being faturated with mortar, may endure the longer; for the ftones being of a porous and fpongy nature, abforb the moifture from the mortar, and when there is abundance of mortar, the wall hav- ing more humidity, will not fo foon decay, but will, on that account, be rendered more durable; for as foon as the hu- midity is extraéted from the mortar by the fuction of the ftones, then the lime and fand feparating, the cement is dif- folved, and the mortar, no longer uniting the materials, the walls foon become ruinous. This may be obferved in fome tombs near the city, which are built with marble, or hewn ftone,and the internal parts rammed with rubble ftone; the mortar being, by length of time, drained of its humidity by the fuétion of the ftones, and the union of the joints being diffolved, they feparate, and fall to ruin. Too avoid this er- ror, (Vitruvius proceeds), the middle {pace mutt be ftrength- ened with abutments of the red hewn ftone, or bricks, or common flints built in walls two feet thick, and bound to the front with cramps. Another fort, is that called by the Greeks emple@on, which (fays Vitruvius), is alfo ufed by our villagers. The faces of the ftones in this kind are {mooth, the reft is left as it grows in the quarry, being fe- cured with alternate joints and mortar; and our artificers uickly raifing a fhell, which ferves for the faces of the wall, én the middle with rubble and mortar, But the Greeks do not build in that manner; they not only build the facing courfes regularly, but alfo ufe alternate joints through- out the whole thicknefs, not ramming the middle with rub- ble, but building it the fame as the face: befides this, they re fingle pieces, which they call diatonos, in the thick- nels of the wall, extending from one face to the other, which bind and exceedingly ftrengthen the walls. The works in wrought ftone of the Romans, were, as well as thofe of the Greeks, conftruéted without cement; but they ufed cramps and ligatures of iron and bronze in extraordinary profufion. It is remarked by Mr. Wood, in defcribing the great temple of Balbec, robably a work of Antoninus Pius, that “the thafte of thet. columné confit of three pieces, joined moft exaGly without cement, which is ufed in no part of thefe buildings, and itrengthened by iron pins received into a focket worked in each ~ ftone. Mott of the bafes had two fuch fockets, one circular and another fquare, correfponding to two others of the fame fhape and dimentfions in the underpart of the fhaft. By meafuring fome of the largeft of thefe, which were circular, we found the iron pin which they received muft have been a foot long, and above a foot in diameter. When we ob- ferved, by finding fuch fockets in all the fallen fragments of this temple, that each {tone had probably been ftrength- ened in this manner, we were lefs furprifed at the quantities of iron faid to have been carried away by the Bafhaws of Damafcus at different times from thefe ruins, on which they had left evident marks of their violent, though un- fuccefsful, attempts to get at the iron of the columns which are ftanding. How much this method contributes to the itrength of the building, is remarkably feen in the moft entire temple, where a column has fallen againft the wall of the cell with fuch violence, as to beat in the {tone it fell again{t, and break part of the fhaft, while the joinings of the fame fhaft have not been in the leaft opened by the thock.” The ufe of metal was not confined to cramps and bolts, the ancients even conftructed roofs of bronze; the portico of the Pantheon, before its f{poliation by Urban VIII., was covered with beams and rafters of this material. Tiled with marble, and fupported with granite columns ; this portico prefented a rare combination of grand and beautiful architeéture, with the richeft materials, and the appearance of indeftruétibility. Serlio has preferveda defign of this metallic roof, which was formed of beams and rafters, after the ufual methods of carpentry; thefe were united and fecured by pins and nails of the fame metal ; and as well to economize the material, as to leffen the weight of the whole, the pieces were hollow. The interior of the portico is divided by the columns into three divifions, oraifles ; the two lateral were ceiled, and that in the middle vaulted, alfo with bronze. The quantity and beauty of this metal may be appreciated by the throne of St. Peter, and the Baldaquin PF the fame cathedral, the moit confi- derable, beyond comparifon, of modern works in bronze, and whofe enormous mafs is not the equivalent of the fpoils of the Pantheon from which they were formed, for an infcription on the portico of this edifice informs us, that the excefs of this valuable metal was caft into the cannons of St. Angelo. Bronze was alfo ufed with magnificent profufion in the de- coration of buildings; thus many edifices preferve not indeed the ornaments themfelves, thefe have long been torn away by the rapacity of barbarifm, but the marks and cramp-holes, by which were attached alto relievos or tro- phies or infcriptions. It excites regret to refle& that the means employed by the ancients to increafe the beauty and enfure the folitity of their edifices, have, in many inflances, only ferved to ac- celerate their deftruétion; the beautiful marbles of the Grecian temples are continually carried off by Turkith carvers of grave ftones, or burnt into lime ; the inhabitants near the {cite of the temple of Apollo Didymeus, appear to have been principally fupported by this impious manu- faéture. Palmyra and Balbec have long furnifhed mines of metal to the neighbouring Bafhaws; the Colifeum bears, in innumerable fcaffolding holes, the marks of an attempt at its entire ruinin fearch of the cramps which conne& its {tones ; and the amphitheatre of Nifmes is flill blackened by combutflions kindled for the fame purpofe ; the temple of Peace, the baths and palaces ofthe emperors, and indeed almoit all the edifices of grandeur and magnificence have been more ruined by the violence of rapine than the injuries of time. 3Q2 It BUILDING. ‘It may be remarked, before we quit the fubjeG of antique “conftruétions, that the Greeks and Romans in their buildings of wrought {tone appear always to have worked only the beds of the ftones before placing them in the building, leaving ’ the faces to be worked after the erection of the edifice ; an ’ excellent method, which faves from injury the arrifes and mouldings. On this account, unfinifhed columns are fome- times found in their remains; as in the relics of the temple of Apollo Didymeus, near Miletus, may be feen two co- lumns. fupporting their architrave, with the flutes entirely worked; alfo, one left ftanding in its unfinifhed frate, the channels under the capital, and at the bafe only, being marked out, asa direétion to the workmen in completing the flutings, after the ftruéture was raifed. (Lonian Anti- guities). Similar inflances are alfo found in the ifland of Delos. The durability and extreme folidity of the Roman cemen- titious buildings, in which the mortar has very generally ac- quired-a hardnels fuperior to that of the rubble ftones which it conneéts, compared with the fragility and crumbling nature of the mortar, ufed by modern builders, had led fome to fuppofe, that the ancients polleffed proceffes and recipes for the formation of cements, the knowledge of which had perifhed together with many other valuable fecrets in the ages of barbarity, which fucceeded the fall of the Roman empire. But better information, and the experiments of ingenious men, have exploded this opinion, and there can be no doubt, that proper attention to the choice of lime ftone and fand, to the burning of lime, and, above all, care and labour in the mixing and tempering thefe materials, would enable our workmen to rival thofe of Rome in this important part of conftru€tion. In fome inftances, this has been tried, and though the lapfe of ages may be neceflary to make the comparifon complete, yet prefent appearances are fufficient to banifh any reafonable fear ofthe refult. Seethearticle Cements, calcareous. ArchiteGture, together with all the arts and fciences that adorn and illuftrate humanity, experienced the feeblenefs and devradation which attended the decline and fall of the Roman empire. Impudent compilers of the fpoils of the edifices af happier times, the builders of thofe AEE, have only perpetuated their own ignominy. Conftantine was the firtt of thefe depredators; he ruined the arch of Trajan to adorn his own with its inappropriate ornaments, and the Maufoleum of Adrian fupplied columns to fupport the aifles of his churches. In the general confufion occafioned by thefe practices, it ¥s not be wondered at that the principles of Grecian ar- chitecture, fomewhat corrupted in the beit times of Rome, fhould be entirely loft: architraves were omitted and co- Juans were made to fupport arches and vaults; arcades were every where fubftituted to colonnades, vaults to ceilings; thus the exceflive ufe of arches and vaults is charaCteriftic of the method of conftruGion adopted in the middle ages. This corrupted Roman flyle continued with various and increafiag deteriorations, and under different names, as in our own couutry, of Saxon and Norman, to be the pre- vailing architeGture of Europe til towards the 12th cen- tury, when what is generally calied the Gothic flyle pre- vailed. This is an archite€ture of fingular and original merit, furprizing and fantaflic, and magnificent and awe- ful: but for the defcription of Gothic architeéture the reader is referred to that article; our bufinefs at prefent is with the modes of building obferved in thefe edifices. The Gothic mode of conftruétion is an ingenious compen- dium of building well adapted to the peculiar ftyle of ar- ehitecture ; economical in materials and labour. ‘feur. RejeGting heavy cornices, architraves, and lintels, of all kinds, the builders had feldom occafion to ufe {tones larger than a man might carry on his back up a ladder from feaffold to {caf- fold, though they had pullies and {poked wheels upon oc- cafion. Thus they were readily enabled to raife up their works to an extraordinary height ; in which particular they appear to have placed great pride and emulation, Hence the lofty towers and fpires, ambitious ornaments that tyrannize over the body of the building, and claim attention at the expence of thofe ufeful parts to which they ought, but difdain to be fubordinate. ‘The churches were arched over with groined vaulting, which threw the weight on the {pringing points in- ftead of diftributing the preflure equally along the walls,as was the cafe with the Roman plain vaults and ceilings; the poiuts of preffure from the vaults were ‘oppofed. by buttrefles, and the intermediate {paces of the walle were thin, and occupied with windows; in thisrefpe@again differing from Roman con- traction where the walls are ofuniformthicknefsintheir whole extent, without apparent buttrefles. The vaulting was inge- nioufly compofed of a fkeleton of hewn ftone, and the interf- tices filled in with lighter materials. Thus Mr. Price re- marks, in his Obfervations on the Cathedral Church of Salifbury, that ‘¢ the groins and principal mbs are of Chil- mark ftone, but the fhell or vaulting between them is of hewn ftone and chalk mixed, on top of which is laid a coat of mortar and rubble, of a confiftence probably ground in a kind of mill and poured on hot while the lime was bub- bling, becaufe by this the whole is fo cemented together as to become all of one entire fubitance. ‘This compofition is very remarkable, fomewhat refembling the pumice ftane, being porous and light, by which it contributes prodigioufly to the ftrength of the whole, and at the fame time the leaft in weight of any contrivance-that perhaps was ever ufec att The machine of a Gothic edifice, confifting fo effentially of vaults and arches, required great contrivance in balancing and fuftaining their preffures; this was effeted by means bold, ingenious, but fometimes prefumptuoufly infufficient. The geaius of thefe architeéts had_a tinéture of extrava- gance which led them to facrifice always the apparent, and too often the real folidity of their buildings to thofe pictu- re{que and marvellous effects which captivate the imagina- tion of every one, but offend the judgment of the connoif- Accordingly thefe edifices muft not expect to rival the duration of the immortal conftruCtions of Greece and Rome. ‘The pendants from the vaults are among the moft pleaf- ing and innocent of the plays of ingenious conftruction in the Gothie tlyle; but the attempt to fubftitute weight to butment, generally obferved in the middle aifle pillars of cathedrals, fupporting unaffifted the preffure of the fide vaulting, is a ferious defe&t, which threatens the ruin of thefe venerable piles. On this account fir Chriltopher Wren obferves, that almoft all the cathedrals of the Gothic form are weak and defective in the poife of the aifles. As for the vaults of the nave, they are on both fides equally fupported, and propped up from {preading by the bows or flying buttreffes which rife from the outward walls of the aifle. But for the vaults of the aifles they are indeed fupported on the outfide by the buttreffes, but in- wardly they have no other itay but the pillars themfelves, which, as they are ufually proportioned, if they ftood alone without the weight above could not refift the fpreading of the aifle one minute: true indeed the great load above of the walls and vaulting of the nave fhould feem to confine the pillars in their perpendicular ftation, that there fhould be no need of butment inward; but experience hath nee the . BUILDING. the contrary, and there is fearee any Gothic cathedral that T have feen at home or abroad, wherein I have not ob- ' ferved the pillars to yield and bend inwards from the weight of the vault of the arfle ” \ Hence it appears that the method purfued in erecting thefe buildings was to infert the fpringing ftonesas the work proceeded, but to leave the vaults to be turned after the walls were carried up to their full height and the whole roofed in. The pointed arch has feveral est. over arches formed by one fegment of a circle; particularly, as applied to vaults, it wil! rife with little centering, requires lighter vouffoirs, and lefs butment. The Gothic architeéts feem to have perpetually calculated the minimum of neceflary refiftance and folidity, and they difplayed confiderable kill in aggravating the appearance of boldnefs by the choice of materials; we have already feen the light compofition of their vaults, and on the other hand they frequently ufed Pur- bec marble, a very hard and ftrong {tone for the flender thafts which had to fupport great weights. The roofs of Gothic buildings are very high pitched, a form more of choice than neceflity, rather adopted in compliance with their pointed and pyramidal ftyle of architeéture, than neceffitated by the climate, as they are generally covered with lead. Thefe roofs are therefore faulty in burdening the walls with an unneceflary load of lead and timber, and they are alfo defi- cient in conftruétion by the omiffion of tye beams to coun- teract their tendency to fpread and thruft out the walls. Modern architeéture, though it has adopted its deco- rations from the remains of Greek and Roman antiquity, has ftill retained confiderable traces of the Gothic ftyle. Thefe may be obferved in the affeGation of height, in the oftentatious ornaments of domes and fteeples, and in the fonduefs for complicated forms of plans and multiplicity of parts ; and accordingly the conftruétion alfo is a medium between Gothic temerity and Roman prudence; the ba- lancing of arches and vaults ftill exercifed the ficill of the ar- chiteéts; the domes of St. Peter’s, of the Vatican, and St. Paul’s of London, illuftrate the ingenuity and mathematical feience of their authors, but we no longer find apparent fo- lidity rejeGted, or real folidity facrificed. We have feldom the grand conftruétions in hewn ftone of the Greeks, nor, on the other hand, the economical building of Gothic ar- chiteG@s, nor the cementitious walls of the Romans. . Scone, brick, timber, and metal, are our materials. Stone is ufed rough in ruftic buildings, either dry or in mortar; but the ftone employed in more finifhed edifices, either as facing to brickwork, or, where the material is lentiful, in the whole fubftance of the walling, is ufed in locks of moderate fize, fquared and laid in mortar, and bonded with alternate courfes ; modern architeéts, and par- ticularly the French, have fhewn much ingenuity in the mafonry of arches and coves and plat-bands. Iron is ufed plentifully both for cramping {tones together and in liga- tures to entire walls: thus all confiderable domes are ftrengthened and fecured from fpreading by ftrong chains furrounding them ; aod lead is continually employed in large quantities on roofs. Timber is ufed in all edifices to form roofs and floors, and to bind and ftrengthen the walls and foundations ; and many buildings are ereéted entirely with this material. Carpentry is the art in which modern work- men chiefly excel. The buildings of this country may be comprehended under the following claffes: rough ftone, like the common houfes of the pies barre 8 which are either worked dry or with mortar; hewn ftone, as the. buildings of Bath; brick and {tone mixed, in which, as they are always remote from quarries of ftone, that material is the moft expenfive, and therefore employed in the ornamental parts, as cornices, plat-bands, window fills, and all the members of archi- teture, and fometimes applied asa facing to the brick wall; in this manner are all the buildings of London; and, lailly, timber, which was formerly the moft common of all, and is itil a very confiderable clafs; fuch are all the cottages of the poor out of the rocky diltricts, and many farm houfes and confiderable dwellings. ‘Thefe are formed of a frame of timber-work, which in the better fort of houfes has its in- terltices filled in with brick-work, and is called brick nog- ging, or brick and ftud, and then lathed over and plattered, or rough-caft, or ftuecoed, or fometimes boarded ; the poorer fort, however, are covered with reeds and clay. Englifh buildings are roofed with reed and thatch, which was formerly the moit general mode, and is {till very prevalent in the coun- try; alfo with tiles, flate, lead and copper. Slates are ufed conftantly in the ftone counties, and brought thence to other parts, as alight, durable, and handfome covering. ‘Tiles are the manufaéture of the brick dillridts, and ufed there. Lead and copper, as the moft expeniive materials, are feldom em- ployed to cover entire roofs, but chiefly for gutters and platforms. Our buildings may juftly claim the merit of lightnefs in conitruétion, economy of labour and materials, and conve- nient diftribution. Their real and. evident defedt is the want of folidity ; this is in great meafure to be attributed to the bad quality of the cements, which are compofed with fuch difgraceful careleffnefs and ignorant hafte by the work- men. Our bricks, too, which are made on the principle which pervades all our mauufadtures of facrificiug every thing to quantity and cheapnefs, are neither tempered nor burnt fufficiently. In the arts of carpentry and joinery our workmen are peculiarly eminent, both in the bold and skilful conftruGtion of roofs and bridges, and in neat and accurate internal finifhing. As the buildings of London are regulated by what is commonly called the Building Ad, ‘* an a& for the further and better regulation of buildings and party walls, and for the more effeétual preventing mifchiefs by fire, within the cities of London and Weftminfter and the liberties thereof, and other the parifhes, precinéts, and places within the weekly bills of mortality, the parifhes of St. Mary-le-bone, Padding- ton, St. Pancras, and St. Luke at Chelfea,’”? which repeals and amends feveral former aéts for the fame purpofe, it nay be proper to give a brief abitract of part of it. This adt, paffed in the 14th year of the reign of his prefent majelty, A.D. 1774, begins by dividing all buildings into feven rates or claffes, for the purpofe of fubjecting them to various regu- lations refpeéting the thicknefs of their walls. Cap. 2. ‘The Jitfl rate comprehends churches and all pac of public wor- fhip, all buildings for brewing, diftilling, foap making,. melting of tallow, dying, boiling of turpentine, cafling brafs or iron, refining fugar, and glafs making, of whatever dimenfions thefe buildings may be, and alfo every ware- houfe, and other buildings whatfoever, not being a dwelling- houfe, which exceeds three clear {tories above ground, ex- clufiye of the rooms in the roof, or which is of the height of 31 fect above the pavement of the ftreet. to the tp of the coping ; and every dwelling-houfe, which with its offices conneéted otherwife than by a fence wall, or open paflage, exceeds when finifhed the value of 85o0l., or covers more than nine {quares of building on the ground floor, (each {quare containing 100 fuperficial fect). ‘The regulations for thefe are, cap. 3 and 4, that all the external walls fhall be built, at the foundation, of the thickuefs of two bricks and. a half, or 214. inches, thence. to diminith gradually at inchem BUILDING. inches on each fide to the top of the footing, which is to be nine inches high, and two inches below the furface of the paving or flooring of the cellar itory ; thence, the wall is to be carried up two bricks, or 174 inches in thicknefs to the under fide of the one pair of ftairs floor, and thence, in the thicknefs of one brick and a half, or 13 inches, up to the under fide of the plate under the roof or gutter; and thence, the parapet is to be built in the thicknefs of one brick, or 84 inches, with the exception of fuch parts of the wall as fhall be wholly of ftone, which may be of the thicknefs of 14 inches below the ground floor, and nine inches above. The party walls of the fame buildings are to be built at the foundation three bricks and a half, or two feet fix inches and a half in thicknefs ; thence to diminifh gradually 44 inches on each fide to the top of the footing, which muft be one foot high, and two inches below the cellar floor; thence, the wall is to be built in the thicknefs of two bricks and a half, or one foot nine inches and a half up to the underfide of the ground floor; and thence in the thicknefs of two bricks, or 174 inches, up to the under fide of the floor of the rooms (if any) in the roof of the higheft building adjoining to fuch party wall ; and thence of the thicknefs of one brick and a half in length, or 13 inches, to the top of the wall. Cap. 5. defines the /econd rate of buildings, which confifts of every warehdufe, ftable, or other building, not being a dwelling-houfe, that exceeds two clear ftories, and does not contain more than three clear ftories above ground, or which is of the height of 22 feet and under 31 feet from the pave- ment to the top of the coping ; and alfo every dwelling-houfe which with its offices exceeds the value of 300l., and does not amount to more than 85o0l., or which covers more than five, and lefs than nine fquares of building. Cap. 6 and 7. The external walls of the fecond rate are to be built at the foundation in two bricks thick, and diminifh regularly 2+ inches on each fide to the top of the footing, which muit be nine inches high; thence to be carried up in one brick anda half thick to the under fide of the one pair of ftairs floor; and thence to the under fide of the coping of the parapet in the thicknefs of one brick; ftone work excepted, which may be of the thicknefs of nine inches above the ground floor. The party walls ave to be three bricks and a half at the foundation, diminifhing 44 inches on each fide to the top of the footing, which is to be nine inches high; thence, the wall muft be two bricks and a half thick up to the un- der fide of the ground floor ; thence, two bricks thick up to the under fide of the floor of the two pair of {tairs ftory ; and thence, of the thicknefs of one brick and a half to the top of the wall. Cap. 8. The third rate of building is defined to include every warehoufe, ftable, and other building, not being a dwelling-houfe, which exceeds one clear ftory, or does not contain two clear itories above ground, or which is above 13 feet, and lefs than 22 feet in height from the pavement to the top of the coping, and alfo every dwelling-houfe, which with its offices exceeds the value of r5ol., and does not amount to 3o0ol., or which covers more than three and a half and lefs than nine fquares of building. Cap. 9 and 10. The external walls of fuch buildings are to be two bricks thick at the foundation, and to diminifh 25 inches on each fide to the top of the footing, which mutt be fix inches high; thence, the wall is to be carried up one brick and a half thick to the under fide of the ground floor, and thence, one brick in thicknefs to the coping of the parapet. The party walls are to be three bricks thick at the foundation, diminifhing 45 inches on each fide to the top of the footing, which is to be nine inches high, and thence, to be built two bricks in thicknefs to the under fide of the ground floor, and thence, one brick and a half thick to the top of fuch wall. Cap. 11. The fourth rate of building which is defined to include every warehoufe, ftable, or other building, not be- ing a dwelling-houfe, which does not excced one clear ftory above ground, or the height of 73 feet from the pavement ; and every dwelling-houfe which with its offices does not exceed the value of rgol., or three {queres and a half of building. Cap. 12 and 13. The external walls of this-rate are to be fimilar to thofe of the third rate. The party walls muft be two bricks thick at the foundation, diminifhing 2 inches on each fide to the top of the footing, which mut be nine inches high; thence, to be carried up in one brick anda half thick to the under fide of the ground floor; and thence, one brick in thicknefs to the top of fuch wall. Cap. 18. Every building except fuch as are particularly included in the firft or feventh rates, which is at the diftance of four feet and not eight feet from any public road, and which is detached from any building not in the fame poflef- fion, 16 feet and lefs than 30 feet, is declared to be of the JSyjth rate, and may be built of-any dimenfions whatever. Cap. 19. The fixth rate only differs from the fifth in de- manding, that fuch buildings may be eight feet diftant from the ftreet or road, and detached 30 feet from other build- ings; and this rate may be built of any dimenfions, and with any materials whatever. Cap. 20. Every crane-houfe on any wharf or quay, and every fhamble, windmill, or water-mill, and alfo every build- ing fituated without the cities of London and Weitmintter, and the liberties thereof, ufed as workfhops for tanners, fellmongers, glue makers, calicoe printers, whitfters, whit- ing makers, curriers, buckram {tiffners, oil-cloth painters, wool ftaplers, throwlters, parchment makers, is declared to be of the feventh rate of building, and may be built of any dimenfions whatever. Cap. 21. Crane-houfes mutt be built externally of ftone, brick, flate, tile, oak, elm, fteel, iron, or brafs; and all other buildings of the feventh clafs may be ere€ted of any materials whatever, but muft not be co- vered with pitch, tar, or any inflammable compofition. Cap. 22. Every office which fhall be entirely detached from the building to which it belongs, or conneéted there. with only by a fence, wall, or covered paflage, open on one or both fides, fhall be deemed to be of the rate or clafs of building fuch office would be of, if it did not appertain to any other building. Cap. 14. The materials of party walls are to be brick or ftone, and no timber to be ufed in them, except fuch as 1s neceflary for planking, bridging, or piling the foundation ; and cap. 27. for templets, chains and bond, and alfo the ends of girders, beams, purlins, binding and trimming joilts, or other principal timbers, obferving always to leave 84 inches of folid brick work between the ends and fides of fuch timbers and the timbers of adjoining buildings. Cap. 26. Party walls are to be carried up one foot fix inches above the roof of the higheft adjoining building, which fhall gable againft them; and to be one foot above the jut- ters. Cap. 29. Chimnies built in party walls are fubject to the following regulations: the back of the chimney from the hearth, to 12 inches above the mantle, is to be built in 13 inches thick in the bafement ftory, and 83 inches thick in the upper {tories ; and in thofe cafes where chimnies are built back to back on each fide of a party wall, the entire thicknefs of the backs is to be, in firft rate houfes, eighteen inches in the cellar ftory, and thirteen inches in the upper ftories,and in the fecond, third, and fourth rates, the thicknefs in the cellar ftory is to be thirteen inches, and eight inches and a half in the upper ftories. Cap. ee BUI Cap. 38. Every owner of any building within the limits of this aét, who may think it neceflary to repair or rebuild the party wall between his and the adjoining premifes, is to give three months notice in writing to the owner of the ad- joining building, appointing afurvey to be made of the faid wall, and naming two furveyors or able workmen on his part, and requiring the other party alfo to name two fur- ¥eyors to meet at an appointed place, to view and certify the ftate of the wall. But if the owner of the adjoining premifes hall negle& to appoint two furveyors en his part, according to notice, then the two furveyors firft named, to- gether with two other furveyors, te be named by the party giving notice, may, within fix days after the time appoint- ed in the notice, view the party wall, and certify in writing under their hands to the court of mayor and aldermen, or to the juftices of the peace in their next quarter or general fef- fions as the cafe may be, the condition of the party wall, and whether the fame, or any part thereof, ought to be re- paired or pulled down and rebuilt; and, in cafe the major art of the furveyors appointed fhall not, within the fpace FF a month from the appointment, fign the certificate, then it fhall be lawful for any one or more of the juftices of the peace for London or Weftminfter, or the county of Middle- fex or Surry, as the cafe-may be, to appoint one: other fur= veyor to be added to the furveyors before appointed, all or the major part of whom are to meet, and view the party wall; and in cafe the major part of them fhall certify the wall to be decayed or ruinous, and not fufficiently fecure from fire, then, within three days from the making fuch certifi- cate, acopy of it is to be delivered to the owner of the ad-= joining building, or affixed to the door if it is unoccupied, and alo filed with the clerk of the peace in the city, coun- ty, or liberty, where fuch wall is fituate; and the laft men- tioned owners may appeal from the certificate to the next ceral or quarter feffions, when the juftices are to fummon Efore them one or more of the furveyors, and examine the matter upon oath, and thereupon make fuch orders as they think jul. : Cap. 41. The perfon at whofe expence a party wall is built, thal] be reimburfed by the owner of the adjoining pre- mifes who makes ufe of the wall, a part of the expence in the following proportion. If the adjoining building be of the fame, or a fuperior clafs to the building belonging to the on at whofe expence the party wall was conftructed, the owner of fuch adjoining building fhall Pe one moiety of the expence of fo much of the party wall as he fhall make ufe of: but if the adjoining building be of an inferior rate, the owner fhall pay a fum equal to a moiety of the ex- nce of building a party wall, as required by the act for Fach clafs of building. Cap. 46. Door and window frames are to be fet in re- veals and recefles, at leaft four inches from the front of the building, except the door cafes of warehoufes. Cap. 48. Every coping, cornice, fafcia, window drefling, portico, balcony, balluitrade, or other external decoration, or pro- jection whatever, is required to be made externally of brek, ftone, burnt clay, or artificial ftone, ftuccc, lead, or iron, except the cornices and dreflings to thop windows, or the covered ways to any building, No water is to be fuTered to drip next to any public way from the roof of ayy build- ing, except from the roofs of porticps or other entrances, but to be conveyed by metal pipes, Or wooden truiiks, or brick or flone funnels into drains or refervoirs. , Cap. 49. No bow window or other projeétion thall be built text to any public ftreet, fo as to exténd beyond the general line of the fronts of the toufesin the faid ftreets, except fuch projections as are neceffary fur copings, cor- BUI nices, facias, door and window dreffings, or for open pore ticos, fteps, or iron pallifades ; and alfo, except fhop win- dows, which are allowed in ftreets 30 feet wide or more, to proje& ten inches from the line of building, and five inches in itreets of lefs width. | , Cap. 53. No ftack of warehoufes fhall contain more than 35 {quares of building on the ground plan, except fuch warehoufes are divided by one or more party walls into di- viflons of not more than 35 fquares each, and any commu- nications made through the party walls are to have door cafes and fills of ftone, and iron doors. — Stables are only to contain 25 fquares in one divifion, with the fame regula. tions, Cap. 55. If any building of the firft, fecond, third, or fourth rates, (except the inns of court or chancery, the royal exchange, companies’ halls, and except warehoufes and dwelling houfes, let at a rack rent for not more than 25 pounds by the year) fhall be converted into two or more dwelling houfes, work-{hops, ftables, or other buildings which fhall be in diftin@ tenures on the ground floor, theneach fuch tenement fhall be confidered as a feparate building, and be divided by party walls. Cap. 59. No iron, tin, copper, or other pipe or funnel for conveying {moke or fteam, is allowed to be in front of any building next to a public ftreet, nor in the infide of any building nearer than 14 inches, to any timber or other com- buftible material. Cap. 62. The mayor and aldermen of the city of Lon- don, and the juftices of the peace for the county of Middle- fex, Surry, the city of Weftminfter, and the liberty of the tower of London, are empowered to appoint furveyors to fee the rules and regulations of this at properly complied with: and cap. 63. before any building is begun to be ereéts ed, the malter workman is bound to give 24 hours notice thereof to the furveyor of the diftri@, in which the building is, who is to attend and view the building, and enforce the obfervauce of the a@. The fees to be paid by the builder to the furveyor are, fora building of the firlt rate 3]. 10s., and for an alteration or addition to the fame 11. 158.; for a building of the fecond rate 31. 3s., and for an alteration 11. 10S. ; Br the third rate 21. 103., and 11. 5s.; and for the fourth rate 11, 18. and 15 fhillings. Buirpine, Ship. See Sure. " BUILT, in Sea Language, is an epithet applied to fhips, denoting their peculiar form and ftruéture, and diftinguith: ing fome from others of a different clafs or nation. Thus we ufe frigate-built, galley-built, &c. Englith-built, French- built, &e. BUILTH, or Buautr, in Geography, isa market town of Brecknockthire, Wales, finely fituated on the banks of the river Wye, over which there is a handfome ftone bridge. According to fome autiquaries, here was the Roman {tation which Ptolemy calls Bulleum Silurum. Several intrench- ments are ftill remaining in the vicinity of the town, and fome Roman bricks, infsribed: LEG: II. have been found here. The Chronicle of Caradoc relates, that the Danes, in 893, who had been yanquifhed and harraffed by Alfred, fled to this part of the country, and, among other devaftas tions, nearly demolifhed the town of Builth. It was, hows ever, again rebuilt and fortified with a ftrong caftle, and again fiffered nearly a fimilar fate, in 1217, by Reynald de Brufe, who then Fritke off his alliance with Llewelyn ap Jorwerth, and united with Henry L111. In 1221 he was befieged in this fortrefs by a party of Welfh lords; but Henry, to whom he had remained conftant, came with an army and raifed the fiege. About 1256, we find this fortrefs m the poffeffion of Rhys Fychan, whom Llewelyn ap Gruffydd: defeated and 6 forced BUK forced out of Builth. In various other wars between the Eneglith and Welfh, this place was alternately occupied by the conquering power, and in each confli& experienced fome damages, 94! This town is fingularly built on two’ parallel terraces, and forms two ftreets on the fide of a fteep declivity. The upper fiveet is clean and refpeétable, but the lower, and more populous ftreet, on the banks of the Wye, is narrow, and moft of the houfes have a poor and mean appearance. Builth, from its contiguity to Herefordfhire, and from the combined attraétions of its falubrious air, grand and intereit- ing fcenery, and the quality of its waters, is much reforted to by ftrangers. Itis provided with two weekly markets, and three fairs annually. Builth is 171 miles N.W. from Lon- don, t5 from Brecknock, and contains 994 houfes, and 5159 inhabitants. About one mile N.W. of Builth is a celebrated mineral {pring, called The Park wells; and about feven miles N.E. are Llandrindodewells, confifting of three {prings. Thefe waters are efteemed of highly medicinal qualities, and are recommended by the faculty in many diforders of the human frame. Dr. Lindon has written a treatife on their peculiar properties.. Thefe wells are fituated on a common, on which are a few {eattered houfes, and a large building for the ac- commodation of thofe who vifit them. The wells of Llan- wrthyd, which are fimilar in quality to fome of thofe of Llandrindod, lie on the other fide, at no great diftance from Builth. Malkin’s Tour in South Wales, 4to. 1804 .Evans’s Cambrian Itinerary, 8vo. 1801. BUINAHA Pornr, a cape onthe weft coaft of Ireland, being the fouthern point of the entrance into Newport or Clew bay, in the county of Mayo. Near it are fome rocks and a ledge which require the attention of mariners. In fome nautical books it is called Ruinaha. W. long. 9° 45). N. lat. 53°46’. M‘Kenzie. Keaufort. BUINSK, a town and difiri& of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Simbirfk, feated on the river Sviaga; 36 miles N.N.W. of Simbirfk. BULS, Le, a town of France, in the department of the Dréme, and chief place of a canton in the diftriGt.of Nyons, 2 leagues S.E. of it, and’ feated on the Oreze. The town contains 2215, and the canton 8932 inhabitants; the ter- ritory comprehends 325 kiliometres and 24 communes. The diftri@ called Buis, before the revolution, was a terri- tory of Dauphiny, {mall and mountainous, but moderately fertile. BUISKOI, a town of Siberia, 64 miles S.E. of Nert- fhinfk. BUITRAGA, a fmalk town of Spain, in New Cattile, feated on a rock, which is fortified both by art and nature. BUKANS.. See Buccanz. BUKARI. See Buccarn. BUKI, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Kiov, 44 miles fouth of Bialacerkiew. UN. lat. 49° 25'.. E. long. zoe 28'. BU KO, a fmall town of Germany, in the ancient duchy of Mecklenburg, called New Buko, by way of diitinétion from Old Buko, a neighbouring church village. BUKOVITZE, a town of Croatia; 14 miles S.E. of Carlftadt or Carlowitz. BUKTARMINSKOI, Mounrar, a hranch of the Altay mountains of Ruffia, which commences in the fuperior region of the river Buktarma, at the frontier heights between the Chinefe and the Ruffian empires, declines from the fouth towards the north and weft, and accompanies the fore-men- tioned ilream, on both its fides, till its confluence with the BUL frtifh; It reaches to eaft and north-eaft as far as the moun- tains that run along the Kokufan, and towards the north up, to thofe that follow the courfe of the Ulba. From the Bin foi {now mountains up to the head of the Uiman, which falls into the Kokuian, it forms a lofty ridge, rifing almoft throughout in high {ummits of {now, and on this fide extends its greateit height to the fource of the laft-mentioned river. This huge mountain, as yet little known, and partly inac- ceffible, confifts, as far as it has been examined, in its highelt points, of various kinds of granite, porphyry, and flint breccia. But in its chafms, and particularly towards the fhore of the main or moft confiderable rivers, different forts of fchiftus, chalk-itone, marl, breccia, and fand-ftone are frequently met with. Jafper is found in abundance, with porphyry and trapp, inthe fuperior regions. Of the chalk- mountains feen in the lower confines of the Buktarma, fome are very craggy, and have a number of caverns. in thefe mourtains there has hitherto been explored but one mine, the Buktarminfkoi, with any hope of fuccefs. See Au- TAS. BUKUKUNSKOTI Kamen, a fortrefs of Siberia; 12@ miles S.W. of Deroninik. BUKUPIENICK, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Lublin; 22 miles S. of Lublin... BUL, in the Hebrew Calendar, the eighth month of the ecclefiattical, and fecond of the civil year, fince called Marjhevan; it anfwers to our Oftober, and has nine and twenty days. But, in Jchthyolozy, one of the Englifh names for the common flounder. BULAC, in Geography. See Bourac. BULACAN, a {mall province of the ifland of Lagon, or Manilla, lying between Panpanga and 'Tondo. It abounds in rice and palm-wine. BULACH, atown of Swifferland, in the canton of Zuric, and a prefecturate of the fame name, which firft entered into an alliance with Zuric, in 1407. The inhabitants are Pro- teftants; diftant 8 miles N. from Zuric. N. lat. 47° 25. E. long. 8° 24'. Buvacn, a town of Germany, in the circle of Swabia, and duchy of Wurtemburg. In the annexed bailiwick is a mountain, which furnifhes iron and copper ores; 20 miles W.S.W. of Stuttgart, and 4. S.W. of Calu. BULAFO, a mufical inftrument, much ufed by the Ne- groes of Guinea, &c. It confifts of feveral pipes made of hard wood, fet in order; which diminifh by little and little in length, and are tied together with thongs of thin leather twilted about fmall round wands, put between each of the pipes, fo as to forma {mall interftice. They play on it with fticks, the ends of which are covered with leather, to make the found lefs harfh. BULAKUAN, in Geography, a remarkable caftle in the empire of Morocco, fituate on the banks of the Morbeya, in the province of Duquella. It ftands in a wild and barren f{pot, on the fummit of a commanding eminence more than 200 feet high, and forms a pyramid, with rounded angles; and a large river runs beneath it, which from its depth and rapidity, infpires a kind of horror, This caftle was built at the clofe of the 13th century, by Muley Abdalmomen, the firft king of the race of Moahedins; but many additions were made to it by Muley Abdallah, fon of Muley Ifhmael. This prince caufed fubterraneaus paffages to be dug ata great expence for procuring water from the river; and in order to fecure his water-carriers from the fire of the mufketry, he built conduits, which brought the waters from the neighbouring mountains, the ruins of which are ftill yifible on the road from Bulakuan to Morocee. Near the 8 caitle BUL caftle isa village, and another before you pafs the river; each of which contains about 200 houfes, or thatched huts, being piles of rough hewn flone without mortar, Both thefe wtivess, inhabited by Moors, are exempt from taxes, in confideration of their giving needed aflilance in croffling the river. Although the caitle ftands in a fandy barren fituation, the banks of the river below it prefent to view well- cultivated gardens, with their orchards and vineyards. Lach garden contains a windlafs and a bucket, for fupplying it with water. The only ferry-boat for paffing the river near this caftle, is a raft, compoled, for the occation, of reeds, to which {kins, inflated with wind, are tied with cords, made of the palm-leaf. This is fuflained by feveral Moors, who, whilit they fwim, guide and fupport it by their fhoulders, in fpite of the rapidity of the current. On this crazy craft travellers and their effects are tranfported. We learn from Livy, that, during the fecond Punic war, when Hannibal went from Spain to Italy, a part of his army pafied the Rhone, the Ticino, and the Po, on goat-fkins filled with air. & kind of temporary bridge is conftruéted for the paflage of the emperor, confifling of two thick ofier cables, faftened to large piles on each bank of the river. Thefe cables are formed into a kind of hurdle, by pafling through them iron ftakes about 5 feet long, and laying upon it fods 6 inches thick. Chenier’s Prefent State of the Empire of Morocco. BULAM, or Booram, an ifland in the Atlantic, near the coalt of Africa, at the mouth of the Rio Grande, 14 league from the continent, and about 18 leagues long, and from 4 to 5 broad. N. Jat. 11°. W. long. 14° 50’. Some have confidered it as one of the Diflago ifles.. See Bissacos. The whole coait of this ifland is defcribed as bordered with woods, beyond which the country is fingularly fertile, rich, and beautiful. It was formerly uninhabited, and cultivated by the natives of the other iflands, who vifited it in feed-time and harveft, and returned home for the reft of the year. It was found to be abundantly produ@tive of rice, maize, millet, fruits, and roots. The ground is faid to rife imperceptibly from the fhore for the fpace of 2 leagues, thus exhibiting a moft agreeable profpe&. This afcent ferves as a bafe to higher mountains, which ftand in the centre of the ifland, covered with fine wood, and feparated by beautiful vallies, with fuch regularity, that nature would feem to have been improved by art. This ifland was recommended, fo long ago asthe commencement of the laft century, by M. da la Bruc, to the French government, as a fit place for a fettlement ; and the advice was repeated, in 1767, by the abb¢ Demanet. However, during the year 1791, a fociety was formed in London for eftablithing a fettlement on fome eligible fpot on or near the coaft of Africa. ‘Thofe who formed this affocia- tion, allured by the flattering information which they had received of the ifland of Bulam, fixed on this as the objeét of their dettination. The fubfcribers were to receive a grant of 500 acres of land for the fum of 30]. and in that pro- portion for any greater or lefs number of acres, as far as 2000. Inthe fpace of one montii after opening the fub- {cription, goools. were paid into the hands of troftees. After having encountered various difliculties, the adventurers ar- rived at Bulam, aod immediately took poffefiion of it by hoifting the Britith flag. The natives unexpedtedly attacked the new comers; killed fome of them, and obliged the others to relinquifh what they had obtained. Accordingly, as they were thus compelled to abandon it, they fought for refuge in a fettlement belonging to the Portugnefe, where molt of the unfortunate adventurers became victims to the climate of the country. Mr. Montefiore, who was a principal agent in this bufinels, defpairing of the colonization of Bulam, embarked for —_ Leone, of which he gives a very favourable Vor. V. BUL account. However, from another aceount, -compiled from the records of the Bulam fociety, we are led to entertain a more favourable opinion of the fituation and profpecis of this colony. Mr. Beaver, who refided at Bulam as chief in com- mand, inaletter dated July 1793, exprefles great confidence of the finalfuccefs of the undertaking ; declaring that, with {uf- ficient {upport (not military; every thing having been fairly pur- chafed, and amicably fettled with the neighbouring A fricatis) “not one-tenth part of what had been afforded to the Sierra Leone company,’’ he could, long ago, ** have added to our prefent territories Jand fufficient to maintain.500,009 people, and at very little expence.’? He concludes his Ictter, addrefled to the truftees of the Bulam affociation, with ob- ferving, ‘ that if the good people of England knew but one half of the advantages to be derived from colonizing this part of Africa, on an extenfive {cale, you might command half the money in the kingdom.” This officer refided at Bulam about two years. Dr. Chifholm, in his ‘¢ Effay on the malignant peftilential fever, &c.”? Svo. 1795, maintains that the yellow fever was originally brought to the Welt Indies from Bulam in the fhip Hankey, on board of which it commenced. BULARCHUS, in Biography, a Greek painter, flou- rifhed 740 years B.C. and is faid to have been the firft who introduced (at leait among the Greeks) different colours in the fame picture. BULARSKATA, in Geography, a town of Siberia, on the fouth fide of the Irtith, oppotite to Tobolfk. BULATMAT, in Schthyology, a fpecies of Cyprinus, the anal fin of which contains eight rays: the fecond dorfal fin “4 a and not {crrated: beards or cirri four. Hablizl. © Cyprinus Bulatmai is a rare fith, of the fize of the com- mon carp. The colour is fteel blue, glofled with gold above, and filvery, fhining with a golden hue beneath: the feales are of the middle fize, femicircular, diftant, and im- bricated : flefh white as fnow, and very good. This inha- bits the Cafpian fea. . BULB, or Bursus, in Botany, Poros, Gr. as it is ems loyed by 'Theophraitus, is fometimes the name of a plant allied to Scilla Allium, and others of the fame family, but not particularly afcertained by modern botanilts, and fome- times denotes the peculiar kind of root by which thofe plants are diftinguifhed. In the latter fenfe it was admitted by Pliny, and other Latin writers, and is preferved in moft of the modern languages of Europe. Our Englifh gar- deners uniyerfally {peak of it as a root; and itis faid by profeffor Martyn, in his “ Language of Botany,” to have been “ fo called by botanitts, till Linnaus correéted the er- ror, and fhewed that it is a fingle dud enveloping the whole plant.” But Linnzeus was by no means the firkt who viewed it in this light. Ourcountryman Grew, in the fecond book of his “ Anatomy of Plants,” prefented to the Royal So- ciety in 1672, fays exprefsly, that ‘ all bulbous roors are, as it were, hermaphrodites, or reef and frunk both together; forthe firings only are abfolute roots; the bulb agtually con- taining thole parts, which {pringing up, make the /eaver or body ; and is, as it were, a great dud under ground.” About the fame time Malpighi was engaged in a fimilar conrfe of fludy at Bologna, and communicated the refult of his re- fearches alfo to our Royal Socicty. Under their patronage his “ Anatome Plantarum” was publifhed in London, the firit part in 1675, and the fecond, which contains the trea- tife * De Radicibus,” in 1679. Hetreated the fubje¢t more at large, and diffeéted, deferbed, aud figured feveral of the beft known bulbs. In complete agreement with Dr. Grew, he uniformly flates the bulb to be a germ or bud, confitting of leaves or coats which cnclofe the rudiments of the future 3 R plant, B-U L B. plant, and produce other embryo buds for its farther propa- gation and increafe. Nor were thefe great phyfiologifts the firft who ftarted the idea. We find it clearly expreffed by Clufius, who wrote a hundred years earlier. “ Ett ergo tulipe, ut & aliaram bulbofarum tunicatarum, bulbus mhil aliud quam gemma grandis fubterranea, que preter adnatas externas intra fe concipit alium bulbum feu gemmam, qui matri bulbo fuccedens ei idem videtur, cum revera non iit, fed diverfus ipfiufque foboles; cumque intra ipfum bulbum conceptus & enutritus fit, adnatis extremis grandior & habitior evadit, ipfiufque parentis emulus.” Even in the time of Theophraftus, as we learn from his ‘ Hiftory of Plants,” lib. i. cap. ro. it had been difputed whether a bulb is properly a part of the root: a queftion which the vene- rable botanift, after ftating the arguments on both fides, finally refolves in the affirmative, on the general principle, that roots are capable of appearing under different forms, and that all which is under ground belongs tothe root. It appears, however, that, at fo early a period, there were fome who compared the bulb to the xunua, xvux, or cyma, the flefhy part of the ftalk of a cabbage, when it firft rifes above the furface of the ground; and, if we admit the propofed reading of one of the commentators, others went fo far as to call it oscos, oculus, an eye, or gem; but the conjectural reftoration of a paflage fo corrupt in the manufcripts as to be confeffedly unintelligible, cannot be brought forward to eftablifh a fa&t in the hiltory of fcience. Since the publi- cation of the Philofophia Botanica, no doubt has been en- tertained on the fubje€t; the botanifts, as well as others, ftill {peak of bulbous roots: nor can any material obje¢tion be made to the continued ufe of the term, if it be under- ftood to mean a bulb-bearing root, or as it is accurately expreffed in the Termini Botanici, “ radix bulbo inftruGa.” Gems and bulbs are fomewhat quaintly, but not unaptly, ftiled by Linnzus, hybernacula, the winter quarters of the young, or rather embryo plant; and they belong refpec- tively to different families of the vegetable kingdom. They are diftinguifhed from each other by their fituation, and by fuch differences in their form and texture as their peculiar circumftances require. In the Syftema Nature, a gem is faid to be an hybernaculum feated on the afcending caudex ; and a éu/é to be an hybernaculum feated on the defcending caudex: in popular language, the former is above, the latter beneath the furface of the ground: i.e. the gem is a ftem-bud, and the bulb a root-bud. In the Termini Bota- nici of Elmgren, publifhed in Ameenitates Academic under the eye of Linnzus, the diftin&tion between them is taken, not from their fituation, but their fubftance. A gem is there faid to confift of the rudiments of future leaves ; and a bulb to be the rudiment of thofe which are paft. In this definition the great naturalift, for to him it muit ultimately be attributed, even allowing the general principle to be juft, has facrificed clearnefs, if not propriety of expreffion, to his charaéteriftic love of antithefis. ‘The rudiments of future leaves require no explanation: but the rudiments of thofe which have feri/bed, it is not fo eafy to underftand. He undoubtedly meant the remains of what were once the rudi- ments of the leaves; and which, fheltered by the furround- ing earth, have not been entirely deftroyed, though confi- derably changed in their appearance, by a change in the temperature of the air. Or as it is ftated by Ferber in the differtation entitled ‘* Prolepfis Plantarum,”’ publifhed alfo in Ameenitates Academic, ** bulbus a gemma in eo folum dif- fert, quod bafes foliorum perfiftentes a copiofo fucco, quem e terra hauriunt, fiant carnofe, & nova folia fuis gemmis inftru@a excrefcant intra priorum bafes. Non confundi debent bafes foliorum preteritorum cum foliis future plante ; 3 illas enim haud aliter confiderare oportet, quam ut fquamas gemmarum exteriores ab aere vel frigore induratas.” It is natural to inquire how the remains of leaves whiclr in their perfect ftate were above the furface of the ground, have been drawn down fo as to become the feales or coats of fubterraneous bulbs. To account for this, Linneus muft have adopted, though we do not remember that he has. quoted, the theory of the old botanifts concerning the gra- dual defcent of the caudex, fuppofed to be produced by the mechanical action of the radicles or {tring roots, which, to borrow the homely language of Grew, ‘ defcending them- felves direGtly into the ground, like fo many ropes, lug the trunk afterthem.”? This idea is mentioned by Dr. Darwin: in his Phytologia with fome degree of contempt, and paffed’ over without a formal refutation as the unfounded doétrine of “ fome inaccurate obfervers.”? Without prefuming to» detract from the eftablifhed authority of Grew, who cer- tainly ought not to be ranked with the tribe of inaccurate ob» fervers, we may venture to intimate that the integuments which form what may be called the body of the bulb, are not in all cafes the remains of decayed leaves, but have been originally formed below the furface, and have never ad- vanced beyond their prefent appearance. In this point of view they have actually been reprefented by fome of the difciples of Linneus under his immediate infpe€tion; as appears from Leefling’s diflertation “¢ De Gemmis Arborum in Ameenitates Academice.” ‘ Bulbos diximus,’”’ fays that writer, “nihil aliud effe, quam gemmas, cum eodem medo ac ille includant intra fe futuram plantam; fed eorum tunic evadunt fucculente a copiofo nutrimento, quod hauriunt e terra cui innafcuntur, quo repleti non poffunt amplius ex- tendi:” i.e. bulbs, we have afferted, are no other than gems; for like them they include the future plant, but their coats are rendered fucculent by the copious nourifiment which they draw from the earth, and in confequence of this reple- tion become incapable of farther extenfion. OF thefe two concife definitions of a bulb, that given in the Philofophia Botanica is evidently inaccurate: fince it is fo expreffed, as to include the root buds of perennial her- baceous plants, called by fome authors, but not by Linneus, turiones; which have not the form, and have never been known either in popular or fcientific language, by the name of bulbs. That in the Termini Botanici is, as we have feen, deficient in perfpicuity ; and when properly explained, does not appear to poffefs fufficient precifion. Bulbous plants are defined by Mr. Ray to be thofe which confift of a fingle tuber or head, either fcaly or tunicated, throwing out nu- merous fibres from its bafe. In this definition our great countryman fhould not have introduced the word tuber ; for in the preceding fentence he has exprefsly divided the flefhy roots which fwell laterally, into bulbous and tuberous. Al bulb, therefore, and a tuber, were, in his ideas, as we believe them to be in nature, diftin@ things. A bulb is now univerfally underftood to be a fpecies of bud of a peculiar ftru@ure fuited to its fituation on the plant. A bulbous root confifts of this bud, of the proper radicles, and of the intermediate caudex. A tuber, if we miftake not, is a radicle, fwollen, either wholly, or in part, to an extraordinary thicknefs, and having generally, if not always, imbedded within its fubftance the rudiments of one or more future buds; as in the well known root of the po- tatoe, folanum tuberofum. See T'uBER. Bulbs are divided by Linneus, in his Philofophia Bota- nica, into four kinds, the {quamous, the tunicated, the folid, and the articulated. The fquamous bulb confifts of imbricated lamelle; i.e. of feales laid partially one over the other, like the tiles or flates BU Mates on the roofs of buildings, but more loofely connected, and a little diverging at their points; as in feveral fpecies of lily. The root of the white lily is defcribed and figured ‘by Malpighi in his “ Anatome Plantarum.” It is com- ofed of fcales, or, ashe calls them, leaves, gibbous without, and a little concave within, fo adapted to each other as to forma bulb. Thefe feales proceed at different elevations from a folid clongated body, {tiled by Malpighi a radical trunk, the defcending caudex of Linnzus, which fends out from its bafe a number of compound radicles, and from its upper extremity, within the feales, the root leaves and ftem of the plant. The tunicated bulb confifts of numerous tunics or coats, as in the common onion, allium cepa. Thefe coats lie clofe together in concentric layers, and proceed from a fhort broad caudex, having its upper furface more or lefs convex. They enclofe at their centre the embryo plant of the enfuing feafon; and between them, at different diltances from the centre, other bulbs, called cayeux by the French naturalifts, and offsets by Englifh gardeners, for the future increafe of the {pecies. The folid bulb is faid by Linnzus to confift of. a folid fubftance, and the tulip is given by him as an example; but he muft be underftood to {peak comparatively, not ftri@ly and abfolutely. The tulip root is thus defcribed by Dr. Darwin in his Phytologia. ‘In the tulip root diflected in the early f{pring, juit before it begins to fhoot, a perfect flower is feen in its centre ; and between the firft and fecond coat, the large next year’s bulb is, I believe, produced ; be- twecn the fecond and third coat, and between this and the fourth coat, and perhaps further, other lefs and lefs bulbs are vifible, all adjoining to the caudex at the bottom of the mother bulb; and which, I am told, require as many years before they will flower as the number of coats with which they are coated.”” It is evident from this defcription, that the bulb of the tulip is as really coated as that of the onion. Indeed it had been arranged by Mr. Ray among the tunica- ted bulbs long before the time of Linnzus. It differs only in having its coats more flefhy, and lefs eafily feparated from each other: charaéters found ina ftill greater degree in feve- ral other bulbs which are, neverthelefs, by no means truly folid. It appears to us that no proper bulb is or can be fo. If we adhere to the idea given of it by Linnzus, as a kind of hybernaculum, or winter quarters of the embryo plant, it mutt have a {pace within it for that purpofe: it muft alfo, as we conceive, have fcales or coats, within which cayeux, or offsets, for the future increafe of the plant may be formed. The bulbs which have been called folid, have coats, either comparatively thick, and fo clofely compacted together, as, on a flight infpection, to refemble one indifcriminate mafs ; or, fo {mall and few, as to be exceeded in bulk by the full grown caudex. Hence has arifen the difference in authors with refpeét to their diftribution of this kind of root. The bulb of the crocus, for inftance, has fo dubious an appear- ance, that Mr. Ray, in his “ Hiftoria Plantarum,” has placed it among the tuberofe roots; but our great naturalift would not have fo claffed it, had it pafled under his eye in an early ftage of its growth, when it is clearly tunicated. It is con- fidered by Philibert in his “ Introduétion a I’ Etude de Bota- nique,” lately publifhed at Paris, as a mixed bulb, or rather atunicated tuber. “ In the bulb properly fo called,”’ fays that acute naturalift, “ the caudex is lefs in bulk than the tunics, and the rudiments of the {tem embraced by them : in the tunicated tuber the caudex is more confiderable ; and in the pure tuber, the tunics are entirel pes of « Thus,” coutinucs he, “in the crocus are found only two or three L B. tunics, which are finally lengthened into a {pathe, and clofely embrace the leaves implanted on the caudex ; whereas, in the true bulb the leaves are furrounded by a great number of tunics which never increafe in length. ‘Take up a crocus fome time after it has flowered, and you will find that the exterior coats are deftroyed ; the caudex is naked, and feve- ral {mall bulbs appear feated on.its convex furface ; or, as it is fomewhat ambiguoufly expreffed in the original, ¢ le caudex eft a decouvert ; & fur pluficurs de fes points, vous remarquez de petits bulbes, naiflans de Ja tubérofité méme du caudex.’ It feems evident, from the latter part of the fen- tence, that this ingenious writer, in the prefent cafe, con- founded the tuber and the caudex, which are, in fa@t, always diitinét parts of a plant ; and was thence led to give to the root of the crocus a character which it does not poffefs. This root has nothing about it equivalent to a tuber; but is ttriétly bulbous, and, like that of the onion, confifts of proper radicles, a caudex, and a tunicated bulb. The only difference between them arifes from the relative proportion of the caudex and the tunics; a difference which, though fufficiently obvious in the extremes, may be loft in fuch gentle gradations, as to render it impoffible to draw a line of diftinétion, and which therefore cannot be received as a fpecific charaéter. In the inftance before us, it exits, we believe, only in thofe bulbs which have arrived, or are nearly arriving at maturity, and are about to produce flowers. We this day, March 12th, diffeted a young bulb which had produced leaves above ground, but would not have flowered during the prefent year. Its coats bore a confi- derable proportion to the caudex, and contained within them, diftin@ly formed, two new bulbs, each encloting an embryo plant, furnifhed with the rudiments of its future leaves. An older one, in flower, examined at the fame time, was, to all appearance, completely folid, with the ex- ception, however, of the ufual thin, brown, dry, and loofe envelopes, which were, doubtlefs, the fhrivelled remains of the former coats. All the re was the proper caudex, greatly increafed in fize, and having on it, at different dif- tances from the central flower-ftalk and leaves, two cayeux, or offsets, feated on its naked furface. Each of thefe off- fets confifted of an apparently new and very {mall caudex, {pringing from a fhallow concavity in the furface of the old one, and of numerous coats much exceeding their proper caudex in bulk, and all extended either into the fheaths, the leaves, or the fpathe of the future flower. Another mature plant had two flowering {tems proceeding from two bulbs, fo clofely conneéted together as to refemble one, but fepa- rated near the top by the ufual brown membranous cover ings. ‘Thefe bulbs were, doubtlefs, formed in the fame fea- fon, and within the fame coat of the parent bulb, on oppofite fides of the flowering bud of the preceding feafon ; and ap- pear to have fo far exhaulted the caudex, though now ar- rived at its full fize, as to render it incapable of producing any more offsets. The bulb of the common corn flag, defcribed and figured by Malpighi, approaches ftill nearer the naked defcending caudex, or what has been improperly called the folid bulb. It was confidered, indeed, by this eminent naturalift as a tuber, confilting of homogencous matter collected into one continuous.fub{tance : but it is evident, from his defcription, that it has the chara¢ters of a true bulb. ‘The exterior fur- face of the tuber or bulb, fays he, Stripped of its folioles and involucres, prefents to the view various gems; and a little below their origin, leaves, as ufual, break out, which, being lucked off, leave fragments of their ftalks, as reprefented in is figure, and give to the whole the appearance of a trunk or ftem, : 3R2 The BUL The root of the orobanche, figured and deferibed by the fame author, is of a more dubious nature. In the firft place, it does not belong to the monocotyledinous divifion of plants, in which the legitimate bulbous plants are ufually, if not always, found, In the next place, it produces on its furface feattered gems, each fupportéd by an exterior, caducous leaf ; fome of which gems [pring alfo from the ftem, or afeending caudex. We prefume, therefore, that it may be ttiled a defeending candex, with germ-bearing leaves, analogous to thofe of trees and fhrubs. It may be proper, however, to remark, that Bernard Jufficu, as we learn from La Marck’s « Flore Francoile, Difcours Preliminaire,” p. 54- placed in the royal garden at Trianon, orobanche, lathrza, and fome others, in the divifion of the monocotyledinous plants. Anthony Juffieu, on account of their having both a calyx and a corolla, and their evident affinity to other didynamous genera, has judged them to be dicotyledinous. What in- duced his illuftrious uncle to think otherwife we are not told. The parafitic growth of all the fpecies of orobanche renders it difficult to afcertain in what manner they fpring from the feed: but the difpofition adopted by fo eminent a botanift, and the defcription of the root given above from Malpighi, feem to indicate a fomething of a monocotyledi- nous character, and afford ground for a conjcCture, that in thefe plants a conneéting link between thofe grand natural divifions may be found. The root of the common turnip (braffica rapa) which has been called a bulb by many writers, though not by Linnzus, is nothing more than an intumefcence of the defcending caudex, produced by a luxuriant foil; and moft generally the effect of cultivation, differing from the cultivated carrot (daucus carota), which no one ever thought a bulb, merely in form. Neither of them has any claim to the character of an hybernaculum. The articulated, or jointed bulb, confifts of lamella or fcales, linked or chained together; fuch as are found on tuberous mofchatel (adoxa mofchatellina), the greater tooth- wort (lathraa {quamata), and bulbiferous coral-root (den- taria bulbifera). The only inftance of this kind of root given by La Marck, is that of white faxifrage (faxifraga granulata), but he thinks it fhould rather be ranked with the tuberous than the bulbous roots. Ventenat, in the “ Botanic Ditionary,’’ prefixed to his « Tableau du Regne Vegetal,’ confines the term bulb to thofe which are ftriGly tunicated or coated, among which, as we have feen, thofe ftiled folid by Linneus ought to be placed ; and has ranked with the tubers univerfally fo called, (fach as thofe of the common potatoe), the globular root of the turnip radifh, (a variety of raphanus fativus), intend- ing, doubtlefs, to include the common turnip ; the {caly root of the lily; the knotty root of the common dropwort ({pirea filipendula) ; the articulated root of tuberus mofcha- tel; the fafciculated root of afphodelus luteus and creticus; the grumous root, of the garden ranunculus (R. Afiaticus); and the ferotiform, or didymous root of feveral fpecies of orchis. We are inclined to think that this able botanift is right in feparating all thefe from the proper bulb; the effential chara&ter of which will then depend on its tunicated flruGture, and the difference of the fpecies will arife from the various thicknefs of the coats, and the proportion of their whole fubftance te that of the defcending caudex : but the remaining ones are fo diffimilar to each other in feveral impor- tant refpects, that they cannot, with any degree of precifion, be called by the fame name. The true di/tin@ion between a bulb and a tuber appears to us to be in their relative fituation with refpe&t to the defcending caudex. The bulb crowas the proper root, and 4 ‘planted in a fuitable foi!, will readily take root. BUL has the caudex interpofed between it andthe radicles. The tuber is fituated under the caudex, either on the fame plan with the radicles, as in fome fpecies of orchidex $ or, {till lower, when it is evidently an intumefcence of the radicle itfelf, as in the common potatoe. Linneus, in his practical works, uniformly calls thofe roots of the orchidee, which anfwer this defeription, bulbs; folely, it fhould feem, on account of their general appearance ; for they are not men- tioned under any of his four divifions, and do not correfpond with either of the definitions quoted above from the ‘* Philo- fophia Botanica,” and the ‘ Termini Botanici.”” That they do not effentially differ from the tuber of the common potatoe, is evident from the fteps by which, in different fpe- cies, they approach that well known and invaluable efculent. In orchis bifolia, pyramidalis, ultulata, &c. they {pring im- mediately from the caudex along with the proper radicles = in orchis mafcula, ophrys apifera, &c. they fwell fuddenly from the radicle itfelf at a {mall diftance from its origin: and in ophrys monorchis, the new tuber is fo far from the caudex as to be apparently not different from that of the potatoe. Thefe fcrotiform tubers differ only in number from the palmate, fafcicled, and aggregate tubers of other fpecies, between which, and thofe of common pilewort (Ra- nunculus ficaria), afphodelus luteus, &c. as far as the fub- je& has been hitherto inveitigated, no certain line of diftinc- tion can be drawn. All the radicles of ophrys nidus avis, birds-neft orchis, are fwollen into tubers. ‘The rare ophrys Loefelii appears to differ from all the reft of its natural fa- mily, in having a true bulb. A tuber, therefore, is an in- tumefcence of the radicle, as the turnip, carrot, &c. are of the caudex ; and, like them, may poffibly be, in fome cafes, merely a refervoir for the nourifhment of the prefent ftem, particularly in a droughty feafon. In this light the fingu- Yar tubers of {pirza filipendula are confidered by Dr. Smith. But it is more commonly, and as no aQual obfervations have been made on the roots of filipendula to determine the quef- tion, we are rather inclined to think it always a real hyberna- culum, having imbedded in its fubftance the rudiments of one or more future buds in a lefs advanced {tate than that of the bulb. When the tuber is {mall, and contains only a fingle bud, as in feveral leguminous plants, and perhaps fome graffes, it is called a tubercle. ; : Ventenat is probably correét in placing the grumous root of the garden ranunculus under this head. But the fealy root of the white lily, &c. differs effentially from the tuber in being placed upon the caudex; as it does from the true coated bulb, in having a loofer texture ; being, in fa&t, com- -pofed of unconneéted feales, which, by their concave fhape, are fo adapted to each other, as to produce the appearance ofa bulb. The fcales of common wood forrel (oxalis aceto= fella) are of the fame kind, but fmaller, and fomewhat lefs compadi: thofe of tuberous mofchatel have, in a {till lefs degree, the form of a bulb: and in the bulbiferous coral- wort the refemblance totally vanifhes. They all, we appre- hend, agree in having the rudiment or bud of a future plant fituated at their axils, to proteét which feems their proper ufe; and if torn off with a {mall part of the caudex, and Radical fibres are indeed plentifully thrown out under the feales of tuberous mofchatel while they are attached to the parent plant ; they are found more {pariagly in bulbiferous coral- wort ; and fometimes, as appears from Malpighi’s figure, occur in the white lily. Roots gf this kind feem to form a connecting link between the true tunicated bulb, and the proper bud or gem of the afcending caudex in trees and fhrubs. The greater toothwort, having no other radicles, is, we conceive, rather allied to the ophrys nidus avis; and this BUL this opinion we have the fatisfaction to find that we are fup- oma by the authority of Dr. Smith. See Englifh Botany, . 50. The granules of the white faxifrage, which La Marck confiders as tubers, more nearly refemble the proper bulb, being feated on the defcending caudex, which throws out radicles~beneath them, and may be regarded as_bear- ing fome affinity to what Linnzus calls ftem-bulbs, though he has conftruéted his definition of the term bulb fo as to ex- clude them. They are placed either in the axils of the leaves, as in lilium bulbiferum, dentaria bulbifera, &c.: or on the common receptacle of the head of flowers, as in feve- ral fpecies of allium : or, within the calyx, inftead of a pro- r feed, as in polygonum viviparnm. Botanilts have paid: ittle attention to their natural hiltory; and have, for the mott part, done nothing more than announce their exiitence. We know not that any inquiry has ever been made, whether thofe which are found in the three very different fituations juit mentioned are precifely of the fame nature and {tructure, or whether they do not fo far differ from each other as to render it expedient to give them diftinguifhing names. It appears, from Dr. Darwin’s defcription of what he calls the ~ fummit bulbs of allium magicum, that in every thing but fituation they are exaétly fimilar to the root bulb of that ~and other kindred plants. ‘In cutting one of them hori- zontally,” he tells us in his Phytologia, ‘ I obferved three young bulbs inclofed in the concentric flefhy membranes of the fummit bulb in the following manner : five thick, flefhy, concentric coats of the general fummit bulb being taken away, there appeared one fingle naked {mall bulb; and on the fixth coat being removed, two other bulbs became vifible, which were included in it.” A philofophic view of all the different methods in which plants are propagated without the intervention of an impregnated germ; and of the order in which they are conne¢ted together, fo as to form a regular gradation from the gem or proper ftem-bud to the tuber of the common potatoe and the tubercles of vicia, lathyroides, and many other plants, is one of the numerous defiderata in vegetable phyfiology. The hiftory of bulbs alone would require a long courfe of experi- ments. Bucs, in Vegetable Anatomy. This term is commonly applied to the enlargements of the roots ef many herbaccous ants, which are therefore faid to poffefs dulbous roots. See be tsous Roots. The true bulb, however, does not in ftrict- nefs conftitute any part of the root, but in its ftru&ture and ufes bears a perfect analogy to the bud. See Bun. Bulbsare in fome initances met with in the axille of the leaves, as in the /ilium bulbiferum, and even in the flower itfelf, in many fpecies of allium and agave; but their moft ufual fituation is upon the root. It is there that they are found in the hyacinth, tulip, the lilies, the common onion, and a number of the herbaceous monocotyledons. The root in all thefe in- ftances is an irregular circular plate, from the lower part of which proceeds a tuft of the fine or fibrous roots; the upper part fuilains the bulb. The bulb is compofed of a number of lamina, which are placed one upon another; and contain in their centre the embryo of the plant. When the lamma have not been expofed to the air, they are thick, and loaded with juices, are generally of a white colour, aud confill chiefly of parenchyma, in which are fpread fome fibres, forming nervures. They refemble very much etiolated leaves. When the bulbs have been removed from the earth, and kept for any length of time in an open and dry fituation, the external Jayers thrink up, become thin and glofly upon the furface, and often acquire a brilliant metallic colour. BU The laminz in the onion, hyacinth, tulip, and many others, confift of circular tunict, the one entirely enveloping the other; but in the Ji/ies they afflume the form of feales, and more exatly correfpond with the coverings of buds. See Plate \I. in Vegetable Anatomy ; fig. 18. fhews the bulb and root of the onion; a isthe bulb, which has the fuperior part cut off to bring into view the concentric layers of which it is compofed ; 2 mdicates the circular plate forming the com- mon centre of the fibrous roots, which are marked by c. Fig. 19. of the fame plate exhibits the bulb of a /ily, which is made of thick imbricated feales; from the bafe which fup- ports the feales the fibrous roots take their origin. The pulpy laminz, which conftitute the great mafs of all bulbs, are analogous to the {cales of the bud, and, like them, ferve to prote&t the young plant or flower from all external influences, until the embryo attains a certain degree of developement, or becomes vigorous enough to be nourihed by its own independent aétions. The embryo in the bulb, as in the feed and bud, is always formed in the year pre- ceding its evolution. ‘Thus we may clearly difcern in the bulb of the /u/ip, as early as the month of Augult, the linea- ments of the flower which is to make its appearance the en- fuing April. Sce Plate 11. of Vegetable Anatomy. Fig. 22. reprefents a Lu/b of the tulip, cut down through the middle in the month of September; aa the yarious inveftments of the bulb; 22 the innermoft tunics, thinner than the reft, and containing the young flower; c the embryo tulip, implanted as it were in the circular root, which ferves as the bafis of all the parts of the bulb; d the circular plate, or common radicle. As bulbous plants do not produce buds in the axillz of their leaves, the circular root, which fupports the bulb, gives origin to {mall bulbs, which are in many refpeéts analogous to the Jateral buds. They exift, like them, for a certain period in an immature or embryo:itate, inclofed by the leaves or tunics of the parent bulb. “Chey are formed in many fpecies at the commencement of the feafon of vegetation ; when they be- come apparent, they are as fmall as a grain of corn; they increafe at firft flowly, oY afterwards they grow with rapidity, and when the flower is ready to blow, they acquire fibrous roots preparatory to their detachment from the parent bulb. When the root-buds approach maturity, the bulb, from whence they arife, ceafes to vegetate, and ulti- mately dies and rots. It isin this manner that the root of a tulip becomes apparently removed from its fituation, the original bulb being replaced by others which produce the flowers of the following year. There are fome bulbs, as thofe of the hyacinth, which fur- nifh, for feveral years, the lateral bulbs or root-buds; but in thefe cafes it is only at the end of two or three years that the fmall bulbs attain the magnitude of the original one. If, however, they be detached during the firlt year, they will grow independently of the parent bulb, which in this cafe does not perifh, but continues to exift for feveral years, and to produce new offsets. Bulbs, like buds, may be diflinguifhed into /eaf bulbs and flower bulls ; as an example of which, let a feed of tulip be fown, it produces in the firlt fummer a plant, which dies in the autumn, but leaves in the earth one or more bulbs. Thefe afford ftronger plants, the enfuing {pring, than thofe of the firlt year, but which do not yet bear flowers. They alfo erifh in the autumn, and leave behind them other leaf bulbs, ftronger or more perfect than thofe of the precedin year; and a fucceffion of leaf bulbs is thus generated for four or five years, until at length the bulb acquires fufficient vigour for feminal generation ; and then it produces, in its place, a large flower bulb, furrounded by feveral leaf bulbs. BULBINE, BU tL BULBINE, Plinii, in Botany. See Hyacintuvs co- MOSUS. Bucaine, Hort. Clif. See AnrHertcumM FRUTESCENS and ALOIDES. Busine, Gertner. See Crinum ssiaticum. Gert- ner’s crinum is the agapanthus of L’ Heretier, Schreber, and this ditionary. ~ BULBOCASTANUM, C. Bauh. Tournefort. Bunium. BucsocastTanum, bulbofa. PHYLLUM BULBOSUM. BULBO-CAVERNOSI, in Anatomy. RATORES URINE. BULBOCODIUM, in Botany, (from Boros a bulb, and K»iov wool.) Linn. gen. 407. Reich. 440. Schreb. 555. Willd.624. Juffieu 54. Clafs and order, hexandria monogynia. Nat. ord. Spathacei Linn. Narcifi Jui. Gen. char. Cal. none. Cor. fix-petalled, funnel-fhaped ; claws very long, linear; throat conneting the petals; petals lanceolate, concave. Stam. filaments fix, awl-{haped, inferted on the claws of the petals; anthers incumbent. Pift. germ ovate, awl-fhaped, obtufely three-cornered, fupe- rior; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens; ftigmas three, oblong, ereét, channelled. Peric. capfule triangular, acuminate, angles obfcure, three-celled; feeds nume- rous. Ob/. It has fometimes only four ftamens and four etals. A Spec. B. vernum, La Marck, Illuft. Pl. 230. (Colchicum vernum. Cluf. Park. Ger. emend. Ray.) Root bulbous. Leaves three, lanceolate, enveloped in their lower part by a thin membranous fheath. Flower little, if at all longer chan the leaves, white at firft, but afterwards acquiring dif- ferent fhades of purple, rifing almoft immediately from the root; borders of the petals arrow-fhaped, and their narrow acuminate fegments fo fitted to each other, and fo clofely conneéted, as to give the whole the appearance of a mono- petalous corolla like that of colchicum. Stamens fhorter than the petals. It flowers early in the {pring, and ‘has the general appearance of the crocus, from which it differs in the number of its ftamens, as it does from colchicum in hav- ing only one flyle. Lam. Encye. and fig. A native of mountainous fituations in Spain, the fouth of Franee, and Ruffia. It appears to have been cultivated in England by Parkinfon, fo early as 1629, but is now become very rare in our gardens, its bulbs being tender, and not much inclin- ed to increafe. It may be propagated by offsets like other bulbous rooted plants, removed foon after the leaves decay, but this fhould not be done more than once every three years. It may alfo be produced from feed fown at the lat- ter end of September, or any part of October, in pots filled with frefh loamy earth, where they fhould remain, only va- rying the fitnation according to the feafon: till the next fummer but one, when as foon as their leaves are de- cayed, the roots fhould be taken up, and planted in the bor- ders of the flower garden. Miller. Burzeocopium, J. Bauh. hift. See Narcissus psEUDO- Narcissus and N. minor. Burzocopium, Rai. ang. See ANTHERICUM SEROTI- NUM. Bursocopium, gracum, Tourn. GRECUM. Buxsocopium, crocifolium, Tourn. Mil. Icon. Ixia Butsocopium. BULBOUS roots, in Gardening, are fuch roots as are compofed of bulbs, and which differ effentially from the tu- See C. Bauh. See Cuzro- See AccELE- See ANTHERICUM See BUL berous roots, which confift of an entire folid flefhy fubftance. Under this head are comprehended fome efculent plants, fuch as garlick, onions, leaks, fhallots, &c. and a numerous train of flowery plants, moftly herbaceous perennials, pro- ducing beautiful flowers, many of them being hardy enough to fucceed in beds and borders in the open ground, and others in the ftove or greenhoufe. The principal of the flowery tribe belong to the following genera: the amaryllis, including the Guernfey lily, beila-donna lily, Jacobea lily, &c.3 narciffus, or daffodil, including jonquils, hyacinths, tulip, fritillaria, and crown imperial /ilium, or common lily, including martagons; ornithogalum, or flar of Beth- lehem; galanthus, or the {now-drop ; /eucajum, or great f{now-drop ; /cilla, or fea onion ; colchicum, or meadow faf- fron; albuca, or baftard ftar of Bethlehem; mu/fcaria, or mufk and grape hyacinth; iris, the bulbous and perfian; haemanthus, or blood flower; allium, or moly; crocus, in- cluding fpring and autumn kinds; dulbocodium, and pancra- tium, or fea daffodil. The different fpecies and varieties of which are feen under their refpeCtive genera. Bulbous roots may in fact be faid to be annual or bien- nial, as the fame individual root lafts for a certain time only, in fome, not more than a year after having attained a flower- ing ftalk; in others, longer, zs previous to their diffolution, they afford from their fides a fupply of fuckers or offsets to perpetuate the refpeétive kinds, fo that at the end of many years, what is ftill often confidered as the fame individual root, isin reality another. All bulbous rooted plants re- new their leaves and flower tems annually ; aud their prin- cipal feafons for flowering are at different times during the {pring and fummer months, fome producing their flowers at one time, and their leaves at ancther, as in fome {pccies of amaryllis and colchicum; others produce their flowers and leaves together, as in the hyacinth, tulip, narciffus ; and the leaves and flower ftems of all the forts perifh annually at a certain period after fiowering, after which time, the root becomes in 2 {tate of maturity in refpeé to its growth fora few weeks, in which new fibres are prepared for the future plant. ‘This is the proper time to remove the roots, either to feparate the offsets for propagation for planting the roots in frefh prepared earth, or for removing them to any other part of the garden or other ground. And, likewife, for preferving the bulbs out of ground for autumn and {pring planting, when the beds or borders can be more conve- niently prepared for their reception; for moft forts taken up at this period may be kept out of ground feveral months ; or if occafion require, fome forts admit of being kept out of the ground from the time of the flowers and leaves de- caying, until the following fpring, as is often praétifed when intended for {pring planting, to obtain a longer fuc- ceflion of blooms by fucceeding the autumn plantation. Bulbous roots may, however, remain feveral years unre- moved, and when greatly increafed by offsets be only taken up at the proper period to feparate the increafed progeny, and replanted again as may be neceffary. It is, however, particularly neceffary to take up all the choice kinds of bul- bous roots annually to feparate the offsets for increaie, as well as to prepare the earth of the beds and borders afrefh, to promote the beauty and merit of the fucceeding year’s bloom, efpecially for the curious tulips, hyacinths, narcif- fuffes, &c. The more inferior forts of bulbous roots fhould alfo be removed every other, or as often as their offsets are confiderably increafed in number, which, if permitted to re- main fo long as to increafe into large bunches, cramp each other in growth, and produce {mall ill-nourifhed flowers of little beauty. All the bulbous roots which have been taken up at the above BUL above in fummer, fhould be chiefly planted, where raéticable, again in the following autumn, about October or ‘ovember, as they flower — ftronger than when kept out of the ground till the {pring feafon. The Rev. Mr. Marthall, in his work on gardening, how- ever, dire&ts that antumn flowering bulbs, when their leaves are decayed, fhould be taken up in May, and that none of the kinds remain too long without being taken up, ‘as they are liable to be cramped and confined in their growth, and of courfe decline in their beauty. ~ It is recommended as the beft praGtice wich flowering bulbs, to plant the fpring kinds in the beginning of the au- tumn, as in the latter end of September, or beginning of the following month; and thofe of the fummer flowerin forts in Odtober, or the fucceeding month; and thofe of the autumn blow in the latter part of July, or in the follow- ing month ; too early and too late planting being equally to be avoided, as when put in too foon, they are liable to be im- paired by being too forward when the winter and early {pring proves fevere, and when delayed too long they are apt previoufly te exhauft themfelves by forming new root fibres. Bulbous roots of the laminated kinds, fuch as lilies, fhould not be kept out of the foil longer than fix or eight weeks; the fummer flowering forts being fet at feparate periods in the autumn, and in the beginning of the year be- fore the latter end of February, fo as to produce a proper fucceffion of flowers. With others of the fame nature, this method is alfo com- mon, but they fhould have dry fandy foils in order to ftand the winter without rotting, where there happens to be much wet, fucceeded by fevere frofts. In thefe cafes, the protec- tion of mats and the haulm of peas may often be found ufe- ful. When bulbous roots have remained in the ground longer than the proper period, fo as to have ftruck out new roots, they fhould always be removed with bulbs of earth, as where this is not attended to, they grow weak. On this account, the exa¢t period for removal fhould be attended to with great care. The offsets of bulbous roots fhould in general be put into the ground a confiderable time before the periods of planting out the full fized roots: thofe from laminated bulbs moftly requiring to be immediately planted. The foil moft adapted to the growth of bulbous roots, in general, is that of a fandy loam where there is no ftagna- tion of moifture below; many forts of thefe roots are not however very difficult in this refpe&t, provided there be not an over proportion of moifture. ‘The ground for them fhould be prepared by digging it to the depth of fix, eight, or ten inches, or more, reducing it well inthe operation. After this has been done, it fhould remain a week or ten days before they are put in to become perfeétly fettled. In regard to the difpofal of thefe roots in planting, it is generally for the more large and curious forts in beds a little rounded, of three or four feet in width according to circum- flances; or in patches it the common borders, for the fmaller kinds, in clufters of three, four, or five together, according to their growth. With the large forts, ich as the white orange lilies, crown imperial, &c. one in a place is fuffi- cient. The roots of fancy flowering bulbs when planted in beds, are ufually put in rows, eight or more inches apart, and from five to feven inches diftant, in proportion to their owth. Some prefer lefs room; but where a ftrong blow is required, thefe diftances are not too great. Hyacinths fhould in general have the {pace of feven or eight inches, and tulips cight or nine, though it is often the practice to allow the former not more than five or fix ah The depths of fetting roots of the bulbous kinds, are, in gencral, BUL according to their fizes or growths, as three or four inches from their upper parts. But fome forts, as the crown im- perial, and crocus, will rife from a confiderable depth, as fix inches or more, and others from {till greater, which has induced fome perfons to plant them to {uch depths as are fufficient to prevent their being injured by digging over the furface ground; but in thefe cafes, they muit be liable to rot in wet feafons. Different methods are employed in planting bulbous roots, as thofe of putting them in by the dibble, and in drills drawn by ahoe. ‘The latter is in general to be pre- ferred, as they are apt to lie hollow in dibbling, while by placing them in a drill, they may be gently preffed into the foil, and be perfe&tly covered up. When they are fet in the beds, the beit method is to draw off the mould to a fuf- ficient depth to one fide, leaving the furface perfectly level, ne it alittle in dry feafons, and then forming it into proper fquares, placing a bulb in the middle of each, cover- ing them with the mould drawn off, fo as to leave the bulbs in an upright pofition. After the bulbs have been put into earth, if the weather continue very dry, a little water fhould be fprinkled over the beds or other places, to forward their vegetation, and prevent their rotting. Some protec- tion is neceflary in railing the more curious forts of thefe roots, as before they appear during the winter, the beds fhould be fheltered from too much wet, in order to guard againit the effets of froft. And when they firft prefent themfelves above the ground, they fllould have the protec- tion of an awning of cloth, mats, or other contrivances, in the nights when the weather is fevere; but they fhould not remain on in the day time, when it is tolerable. Some fort of covering of the fame fort is alfo neceflary when they are in blow to fhield them from the fun and rain, and continue them much longer in a perfect ftate of flowering. There is a method of getting fpring flowering bulbs for- ward, which is by fetting them in pots or glaffes for the purpofe, in warm rooms, or in moderate hot beds, as by thefe means, they flower in winter. The hyacinth and nar- ciffus, as well as feveral others, may. be managed in this way with facility. Thefe fhould be placed in pots of light dry fandy earth in autumn, as about the beginning of O&ober, water being occafionally given. They may ikewife be put into glaffes at the fame period, and occafionally every three or four weeks, till the latter end of February, in order to have them flower in fucceffion. In this method the bottom of the bulbs fhould be juft immerged in the water, which fhould be renewed once a week, or oftener, fo as to keep it conftantly up to the bottom of the bulbs. Soft water is the beft for this purpofe. ‘The blow is faid, by Mr. Marfhall, to be confiderably ftrengthened, by diffolving a portion of nitre, about the fize of a pea, in the water each time it is changed. Befides the raifing of flowers from root-bulbs in thefe modes, there are fome produced from little bulbs, forced on the fides of the top parts of the ftems, as in the bulbiferous lily. Thefe fhould be taken off about Auguft, and after being dried a little in the fun, planted out in rows in the nurfery in the fame manner as the offsets. By thefe means the various bulbous-rooted plants may be continued ; but, in order to produce new varieties, recourfe mutt be had to feed, which fhould be carefully faved, when fully ripened, from the beft and moft curious flowers ; and which, after having been hardened a little in the fun, fhould be fown in boxes of light rich earth, fetting them in fheltered funny fituations, but not under covers. This is ufually done about the latter end of Auguft, or beginning of the Showing month, the feeds of hyacinths, tulips, and other large forts, being covered to the depth of nearly an sae’ . ttle Bod little water fhould be occafionally given, when the feafon is dry, to keep the foil moiit, but not wet. The feeds may be protected till they come up by a little covering of fome Kind of ftrawy material. Other fowings may be made in March, or the following month, the boxes being brought into fouthern expofures, where there is only the morning fun, towards May. The young feedling plants fhould be proteGted in fevere and frofty weather, and where there is much rain, by means of mats, hoops, and reed hurdles, or other contrivances, to break off the north-eaft wiads. The yeung plants fhould likewife be kept properly thinned out, and perfectly free from weeds; and when the ftems decay, a little mould fhould be put upon them to the thicknefs of half an inch. In the following fummer when the leaves de- cay, asabout Auguf, they fhould be planted out into nur- fery beds at the diftance of two or three inches, according to the kinds. Some forts, as the hyacinth and tulip, re- quire to be removed from this into another nurfery bed, as foon as their tops decline, and fet at fix inches diftance; or it is probably a better practice to thin them out to this dif- tance in the firft beds. After this they are to be managed as blowing plants. Thefe forts of roots of plants blow at different lengths of time after being raifed; fome in the following year, and others not till feveral years afterwards, as will be explained under the culture of each of the different forts. The bulbous rooted plants conftitute fome of the moft fhowy and ornamental flowers of the beds, clumps, and borders of the garden and pleafure ground, affording confi- derable variety from their blowing at different periods during the early fpring, fummer, and autumnal feafons. BULCARD, in Jchthyolsy, a name under which Willaghby defcribes Blennius pholis, the {mooth Blenny ; a fifh found on the Cornith and other coatts. BULCKAU, or Burxa, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the arch-duchy of Auftria, feated on a river of the fame name, which runs into the Taya, 4 miles W. of Laab ; the town is diftant one mile W. from Schrattentaal. _ BULDAT, a town of the Arabian Irak; 20 miles E. of Bagdad. BULDURUISKOI, E.S.E. of Nertchinfk. BULEPHORUS, in the court of the eaftern eimpe- rors, was the fame officer with fumme réi RATIONALIS. BULEUT A, in the cities of Greece and Afia, were the fame with the decuriones at Rome. Calv. Lex. Jur. p. 128. See Decurto. The word has been fometimes alfo ufed to denote fenators. See SENATOR. BULEUTERIA, Beratnax, in Grecian Antiquity, pub- lic halls at Athens, where companies of tradefmen aflempled to deliberate on commercial concerns. Trade was much encouraged in thiscity : and if any one ridiculed it, he was liable to an aGtion of flander. Solon himfelf was engaged in merchandize; the founder of the city Maffilia was a mer- chant; Thales, and Hippocrates the mathematician, traded; and Plato fold oil in Egypt. Under the Roman empire, the fenate, or general council of Grecian cities, was called «© Bule” from Bsdn, con/ilium: its members were denomi- nated “ Buleute,” and the place where it met at Syracufe, *¢ Buleuterium.” BULFINCH’S Harsour, in Geography, lies on the north-weit coaft of North America, in N. lat. 46° 52' 30”. W. long. 123° 7! 30". BULGANAG, a river on the fouth-weft coalt of the Crimea, in the Black Sea, falling into the fea in N. lat. 44° 35’. E. long. 34° 50’. a town of Siberia; 132 miles 1B BUL BULGAR, a mountain of Afiatic Turkey, in the pros vince of Caramania; 39 miles S. of Cogni. BULGARIA, Great, the name given by fome geo- graphers to a province of -Afia, in Ruffian Tartary, fituateds beyond the Volga, on the banks of the rivers Kama, Bie- laia, and Samara, but now incorporated into the dominions of Ruffia, and forming part of the government of Caucains. Its ancient capital was Bulgar, Beloger, Belgard, or Bor- gard, which lay 30 verits below the mouth of the Kama, and 5 from the Volga; but according to other accounts the Volga flowed by the town. Borgard was firft ravaged by the Tartars in 1234, and in 1500 entirely deftroyed by the Ruffians. See Butcarians. Burcaria, Little, a province of European Turkey, bounded on the north by the Danube and Walachia, on the eaft by the Biack fea, on the fouth by Mount Hemus, which feparated it from Romania and Macedonia, and on the weft by Servia. It was formerly called the Lower Myfia, but derives its prefent name from the Bulgarians, by whom it was occupied. Its extent is about 280 miles in length and 180 in breadth. ‘The country in general is mountainous, but the plains and valleys, wafhed by the Danube and rivers that flow into it, are rich and fertile, and produce corn and wine in great abundance. Its ancient capital was Ternowa, but its kings principally refided at Nicopoli; but its prefent capitalis Sophia. It now forms a part of the Ottoman empire. The inhabitants are moltly Chriftians of the Greek church, ignorant and fuperititious, having one patriarch and three archbifhops, fubje€& to the authority of the patriarch of Conftantinople. ‘They are in- termixed, however, with Turkifh Mahometans and Jews. Their language is the Sclavonic, (which fee,) but in pro- nunciation differing little from the Servian. The country is divided by the Turks into four Sangiakfhips, viz. thofe of Bidin or Widin, Sardic comprehendiag Sophia, Nicopoli, and Suiliftria. The prefent inhabitants, though defcended from anceltors who diftinguifhed themfelves by their martial achievements, are occupied in graziery, agriculture, and handicrafts. This country is famous for a gate, con- ftru€ted by the emperor Trajan in the hills fouth of Sophia, among fteep rocks and precipices almolt inacceflible, in com- memoration of his having marched with his army along a road formed by himfelf through places that were before impervious. It confifts of two ftone pillars, with an arch over them, reprefenting a gate ; but is now in a mutilated and ruinous condition. BULGARIANS, or Botcarians, in Ancient Hiflory, a tribe of Sclavonians, who are fuppofed to have inhabited Afiatic Scythia and the countries lying north of the Caf- pian fea, near the Volga, whence it is faid they cbtained the name Volgari, which was changed into Bulgari; and thence their country was denominated Volgaria and Bulga- ria. Others, however, rejeét this etymology, alleging that the Volga was ancientiy called Raa, or, in Arabic, Idel; and deduce the appellation of Bulgarians either from their famous and large city Belgard, or from the denomina- tion of Birrrrans which théy affumed. The Bulgarians, after having extended their borders along the Don and the Yaik, about the Volga and the Kama, carried on a great trade to Perfia, Bucharia, India, Greece, and even to Italy and France, by the Euxine. They alfo traded con- fiderably with the Ruffians, and, by their inftrumentality, with the northern nations. Bulgaria was therefore, in for- mer times, the emporium of the European and Afiatic com- merce. The Bulgarian empire fell afterwards under the dominion of the Tartars, and when the Ruflians he the BULGARIANS. the Tartars, became fubject to Ruffia, Their country was rich and extenfive ; its borders extended along the Volga, from-the mouth of the Oka downwards to the Khoalifles, or Netiner-Bulgarians, where they had their peculiar fovereigns ; and the Ares or Votiaks, along the Kama, were under their fupremacy. It is not known how far it reached weftward, and on the Don: however, the T{cheremiffes and T{chu- vafches were fubje&t to them. Their language was the Sarmatic. The ruins of large towns and {tone buildings are evidences of their opulence, their civilization, and their induftry ; and the coins that are dug out of the earth, with Arabic and Indian inferiptions, demonitrate their extenfive commerce. It was not till the reign of Zeno, about the year 485, that they began to be heard of and dreaded by the Ro- mans. Ennodius, the moft ancient writer who mentions them, informs us, in the panegyric which he compofed en Theodoric, king of the Oftrogoths, that they were a war- like and numerous nation, enured to the toils of war, ever ready to prefer death to flavery, and never known to have been put to flight, till they engaged this hero. From Affiatic Scythia and other countries which they occupied, they advanced, in queft of a more fertile country, to the Tanais, and from thence, in the reign of Zeno, to the banks of the Danube, under the conduét of their king or leader Bladinus. Having paffed this Tiver, they made an irruption into Thrace, with a view of fettling in that coun- try; but they were oppofed by Theodoric, the Oftrogoth, at that time general of the Roman troops in that province, and compelled to repafs the Danube. In 499, they made a fuccefsful irruption into Thrace, and committed dreadful ravages, and defeated the army of the emperor Anaftafius, commanded by Ariftus, which was fent to refift them. Three years after this expedition they again invaded Thrace, and carried off an immentfe booty; of which they plundered the province. In $39, the 13th year of the emperor Juftinian, they made an incurfion over the Danube into Moefia, defeated the Roman troops, and were retreating with their fpoils and captives, after having deftroyed with fire and {word what they could not remove, when they were attacked by Juftinian’s army under the command of an experienced officer, and obliged to furrender their booty and to fave themfelves by flight. However, in the following year they again entered Thrace, which they plundered and laid wafte; but they were routed with great flaughter, and the lofs of many ees For thefe victories the emperor affumed the ape lation of “«¢ Bulgaricus,’’ which appears on his coins. iftory gives no account of them till the reign of Conftantine III. or V. (Blair) furnamed Pogonatus, which commenced in the year 668. In his time they pafled the Danube, and entering the Roman territories, committed great devaftations in the provinces bordering on that river. They were feebly op- fed by the powerful army of Conftantine, and left at full iberty to ravage the open country at pleafure. At jength, in 678, Conflantine agreed to pay them an annual penfion, on condition of their not infefting the Roman territories, and joining his forces againft all other barbarians, wherever he required their affiftance. About this time fome of them fettled in the dukedom of Benevento. It is faid that Conflantine allowed them to fettle in Lower Moefia, to which they gave the name of Bulgaria, which this province ftill retains. Other writers, however, Cappofe that they had fettled there feveral years before the reign of Conftantine. In 687, Juflinian II. refufing to ac- quiefce in the treaty ftipulated with them by his father, in- vaded their country, and reduced them to great diftrefs ; on Aloe animated by defpair, determined to oL. V. make a lai effort in defence of their liberties; and falling unexpectedly upon the emperor’s army, put it to flight, and obliged him to confirm his father’s treaty. In 713, they made an irruption into Thrace, and advanced to the gates of Conftantinople, and after having ravaged the country, returned home, with an immenfe booty, unmo- lefted, When Conftantine Copronymus, in the gth year of his reign, A.D. 749, ordered forts to be built on the borders of the provinces, adjoining the country of the Bulgarians, they remonitrated; but their ambafladors were difmiffed with a difdainful anfwer. Upon this the incenfed Bulga- rians made a fudden irruption into the Roman territories, and having laid wafte the country, returned. home loaded with booty, The emperor collecting his forces, marched againft them in perfon; but whilit he was laying walle their country, they took advantage of attacking him in a narrow pafs, obliged him to fly, and purfued him with great flaughter to the gates of Conitantinople. In the years 763 and 775, the Bulgarians fuflered great injury in their conflicts with the Romans; but upon the acceflion of Leo IV. A.D. 775, he concluded a peace with their king, whofe daughter Irene he had married ; but his fon and fuc- ceffor Conttantine Porphyrogenitus, in the rath year of his reign, A.D. 791, deluded by fome aftrologers, attacked the Bulgarians, and was totally defeated. The Bulgarians renewed their irruption into the Roman provinces in the reign of Nicephorus ; and the emperor retaliated by marcb- ing with a large. army into their country, and ravaging it with fire and fword. The ambaffadors of the Bulgarians, who were fent to him to {ue for peace, and to requeft his ieee their country, were treated with feorn ; upon which their king Crumus, actuated by defpair and the thirft of revenge, began with fortifying all the paffes through which the emperor was to retire, and then proceeded to attack the Roman camp. This he forced, flew the emperor, and cut off almoft his whole army. The favage conqueror or- dered the head of Nicephorus to be {truck off, and after having expofed it to public view, he inclofed the fkull in filver, and ufed it in all grand entertainments inftead of a cup. In 811 Michael I. afcended the throne, and a peace was concluded between the Romans and Bulgarians; but it was of very fhort duration. Crumus, offended by the treacherous efcape of fome Roman prifoners, levied a confiderable army, entered the Roman territories, and affifted by an Arabian in the ufe of military engines, reduced feveral fortified places, and ravaged the whole country. Among other cities which he reduced, he made himfelf matter of Mefem- bria, in the vicinity of Mount Hamus, and put the garrifon to the fword. The emperor prepared for an engagement, and the two armies met in the neighbourhood of Conttanti- nople. After a furious confli€ of doubtful iffue, the Ro- mans were utterly} defeated ; and Michael retired to a mo- naftery, and refigned the purple to Leo V. A.D. 813. The Bulgarians wantonly triumphing in their fuccels, refufed to liften to any pacific overtures; and a fecond en- pone took place, in which the Romans, after an ob- inate refiltance, were routed. But whilft the Bulgarians were bufily engaged in plundering the Roman camp, Leo renewed the fight and obtained a complete victory. The Bulgarians remained for five years in a fate of tranquillity ; but at length, in the year 877, they took occation to re-enter the Roman territories, and in their ufinal manner to ravaye them with fire and fword, A battle enfued, and the Roman army was routed. The prifoners were led by the viétor in triumph round his camp, and having caufed their nofes to be cut off, he fent them, thus defaced, to Conflantinople. After fubfequent advantages. gained on 35 the BUL the part of the Bulgarians, and repeated defeats and fevere 4offes fuftained by the Romans, Adrianople was befieged and taken, A.D. 922; and preparations were made for befieging Conftantinople. But, before the clofe of the fol- lowing year, an interview took place between Simeon the king of the Bulgarians, and Romanus the eaftern emperor, and a peace was concluded between them. In the-year g70, the Ruffi or Rofl, who inhabited the prefent Podolia, invaded Bulgaria and ravaged the country ; but having in- vefted Adrianople with a powerful army of more than 308,000 men, they were defeated.-and cut to pieces by a body of 12,000 Romans. The Bulgarians fubmitted to Zimifces, their deliverer ; but upon his death, A.D. 975, they revolted from the Romans and renewed their ufual-ra- vages of their provinces. After along and doubtful ftragele between the Bulgarians and the emperor Bafil, he at lat prevailed, and, in the 44th year of his reign, A.D. ro18, reduced Bulgaria into the form of a Roman province. From this time the Bulgarians remained in fubjection tothe emperors of Conftantinople, whom they powerfully affilted both againft the Latins and the Turks, and were, on that account, al- lowed to chufe a king of their own nation, who peverthe- lefs owned himfelf a vaflal of the empire. The Bulgarians, however, revolted again in the reign of Ifaac Angelus, A.D. 1186.. In 1275, Stephen, the fourth king of Hungary, having vanquifhed the prince of Bulgaria and cut his whole army in pieces, obliged the Bulgarians to acknowledge him as their fovereign. With the afliftance of the Greek emperors they fhook off the Hungarian yoke ; but attempting, in 1369, to recover Adrianople, which had been taken by the Turks, they were totally defeated by Amurath 1.; and Bajazet, who fucceeded Amureth, made an ab/olute conquett of the whole country in 1396, and reduced it to a province of the Turkith empire, in which ftate it has continued ever fince. Anc. Un. Hitt. vol, xvii. Gibbon’s Hift. Decl. and Fall of the Roman Emp. vol. vii. ix. x. xi. BULGARIAN Language, the fame with the Scra- vontc, which fee. BULGNEVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriG@ of Neufchateau, 34 leagues fouth of it. The town contains 955, and the canton 10,883 inhabitants. The territory comprehends 2623 kiliometres and 27 ccm- munes. BULIA, or Butts, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of Greece, in the Phocide, fituate towards the gulf of Corinth, near the frontiers of Beeotia. It had two temples, one of Bacchus and another of Diana; the ftatues of which were formed of wood. BULIMIA, in Medicine, a term fignifying exceffive hunger, frota €8, a particle denoting excels, and Aupac, hunger. It is alfo called fames canina, fames lupina, dog’s appetite, wolf’s appetite, &c. This fymptom occurs in cafes where the food is not retained long enough in the ftomach to be digefted, as in cafs of habitual vomiting, and in lientery ; alfo where the aliment, duly prepared or con- coéted in the ftomach, is neverthelefs but feantily conveyed into the circulation, as in the cafe of worms, and obftru€tion of the mefenteric glands; and it is faid that this fymptom occurs where much acidity is prefent in the alimentary canal. . Sauvages, with his ufual fecundity, has enumerated feven different fpecies of bulimy ; but in moft of the inftances which he has mentioned, it is rather to be regarded as a concomitant of other diforders, than asa diftiné and fpecific affeGiion. Ruyfch gives an inftance of this complaint, which was connected with a dilatation of the pylorus, in co) BUL confequence of which the food flipped through the ftomach into the inteftines, before there was time for digeftion to take place; and it is recorded by Lieutand, that upon openin the body of a patient who had died of a diforder, in which a voracious appetite was a leading fymptom, he difcovered a preternatural termination of the du€tus choledochus in the ftomach. In this cafe the bile effufed into the ftomach feems to have kept up a conftant irritation in that organ, and to have {timulated the ftomach to expel the ingefta be- fore they could be duly a€ted upon by the principal agent in the work of digeftion, the gaftric fluid. From thefe obfervations it is evident that the plan of treatment muift be varied, according to the diverfity of the morbid conditions with which it is conneéted. ‘Thus, when it is the confequence of an immediate rejection of the food by vomiting, the irritability of the ftomach fhould be coun- teracted by mild gelatinous food, by opiates, tonics, &c. aided by ftimulant epithems, and other topical applications. At the fame time nutritive enemata fhould be injeéted into the inteftines. In like manner, when it is the confequeuce of the food paffing off too rapidly by ftool (as in lientery), the remedies adapted to that condition of the body fhould be reforted to. (See Lienrery.) If it proceed from worms, calomel, jalap, cowitch, and other anthelmintics, fhould be prefcribed ; if from mefenteric ovftru€tion, rhu- barb, neutral falts, and afterwards chalybeates ; and, laftly, when it arifes from acidity in the ftomach and inteftines, bitters and abforbents fhould be given. After this view of the various caufcs of bulimy, and of the tredtment as adapted to each of thofe caufes, we fhall proceed to notice fome remarkable and well-authenticated. inftances of this affe€tion. In 1700 there lived at Stanton, feven miles from Bury, a labouring man of middle age, who for many days together had fuch an inordinate appetite, that he would eat up an ordinary leg of veal, roafted, at a meal. He would eat fow-thiftles, and various other heibs, as greedily as cattle are wont to do; and all he could get was ittl: enough to fatisfy his hunger. He voided feveral long worms. ‘his cafe is related by Dr. Burroughs, in the 22d vol. of the Phil. Traaf. Two other cafes are recorded in the 43d vol. of the fame TranfaGtions, one by Dr. Mortimer, the other by Dr. Cookfon. The fubjeGs of this affection were in both inftances boys. The firft of them was 12 years old, and lived at Blade Barnfley, in Yorkfhire. His appetite was fo ravenous, that if he was not fupplied with food when he craved it, he would gnaw the very fleth off his own bones. When awake he was conftantly devouring. Nothing paffed bis ftomach ; it was always thrown up again. In the {pace of fix days he devoured 384 lbs. of liquid and folid food. ‘The other boy was 10 years old, and had been feized with a fever about 15 months before, which continued for a fortnight, and was followed by conftant vomitings. Asin the former cafe, fo in this, the food was no fooner fwallowed than thrown up again. In the {pace of fix days this boy devoured 371 lbs. of meat and drink, befides 1 Ib. ro oz. of falt. After more than a twelvemonth from the firft attack, he died greatly emaciated. In thé*third vol. of the Memoirs of the Medical Society of London, is inferted the hiftory of a cafe of bulimy, ac- companied with vomiting, wherein 379 lbs. of meat and drink were {wallowed in the fpace of fix days, yet the patient loft fleth rapidly. A cure was effected by giving food boiled down to a jelly, frequently, and in fmall quantities. In this form the food was retained, and the body being duly fupplied with nourifhment, the ftomach and reft of the fyftem reco- vered their proper tone and energy. But the moft extra- ordinary inftance of bulimy which perhaps ever meagre is that BUL that reeorded in the third vol. of the Medical and Phyfical Journal. communicated by Dr. Johnfon, commiflioner of fick and wounded feamen, to Dr. Blane, formerly phyfician to the navy. The fubject was a Polifh foldier, named Charles Domery, in the fervice ofthe French, on board of the Hoche frigate, which was captured by the fquadron under the command of fir J. Borlafe Warren, off Ireland, in 1799. He was 21 years of age, and ftated that his father and brothers had been remarkable for their voracious appe- tites. His began when he was 13 years ofage. He would devour raw and even live cats, rats, and dogs, befides bul- lock’s liver, tallow-candles, and the entrails of animals. One day (viz. September 7th 1799) an experiment was made of how much this man could eat in one day. This experi- ment was made in the prefence of the before-mentioned Dr. Johnfon, admiral Child, and Mr. Fofter, agent for rifoners at Liverpool, and feveral other gentlemen. He ad breakfafted at four o’clock in the morning on 4lbs, of raw cow’s udder; at half paft nine o’clock there were fet before him slbs of raw beef and 12 tallow candles of 1b. weight, together with 1 bottle of porter ; thefe he finifhed by half paft ten o’clock. At one o’clock there were put before him slbs. more of beef, 11b. of candles, and 3 bottles of porter. He was then locked up in the room, and fentries were placed at the windows to prevent his throwing away any of his provifions. At two o’clock he had nearly finifhed the whole of the candles, and great part of the beef ; but without having had any evacuations by vomiting, ftool, or urine ; his fkin was cool, pulfe regular, and {pirits good. Ata quarter paft fix he had devoured the whole, and de- clared he could have eat more; but the prifoners on the outfide having told him that experiments were making upon him, he began to be alarmed. Moreover, the day was hot, and he had not had his ufual exercife in the yard. The whole of what he confumed in the courfe of one day amounted to Raw cow’s udder - - - 4lbs. Raw beef - - - 10 Candles - . a 2 16lbs. Befides 5 bottles of porter. The eagernefs with which this man attacked his beef when his ftomach was not gorged, refembled the voracity of a hungry wolf ; he would tear off large pieces with his teeth, roll them about his mouth, and then gulp them down. When his throat became dry from continued exercife, he would lubricate it by ftripping the greafe off a candle be- tween his teeth; and then wrapping up the wick likea ball, would fend it after the other part at a fwallow. He could make fhift to dine on immenfe quantities of raw potatoes or turnips, but by choice would never tafte bread or vegetables. He was in every refpeét healthy, 6 feet 3 inches high, of a pale complexion, grey eyes, long brown hair, well made but thin, his countenance rather pleafant, and he was grood- tempered. His evacuation by the bowels was by no means proportioned to the quantity of food he vn ae even did not exceed that of other men; but his perfpirations were profufe, not only when in bed, but alfo when up and eating. To the profatedete of this evacuation, Dr. Johnfon, and the other medical gentlemen, have afcribed the rapid diffipation of the ingeita, and his inceffant craving for freth fupplies of be. It does not appear that he had worms. BULINUS Hamastomus, in Conchology. See Turno Hamastomus. . BULITAGA, in Geography, a range of mountains which BUL feparates the empire of Ruffia from Perfia. N. lat. 48° 39’ to 50%. E. long. 72° 14! to 73° 14. BULITHOS, lass bovinus, a calculus or ftone found in the gall-bladder, kidnies, or urinary bladder of oxen. Inftances hereof are given by Bromell, the Academy Na- ture Curioforum, and other naturalifts, by which it appears that Ariftotle was miftaken in afferting, that. man alone is fubjec to the ftone, and inquiring folicitoufly into the reafons hereof. Arift. Probl. 9 x. n. 42. BULK of a /ip, denotes her whole content in the hold for towage of goods. ‘ Buck, to dreak. See BReaxine. Buxr-heads, are partitions made acrofs a fhip, or length ways, with boards of timber, whereby one part is divided from another. The bu/k-head afore is the partition between the fore-caftle and gratings in the head, and in which are the chafe-ports. BULKA, in Geography. See Burcxav. BULKLEY, Cuarces, in Biography, a Proteftant dif. fenting minifter, was born in London in 1719, educated in Dr. Doddridge’s academy at Northampton, whither he re- moved from Chefter in 1736, and commenced preacher in 1740. After fome time he fettled in London, where he was baptized by immerfion, and joined the general Baptitts. After having conducted his labours with ability and reputa- tion, in connection with a congregation of this defcription, for a long feries of years, during which he fucceeded the elo- quent Dr, Fotter in his leGure at che Old Jewry, he died in 1797, in the 78th year of his age. Befides feveral fingle fermons, preached on particular occafiors, he publifhed “ Difcourfes on feveral Subjedts,’”’ 1752; ‘* A Vindication of Lord Shaftefbury’s Writings,” 1753; ‘ Notes on Lord Bolingbroke’s Philofophical Writings;” ‘* Obfervations on Natural Religion and Chriftianity, candidly propofed in a Review of the Difcourfes lately publifhed by the Lord Bifhop of London, in 3 volumes;” ‘ Economy of the Gofpel,”’ gto. 17645”? “ Difcourfes on the Parables and Miracles of Chrift,”’ 4 vols. 1770; ‘ Catechetical Exer- cifes,’? 1774; ‘ Preface to notes on the Bible,’? 1791, &c. Evans’s Funeral Sermon, 1797. i BULL, in Afronomy, the conftellation Taurus, which ee. Butt, Dr. Jonny, in Biography, was born about 1563, ia Somerfetfhire, and became, by his great abilities on the organ and virginal, the wonder of his time. Indeed, the profperous reign of queen Elizabeth was, perhaps, not rendered more illuttrious by the mutfical produétions of Tallis, Bird, and Morley, than the performance of Dr. Bull. His mufic- mafter was William Blithman, organift of the chapel royal to queen Elizabeth, in which capacity he held a very high rank. Bull, on the death of his mafter, in 1591, was ap- pointed his fucceflor in the qucen’s chapel ; and in 1596, at the recommendation of her majefty, he had the honour of being the firit that was appointed mufic-profeffor to Grefham college. And though unable to compofe and read his lec- tures in Latin, ecth tent to the founder’s original intention, fuch was his favour with the queen and the public, that the executors of fir Thomas Grefham, by the ordinances, bearing date 1597, difpenfed with his Miierslacne of the Latin lan- guage, and ordered * "lhe folemn mulic leéture to be read twice every week, in manner following, viz. the theoretique part for one half hour, or thereabouts; and the praétique, by concert of voice or inflruments, for the reft of the hour: whereof the firft aad ot be in the Latin tongue, and the fecond in Englith.—But becaufe at this time Mr. Doétor Bull, who is recommended to the place by the queen’s molt excellent majefly, being not able to fpeak Latin, nis leftures 352 are Bot : are permitted to be altogether in Englifh folong as he fhall continue inthe place of mufic leéturer there.”? Ward’s Lives of the Profeffors of Grefham College, Pref. p. viii. The firft leGture read by Bull, at Grefham college, was printed the fame year that it was pronounced, under this title: « The Oration of Maiiter John Bull, Door of Muficke, and one of the Gentlemen of hir Majefties Royall-Chappell, ashe pronounced the fame, ‘beefore divers worfhipful per- fons, the Aldermen and Commoners of the citie of London, with a great multitude of other people, the 6th day of Oober, 1597, in the new erected Colledge of Sir Thomas Grefham, Knt. deceafed : made in the commendation of the founder; and the*excvllent fcience of Muticke.””> Imprinted at London by ‘Thomas Erte: f At firft, application was made to the two univerfities; by the lord mayot andcorporation of London, jointly with the mercers’ company, left truftees of this inftitution, to nomi nate two perfonsin all the liberal arts fitly qualified to read jetures in their feveral faculties; but ‘this application was not continued, as fome'jealoufy feems to haveibeen awakened at'Oxford and Cambridge,” leit*this: mew college fhould be prejtdicial to thofe ancient feats of learning. . ~ What’effe@ this liberal foundation had on other faculties let the friends and patrons of each particular fcience: fay ; but as to mufic, it is hardly poffible to read the lives of the profeffors withont lamenting that the defign of fo noble an inftitution, eftabhifhed on fuch an extenfive plan; fhould be fo entively Fruftrated asto become wholly ufelefs to that city atid nation for whofe in{truction it was benevolently intended. Dr. Ball; the only:perfon on the litt of mufic profeffors, who feems to have been ableito inform by theory, or amufe by practice; thofe whoattendéd the'mufical: lectures,’ refigned his prefeforfhip in 1607.’ Indeed; during more than a year of his’ profeflorthip, Mr. Thomas Bird, fon of the venerable William Bird, exercifed the office of a fubftitute to Dr. Bull, while-he travelled on the continent for the recovery of his health: So that ‘except about fine years from the date of theveftablifhment, tothe prefent times, it does not appear that the fciénce of found, or praétice of the mufical art, has been advanced by fubfequent profeffors. For inthe follow- ing Jit, given by Dr. Ward, up to. the year 1740, including Dr. Clayton, elected 1607; John Taverner, 1610, who was no relationof the:mifician of that name ; Richard. Knight, 1638; William Petty, -1650, afterwards the famous fir William» Petty ; Dr Thomas Baynes, 1660; William Perry, 1681.3;:John Newy, 1696; Dr. Robert Shippen, 17055 Dr.-Edward Shippen, *his»brother, 17103; John Gordon, 1723.5 and Thomas Brown, 1739; though all men of learaing atid abilities in other faculties, yet no one of them had ever diftinguifhed himfelf, either in the theory or practice of mufic;/nor are any proofs remaining that they had -ever fludied, that art, the arcana of which they were appointéd to unfold! What an abufe of reafon and munificeaceidoes iz feem, that thofe who had never meditated on the art: or beenitaught, hemfelves, {hould ‘be fixed upon to\teach, aad dire& the fhudies of others! A-filly ory has been told, by Aathony- Wood, (Patti Oxon. Wol. i. c..131.) concerning a feat performed by Dr. Bull, whoj at St. Omer’s, when he firlt vifited the continent, to.a compofition originally «written \in- forty patts, added forty more i» a few hours; which is fo impoffible, as nat to be worth relating. ‘ After the deceafeiof, queen, Ehzabeth, he was appointed organift to king James. And. July the 16th, 1607, when his miajefly and) prince Heury dined at Merchant-Taylors’ hall, the royal guelts, were entertained with mufic, both vocal and inftrumental, as well as with feveral orations. And while his majefy was at table, according to Stow, «Mr, doctor Bull, who was free of that company, being in a citizens gowne, cappe, and hood, played moit excellent me- lody upon afmall payre of organs placed there for that pur- pole onely.”? (Chron, p.891-edit. 1615.) In December, of the fame year, he refigned his profefforfhip of Grefham college, but for what reafon does not appear, as he continued in England feveral years afterwards. ; Iv 1613 he quitted England, and entered into the fervice of the archduke, in the Netherlands. He afterwards feems to have been fettled at Lubeck, at which place many of his compofitionsin the litt publithed by Dr. Ward, are dated; one.of them as late as 1622, the fuppofed year’ of his des ceafe. » Dr. Bull has been cenfured for quitting his eftablifhment in England; but itis probable that the increafe of health and wealth was the caufe and confequence. Indeed he feems ‘to have been praifed:at home, more than rewarded ; and it is 'no uncommon thing for one age to let an artift ftarve, to whom the next, would willingly ereét according to Pezron, from the Celtic buil, or bul, a bubble. ; We meet with four kinds of thefe Julli or bulle; golden, filver, waxen, and leaden ;-all in ufe among the emperors and kings of the middle and barbarous ages. In fome, the impreffion is made on the folid metal itfelf; in others on wax ; and only enclofed in a metalline box, or cafe. Sealing with metals is an illuftrious privilege, belonging only to princes, though affumed alfo by prelates, as princes of the church, The doges of Venice durit not arrogate this honour, till leave was given them by pope Alexander III. about the year 1170, to feal their diplomata with lead. The dull is the third kind of apoftolical refcript, and the moit in ufe, both in affairs of juftice and of grace. It is written on parchment ; by which it is diftincuifhed from a brief, or fimple fignature, which is on paper. A bull is property a fignature enlarged : what the latter comprehends in a few words, the former dilates and amplifies. If the bulls be letters of grace, the lead is hung on filken threads ; if they be letters of juftice, and executory, the lead is hung by a hempen cord. ‘They are all written in an old round Gothic letter. The bull, in the form wherein it is to be difpatched, is divided into five parts; viz. the narrative of the faét; the conception; the claufe; the date; and the falutation, in which the pope takes on himfelf the quality of ** fervant of the fervants of God,” fervus fervorum Det. Properly fpeaking, it is the feal or pendant lead alone that is the bull: it being that which gives it both the title and authortiy. The feal prefents, on one fide, the heads of St. Peter and St. Paul; on the other, the name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. By bulls, jubilees are granted: without them no bifhops in the Romifh church are allowed to be confecrated. In Spain, bulls are required for all kinds of benefices ; but in France, &c. fimple fignatures are fufficient ; excepting for bifhoprics, abbeys, dignitaries, and priories conventual,. According to the laws of the Roman chancery, no benefits, exceeding twenty-four ducats per annum, fhould be con- ferred without bulls; but the French would never fubmit to this rule, except for fuch benefices as are taxed in the apoftolical chamber : for the reft, they referve the right of diffembling the value, exprefling it in general terms: Cujus & illi forfan annexorum fradus 24 ducatorum auri de camera, Jecundum communem e@ffimationem, valorem annuum non exce- dunt. The bulls brought into France were limited and mode- rated by the laws and cuftoms of the land, before they were regiftered ; nor was any thing admitted till it had been well examined, and found to contain nothing contrary to the liberties of the Gallican church ; thofe words, proprio motu, in a bull, were fufficient to make the whole be rejected in France. Nor do the Spaniards admit the papal bnils impli- citly ; but having been examined by the king’s council, if there appear any reafon for not executing them, notice thereof is given to the pope by a fupplication ; and the bull, by this means, remains without effect: and the like method of proceeding with the court of Rome is obferved by moft of the other courts of Europe, in the papal come munion. To fulminate bulls, is to make publication thereof, by one of the three commiffioners to whom they are directed 5 whether he be the bifhop or official. ‘This publication is fometimes oppofed ; but when it is, the fault is not charged _ on the pope who iflued a bull; but an appeal is brought to BULL to him againft the perfon who is fuppofed to make it; thus the fault is laid, where it is known not to be juit, to evade affronting the pontiff. See Furmination. The bull in cana Domini, is a bull read every year on Maunday-Thurfday, in the pope’s prefence; containing va- rious exctommunications and execrations again{t heretics, thofe who difobey the fee, who diiturb or oppofe the exer- eife of ecclefiattical jurifdiction, &c. After the death of the pope, no bulls are difpatched dur- ing the vacancy of the fee, to prevent any abules; there- fore, as foon as the pope is dead, the vice-chancellor of the Roman church takes the feal of the bulls; and in the pre- fence of feveral perfons, orders the name of the deceafed pope to be erafed; and covers the other fide, on which are the heads of St. Peter and St. Paul, with a linen cloth? fealing it up with his own feal, and giving itythus covered, to the chamberlain, to be preferved, that no bulls may be fealed with it in the mean time. Thefe decrees of the pope are often mentioned in our flatutes, as 25 Edw. III. 28 Hen. VIII. c. 16.; 1 and2 Ph. and M. c. 8; and 13 Eliz.c. 2. They were formerly ufed, and of force in this country; but by ftat. 28 Hen. VIII. ¢. 16. all bulls, &c. obtained from the bifhop of Rome are void; and by 13 Eliz. c. 2. (fee alfo 23 Eliz. c. 1.) the procuring, publifhing, or ufing of any of them is high on. Butt, golden, isa denomination peculiarly given to an ordinance, or ftatute, made by the emperor Charles IV. in 1356, faid to have been drawn up by that celebrated lawyer, Bartoli, and ftill reputed the magna charta, or fundamental law of the empire. It was compofed and publifhed at a diet convoked by the emperor at Nuremberg; and is thus called from a golden feal fixed to it, fuch as were uled by the em- perors of Conftantinople, annexed to their edicts. Till the publication of the golden bull, the form and eeremony of the ele¢tion of an emperor were dubious, and undetermined ; and the number of electors was not fixed ; this folemn edict regulating the functions, rights, privileges, and pre-eminences of the electors. The original, which is in Latin, on vellum, is kept at Franckfort. On the back fide of it there are feveral knots of black and yellow filk, to which hangs a dull, or teal of gold. It is pierced through the middle with a golden wire, the ends of which are faltened by a feal of gold, about the fize of a half crown, one fide exhibiting the figure of Charles IV. upon a throne, and the reverfe, a kind of gate, infcribe¢ « Aurea Romawa.’’? On the exergue are thefe words: “ Carolus IV. Rom. Imp. femper Auguftus, rex Bohe- miz.’’ This is preferved in a {quare wooden box. This ordinance, containing thirty articles, was approved of by all the princes of the empire, and remains {till in force. The eleétion of the empire is by it declared to belong to feven electors; three be di ecclefiattics, viz. the arch- bifhops of Mentz, Treves, and Colegn ; and four feculars, viz. the king of Bohemia, prince Palatine, duke of Saxony, and marquis of Brandenburg. Burt, Caroline, a famous conftitution publifhed by Charles IV. A.D. 1359, which cancelled all the ftatutes or regulations that had been made to the prejudice of eccle- fiaitical liberty, aud denounced the fevereft penalties againft thofe who fhould aggrieve the perfons of the clergy. It was iflued in order to pacify pope Innocent VI., who had been alarmed and offended by fome plans of reformation which the emperor had adopted. With a view of reforming the German clergy, he communicated to the bifhops the meafures he had taken for thie purpofe, and threatened to Sequeitrate the revenues of thole who fhould refule to obey his orders. The pope, believing the honour and liberty of ecclefiaitics at ftake, defired the emperor to forbear meddling with the reformation of the clergy, which was his province, and infifted upon his reftoring what the fecular noblemen had at different times ufurped from eccletiaftics. This cir- cumftance occafioned the publication of the Caroline bull, Butts, golden, were in ufe among the ealtern emperors for a contiderable time, leaden ones being confined to mat- ters of a fmaller moment. Spelman mentions a golden bull, in a treaty of alliance with our Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France: the fame author relates, that the in- ftrument, whereby Clement VII. gave king Henry VIII. the title of Defender of the Faith, had golden dulla af- fixed to it; and there are other inftances in Du-Cange and Altaferra. Butts, /i/ver, were not in fo frequent ufe, though in- {tances of them are not wanting. Butts, leaden, were fent by the emperors of Conftanti- nople, to defpots, patriarchs, and princes; and the like were alfo ufed by the grandees of the imperial court, as well as by the kings of France, Sicily, &c. and by bifhops, pa- triarchs, and popes. Polydore Virgil makes pope Ste- phen III. the firft who ufed leaden du//s, about the year 772. But others find inftances of them as early as Sylvefter, Leo. I. and Gregory the Great. The later popes, betides their own names, {trike the figures of St. Peter and St. Paul on their bulls; a practice firtt introduced by pope Pafchal II. Buxvs, waxen, are faid to have been firft brought into England by the Normans. They were in frequent ufe among the Greek emperors, who thus fealed letters to their wives, mothers, and fons. Of thefe there were two forts,. one red, the other green. Du Cange, Gloff. Lat. tom. i, & Glofl. Grec. Montfaucon, Paleolog. lib. vi. Burt of Phalaris, or Perillus, a brazen bull made by Perillus the Athenian, to flatter the cruelty of Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, for the purpofe of tormenting cri- minals,. It was formed in the fhape of that quadruped ;. and when perfons were inclofed in it, fire was applied, and their cries are faid to have refembled the roaring of a bull. Perillus is faid to have Leen the firft who fuffered in it, for having extorted too great a recompence for the conftruction of it. Phalaris himielf was punifhed by the people of Agri- gentum for his cruelty, by being put to death, as fome fay, in his own bull, When Hannibal took the city, this bull, among other treafures and valuable curiolities, was fent to Carthage ; but it was afterwards reftored to the Agrigen= tines by Scipio, when he took Carthage, in the third Punic war. Cic, 1. iv. in Verrem. c. 33. But, in Geography, a large rock in the Atlantic ocean, about three miles W. of Durfey ifland, on the coaft of the county of Kerry, Ireland. N. lat. 51° 33’. W. long, 10’ 9’. J Butt, a rock near the welt point of the ifland of Ragh- lin, in the North channel, about feven miles N.W. of Fairhead, in the county of Antrim, Ireland, N lat. 55° 19!. W. long. 6° 10’. Burt, North and South, two banks of fand inthe bay of Dublin, Ireland, between which lies the {mall fand bank, called the éar.. There are buoys to mark thefe banks, but notwithitanding every improvement of the harbour, and every precaution, they fometimes occafion fhipwrecks. Buvt, in Rural Economy, an animal of much importance to the ftock farmer. Tor the purpofes of the breeder the head of the bull fhould, according to Mr. Culley, ‘ be ra- ther long, and the muzzle fine; his eyes lively and promi- neat, his ears long and thin, his horns white; his neck, rifling BU Wis wfing witha gentle curve from the fhoulders, aud fmall and fine where it joins the head; his fhoulders moderately broad at the top, joining full to his chine, or crops and cheit back- wards, aud to the neck-vein forwards; his bofom open, breaft broad, and projeGting well before his legs, his arms or fore thighs mufcular, and tapering to his knee; his legs ftraight, clean, and very fine-boned ; his chine and cheft fo full as to leave no hollows behind the fhoulders, the plates ftrong, to keep his belly from finking below the level of his breaft; his back or loin broad, ftraight, and flat, his ribs rifing one above another in fuch a manner, that the laft rib may be rather the higheit, leaving only a {mall {pace to the hips or hooks, the whole forming a round or barrel-like carcale ; his hips fhould be wide placed, round or globular, and a little higher than the back, the quarters from the hip to the rump long; and inftead of being {quare, as recom- mended by fome, they fhould taper gradually from the hips backwards, and the turls or pott-bones not in the leaft pro- tuberant ; rumps clofe to the tail, the tail broad, well haired, and fet on fo high as to be in the fame horizontal line with his back.”? This is an animal chiefly kept for the purpofe of propaga- tion, though he is capable of being fubjected to the yoke 5, but there is no certainty of his working quietly ; and the ufe he may make of his prodigious {trength fhould conftantly be guarded again{ft. Bulls are for the molt part naturally untractable, ftubborn, and fierce; and frequently in the bulling feafon abfolutely furious and uncontrollable ; how- ever, by caftration, they may be rendered. perfeGly tame and quiet, without the leaft diminution of their ftrength. They alfo often grow larger, more heavy and unwieldy, and become more adapted to labour, as well as more tractable, by this operation. See Ox and Carrie. The difpofition of thefe animals is, however, fhewn to depend greatly upon the manner in which they are reared by the practice of Mr. Bakewell, who had all his bulls fo tame and gentle, that they could be managed with the greateit facility. Among the Ancients, thofe who triumphed, facriticed a bull, when they arrived at the capitol. Bulls were offered to Apollo and Neptune. It was held a crime to facrifice them to Jupiter, though we do not want initances of that practice. Bulls were ranked by the Romans in the number of mili- tary rewards. Burt, African, in Natural Hiffory, a{mall wild bull, com- mon in that part of the world, and fuppofed to be the true bubalus of the ancients. See Busarus. Buvv’s blood, frefh drawn, is {aid to be a powerful poi- fon, as coagulating in the flomach. ‘This is related on the authority of Pliny, xxviii, 9, and xi. 38. and many perfons among the ancients, fuch as AZfon, Midas, Hannibal, and ‘Themiftocles, are faid to have been poifoned by it. But the fact has been queftioned by fome, and denied by others. See Apollodorus, lib. 1. cap. 27. Strabo, lib. i. p. 106. Plutarch in Flaminio; and Valer. Maxim. vol. vi. ext. 3. Butt’s gail, is an intenfe bitter, more pungent and acri- monious than that of any other animal ; whence it is fome- times ufed to deftroy worms. Butt, dannal, denotes.a bull kept by a lord, whe has a right to demand all his tenants to bring their cows to be ferved by him. Butt, free, according to Du-Cange, fignifies the fame with dannal bull. Hence tauri liberi libertas ; which, how- eyer, fhould rather feem to denote a privilege of keeping a bull independent of the lord. Butts, wild. The wild bulls, now fo numerous on the continent of America, are faid to have fprung from one bull and feven cows, which were carried thither by fome of the firft conquerors. : In the ifland of Hifpaniola, the French buccaneers pur- fie bulls with dogs, and kill them with fire arms. See Buccaneers. At Buenos Ayres, the Spanifh toradors chafe them on horfeback, armed witha long lance, at the end of which is a half-moon of fharp fteel. Having drawn a number of the horned kind together, they let:the cows efcape, but dextroufly take the bulls with their half-moons on the hind-legs, by which, difabling them frem flight, they are eafily difpatched. Buut-laiting. See Batrine. Buri-fghtiug, a {port or exercife much in vogue among the Spaniards and Portuguefe, contifting in a kind of com- bat of a cavalier or torador againft a wild bull, either on foot or on horfeback, by riding at him with alance. The Spa- niards have bull-fights, i.e. feafts, attended with fhows, in honour of St. John, the Virgin Mary, &c. This fport the Spaniards received from the Moors, among whom it was celebrated with great eclat. Some think, that the Moors might have received the cuftom from the Romans, and they from the Greeks. Dr. Plott is of opinion, that the Tavjo- xesorliov neces amongt{t the Thefialians, who firft inftituted this game, and of whom J ulius Cefar learned and brought it to Rome, were the origin both of the Spanifh and Portu- guefe bull-fighting, and of the Englith bull-running. Nat. Hitt. Staff. chap. x. § 76. The practice was prohibited by pope Pius V. under pain of excommunication, incurred ip/o fado. But fucceeding popes have granted feveral mitigations in behalf of the toradors. Mr. Gibbon, in his ** Hiftory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,”’ (vol. xii. p. 421.) has extrated from Muratori (Script. Rer. Italic. tom. 12.) an account of a bull-feaft, which was celebrated in 1332, after the fafhion of the Moors and Spaniards, in the Colifceum at’ Rome. The nobles were invited by a general proclamation, com- municated as far as Rimini and Ravenna, to exercife their {kill and courage in this perilous adventure. The Roman ladies were marfhalled in three {quadrons, and feated- in three balconies, which were lined on this occafion with fear- let cloth. When the company was collected and arranged, the lots of the champions were drawn by an old and refpeét- able citizen; and they defcended into the arena, or pit, to encounter the wild bulls with a fingle fpear. Amidft the crowd, the annalift has felected the names, colours, and de- vices, of 20 of the molt confpicuous knights. Several of the names are the mott illuftrious of Rome and the eccle- fiaftical ftate ; the colours were adapted to their tafte and fituation; and the devices are expreflive of hope or defpair, and breathe the fpirit of gallantry and arms; the combats of the amphitheatre were dangerous and bloody. Every champion fucceflively encountéred a wild bull; and the vic- tory may be afcribed to the quadrupeds, fince no more than eleven were left on the field, with the Jofs of nine wounded, and eighteen killed on the fide of their adverfaries. Some of the nobleft families might mourn, but the pomp of the funerals in the churches of St. John Lateran, and Maria Maggiore, afforded a fecond holiday to the people. Similar combats with bulls in the amphitheatres, have been juftly regarded as a ftriking feature of Spanifh and Portuguefe manners. Some have fuppofed that thefe {pec- tacles, by rendering bloodfhed famiiar to the people, tend to deaden fenfibility, and to make the national character ferocious and brutal. Others think, that they ferve as an antidote to timidity, and as a means of cherifhing refolution and valour. But theories of this kind are not juftified by - 2 facts. BULL. fa&te. Modern Italy, it is faid, has no gladiators, but nn- serous aflaffins; ah ancient ame hed {earcely one aftalin, but whole armies of gladiators. As far as it re- fpe&ts the national character, it feems to be of little mo- ment, whether bulls be killed by butchers or by champions ; and it is well known, that fuch fpeCtacles have little or no influence on the difpofition, becaufe they are attended by people of all ages and ftations, and yet they neither give energy to the feeble, and boldnefs to the timid, nor make an eh Gaice in the mildnefs of their manners. The bull- fights of Spain and Portugal attra& a crewd of {pectators, aad yield very confiderable fums of money to thofe who un- dertake and conduct them, of which part is appropriated to the purpofe of defraying the expence of horfes and bulls, and of paying the hire of the toradors; and part is applied to the {upport of religious and eleemofynary eftablifhments. Thefe Borat bask formed one of the chief funds of the hofpital at Madrid. The bulls that are felected for thefe combats are of a peculiar breed, and the coanoiileurs can rea- dily diftinguith by a view of them where they have been bred. The arena, where thefe fhows are exhibited, is a kind of circus furrounded by ranges of feats, one above another; and the highett of them is covered. The lower part of theedifice is oc- cupied by boxes. At Valladolid, which has no circus appro- priate to thefe fights, the principal {quare is converted into a theatre, and che balconies of the adjoining houfes are made to are in fuch a manner as to accommodate the numerous pectators who affemble on thefe occafions. _ The fpeétacle commences by a kind of proceflion around the fquare, in which the combatants appear both on horfeback and on foot; and they are preceded by two alguazils on horfeback, who are deputed to obtain of the prefident of the fhow an order for its commencement. Upon a certain fignal, the animal appears; and the officers of juftice, by haftily with- drawing, give notice to the fpeétators that their cruel paf- time is about to begin. ‘The bull is received, on his ap- pearance, with loud fhouts; and the conteit is begun by the “ picadors,”? who are mounted on horfes and dreffed in the an- cient Spanifh mode, each of them being armed with a lon lance. To the honour of this part of the combat, which requires ftrength, courage, and dexterity, feveral perfons of rank occafionally afpire. When the bull darts upon thefe combatants, without any previous irritation, his courage is applauded; and if in fpite of the pointed weapon which re- filts his aflault, he returns to the charge, the fhouts of the Spectators are redoubled, and their joy feems to tranfport m into enthufiafm; but if the bull is timid, and avoids his utors, he is hooted at and hiffed by the {peétators, and infulted with reproaches and blows by thofe who are near him. If thefe modes of provocation are infufficient to roufe his ferocity, large dogs are Jet loofe upon him, which {eize him in a furious manner by the neck and ear; and which he toffes into the air, fo that they fall to the ground ftunned, and fometimes mangled. At length, however, the combat is renewed, and the animal, overcome by_his affail- ants, perifhes ignobly. If the animal manifefts fpirit and fiercenefs, the picadors-piece nim with their lances; and thus irritated, he furioufly attacks the horfe which carries the combatant, rips up his fides, and overturns him and his rider, ‘The picadors, thus difmounted and endangered, are relieved by other combatants on foot, called “ Chulos;” who divert the animal’s attention by fhaking pieces of dif- ferently coloured cloth before him; thefe the provoked ani- mal purfues, and they efcape mercly by their agility. Some- times they are under a neceffity of throwing themfelves over a barrier that enclofes the arena. When this barrier is fingle, ar bull purfuing the chulo, fometimes jumps over ou. V. ft, and caufes great confternation among the fpedtators on the lower benches, fo that in their precipitance for ef- caping, they fufler as much as they might have done from the fury of the animal, who, however, becomes incapable of this kind of purfuit. The picador, when effe€tually relieved, mounts his borfe, or if the firf horfe be killed or become unfit for fervice, procures another, and renews the , combat. When the picadors have {ufliciently tormented the bull, they withdraw, and leave him to the nrritation of the combatants on foot. Thefe latter, denominated * banderil- leros,’’ go before the animal; and when he aims at them, they plunge into his neck darts, calld «ba derilfas,”? with hooked points, and ornamented with {mall ftreamers of co- loured paper. The fury of the bull is now redoubled; he roars and tofles his head, and aggravates, by the violence of his motion, the pain occafioned by his wounds: and in this fituation, the agility of his adverfaries is fignally difplayed. The danger that threatens them alarms the {petators ; but accuftomed to this kind of combat, they fecure themfelves by their addrefs and dexterity. When the vigour of the bull is almoft exhaufted, an@ he is bathed with blood, and the people are anxious to witnefs the combat of another vic- tim, the piefident of the entertainment iffues the fignal of death, which is proclaimed by the found of trumpets. ‘The “* matador” then advances; and_holding a dagger in one handyhe waves before his adverfary with the other hand a Kind of flag. They both ftop and gaze at one another; and the {pectators are again amufed for fome time by the impetuofity of the bull, and the agility of the, matador. The aflembled obfervers witnefs this {cene in profound fi- lence : and the matador coolly difpatches the furious animal by a blow, where the fpinal marrow joins the head. The death is bloodlefs and inftantaneous, and deferves imita- tion, as humanity would with to fave pain to the animals flaughtered for food. When the animal falls, a thoufand voices proclaim with loud fhouts the triumph of the con- queror. If the blow is not decifive, and the bull furvives, murmurs fucceed applaufe, and the matador is regarded only as an Sai pene, When the tragedy termi- nates, three mules oruamented with bells and ftreamers ap- pear, and the bull is dragged by means of a rope tied round his horns from the arena. Sometimes the bull is pierced in various parts with lances, to which fquibs are faftened, which being fet on fire, the maddened animal ftands pawing the ground while he draws in and exhales vo~ lumes of fmoke. Sometimes an American is introduced, who, after the manner of hunting the wild bull in his own country, throws a rope round the horns, and entangling him as in anet, then kills him with perfec fafety. >On each of the days fet apart for thefe entertainments, fix are thus facrificed in the morning, and 12 in the after- noon: at leaft this is the cafe at Madrid. The three lait belong éxclufively to the matador, who, unaided by the pi- cadors, exerts his ingenuity to diverfify the pleafure of the fpectators, ‘Ihe Spanith government are not infenfible of de moral and political inconveniences arifing from this fpe- cies of frenzy. _ So far from encouraging, they difcounte- nance it; whilft it would be dangerous precipitately to abo- li it. The court itfelf Sarat reckoned it among the number of its feltivals, which occurred at certain periods, The theatre of them was the “ Plaza-Mayer,” and they were honoured with the prefence of the king and royal fa- mily ; and his guards prefided there in good order. His halberdiers formed the interior circle of the {cene; and their long weapons, held out in a defenfive pollure, were the only barrier which they oppofed again{ft the dangerous caprices of the bull. ‘Thefe entertainments, which by way of ex- fete cellence BUL céllence weré called “Fieftas Reales,” are row become very rare. Charles III. -who endeavoured to’polifh the na tion, and to dire&t the public attention to ufeful objects, was very defirous of fuppreffing a tafte from which inconve- niences fprang: but he was too wife to employ violent means for this purpofe. He, howevér, confined the number of bull-fichts to thofe, the profits of which were applied to fome- charitable inftitutions, with a defign of fubftituting to thefe other funds afterwards. Bull-fights bemg thus ren- dered lefs frequent, will, perhaps, gradually lofe their at- traétion, until more favourable circumftances allow the en- tire abolition of them. Butt-running, denotes a feudal cuftom obtaining in the honour of Tudbury in Staffordfhire, where anciently, on the day of the Affumption of our lady, a bull was turned loofe by the lord to the minitrels, who, if they could catch him before he paffed the river Dove, were to have him for their own, or, in lieu thereof, to receive each forty pence ; in confideration of which cuftom, they pay twenty pence yearly to the faid lord. Plot. Nat. Hiit. Staff. Butt and boar—By the cuftom of fome places, the par- fon is obliged to keep a bull and boar for the ufe of his pa- rifhioners, in confideration of his having tithes of calves and pigs, &c. 1 Rol. Abr. 559. 4 Mod. 241. Buvt-comber,in Entomology. See ScanaBbzus TYPHezvs. Butu-dog, in Zoology, a kind of maitiff upon a {maller feale ; with a fomewhat flatter fnout and a greater ferocity of afpe&. The bull-dog is remarkable for the undaunted and f{avagé pertinacity with which he provokes and con- tinues the fight; and when he has fixed his bite, is with much difficulty difengaged from his antagonift. ‘I’his is the dog employed in the barbarous diverfion of bull-baiting. See 0G. Buxv’s eye, in Affronomy. See ALDEBARAN. Buxv’s eye, in Meteorology, a little dark cloud, reddifh in the middle, chiefly appearing about the Cape of Good Hope; thus denominated by the Portuguefe, who, on the appearance of it, inftantly take down their fails, as know- ing that a terrible ftorm of thunder, lightning, and whirl- wind, is at hand. Burv’s eye, in Sea Language, denotes a fort of {mall oval block without fheaves, made of hard wood. It is turned in a lathe, has a groove round the outfide, and an oval hole gouged through the middle. Thefe blocks are ufed inflead of blocks and iron thimbles; but, indeed, they are very fel- dom ufed at all. Buri.finch, in Ornithology. See Loxia Pyrruura. Butt-frog, in Zoology. See Rana Caresserana, and OcerraTa. Buxt-bay river, in Geography, lies to the eaft of Port Royal or Kingfton harbour, in Jamaiea, between Cane river and Four-mile wood. But and cow, rocks near the fouth coaft of Newfound- Jand. N. lat. 46° 55'. W. long. 53° 42. Butt Sand, lies about a league S.W. from the Spurn oint, or eaftern entrance of the Humber, on the coait of Porkihive, between which and the point is a fine channel of ten or eleven fathoms. Butv’s harbour and ifland, or Sewee bay, lies on the coatt ef South Carolina, in North America, to the fouth-wet from cape Carteret. The entrance of the harbour, which is within the ifland, is at the N.E. end of it, having a fmall ifland within that: between them is a paffage, in N. Jat. 32° 56’. and W. long. 78° 24". Butu-head, a cape of Ireland, on the north fide of Dingle bay in the county of Berry, near three miles S,E. of Dingle. “W. long. 10° 4’. N. Jat. 52° 64 BUL Burz-head, in Ichthyology, is a trivial Engtifi name ape plied moft commonly to that {mall kind of fth which we- diftinguifh farther by the name of river-bull-head, ( Cottus Gobio, Linn.) Another fith of the fame genus, corrus: caTAPHRAcTUS is called’ the armed-bull-head; this lak lives in the fea. Buvt-frout, an Englifh name for a fith of the falmon kind, caught in many of the rivers of England; it is alfo- called the fcurf. See Sarmo TrutrTa. Butt-ru/h, in Botany. See Scirpus flvitans. BULLA, in Antigutty, a golden ornament, of a globular- figure, and generally fuppofed. to have been hollow within,. wherein was contained fome amulet, to ferve as a prefervative from witchcraft and envy, hung about the neck by-thofe who triumphed among the Romans; and alfo by the chil— dren of the patricians, and even ingenui, as a badge of their hereditary nobility aud freedom, by which they might be- animated to behave themfelves in a manner worthy of their- birth. Authors are divided in their opinions about the form of this ornament, which the Sabine women, in acknowledg- ment of that increafe of wealth and power for which Rome- was indebted to them, were allowed to hang about the necks. of their children. Plutarch (in Romul.) fays, that they refembled the little bubbles which are formed by the drops- of rain, when they fall upon running water.. Hence it has. been inferred, that they were hollow and light ;- others. think that they were half globes, flat on one fide, and# globular on the other. Some have fuppofed, that they were originally made in the fhape of a heart, in order to: prompt their wearers to the acquifition of wiidom; and others fay, they were round, with the figure of a heart- engraved on them. The form, in procefs of time, is faid to. have varied from a complete circle to that of a fegment. Such was the fhape of the golden bulla lately found at Manchefter; and as this had no aperture by which an amulet could be introduced, Mr. Whitaker (Hift. Man- chefter, vol. i. p. 79.) concludes, that they-were not hollow: and he fuppofes, that they were intended at firft rather as. amulets than as ornaments; alleging that they were fre- quently impreffed with the figure of the fexual parts. As. to their origin, it has been affirmed by fome, that they- were firft introduced by Romulus, and that he gave one of them to Tullus Hoftilius, the firft. child: born of the- rape of the Sabines. Others afcribe the introduétion of them to Tarquin the Elder, who gave a bulla to his fon, . at the age of 14, together with the pretexta, becaufe he had killed an enemy; and hence it was afterwards affumed- by other patricians. But Macrobius fays, that Tarquin. extended the right of wearing this ornament. to all the children of the patricians;,and that accordingly he began: with his own. The bulla was not allowed’ to the children of flaves, or even of /iderti, who, in lieu thereof, wore a leather collar round the neck, much after the manner of the purple ftring to which the bulla was hung. But the great veftal, and the Roman ladies, wore a bulla; the former by. way of diftinGtion, the latter as a piece of drefs.. We may add, that bulla were fometimes allowed to ftatues; whence- the phrafe, “ ftatuz bullate.’? M: Lepidus, having killed’ an enemy, and faved a citizen, even when a boy, had a « bullated”’ ftatue ereGted to him in the Capitol, in memo of the exploit. The Roman youth laid afide the bulla,. together with the “ pretexta,” and confecrated it to the Lares, when they arrived at. their fifteenth year;.as appears from the fatyrift : . «Cum primum pavido cuftos mihi purpura ceflit, Bullaque fuccin¢tis Laribus donata pependit.” oe merf, BUL Perf, Sat. v. ver. 20. Hitt. Acad. Infer. tom. ii, Valer. ‘Max. lib. iii, cap. 1. Cic. in Verr. I. 58. Macrob. Sat. yo Bucra was alfo a denomination given to divers other metalline ornaments made after the form of bullx. In which fenfe, bulle feem to include all golden and filver ornaments of a roundifh form, whether worn on the habits of men, the trappings of horfes, or the like. Such were thofe decorations ufed by the ancients on their belts and doors. Virgil, {peaking of Pallas’s belt or girdle, fays: * Notis fulferunt cingula bullis ; Pallantis pueri.”” fEneid. lib. xii. ver. 942. The bullz of doors were a kind of large-headed nails faftened on the doors of the rich, and kept bright with at care. The doors of temples were fometimes adorned with golden bulle. The bulle worn by foldiers on their belts, and alfo on the doors of houfes, &c. have been confidered by fome, not merely as ornaments, but as a kind of amulets, and intended as prefervatives from difeafes and dangers, as well as incentives to glory. ; Butva alfo denoted a table hung up in the public courts, to diftinguifh which days were faf?, and which nefu/ti ; an- fwering in fome meafure to our calendar. Botta, in Conchology, the name of a genus of thells, the character of which is thus defined; animal a limax; {hell univalve, convoluted, and unarmed; mouth, or aperture, fomewhat ftraitened, oblong, longitudinal, and at the bafe very entire; pillar-lip oblique, and {mooth. : The fpecies of this penus are ovum, volva, biroftris, fpelta, verrucofa, gibbofa, naucum, aperta, hydutis, ampulla, lignaria, phyfis, ampluftra, ficus, rapa, canaliculata, co- noidea, fontinalis, hypnorum, turrita, gelatinofa, terebellum, cyprza, virginea, fafciata, ftrigata, ftriatula, exarata, bi- fafciata, ambigua, zebra, achatina, hyalina, ovata, Siar nofa, velum, velica, cylindrica, oliva, voluta, dominicenfis, urpurea, fpreta, folida, ftercufpulicum, fcabra, akera, fo- Sue truncata, and carnea. Butta, in Zoology, a {pecies of Crciipium, of an or- bicular form and tran{parent. AZiil/. Bucta is alfo a {pecies of Vorvox, the form of which is fomewhat oval. Martiniere. Buta Velutina, of Miilleri, in Conchology. See Hevix HELIOTOIDEA. Buca regia, or Bullaria of Ptolemy, in Ancient Geo- rr by, a free town of Africa, on the route from Carthage aS sha between Simittu and Novz Aquiling. Anton. Itin. BULLACE.-Treg, in Botany. See Prunus infititia. BULLZEUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Silures in Britain, placed by Camden at Buallt or Builth in Brecknockthire, by Baxter at Caerphilly, and by Horfley at or near Uk in Monmouthfhire: thus uncertain is its fituation. BULLAN-Bay, in Geography, a bay on the weft coaft of Ireland, between the northern part of the Ifle of Achil and the main land of the county of Mayo. BULLANSPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the hilly country of Cahlore, feated near the river Seilege, 159 miles E. of Lahore, and about N, 26° E. 60 geographical miles from Sirhund. N. Jat. 31° 31, E. long, 76” 4o'. BULLARII, in the court of Rome, the makers or drawers of bulls or conftitutions. Sce Butt. BULLARY, Bullarium, a colle&tion of papal bulls. We have extant divers kinds of bullaries ; fome containing BU 4, only the bulls of particular popes; fuch are the bullaries of Innocent XIT, and Clement XI. Others contain the bulls granted to particular communities; fuch is the bullary of the order of Cluny, &c. A general bullary of all the papal conftitutions from Gregory VIL. to Sixtus Quintus, was compiled by order of pope Sixtus Quintus, in 1586; fince which has been pub- lifhed a great bullary, by Laert. Cherubin, containing the bulls of all the popes from Leo in 440, to Paul V. in 1559 ; fince continued by Ang. Cherubin to the year 1644, and by Ang. a Lantufca and Jo. Paulus to the year 1676; and, laftly, by an anonymous editor to the time of Benedié&t XIII. under the title of « Ballarium magnum Romanum.’ We have the fame digefted in a new method by Bouchardus; a commentary on it begun by Vine. Petra, and a fimmary of it by Novarius. Fabr. Bibl. Med. /Evi. Lat. lib. ii. tom. i. p- 816. 822. BULLATA, in Conchology, a f{pecies of Voruta, the fhell of which is cylindrical, very glabrous, reddifh, with fomewhat livid belts; {pire obtufe; pillar-lip with four el within; aperture effufe. Chemnitz. Inhabits the odian feas. BULLATUS, a fpecies of Soven, the form of which is fomewhat rotund, inflated, and {triated flightly ; anterior part of the fhell retained open by the crenatures with which it is befet—This fort inhabits the American feas, and it is believed thofe of India alfo. The fhell is thin, fomewhat pellucid, longitudinally ftriated, white, and {potted or clouded with purple. Hinge with a fingle tooth. Mar- gal teeth remote, comprefled, and inferted in a kind of ollow in the oppofite valve. Burrarus, a {pecies of Conus, the fhell of which is yellow, clouded with white. Lina. Native place uaknown. Adanfon calls it Potan. This fhell is thi, fometimes of an uniform colour, but more frequently fpotted, clouded, or {triped ; aperture of the mouth for the moft part large, and blueifh. BULLE, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Friburgh, where the infurgents of Gruyeres affembled in 1781, in order to concert meafures for obtaining a redrefs of prievances; 10 miles S. of Friburgh. N. lat. 46° 40. E. long. 6° 54!. BULLENMEER, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weitphalia, and county of Oldenburg; 18 miles N. of Oldenburg. BULLER, Cape, a cape of South Georgia, to the weft of the bay of iflands, and about 7 leagues from cape North, nearly E. of it. S lat. 53° 58’. W. long. 37° 40'.—Alfo, a cape on the coait of Terra del Fuego illand, in S. lat. 53 58. W. long. 67° 40!.—Alfo, a cape on the coat of New Britain, in the Eaft Indian ocean. S. lat, 4° 56’. E. long. 151° 23/. BULLERS, or Bouvers of Buchan, a natural harbour, on the ealt coaft of Scotland, about 6 leagues N. from Aberdeen, and z S. from Peterhead, It is ouly frequented by fifhermen, and formed by a rock of an irregular oval form, projecting into the {ea from the middle of a bay to the diftance of 100 yards. Veffels of all fizes may fhelter here from the weather; but lauding is impracticuble, It derives its name from boiling, on account of the turbulence of the water.- BULLES, a fmall town of France, in the department of the Oife and diftriét of Clermont, feated on the river Brefche, and celebrated for its fine flax and linen ; 2 leagues N.W. of Clermont. BULLET, an iron or leaden ball, or fhot, wherewith fire. arms are loaded. Some derive the word from the Latin gla botellusy BUL botellus, others from the Greek Aaaarsi, te throw. Bullets are of various kinds, viz. red-hot bullets, made hot in a forge; intended to fet fire to places where combuftible matters are found. See SHor. Hollow bullets ave fhells made cylindrical, with an aperture and a fufee at one end, which giving fire te the infide, when in the ground, burfts, and has the fame effeéts with a mine. Chain-buileis, confifting of two balls, joined by a chain three or four feet apart. Branch-bullets, two balls joined by a bar of iron five or fix inches apart. Two-headed bullets, called alfo angels, being two halves of a bullet joined by a bar, or chain, are chiefly wfed at fea for cutting of cords, cables, fails, &c. Quarter-bullets. See QUARTER. _ , The diameter of a leaden bullet, weighing one pound, 1s 1.69 inches, according to fir Jonas Moore ;’ or by a table in Muller’s ** Treatife of Artillery,” (p-56), 1.672 inches ; and the diameter of any other bullet is found by dividing 1.69 inches by the cube root of the number, which exprefles how many of them make a pound; or by fubtracting con- tinually the third part of the logarithm of the number of bullets in the pound from the logarithm .2278867 of 1.69, and the difference will be the logarithm of the diameter required. ’ Thus the diameter of a bullet, of which 12 make a pound, will be found by fubtraéting .3557270, a third part of 1.0791812 the logarithm of 12, from the given logarithm .2278867; or becaute this logarithm is lefs than the former, an unit muft be added, fo as to have 1.2278867 5; and then the difference .8681597 will be the logarithm of the dia- meter fought, which is .738 inches, obferving that the number found will be always a decimal, becaufe the number fubtraGted is greater than the other. We may alfo deduce the diameter of any bullet from its given weight, provided that the {pecific gravity of lead is known: for, fince a cubic foot of lead weighs 11,325 ounces, and 678 is to 355 as the cube of a foot or 12 inches, i.e. 1728, to the contents of a fpherc, which is therefore 5929.7 ounces ; and fince fpheres are as the cubes of their diameters, the weight 5929.7 is to 16 ounces, or one pound, as the cube 1728 is to the cube of the diameter of a {phere, which weighs 16.0z. or 1 |b. ; which cube is 4.66263, and its root is 1.6706, the diameter fought. By the rule above laid down is calculated the following table, fhewing the diameters of leaden bullets, from 1 to 39 in the pound. 8 9 0.623}0.612 0,603/0.594/0.556 a) bee 0.563,0.556/0.550 | | | 3 10.544,0.537'0.532/0.527|0.52110.517/0.512(0.507 (0.503 N. B. The upper horizontal column fhews the number of bullets toa pound ; the fecond, their diameters; the third, the diameters of thofe of 10, 11, 12, &c.; and the fourth, thofe of 20, 21, 22, &c.; and the laft, thofe of 30, 31, 32, &ce. The government allows eleven bullets in the pound for the proof of mufkets, and 14.5 in the pound, or 29 in two pounds for fervice; 17 for the proof of carabines, and 20 for fervice ; and 28 in the pound for proof of piftols, and 34 for fervice. The diameter of mufket bullets differs but xy-5oth part from that of the mufket-barrel ; for if the fhot but jutt rolls into the barrel, it is fufficient. Cannon-bullets or balls are of different diameters and weights, according to the nature of the piece. See Cavizer and Suor. BUL: The firit mention of iron-bullets in the * Fordera,’”? oes curs A.D. (550, in an acquittance for delivery of the artillery and ammunition of Boulegne; and yet eiecbullets tes mained in ufe confiderably later than this time. According to Merfenne, a bullet, fhot out of a great gun, flies 92 fathoms in a fecond of time, which is equal to 5894 Englifh feet; and, according to Huygens, it would be 25 years in pafling from the earth to the fun: but ac- cording to fome very accurate experiments of Dr. Derham, it flies, at its firft difcharge, 510 yards in five half-feconds ; er about 7 miles in a minute: allowing therefore the fun’s diftance 95,000,000 Englifh miles, a bullet would be near 26 years in its paffage at the full {peed. Bullets fhot into the water undergo a refraGtion; feveral experiments concerning which are given by Mr. Carré.— Vide Mem, Acad. Scienc, ann. 1705, p. 277+ The extraction of bullets from wounds is an operation deferibed by chirurgical writers. Bullets fometimes remain eafy in the body during many years. : Swallowing of mufket bullets is fometimes practifed to re- move iliac and colic pains. Mr. Young gives a cafe wherein this had a terrible effeét: the bullet happening to mifs its way down, inftead of the e/ophagus, got into the trachea. Mr. Chirac hes a differtation on the queftion, which of the two is fafer in iliac cafes, to {wallow leaden bullets, or crude mercury? He gives the preference to the builets. Phil. Tranf. N° 263. Butvet-moulds confift of two concave hemifpheres, with a handle whereby to hold them; and between the hemi- {fpheres is a hole, called a gate, at which to pour in the melted metal. The chaps or hemifpheres of bullet-moulds are firft punched, being blood-red hot, with a round-ended punch, of the fhape and fize of the intended bullets. Te cleanfe the infides, they make ufe of a bullet-bore. 3 Buuver-bore is a fteel fhank, having a globe at one end, wherewith to bore the infide of a mould clean, of the fize intended. ; Buvvet-iron, a denomination given by fome to Spanifh or Swedifh bars of iron. Butuet, Joun-Barrtist, in Biography, a profeffor of theology, and dean of the univerfity at Befancgon, died in that city in 1775, at the age of 76 years. He was a mem- ber of feveral learned focieties, and efteemed as a valuable writer. His principal works are, “ His Hiftory of the Eftablifhment of Chriftianity. taken folely from Jewifh and Pagan Writers;’? 1764, 4to. ‘ The Exiftence of God, demonftrated by Nature ;’? 2 vols. 8vo. ‘* Reply to the Difficulties of Unbelievers, refpe€ting various paflages in the Sacred Writings ;”? 3 vols. 12mo. ‘ De Apoltolice Ecclefie Gallicane Origine ;?’ 1752, 12mo. ‘* Memoirs on the Celtic Language,” 1754-59, 3 vols. folio; to which work he is chiefly indebted for his reputation. ‘ Hif- torical Enquiries concerning Playing-Cards ;”’ 1757, 8vo. «‘ Differtations on the Hiftory of France,’? 1759, 8vo.3 all written in French, except that with the Latin title. Nouv. Di&. Hitt. BULLEYN, Wittiam, of a refpeGable family of the fame name, in Suffolk, was born in the Ile of Ely, in the early part of the reign of Henry the eighth. At a proper age he was fent to Cambridge, which he quitted, probably after taking his bachelor’s degree, and went to Oxford, where he applied himfelf to the ftudy of medicine, and read the Greek and Arabian writers, in both which languages he appears to have been tolerably fkilled. While refident there, he made excurfions through the neighbouring coun- tries, paying great attention to the plants that he had found recommended in the cure of difeafes; and after taking the degree BUL degree of doftor, he extended his excurfions, travelling over _the greateit part of England and Scotland, He afterwards vifited the continent, with the fame view. On his return, he was made re&tor of Blaxhall in Suffolk, through the in- tereft, probably, of his family, and practifed medicine there. On the acceflion of queen Mary, he removed to Durham, thinking it more fafe, being a proteftant, to live at that dif- tance from the court. e lived here in great intimacy with fir Thomas Hilton, governor of Tinmouth fort, and became a fharer, or joint proprietor of the falt-pans. Sir Thomas dying under his care of a putrid fever, he fell into fuch difgrace, that he found it neceffary to remove from Durham, and Mary being dead, he came to London; but the vengeance of the family purfuing him, he was taken up, arraigned, and tried for the murder of his friend; and though he eafily cleared himfelf from the imputation of this crime, he was continued in prifon, at the fuit of the profe- cutor, the brother of fir Thomas, for a debt due to the family. While*in prifon, hetells us, he wrote the greater of his medical works. Having at length dithered is debt, he returned to London, was made amember of the College of Phyficians, and acquired confiderable reputation for his fallin the praétice of medicine, which he enjoyed to the time of his death, January 7, 1576. His*re¢tory he gave up at the time of his quitting Blaxhall. He was an ancettor, Granger fays, of the late Dr. Stukely. There are two portraits of him, both cut in wood; the one a profile, with along beard, publifhed with his Government of Health, an octavo volume, 1548; the other a whole length, to his * Bullein’s Bulwark of Defence againtt all Sickncls, Soarnefs, and Wounds that do dayly affault Man- kinde ;” fol. 1562. His laft work is entitled, “A Dia- logue, both pleafante and pietifull; wherein is a goodlie Regiment againft the Fever Peftilence ; with a Coafolation, and Comfort againft Death ;”” 8vo. 1564. In this work, not more thana feventh part of which, Dr. Aikin fays, is on the fubject of medicine, the author appears as a perfon of much humour, and fancy. Haller mentions a work by Richard Bulleyn, who was alfo, like our author, both a divine anda phyfician; “‘ De Nephritide, ejufque Remediis,”’ which was publifhed in 1562. Thefe works, which are now only fought for by colleGtors, as fpecimens of the en- graving, and printing of the time, paffed through feveral editions, and doubtlefs contributed in raifing the reputation ofthewriter. This thews the little progrefs our anceftors had then made in civilization and knowledge, as our author was no better informed than to imagine, that beads made’ of ebony might be fuccefsfully worn asa charm againtt certain difeafes, and “ that witchcraft was more hurtful in the realm than cither quartan, pox, or pettilence;’’ lamenting “that damnable witches fhould be fuffered to live unpu- nifhed, while fo many bleffed men ( proteftants ) were burned.” But thefe prejudices continued more than a century after his time; forin Charles the Second’s reign we find do€tor Chamberlain, then in high repute as an accoucheur, fanc- tioning the folly of putting necklaces on children to facili- tate dentition, and writing a treatife, to fhew the manner in which the beads eflebted this purpofe. Aikia’s Biogra- phical Memoirs of Medicine, &c. BULLIALDUS, or Bouxtriav, Ismaett, a celebrated aftronomer and fcholar, was born of proteftant parents, at Houwdua in France, September the 28th, 1605 ; and having finifhed his ftudiesin philofophy at Paris, and in civil law at Poitiers, he applied to mathematics, theology, facred and profane hiftory, and civillaw, with {uch affiduity, that he became eminent in each of thefe departments, and ac- quired the reputation of an univerfal genius. As he had ry BUL travelled for his improvement into Italy, Germany, Poland, and the Levant, he formed anextenfive acquaintance with men of letters, and maintained a correfpondence with the moft diftinguithed perfons of -his time. Although he had been educated a proteitant, he changed his profeflion at the age of 27 years, and became a catholic prieft. His life was prolonged to his 89th year; and having retired to the abbey of St. Victor at Paris in 1689, he died there November the 25th, 1694. Befides his pieces concerning ecclefiattical rights, which excited attention, and the hiftory of Ducas, printed at the Louvre, in 1649, in the original Greek, with a Latin verfion and notes, he was the author of feve- ral other works, chiefly mathematical and philofophical. His « Treatife on the Nature of Light,” was publifhed in 1638; and his work entitled, ‘* Philolaus, five de vero Sy{- temate Mundi,’’ or true fyftem of the world, according to Philolaus, was printed at Amfterdam in 1638, aud re-pub- lithed in 1645, under the title of * A ftronomia Philolaica ;’” grounded upon the hypothefis of the earth’s motion, and the elliptical orbit defcribed by the planet, illuftrated with various methods of demonitration. ~ To this work were added his “ Tabula Philolaice,’? much improved and re- commended by Riccioli, who ftyles the author “ Atftro- nomus profunde indaginis.”” Upon examining the hypo- thefis, or approximation of bifhop Ward, he found that it did not agree with the planet Mars; and in his defence of the Philolaic aftronomy againft the bifhop, he fthewed that from four obfervations of Tycho on the planet Mars, this planet in the firft and third quarters of the mean anomaly was more forward than it ought to have been upon Ward’s hypothefis; but that in the fecond and fourth quadrants of the fame, the planet was not fo far advanced as that hypo- thefis required. He therefore undertook the correétion of the bifhop’s hypothefis, and made it more conformable to the orbits of the planets, which were moft eccentric, and introduced what Street has called in his ** Caroline Tables,’” the ‘* Variation :”’ for thefe tables were calculated by means of the correction of Bullialdus, and were thus more aecu- rate than any which had preceded them. Dr. Gregory efteems this correction a very happy one, confidered as a correction of an approximation to the true fyftem; for we are thus enabled to deduce the coequate, or true anomal 4 priori and direétly from the mean, in a manner very mer | correfponding to the obfervations ; which no one, fays Mer- cator, had effe&ted before. Bullialdus, while he makes every planet move in an ellipfe, fuppofes it to be fuch a one asif cut out of a cone, would have the axis of the cone pafs through one of its foci, or that next the aphelion. See Gregory’s Aftron. lib. iii. prop. 7. In 1644 Bullialdus publithed a tranflation of “ Theo, the Platonift of Smyrna,” with notes; and in 1657 his treatife “ De Lineis Spiralibus, Exerc. Geom. et Attron. ;’? Paris, 4to. In 1663 he publifhed a treatife of «* Ptolemy de judicandi Facultate ;”’ and in 1682 appeared at Paris, in folio, his large work, entitled “ Opus Novum ad Arithme- ticam Infinitorum,” being a diffufe amplification of Dr. Wallis’s Arithmetic of Infinites. Upon being confulted by M. Thoinard concerning the appearance of the moon in the month of March, and 33d year of the chriftian era, he made the requifite calculations, and replied that it could not have been feen in Judwa till the 19th of that month, and that it was probable that Jefus Chrift was crucified on the 3d of April of the fame year. Bullialdus alfo publithed two admonitions or notices to aftronomers; the firfl, concerning anew ftar inthe neck of the whale, fometimes appearing, and fometimes difappearing ; and the /econd, concerning a nebula in the northern part of Andromeda’s girdle, ahr a BUL had not been difcovered by any of the ancients, and which is fubject to periodical changes. Moreri. Martin. . BULLIG, in Geography, a rocky thoal in the Atlantic near the weft-coaft of Ireland; it is about half a mile S. of Carrikelra ifland near Gulin head, in the county of Galway. W. long. 9° 47'. N. lat. 53° 12! BULLIMONY, or Botiimona, denotes a mixture of feveral forts of grain, as oats, peafe, and vetches, called alfo maflin, or mong-corn. / BULLINGER, Henry, in Biography, a Swils re- former, was born in 1504 at Bremgarten, on the borders of the cantonof Zurich; and educated at Emmerick in the duchy of Cleves, whither he was fent by his father at the age of £2 years, and where he was {upported for three years by the alms he procured for finging from door to door, Having been aceuitomed to the mortification and hardfhips attendant on this mode of fubfiftence, he entertained thoughts of entering among the Carthufians. But diverted from this refolution by the admonitions of his elder brother, he re- moved to Cologn at the age of 15 years, and devoted him- felf to the ftudy of the {chool-philofophy, and of claflical literature. About this time his attention was directed to the writings of Melanéthon, and other reformers, the peru- fal of which produced a diflike of the doétrines of the Romith church, though he did not yet feparate from it. Having finifhed his ftudies at Cologa in 1522, he returned to his father’s houfe, and inthe following year he was in- vited by the abbot of LaChapelle, near Zurich, to be a teacher in his convent, into which the reformation of Zuin- glius was introduced in 1526, principally by his inftruétion. Attaching himfelf to this reformer, he accompanied him to the conference held at Berne in 1528; and he afterwards fettled as reformed paftor at his native place. In 1531, after the victory obtained by the catholic cantons over the proteftants, he was obliged to retire to Zurich, where he fucceeded Zuinglius, who had loft his life in the battle. In this fituation he applied with affiduity to his minifterial labours andthis ftudies, and edified his church by his writings as well as by his fermons. When Bucer attempted to re- concile the Lutherans and Zuinglians, by introducing a kind of middle doGtrine with regard to the eucharift, he counteraéted his efforts ; and he was appointed by the Swifs churches in 1545 to reply to the harfh cenfures, which were publifhed by Luther againft their doétrine refpecting the facrament. In 1549 he concurred with Calvin in drawing up a formulary, exprefling the conformity of belief which fubfifted between the churches of Zurich and Geneva, and intended on the part of Calvin, for obviating any fufpicions that he inclined to the opinion of Luther with refpe& to the facrament. Inthe fame year he urged many reafons againft renewing the fubfidiary treaty between the protef- tant Swils and Henry II. king of France, and by his in- fiuence the propofal for this purpofe was rejected. Among other arguments, he urged upon their coniideration, “ that it was not lawful for perfons to hire themfelves, in order to kill thofe who had done them no wrong;” a pofition, which, however confonant to the principles and {pirit of ehriftianity, many profeffed believers have too frequently dif- yegarded. Bullinger afforded kind affiftance to the Englifh divines who fled into Swifferland from the perfecution of queen Mary; and he drew up aconfutation of the pope’s bull that excommunicated queen Elizabeth, which has been tranflated into Englifh. He alfo perfuaded the magiftrates of Zurich to ere& a new college in 1538; and he prevailed with them to eftablith afchool, on the {cite of an old nun- nery, in which 15 youths were taught and maintained, free of expence. In 1551 he wrote abook, the purport of BUL avhich was to thew, that the couneil of Trent had no other defign than to opprefs the profeffors of found religion ; andy therefore, that the cantons {hould pay no regard to the invi- tations of the pope, which folicited their fending deputies to that council. In 1561 he commenced a controverfy with Brentius concerning the ubiquity of the body of Chrift, zealoufly maintained by the one, and as vehementlyoppofed by Bullinger, which continued till his death, that happened on the 17th of September, 1575. Befides a great number of printed works, amounting to ten volumes, he left feveral piecesin manufcript. Although Bullinger had been once married, and had eleven children, he was blamed for not taking another wife, when he became a widower at the age of fixty; fuch was the importance annexed by the firlt re- formers to the connubial itate, efpecially with regard to minifters, asit afforded a manifeft proof of their renuncia- tion of popery. Gen. Did. BULLION, denotes gold or filver in the mafs or billet, before it iscoined. g Ed. III. ft. ii. c. 2: The word is apparently formed from the French dillon, a mafs of gold or filver below ftandard, which Du-Cange de- rives farther from Jdil/a, as being aurum aut argentum in maffam feu billam, i.e. baculum conflatum. The term is applied to thefe metals, either when fmelted from the ore, and not perfeétly refined, or when {fo refined, and melced down in bars, or ingots, or any unwrought body of acertain degree of fineriefs. 1n order to render gold and filver fit for ufe, it is neceflary to reduce and harden them by an alloy of fome bafer metal; andthe quantity of this alloy is afcertained by the legiflative regulations of different coun- tries, fo that the proportion of the one to the other may conftitute the ftandard filver of fuch countries. Accord- ing to the laws of England all forts of wrought plate fhould be made in conformity to the legal ftandard: and the prices of ftandard gold and filyer, regulate the value of the bul- lion, confifting of ingots, bars, duft, or foreign fpecie ; con- fequently, in order to afcertain the valae of bullion, it is firit affayed, See Assay. See alfo Gorpand Sitver. Silver bullion is fometimes alfo denominated PLATE. Silver and gold, whether coined or uncoined (though ufed for a common meafure of other things), are’ no lefs a com- modity than wine, tobacco, or cloth; and may, in many cafes, be exported as much to national advantage as any other commodity. In all great commercial countries a good deal of bullion is alternately imported and exported for the purpofes of fo- reign trade. This bullion, as it circulates among fuch coun- tries in the fame manner as the national coin circulates in every particular country, may be confidered as the money of the great mercantile republic. Whilft the national coin receives its movement and direG@ion from the commodities cir- culated within the precin&ts of each particular country, the money of the mercantile republic derives its movements from shot thatare circulated between different countries. Both are employed in facilitating exchanges, the one between different individuals of the fame, the other between thofe of different nations. However, the importation of gold and filver is not the principal, much lefs the fole benefit which a nation derives from its foreign trade. It is, indeed, part of the bufinefs of foreign commerce to fupply countries which have no mines with the gold and filver that are wanted in them : but this is, comparatively, a very infignificant objeQ ; nor is it by the importation of gold and filver, that the dil- covery of America has enriched Europe. But by opening anew and inexhaullible market to all the commodities of Europe, it gave occafion to new divifions of lavour and improvements of art, which, in the narrow circle of «the an~ cient BUL cient commeéres,.could never have taken place for want of a market to take off the greater part of their produce. Geld and filver, according to Mr. Locke, are the moft folid and fubftantial part ofthe moveable wealth of a nation ; and to multiply thefe metals fhould, he thinks, on that ac- count, be the great object of its political economy. Coun- tries that have political connections with foreign nations, and that are obliged to carry on foreign wars, and to main- tain fleets and armies in diftant countries, and to fubfidize foreign priaces, are under a -neceflity of feuding money in fome ferm or other abroad; and therefore it has been faid, that in time of peace it fhould endeavour to accumulate gold and filver, that when occalion requires, it may poffefs the means of carrying on foreign wers. Upon thele popular principles all the different nations of Europe have itudied, though to-little purpofe, every poflible means of accumulat- ing gold and filver im their relpective countries. Spain and Portugal, the proprietors of the principal mines which fup- ply Europe with thofe metals, have either prohibited the exportation of them under the fevereit penalties, orfubjected it to a confiderable duty. The like prohibition feems an- ciently to have made a part of the policy of moit other European nations. But.when thofe countries became com- mercial, the merchants found this prohibition extremely in- convenient, and remonitrated againit it, as hurtful to trade. They reprefented, firit, that the exportation of gold and filver, in order to purchafe foreiga goods, did not always diminifh the quantity of thofe metals in the kingdom, but might frequently increafe that quantity ; becaufe thefe fo- reign goods,.if not confumed in the country, might be Te- exported, and fold in foreign countries for profit, which weuld bring back with increafe the treafure originally fent out for the purchafe of them. They. moreover, reprefented that this prohibition could not hinder the exportation of Id and filver, which, on account of the {mallnefs of their Bulk in proportion to their value, could eafily be ore abroad. Thefle arguments produced the wifhed-for effect ; and the prohibition of exporting gold and filver was ref- tri@ed in France and England to the coin of thefe refpective countries. The exportation of foreign coin and bullion was made free, and the firft law for this purpofe in England was ffed in 1663. In Holland, and in fome other places, this Riexty was extended even to the coin of the country. A coun- try that has no mines of its own, muft undoubtedly draw its Idand filver from foreign countries; and, on account of their {mall bulk and great value, they are as cafily tranfported as obtained. When the quantity of gold and filver im- ported into any country exceeds the effectual demand, no vigilance of government can prevent their exportation. All the fanguinary laws of Spain and Portugal are not fufficient for keeping their gold and filverat home. As they are eafily danlpoted from places where they abound, to thofe where they are wanted, their price does not admit of the fame fluc- tation with that of many other commodities, that are not fo conveniently and {peedily removed. The changes which take place in their value are generall flow, gradual, and uniform. Inftead of accumulating gold and filyer, with a view to the augmentation of the real wealth of the country, Dr. Adam Smith (Wealth of Nations, vol. ii. p. 157.) recommends their being confidered, under whatever form they exift, as wtenfils ; and inereahing the ufe for them, by inoreafing the confumable commodities, which aretobe circulated, managed, and prepared by means of them, as the molt effectual and moft certain method of increafing their quantity, which will ever keep with the ufe to which they are applied ; and d this no law can ever prevent their being immediatel fentout of the couutry. He adds, that itis not always uece 7. - Ba fary to accumulate goldand filver, in order to enable acountry to carry on foreign wars, and to maintain fleets and armies in diftant countries. Fleets and armies are maintained, not with gold and filver, but with confumable goods; and the nation which, from the annual produce of its domettic indultry, from the annual revenue arifing out of its lands, labour, and confumable ftock, has wherewithal to purchafe thofe con- fumable goods in diftant countries, can maintain foreign wars there. See Coin and Money. Buvwion is alfo ufed for the place where the king’s ex- change is kept: or where gold and filver are brought i the lump to be tried or exchanged. BULLIT"s Lick, in Geography, a falt-{pring lying in Salt river, in Kentucky, America, and giving name to the river. It is diftant 20 miles from the rapids of the Ohio, near Saltfburgh, and is the finelt {pring that was worked in the county. Burts, a county of Kentucky, containing 3446 inha- bitants, of whom gq are flaves. BULLOCH-MORE, arocky thoal, about a quarter of a mile long from eaft to weft, which lies above a mile W. of St. John’s point, in the mouth of Killibeg’s harbour in the weft of Ireland: the leat water in it is fix feet. M’ Kenzie. BULLOCK, in Rural Economy, the male of the cattle kind of animals, after being caftrated. It is the fame with ox. Animals of this kind ‘are generally termed bullocks, from two to five, fix, or more years old. The author of the “ Synopfis of Hufbandry” has ob- ferved, that in bullocks “« a {mooth coat and healthy coun« tenance are proofs of their kindly difpofition, and that they will not deceive the buyer in the future progrefs; whereas, a drooping countenance, a lank belly, and a itaring coat, may be confidered as unfavourable circumttances, and cere tain indubitable figns, either that fuch bealts are unhealthy or by nature unthrifty and unprofitable.” Befides thefe, much depends on the form and conftru€tion-cf the animal :: * a clofe well-fet bullock, with a large dewlap, ftout legs, deep cheft, bread buttocks, and thick flank, will rarely de- ceive the purchafer; whereas thofe of a contrary fhape, loofe jointed, long-legged, with a prominent back-bone, great length of body, fharp buttocks, anda belly tucked up, though to appearance larger than the firft mentioned, , are not likely to pay fo well for their meat, and will be found much lighterin the feale from thele defeéts.”’ Fattening bullucks, it is obferved, « require to. be fod- dered with hay in the feverity of the winter months, and for this feafon it is always a prudent meafure, where it can be done, to lay in for mowing a certain portion of marth or other good grafs land, that there may. be no want of fodder in the winter and {pring of the year; for it is in March and April, if thofe months turn out to be unpropitious, that ftock of every kind is more apt to fuffer than in the depth of winter ; and when young bullocks become much reduced: in fleth at that feafon, it is a very difficult tafleto raife them, and they will continue, during the procefs of their fattenin ‘ to betray marks of the check they met with in their yout fo as never to arrive at the weight when fattened, that they would have done if they had not been (uflered to pitch in the early ftage of their life. Good water is likewife a very effential requifite in feeding: horned cattle; and fuch graziers will'never find their account in fetting about this bulinef, whofe grounds do not abound with.a continual, and plentiful fupply of it ;-nor will the beafts thrive on dry lands, though the grafs fhould:be in the largeft abundance, for bullocks require a large quantity of water, to dilute their vituals, and delight in the fummer time to chew the cud in pools or riyulets, where they may enjoy ; $00 BULLOCK. cool retreat, and with alternate vibrations of the tail defend themfelves from the troublefome attacks of flies, gnats, and other infeéts. The period when beef generally fetches the beit price is towards the month of March; hence, thofe who are fortunate enough to have any fat beaits in the fpring, are certain to make a good market of them, efpe- cially in years in which the crops of turnips turn out defi- cient ; as when there are large growths of this root, vaft numbers of horned cattle are fattened on them in Norfolk, and the adjoining counties, and thefe are often brought to Smithfield in fuch herds as to caufe a confiderable reduc- tion in the market. Befides the method of fattening bullocks on grafs lands, there are feveral others in the wolds of Kent and Suffex, where the land is the moft fertile of any in the fouthern parts of the kingdom, and where the meadows produce a grafs of the moft rich and nutritious quality, and in an abundance equal to the ftrength of the pafture, where the ponds and rivulets yield a coatinual fupply of wholefome and refrefhing drink, and where the hay, when well fecured, poffeffes a virtue anfwerable to the green herbage : on thefe feeding lands the grazier finds his account in ftocking his farm with bullocks of the largeft fize, either from the ifle of Anglefea, or from Yorkfhire, Staffordfhire, or other places remarkable for breeding the molt weighty beafts. Thefe bullocks have generally been worked for fome years, a prac- tice which not only ferves to render them traétable and docile, whence they lie more quiet in the feeding pattures, but which renders fuch beafls much more expeditious in getting into flefh, than thofe which have not been accuftomed tothe yoke. Thiele bullocks having been raifed into good condition by means of the grafs without doors, are, at ‘the approach of winter, taken into the houie, where they are kept in feparate falls, and tended witha conftant fupply of this highly nutritious fodder, the intrinfic goodnefs of which is often alone {ficient to complete the bufinefs, and render the oxen fit for the butcher. But in order to accelerate the progrefs, troughs are fet before them, which are con- ftantly filled with ground beans, oats, &c. as likewife with oil-cake reduced into {mall pieces. T:his latter {ubftaice, though apparently not calculated to pleafe the palate of a graminivorous animal, efpecially fo nice a feeder as a bullock, is coveted by them with fuch avidity, that, after they have been afew weeks accuitomed to the talte of it, they quit any other provender to feaft on this diet, fo that a very {mall portion of hay will be required when the beaits begin to feed hearti y on the cake. Butit isto be obferved that water is of the utmoft confequence, and therefore fhould be liberally given them during the time that they are feeding on the cake, at which time they require a more copi- ous fupply of liquid than when they are confined to any other diet. Thus provided with a due fupply of hay, oil-cake, and water, the beafts make a quick progrefs in their fatten- ing, and if in pretty good heart when fhut up, will be ready for the butcher at the time when beef is moft likely to ad- vance in price in the markets. It is neceflary to remark, that in the feeding of bullocks either on hay, corn, oil-cake, or a mixture of each, their feeds fhould be given them frequently and in {mall propor- tions at a time, for, if the fattening beafts are fuffered to blow on any part of their food, they can nevey more be brought to eat of the fame again, until compelled by hunger, a fenfation which they ought never to be allowed to feel. This fhews the great neceffity of a conftant attendance on thefe animals, in order that their tood may be given in due proportions, their water often changed, and their litter ftill kept frefh and clean under them, for of all brute animals, a bullock is the mof dainty in the choice of his food; whence, Mr. Bannifter Tuppoies, ‘he has probably obtained the appellation of weai, a term perpetually ufed to difcrimi- nate thefe cattle.’ It is ftated by the fame writer that “* when fed with oil- cake, each beaft will require eight cakes per day, which are to be broken into pieces, of which one cake will form about four. Many people divide the cake by means of a large mortar and weighty peftle; but there is a far cafier and more expeditious method of performing this work, which is, by holding the cake for a few minutes before the fire, which renders it, from a very hard fubftance, pliable and tender, fo that it may be broken with the utmoft facility between the fingers to any fize that may be thought neceflary, though it will be prudent not to break any more at one time than may be fuppofed waating for the expenditure of the current day, that the beafts may enjoy their provender every day frefh out of the loft. And here a hint is offered in refpeét to preferving the cake, which is, that it be laid in a dry, clean loft, where it may be kept free from any extraneous mixture, but to be particularly careful that neither wet nor dampnefs be admitted to come in conta& with it, which would cer- » tainly occafion it to be mouldy, and render it totally unfit for ufe: this caution feems the more neceflary, as the cakes are generally purchafed in the fummer months, when the price is at the loweft, and kept for half a year or longer be- fore they are ufed, in which time it is evident that either a drip in the thatch or tiling, or a dampnefs in the walls, or the flooring of the fhed or warehoufe wherein they are ftowed, may bring no {mall detriment to the cakes; and thus the owner fuffers a heavy lofs in the firft expence, and is utterly difappointed in his future views.’’? Moreover “ when bul- locks are fattened on turnips and hay, they require only a {mall allowance of water, as the moiiture of the turnips in a great meafure fupplies the place of other liquid. They may either be turned into the field, and fed with a daily portion, by dividing the clofe with hurdles in like manner as is practifed for fheep, or the turnips may be brought home and given to them ina yard, or other inclofure ; or, laftly, the beaft may be tied up in ftalls, as was direé&ted for the cake-fed bullocks. Of thefe three methods, the laft feems to be the mott eligible, as by this means the beat will lie much more at his eafe, and having his eyes detached from every object but his food will fatten more kindly, and with greater expedition, than when fuffered to enjoy a wider range, The fecond method of bringing’ the turnips into a yard, and fuffering the bealts to eat them there, is much preferable to that of penning the bullocks in the field, where they will probably not feldom make their way into the ftanding turnips, and be expofed to the inclemency of the weather ; from both which circumftances much time will be loft in their fattening. Betides, they will belefs under theinfpeétion of the owner, and thereforeliableto various accidents, which mighteither be pre- vented or remedied when the other method of feeding is pur- fued. The dung, likewife, will be totally lo& when the bul- locks are fed in the field ; and this is a matter of great import- ance to a farmer, and the valuable addition which the muck from the ox ftalls makes to the contents of the yard, being replete with the dang and flale of the beafts, may well com- penfate for the extra-attendance required on this occafion.” Turnips for fattening bullocks fhould be of the largeft fize, and, when brought out of the field into the yard, be. divefted of their tops, and of the dirt which adheres to them. The tops and fmall turnips may be thrown to the cows and lean beafts, and the large roots, after having been thus cleanfed, be divided into three or four pieces, and flun into the trough before the fatting beafts, obferving not to 4 give BULLOCK. ive too page X uantity at one time ; and if any of the laft hee fhould cafually remain in the troughs when the bait- ing time comes round, thefe mult be renoved fora frefh fupply. The kay too, which is allowed to thefe beatts, either when fed with turnips, or on oil-cake, fhould be the fweeteft that can be got, and be apportioned out to them in fmall quantities. Turnipsare more palatable, and likewife more nutritious, when given to the beafts drawn freth out of the field; but to guard againit the contingency of a froft, or of inceffant rains, the firft of which would render this bufinefs impraéticable, and the other incoovenient ; it feems a very judicious method to provide a ftock of turnips in dry open weather, that they may be in readinefs at thofe times when they cannot be procured frefh carted out of the field. ‘Thefe when divefted of their leaves and top roots, and cleanfed from dirt, may be piled up in a covered fhed, where no moifture can penetrate, and in this manner, main- tain their goodnefs for fome length of time. When bullocks are at firft fhut up to fatten on turnips, care fhould be taken that this food be given in moderation, and with a proper allowance of hay ; otherwile, the fweet- nefs of the turnip may tempt the beaft to feed fo vora- cioufly, as to occafion too great a fullnefs in the maw, which is called Aoving, or blowing, an accident which fre- quently happens to ruminant animals, when taken from dry meat or natural grafs to turnips, cloyer, or other fucculent forts of food. See Hoven. “ Sometimes accidents happen to bullocks, when feeding on turnips, from pieces flipping into the throat and ftickin there. oe prevent fuffocatioy, which would frequently be the confequence in fuch cafes, the outfide of the gullet fhould be rubbed down with a {tick in order to force the iece down into the ftomach ; or fhould that fail, a turned hick, or piece of cane formed fo as to make a kind of pro- bang may be introduced into the throat, and the turnip by that means be removed. See STALL-FEEDING. By iome, the black, red, and brindled bullocks are con- fidered as moft hardy, and better difpofed to fatten than thofe of other colours. See Catrre and Live stock. Burtocx’s eye, in Archite@ure. SeaEve. nee eee in Rural Economy, the houfes in which bullocks are kept while feeding. In the conftruction of thefe buildings, attention fhould always be had to their being well aired, to the facility of feeding and cleaning the animals in them, and to their being’ kept dry and clean by their hay- ing fuitable drains and conveniences for urine and dung. “In the rural economy of Norfolk, Mr. Marthall remarks, that a bullock-houfe there, confifls of a centre building, thirty- fix feet long, nineteen feet wide, and about eleven feet high to the eaves, with a pair of wide folding doors at each end, and a lean-to on each fide, the whole aes of the build- ing, and eleven fect wide. The centre building is the tur- nip-houfe ; the lean-toes, theds for the bullocks, which ftand with their heads toward, or rather in the turnip-houfe, from which they are parted by a range of mangers only ; having the full freedom of breathing in its {pacious area. By open- ing the doors at each end, a fufficient degree of air and coolnefs may be given in clofe weather, while, behind, the eaves of the theds are brought down to within live feet of the ground, and are boarded with rough boards, except au opening at each end for the bullocks to creep in at, to prevent too great a coldnefs in fevere weather, thus preferv- ing a due temperature. The fhed of thefe dimenfions, thus conftruéted, holds twenty bullocks, ten on each fide, faftened by the neck, with chains, fwivels, and rings playing meets fees polts feven feet high, At each corner of the tur- OL. Vv, nip-houfe, is a triangular bin for containing the topped and tailed turnips, or other provifions. In autuma, it is farther obferved, the entire building is fometimes ufed as a temporary barn for buck-wheat, peas, &c. and in fummer the centre part is an excellent wagzgon- fhed: had the doors been made a foot and a half higher, it is fuggetted that it would have been an admirable refuge for loads of cora or hay in a fhowery harveft. The main build- ing is covered with reed, the lean-toes with tiles. And in the rural economy of Gloucefterfhire, the fame writer re- marks, that each bullock has a houfe and a yard to himfelf, in which he goes loofe, occupying them by turns, as appe- tite oramufement directs him, having a manger and a drink- ing trough to go to at pleafure ; of courfe, he eats when he ishungry, and drinkswhenhe isthirlty. Heisalfoatliberty to rub or to lick himfelf, as well as to keep his body in a proper degree of temperature as to heat and cold. Theory, fays Mr. Marhhall, could not readily fuggeft more rational principles. The conftru€tion of thefe, however, varies in the minu- tie. The water trough, for inftance, is fometimes placed by the manger in the oyal or fhed, fometimes in the open pen. Others lefs noticeable variations may likewife be feen in different buildings. But the plan and dimenfions, which at prefent feem to ftand higheft in efteem, and on which fee veral erections of this nature have been made within the laft fif, teen or twenty years, are the following: The building fifteen to fifteen feet and a half wide within, and ofa length propor- tioned to the number of flalls required: the height of the plates five feet to fix feet four inches, fupported on the fide to the north or eaft by clofe walling : on that to the fouth or weit by pofts, fet on ftone pedeftals: the gables walling : the covering plain tiles on a fingle pitch-roof: againft the back wall is a gang way, three anda half to four feet wide, formed by a length of mangers, three feet to three and a half fect wide, from out to out, at the top narrowing to about fifteen inches within at the bottom; the perpendicular depth fourteen or fifteen inches ; the heighth of the top rail from the ground, about two feet nine inches: the materials two inch plank, ftayed and fupported by polts and crofs pieces, and ftiffened by ftrong top-rails; the dimenfions of the area of the covered ftalls, about eight feet three inches fquare ; of the open pens the fame. ‘The partitions between the ftalls are of broad nails, paffing ke the outer pillars to fimilar polts, rifing on the inner or {tall fide of the manger, and fteadied at the top by {lender beams, reaching acrofs the building, each {tall, or each partition, having a beam anda pair of principals. The par- titions of the pens are gates, reaching from the pillars to the boundary wall; and likewife from pillar to pillar. When they are fixed in that fituation, each bullock has his {tall and his little yard. When in this, each is fhut up in his ftall, the yards form a lane, or driftway, for taking in or turning out any individual, The boundary wall of the pens ° is about four fect high, coped with blocks of copper-drofs. On the outer fide of it isa receptacle of manure; on the ins ner, a range of water troughs, with a channel of communi- cation for the conveniency of filling them. ‘The materials of the troughs, are ftone ; of the channel, gutter-bricks, co- vered with flabs. Thefe ftone troughs, which are about fourteen inches by two feet fix inches within, have a conve- niency in their conftruction, which is entitled to notice; in- ftead of the fides and ends being all of them pecked down to an angle, fquare with the bottom, one of the ends is left bevelling, loping, making a very obtufe angle with the bot- tom. Phis fimple variation renders them ealy to be cleaned, either with the fhevel or the broom, 3.U The Bats The floor is paved with hard burnt bricks, laid edgewife in mortar, being formed with a fteep defcent from the wall to achannel, from three to four feet from it, and with a gentle fall from the manger to the fame channel, which be- comes the general drain for rain water and urine. At one end of the pens is a pump (where a natural rill cannot be had) for fupplying the troughs of water ; and, at the other, a itack of ftubble for litter, which is ufed in the ftall only, the yard being left unlittered. At one end of the building is a cake-honte, at the other the rick-yard; with a door at each end of the gang-way to-receive the hay and the cake. In fome inftances, he has feen a double range of ftalls on this plan, the area between them being the common recep- tacle for the dung. When a number of ftalls, as twenty or thirty, are required, their arrangement brings them within a convenient compafs, and the two ranges, with a proper afpeét, become fhelter to each other. Belide thefe loofe falls, there are others built nearly on the fame plan, but without gates, and on a fomewhat {maller feale, in which the cattle are faftened to the manger or the partition pofts, with a long chain, which gives them liberty to rub and lick themfelves, and move about in their ftalls. In this cafe, a water-trough is generally placed at the end of every fecond partition, level with the manger, with a general pipe of communication to fillthem, each trough fupplying two bul- locks. ‘This plan, he obferves, leffons the expence in fome degree, and prevents the bullocks from fouling their mangers. In the Cotfwold hills, he remarks, that each bul- jock has different troughs, a fmall one for corn, a larger one for hay, with a water-trough, which runs the whole length of the fhed, and is covered by a board, each bullock having a hole to drink at. There are various other con- ftruétions of fheds for this ufe, which will be more particu- larly defcribed under their proper heads. See CatrTie- SHEDS, and FEEDING-HOUSES. Buxrrock-falls, the parts that are partitioned off in the fheds, in which the bullocks ftand to eat their food. They fhould always be made fufficiently roomy. See Cartre- SHEDS. Buttock, in Geography, a county of the ftate of Georgia in America, divided into four towns, and containing 1913 inhabitants, of whom 26g are flaves. Buxrtocx’s point and neck, lie on the eaftern fide of Pro- vidence river, in the ftate of Rhode ifland. : BULLS, bay of; lies on the north of Cadiz in Spain, within Rota point, and affordsa fine fhelter from the N. W. to the N. E. winds; about N. N. W. from Cadiz-bay. Bu xs, bay of, or Baboul bay, a noted bay on the ealt coaft of Newfoundland ifland, about fix leagues to the fouth of St. John’s harbour. It has 14 fathoms of water, and is very fafe, being Tand-locked. The only danger depends upon arock, 20 yards from Bread-and-Cheefe point, and another with nine feet water off Magotty cove. N. lat. 50° 50'. W. long. 57° 10'.— Another bay of the fame name lies on the weft fide of Trinity bay, ruoning fo far welt, that it is {carcely three miles over land from the head or bottom of it to the bay of Placentia. BULLSKIN, a townthip of Fayette county, in Pennfyl- vania, containing g8r inhabitants. BULLULLOS, a town of Spain, in Andalufia, four leagues from Lucena. BULLY, atown of France, in the department of the Lower Seine ; fix leagues N. of Rouen. Butty-tree, in Botany. See Acuras and Bume ta. BULMAN, in Geography, a rock or fhoal on the fouth eoaft of Ireland, on which there is never lefs water than 5 BUL four feet. It lies near Hangman’s point on the eaft ‘fide of the entry into Kinfale harbour, and muft be ‘carefully guarded againft by thofe who enter that port. N. lat. 51° 40!. W.long. 8° 28’, BULM Monouv, a county of Africa, on the coaft of Guinea. BULONGA ifland, lies off the mouth of Aracan river, on the eaft fide of the bay of Bengal. BULSEDI, a town of Arabia, in the county of Yemen, 22 miles S. E. of Leheia. BULYEAU, Lewis, in Biography, a learned and pious French author, was born at Rouen in 1615, and fucceeded his uncle, as king’s fecretary, which office he occupied for 14 years, till he withdrew from it to ftudy and religious re- treat. Having entered asa lay-brother among the Benedic- tines of St. Maur, he paffled the remainder of his days at the abbey of St. Germain des Prez, near Paris. His principal works were ‘An Effay ou the monattic Hiitory of the Eatt,”” 1630, 8vo. defcribing the manners, &c. of the Cznobites, and proving that monaftic inftitutions are not fo. modern as has been fuppofed. ‘* Abridgment of the Hiftory of the Order of St. Benediét, as far as the tenth century, 1684,”” 2 vols. 4to. Tranflation of the Dialogues of Gregory the Great,’’ witl: Notes, 1689,1z2mo. His modeity would not allow his annexing bis name to his works ; his ftyle was formed on the model of the writers of the Port Royal; and his knowledge of languages was very extenfive. He died of an apoplexy in 1693. Nouv. Did. Hitt. BULTEL, derived from the barbarous Latin dz/tel/us, or bultellum, afearce, or boulter, denotes the bran or refufe of meal after dreffing. Butrex alfo denotes a bag wherein meal is dreffed, called alfo a Lulter, or rather boulter. See Boxrrers. BULTER-cloth. See Boutinc-cloth. Butters, are ftrong lines, five hundred feet long, with fixty hooks, eight feet afunder, and baited with pilchards or mackarel, which are ufed on the coalt of Cornwall in the fifhery of congers. They are funk to the ground by a ftone faftened to them ; and fometimes fuch a number of thele are tied together as to reach a mile. BULWARK, Propugnaculum, in the Ancient Fortijica- tion, amounts to much the fame with baltion in the modern. See Bastion, and allo RAMPART. BULWER, Joun, in Biography. This writer, who livedin London, and was in repute in his time for his fkill in teaching deaf and dumb perfons, and others, to communicate their thoughts, by motions of their fingers and hands, is now only known by his works, which are fufficiently fingular to merit attention: viz. ‘* Chirologia, or the Natural Language of the Hand; as alfo Chironomia, or the Art of Manual Rhetorick,’” London, 1644, 8vo. Rabelais gives an ac- count of a curious conteft of this kind, where the difputants, without fpeaking, communicated their opinions by motions of the hands and fingers. The art is not entirely loft, but is now principally praétifed as an amufement by young people at fchools. ‘¢ Pathomyototomia, or the figmficant Mufcles of the Paffions of the Mind, and DiffeGtion of the Mufeles of the Affections,’’ London, 1649, 8vo. He defcrihes the mucles of the head, and denominates them from the expref- fion in the countenance, occafioned by their contraétions, as love, fear, rage, &c. ‘“* Man transformed, or the Artificial Changeling, fhewing the feveral Ways how divers People alter the Natural Shape of fome Parts of their Bodies,’” 1653, 4to. Jofeph Clark, the famous pofture-mafter, was.a remarkable inftance of a man pofleffing this power. He made himfelf tall or fhort, fat or Iean, deformed.or ftraight, at BU ™ at his diferetion. He had alfoan equal power in altering his countenance, foas to be unknown to hismoit intimate ac- quaintarce. Haller. Bib. Anat. i BULZIG, in Geography, a town of Gerinany, in the eleGorate of Saxony, 2 miles S. of Zahna. BUM -ailiffs, or Bound-bailift. See Baiwrrrs of Sheriffs. Bun-dgat, in Sea Language. See Boar. BUMALDA, in Botexy, Thunb. nov. gen. p. 63. Flor. Jap. S. Schreb. 453. Willd. 515. Juff. 381. Clafs and ord. pentandria digyma. Nat. ord. rhamni, Jul. Gen. Char. Ca/. perianth deeply divided into five ovate, obtufe, concave fegments, a little fhorter than the corolla. Cor. petals five, oblong, inferted on the germ. Svam.-five, thread- fhaped, ereét, rough with hairs, inferted into the claws of the petals, nearly the length of the corolla; anthers inferted into the back, ovate,twin. Pifl. germ conic, villous, fupe- rior; ftyles two, ered, villous, the length of the filaments ; ftigmas fimple, headed, truncate. Cap/u/e not feen by Thun- in a {tate of maturity, but fuppofed by him to be two- celled and two-beaked. Sp. B. trifolia. A {mall denfe fhrub, {mooth in all its parts. Branches cylindrical or obcufely angular, jointed, purple. Branchlets oppofite, leafy, thread-fhaped, much {preading, in other refpects fimilar to the branches. Leaves oppolite, petioled. Leaflets ovate, acuminated, finely fer- rated, pale underneath ; on fhort capillary, {preading or re- fleéted petioles. Racemes terminal. Native of Japan. BUMBUNNY,a name given by the people of Guine2 to a plant common in that place, which ferves them as an emetic; they boil a few of the leaves in water, and drink this liquor, which works very eafily. Phil. Tranf. N° 232. BUMELIA, (Scvusrsx, the name of a tree in Theo- phrattus and Pliny). Swartz. Prod.49. Schreb. Ap. 1736. Willd. 401. Clas and ord. pentandria monogynia. “ Gen. Ch. Ca/. perianth fiveleaved; leaves roundith- ovate, incumbent, concave. Cor. one-petalled, five-cleft or five-parted ; tube very fhort, round; border five-parted ; fegments ovate, entire, fpreading, concave, with two little fcales at the bafe of each; neétary with five leaves, {maller than the fegments of the corolla, at the bafe of the filaments, furrounding the germ, acute. Stam. filaments five, the length of de tube, inferted into its bottom between its lower {egments ; anthers ovate, ereét. Pi/?. germ Superior, ovate ; ftyle thick, ere¢t, fhorter than the ftamens ; ftigma obtufe. Drupe oval; kernel fingle, oblong, {mooth, with a lateral fear. Eff. Char. Corolla five-cleft ; nefary five-leaved ; drupe one-feeded. La Marck fays, that all Swartz’s {pecies fhould be referred to Sideroxylum, which he defcribes in his “ Iluftrations” as fubmonofpermous, or as he expreffes it in the alphabetical part, having from one to five hate Bumelia, as a Separate genus, differs from Sideroxylum only in the number of feeds. Willdenow ennmerates the following twelve fpecies, all na- tives of America. t. B. nigra, baftard bully-tree. Swartz. (Achras 6. Browne Jam.) ‘ Leaves terminating, oblong-lanceolate, {mooth, waved about the margin; branches fpreading ; branchlets wandlike, flower-bearing.” A tree. Fruit {mall, {mooth, fcattered on the branchlets; feeds roundifh witha very {mall ovate fear. A native of Jamaica. 2. B. pallida. Swartz. “ Leaves terminating, elliptic, obtufe; peduncles crowded, lateral; branches ereét.”? It refembles B. nigra, but is 2 {maller tree, with whitith bark, having branches lefs {preading, with larger lowers and drupes. Swartz. A native of Jamaica. é: B. tenax. Willd. (Sideroxylon tenax. Linn. Ment. Chryfophyllum carolinenfe Jacq.) ‘ Leaves obovate, BUM obtuie, filvery, tomentous underneath; peduncles axilliry, crowded.” A tree 20 feet high, with a whitifi bark, and very tenacious branches. Germs alternate, each producing numerous one-flowered peduncles,about an inchlong. Leaves five or fix, below or among the peduncles, petioled, very en- tire, deciduous. F/ocwers {mall. Calyx ovate ; leaflets five, ovate, obtufe, the outer ones broader, converging, Corolla tube the length of the calyx ; border five-parted ; fegments ovate, fhorter than the calyx ; netary in the throat of the corolla, five-parted ; fegments with three clefts, the middle oue generally the longeit. Stamens the length of the corolla. Pi. germ pentagonal ; {tyle and itigma fimple. Drupe oval; Kernel ovate, fhining, with two apertures at the bafe, fepa- rated by a bowed partition. It varies with very fhort {pines, thiuly feattered on the branchlets. Linn. Obferved by Dr. Garden in the dryer parts of Carolina. 4. B. retufay mountain baitard bully-free. Swartz. (Achras 7. Brown. Jam.) ‘ Leaves wedge-ovate, obtufe, rigid; peduncles crowded, axillary.” Native of Jamaica. 5. B. fetidifima. Willd. ( Sideroxylon feetidiffimum Linn. Mapt.) “ Leaves lanceolate-oblong, obtufe, ,a little emarginate ; peduncles crowded, axillary. A fhrub, 12 feet high. Leaves rather alternate, thining. Peduncles one-flowered, numerous. A native of St. Domingo. 6. B. falicifolia, Swartz. (Achyras falicifolia, Linn. Sp. Pl. under which name it has already been given in this work. La Marck refers his Sideroxylum falicifolium to the Achras falicifolium of Linnzus with a mark of doubt. Willdenow gives, as a fynonym to the prefent plant, Jacquin’s Sideroxylon muftichodendrum, which La Marck has inferted in his Illuftrations, but net in the DiGtionary under the fame name.) ‘* Leaves lanceolate, ovate, acuminate ; peduncles crowded, axillary and lateral.’ Native of Jamaica and the Bahama iflands. 7. B. manglillo, Willd, (Sideroxylon manglillo La Marck Eneye. Chryfo- phyllum manglillo La Marck Illuft. Duhamelia manglillo Domb. Peruy. Manglilla Juffl. 151.) ‘* Leaves oblong, ob- tufe, {mooth, whitith beneath; flowers axillary and lateral, aggregate, with fhort peduncles.’ An evergreen fhrub, 10 or 12 feet high. Leaves alternate, very entire. /owers {mall, white, in numerous {mall fafcicles, either in the axils of the leaves, or feattered below the leafy part of the branches. Peduneles fhort. Sty/e none. Fruit about the fize of a fmall grain of pepper. Obferved by Dombey in the neighbour- hood of Lima. 8. B. montana, Swartz. ‘ Leaves oblong, obtufe ; peduncles long, axillary, diftin.’? Native of Ja- maica. g. B, nervofa. Willd. {Chryfophyllum macrophy!- lum Lam. Iluft. C. cainito Aub. guin.) — “ Leaves alter- nate oval, of a different colour beneath ; flowers aggregate, lateral, and axillary, tomentous, peduncled.”” Native of Cayenne. 10. B. pentagona Swartz. ‘ Leayes lanceolate, acuminate, fhining ; peduncles axillary ; drupes pentagonal.”’ Native of the Welt Indies. it. B. ronudifola, Swartz. ‘¢ Leaves roundifh, margined, veined, leathery, {mooth on both fides,”’? Native of Jamaica. 12. B.cuneata. * Leaves wedye-obovate.”” Native of Jamaica. T’ruit of this and the receding unknown. BUMICILUI, a feét of Mahometans in Africa, faid to be great forcerers: they fight againft the devil as they fay ; and frequently run about pa with blood and bruifes, ia a great fright : they fometimes counterfeit combats with him at noon-day, and in the prefence of numbers of people, for the {pace of two or three hours, with darts, javelins, fei- mitars, &c. laying defperately about them, till they fall down on the ground oppreffed with blows; after refting x moment, they recover their, fpirits, and walk off. What their rule is, is not well known; but they are faid to be an order of religious. 3U2 BUMP.- BUN BUMPKIN,or Boomxn, in Sea Language, a hort boom or bar of timber, projeting from each bow of a fhip, to extend one edge of the forefail to windward; for which pur- pofe there is a large block fixed to its outer end, through which the rope is paffed that is faftened to the lower corner of the fail to windward, called the tacé ; and this being drawn tight down brings the corner of the fail clofe to the block, which being performed, the tack is faidto be aboard. ‘The bumpkin is fecured by a ftrong rope, which confines it downward to the fhip’s bow, to connteraét the {train it bears from the forefail above dragging it upwards. , BUN, the dry ftalk of hemp, {tripped of its rind. BUNCH, a clufter or affemblage of certain things, as of rapes. nee alfo denotes a tumor, or protuberance, natural or preternatural, either on an animal or a vegetable body —The bunch growing about the graft ofa plantis a fort of callus formed by the extravafated fap. Buncu of Camels. See Camers. Buwncn, in Surgery, denotes an elevation of the back, arif- ing from an exterior luxation of the vertebra thereof. ‘The cure is begun by keeping emollients along time on the verte- bre, whereby to loofen the ligaments, and finifhed by wear- ing an iron boddice, which comprefling the vertebra, by de- grees drive them back to their natural fituation. Buncues in horfes, called alfo knobs, warts, and wens, are difeafes arifing from foul meat, bruifes, hard labours or the like ; whereby the blood becoming putrefied and foul, occafions fuch excrefcences. BUNCHED cods, among Floriffs, are thofe which ftand out, and wherein the feed is lodged. Buncuep roots, thofe round roots which have knobs or knotsin them. See Burs and Roor. BUNCRANA, in Geogi-aphy, a {mall poft town of the county of Donegal, Ireland, fituatedon Lough Swilly, in the peninfula of Inifhowen. It is 12 miles N.W. of London- derry, and 124 N.W. of Dublin. : BUNCOMB, the largeft and moft weftern county of Noxth Carolina, and fuppofed to be the moft mountainous in the United States, It lies in Morgan diftri€t, and is bounded W. by the ftate of Tenneffee, and S, by that of South Carolina, The Blue ridge paffes through this county, and gives rife tomany large rivers, as Catabaw, Wateree, Broad river, and Pacolet. It abounds with iron ore. The number of inhabitants is 5774, of whom 334 are flaves. BUNDAMIR, a central river of Perfia, which paffes between Schiraz and Iftakar, or the celebrated ruins of Per- fepolis, and is fuppofed to be the ancient Araxes, which fee. This famous river flows into a falt lake called BaxraGan. Between this river andthe Kuren, a branch of the mountains of Elwendextends S.E. See Erwenp. BUNDE, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weftpha- lia, county of Ravenfberg and prefecturate of Limberg. At this place a confiderable trade 1s carried on in yarn and coarfe Tinen, and near it is a medicinal f{pring, difcovered in 1748. BUNDEH, a ridge of mountains in Hindooftan, which ~ runs parallel to the hina river on the fouth, but ata confiderable diftance from it. BUNDELA, orBunpetcunp, a territory of Hindooftan, lying on the fouth-welt fide of the Jumnah, and feparated from it by a narrow tract of low country. It is inhabited by a tribe of Rajpoots, who are deemed inferior to their brethren of Agimere. Bundelcund is furrounded by the dominions of Oude, Benares, and the Mahrattas, and was formerly fubject to a rajah named Hindooput; but it is now chiefly divided among his fons, ortheir defcendants, It 7 a BUN is a mountainous tract of more than 100 miles fquare, and contains the celebrated diamond mines of Punna or Purna (probably the Panaffa of Ptolemy), together with fome itrong fortreffes, the principal of which is Callinger. It is fubjeét to the depredations of the Mahrattas, and has of late years been attempted by Madajee Sindia, who failing to make himfelf matter of the principal fortreffes, abandoned the open country. The ancient limits of Bundelcund were much more extenfive than the prefent; extending much further towards the Nerbuddah river. Chatterpour is reckoned the capital. Where the foil is not itrong, it pro- duces all forts of fruits, but neither rice nor fugar. Cotton trees are abundant, and a fpecies of tree from which is gathered a black nut. The territories of A djidfing are contiguous to Bundeleund, on the weft; to the Mahrattas, on the fouth and fouth- welt; and tothe Benares territory, on the eaft. Their whole extent, including fome tributary Zemindars on the fouth-eaft, may be about equal to Bundelcund; and like that, fubject to the occafional depredations of the Mahrattas. Its capital is Rewah or Rooah, which fee. Rennell’s Mem. Introd. BUNDERKOLE, a town of Hindoottan, in the diftri& of Kifhtewar, feated between the two branches that form the Chunaub river, near the foot of the Imaus or Himmaleh mountains. N. lat. 33°40'. E. long. 74° 58!. ' BUNDLE, a colleétion of things wrapped up and bound together. A bundle of paper confilts of 40 quires ; a bundle of Hamburgh yarn contains 20 fkeins ; and of bafket rods, the band is 3 feet. BUNDLES, in Lat, denote a fort of records of the chancery, lying in the office of the Rolls, in which are con- tained the files of bills and anfwers; of hab. cor. cum caufa ; certioraris ; attachments, &c.; /cire facias’s; certificates of flatute ftaple ; extents and liberates; /uper/edeas’s ; bails on {pecial pardons; bills from the Exchequer of the names of fheriffs; letters patent furrendered; and deeds cancelled ; inquifitions; privy-feals for grants; bills figned by the king 3. warrants of ef{cheators; cuftomers, &c. BUNDURAL, in Geography, a diftri& of Hindooftan,, adjoining to the Imaus or Himmaleh mountains, in N. Iat.. about 33° and FE. long. about 75° 30'. BUNEL, Perer, in Biography, an elegant fcholar of diftinguifhed eminence, was born at Touloufe in 1499, and. educated at Paris. Unable to procure a fubfittence at home, he went to Padua, and afterwards to Venice, where he was entertained in the houfe of Lazarus du Baif, the French ambafflador, and where he {tudied the Greek and Hebrew languages; of Latin he was before fo complete a matter, that he wrote it with fuch purity as to have been deemed the founder of the Ciceronian feét which prevailed, fo much among the Italian fcholars. With George de Selve, bifhop of Lavaur, who fucceeded du Baif at Venice, he retired to Lavaur, and upon his death, returned to. Touloufe, where he was refcued from indigence, and pa- tronized by Meffrs. de Faur. He accompanied the fon of one of thefe in the capacity of tutor on a tour to Italy, and at Turin, was carried off by a fever in his 47th year. His reputation for literary tafte and for a philofophical con- tentment of mind was eminently ditiaguilied” In early life he feems to have incurred the fufpicion of herefy, by mani- fefting an inclination to the opinions of the reformers ; but he was rejeéted by Calvin, becaufe he feemed to have had too favourable fentiments of the Pelagian do¢trines,. A colleétion of his Latin letters, written with peculiar purity of ftyle, and containing much curious matter, was printed by Stephens in 1551, and afterwards reprinted at BUN at Touloufe. The capitouls of Touloufe have placed his buft in their town-hall among other ornaments of their city. Gen. Di&. Bune, Jacop, a painter of hiftory, was born at Blois in 1558, and became the difciple of Frederick Zucchero. He was in high reputation as a painter both at Rome and at Paris; aud in the church of the Auguitines, in the latter city, he painted a ‘* Defcent of the oly Ghofty?? which was preferred by that excellent judge, Nicolo Pouffia, to all the paintings in that city. Pilkington. BUNG, tthe ftopple of a cafk, barrel, or the like. The bung is a wooden plug, ferving to ‘top the hole left in the top of a veilel to be filled by. It anfwers to what, among the ancients, was called ¢pi/fomium, and in the middle illus, the feal af a veffel, becaufe in thofe days it was wast fealed. , After tunning new wine, or cyder, the bung is ufually left open for fome time, that when the liquor comes to work, there may be vent for the froth or feum, and that the hoops may not be in danger of being burit by the violence of the fermentation. Yet, in fome cafes, they leave wines to ferment, without giving them vent by the bung, in order to render them more brifk and fpirituous: in which cafe, it is neceflary the veffel be hooped with iron, and other precau- tions taken that the bung may not fly. BUNGAY, in Geography, a town of Suffolk, England, is built on the banks of the river Waveney, which divides this county from Norfolk, and is navigable for barges from Yarmouth on the coaft. This place is memorable for a dreadful fire which, in 1688, confumed nearly. the whole of the town, and deftroyed property to the amount of 29;896l. The town, however, revived after this deplorable event, and its houfes, &c. were re-ereéted in an improved and more convenient ftyle. The town confifts of two parithes, and has two handfome churches. That, dedicated to St. Mary, is a large ftruéture, with a lofty fteeple. Between the two churches are the ruins of a Benediétine nunnery, which was founded in the time of Henry II. Here are alfo the remains of a very {trong caftle, which appears to have been built by the Bygods, earls of Nodolk. In the time of the barons’ wars, this place was ftrongly fortified by Hugh Bygod, who is faid to have publicly defied the king, but he was obliged to compound with Henry II., by a fum of money, and hoftages, to fave it from a fiege, and demolition by that monarch. The earl Feta efpoufed the caufe of Richard, Henry’s fon, aguatt his father; when the king feized this, and the caftle ° Framlingham. The caftle was demolifhed in the reign of Henry Ili., but in the roth of Edward the firlt Roger Bygod obtained a licence to embattle his manfion which was built on the fite of the caftle. The inhabitants of Bungay have the privilege of a very extenfive common in the vicinity of the town. Here are a weekly market on Thurfday, and two fairs annually. It is 106 miles N.E. of London, and contains 187 houfes, and 903 inhabitants in Trinity parihh, and 305 houfes, with 1446 inhabitants, belonging to that of St. Mary. BUNGO. See Bonco. Buco, a province of Africa, in the kingdom of Loango. BUNGURY, a town of Hindooftan in Lahore, feated near the river Rauvee. N, lat. 32° 30’. E. long. 74° 58’. BUNGUSH,-a diftri& of abu, fituate to the fouth of the Cow river and eaft of the Sindé, terminating on both. N, lat. about 33°, and E. long. about 70°. BUNIALU, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Natolia; 28 miles W. of Caamoni. BUN BUNIAS, in Botany, (thename of a plant with a root like a turnip, in Diofcorides and Pliny, from eves, ‘a nill), Linn. gen. 523. Schreb. 1070. Willd. 1217. Juff. 241. Vent. vol. ili. p.114.. Gart.828. Clafs and order, tetradynamia filiculofa, Schreb. Willd. and Smith. Siliguo/iy Linn. Nat. Ord. Siliguofe, Linn. Cruciferae, Juil, and Vent. | Gen. Char. Cal. perianth four-leaved; leaves oyate- oblong, ipreading, deciduous. Cor. four-petalled, cruci- form ; petals obovate; claws attenuated, erect. Svam. fix, the length of the calyx, two oppolite ones a little fhorter than the others; anthers ereét, bifid at the bafe. Pift. germ oblong; ftigma obtufe. Silicle irregular, ovate-ob- long, fomewhat four-fided, not opening, deciduous. Eff. Char. Silicle deciduous, four-fided, with unequal acute angles, not Sea Dr. Smith. , Spec. 1. B. cornuta, Linn. (Myagrum cornutum, Lam. Pugionium cornutum, Gert. Willd. and Vent.) “ Silicles with two {preading horns, f{pinous at the bale’? Linn. Leaves tongue-fhaped, very entire, glaucous, without veins, half embracing the ftlem. Racemes terminal; very loofe in a {tate of maturity, with wide-{preading peduncles. Flowers {mall, not larger than thofe of Draba verna. Peta/s uarrow, very entire, acuminate, white, a little longer than the calyx. Germ fomewhat hifpid, two-celled. Si/icle membranous, lenticularly-compreffed, tranfverfely oval; furnifhed at each extremity with a long, compreffed, {word-{haped procefs, producing the appearance of two wide-{preading horns; reticulated on each fide with veins; fomewhat tranfparent between the veins, and armed with four pairsof weak divaricated {pines proceeding from the veins. Cells naturally two, placed by the fide of each other and feparated by a thin partition ; but, in the mature fruit, one is conitantly obliterated. Seed fingle, ovate-oblong, compreffed, inclofed inanaril, Gert. Tab. 142. fig. 3. Native of the Levant and of the defert of the Calmucks near the Cafpian fea.. 2. B. /pinofa, Linn. Mant. 96. (Myagrum f{pinofum, Lam.) “« Racemes fpinefcent’ Gert. ‘lab. 142. f.2. Root an- nual. Stems a foot high, ere&t, branching, fubdivided, round, flender, very fmooth, green. eaves ovate-oblong, blunt, fomewhat angular, {mooth, petioled. Racemes Asis) Tiff, rigid, terminating with compound fpines, and a icw feflle flowers. Calyx oblong, clofed. Pesals lanceolate, ale violet. Germ heart-fhaped. Style cylindrical, the ength of the germ, permanent. Stigma thickifh. Silicle a fpungy drupe, heart-fhaped, turgid, {mooth, and even terminated by the pyran, permanent ftyle ;_ rind thick, fhell two-celled, hexangular, two oppofite angles broader. Seeds folitary, roundifh, Linn. and Gert. Native of the Levant. 3. B. Zrucago, Linn. ( Erucago fegetum, Tourn. Myagrum Erucago, Lam.) Jacq. Ault. Tab. 340. Gert. “ab. 142. f. 2. & Silicles four-angled, beaked ; angles two-crefled; lower leaves lyrefhaped; lobes oppofite, tri- angular”? La Marck. Root annual. Stems numerous, a foot and half high, flender, {preading, rough with a very fhort pile. Radical leaves rather ftraight, with toothed lobes, foon withering. Stem leaves Cait Yancodtats, toothed, and diftant. J*/owers yellow, peduncled, in loofe, terminal racemes. Si/ic/e a quadrangular drupe with a rough furface, narrowed in the middle, terminated by the long ftyle, and divided at its angles into two very prominent, toothed crefts. Rind {pongy-membranous, thin, whitifh. Shell bony, foul celled ; cells in pairs, one over the other, all fertile. Seeds roundith, plano-convex, rufefcent. la Marck and Gert. Abundaut in corn-fields, in the fouthern parts of France, 4. B. a/pera, Willd, * Silicles aa oy BUNIAS. all the leaves lanceolate.”? Root /annual. Stem near a foot high, fomewhat branching, rough with minute prickles. Lower leaves inverfely lanceolate, upper ones lanceolate, alittle toothed; with a few white, forked and trifid hairs. Flowers yellow, in racemes. | Calyx fomewhat ventricofe, converging. Sv/icles very fhort, muricate, crefted with four oppolite ferrated angles ; and terminated by a pyramidal, capitate ftyle, the length of the filicle, Retz. Obf. 2. p- 21. Native country anknown. 5. B. orientalis, Linn. (Crambe orientalis, Tourn. Myagrum orient. La Marck,) Gert. Tab. 142. <* Silicles ovate, gibbous, warty 5 lower leavés runcinate-lyrefhaped, upper ones lanceolate.’? Willd. Root perennial. Stems herbaceous, upwards of two feet high, branched. Flowers yellow, in long, terminating racemes. Si/icle drupaceous, roundifh or ovate-oblong, gib- bous, warty, ending in a fhort ftyle. Rind fungous, ftraw- coloured. Shell bony, of the fhape of the filicle, fmooth without ; with two cells one above the other, the upper one, in fuch filicles as are roudifh, generally obliterated. Seeds roundifh, rufefcent. Miller and Gertner, Gathered by Tournefort in the f.evavt, and by Gmelin in Siberia. 6. B. cochlearieides, Willd. * Silicles ovate, bluntifh, fome- what wrinkled; radical leaves oblong, ftem-leaves arrow- fhaped, embracing the ftem.”? Root annual; a native of France, Italy, Hungary, &c. 7. B. tatarica, Willd. (Vella tenuiffima, Pallas It. tom. 5. Pl. 6. French Tranflation. ) « Silicles globular, fomewhat hexagonal, with long beaks; leaves lanceolate, blunt, petioled.””? Roof annual. Stem erect, branching, half a foot bigh. eaves very entire ; hifpid, attenuated into a petiole at the bafe. Flowers white, in filiform racemes. Si/icles fix-furrowed, crowned with the thick, cylindrical, permanent ftyle, two-celled, not opening. 8. B. myagroides, Linn. Mant. 96. (Cakile myagroides, Vent.) La Marck Illuft. Tab. 554. fig. 1? « Silicles two-edged, two-jointed, a little {welling above ; leaves pinnate, with reflected finufes.”” Root annual. Stem flraight, two feet high, even, irregularly branched. Lower eaves pinnate or bipinnate, rather broad, not flefhy, deep green, with oblong, toothed divifions or pinnas ; the upper ones very fimilar, but narrow and linear ; all with reflected finufes. Racemes terminal, long, ftraight. Floavers nearly ffi. Calyx oblong, clofed. Petals very entire, pale, purple. * Anthers yellow. Style {word-fhaped. — Silicle fub- cylindrical, rigid, approximating to the rachis; on a fhort peduncle’; lower joint cylindrical, two-valved, generally with only one feed, the valves marked with a fingle ftreak ; upper jotut compreiied, obfcurely two-edged, generally with only one feed, blunt, with a protuberant auricle on each fide. Linn. A native of Siberia. 9. B. egyptiaca, Linn. Syft. Nat. tom. 3. p. 231. (Myagrum verricofum, La Marck) Gert. Tab. 142. copied by La Marck in Mutt. Pl. 553. fig. 3. < Silicles four-angled, rugged with warts on all fides; leaves runcinate.”? Root annual. Stem a foot high, branched, hifpid below, fmoother above. Leaves runcinate, fomewhat toothed, with a few hairs beneath on the petioles. Racemes folitary, terminal, Jong. Flowers pedicelled. Calyx yellowifh, fpreading. Petals dark yellow, obovate, obtufe, {preading, with erect claws. Stamens yellow, diftant. Germ. ovate, four-angled, green.” Style none: /figma capitate, yellow. Silicle drupa ceous, fmall, ovate, four-angled; the two narrower fides rugged with warts ; the two broader marked with a double, longitudinal, elevated ftreak, which is crenulate, or flightly tubercled ; rind very thin, membranaceous; fhell bony, “muricate, two-celled ; cells placed fide by fide. Seeds foli- tary, ovate, convex’ on one fide, flat on the other, rufefcent. Linn. and Gert. A native of Egypt. 10. B, balearica, even 3 Linn. Mant. 429. (Myagrum bal. La Marck) Jacq. horf. ‘Fab. 144. Govan illuft. tab.2z0. © Silicles hifpid; leaves pinnate ; folioles fomewhat toothed.’ Root annual. Stem a foot high, much branching, fpreading, angular, fmooth. Leaves petioled ; pinne lanceolate, finuate, obtufe, fmooth. Peduncles im racemes, ~very long, ereé&t; pedicels fhorter than the flowers. Calyx clofed, fmooth, lanceolate, con- cave, teftaceous. Coralla yellow ; petals oblong, obtufe, the length of the calyx. Si/icles globular, echinated on every fide with denfe, weak fpines, and terminated by an awl-fhaped, {tiff beak, longer than the filicle. A native of Majorca and Minorca. 11. B. proffrata, Willd. Desf. Atl. tab. 150. Silicles one-feeded, toothed; leaves pinnati- fid; fegments finuate.’”’ Svems numerous, proftrate, pu- befcent from the root. eaves pubefcent, deeply pinnae tifid; fegments obtufe, toothed. Flowers white. Silicles roundifh, comprefled, terminated by the permanent ftyle, pubefcent. A native of the fandy foil in the northern part of Africa. 12. B. Cakile, Linn, Hudfon, Withering, Smith. (Cakile maritima Tourn. La Marck, Vent. Willd. Cakile Serapionis Lob. Gert.) Eng. Bot. Pl. 231. Iba Marek il- luft. Pl. 554. fig. 2, Gert. Tab. rg1. “ Silicles ovate, two-edged, {mooth, one-feeded; leaves flefhy.’”? Smith. Root annual, flender, woody, running deep into the fand. Stem round, much branched, woody, divided from the bafe into widely divaricated, zig-zag, twifted branches. Leaves alternate, thick and fucculent, rather glaucous, {mooth, moye or lefs deeply pinnatiiid and toothed; their fegments all obtufe. #/owers pale purple in denfe, terminal corymbi, which afterwards grow out into fpikes. Calyx gibbous at the bafe. Silicle {mooth, oblong, acuminate, obfoletely four-angled, but fo comprefled as to make two oppofite edges very prominent, two-jointed, feparating at the joints ; the upper joint largeit, deeply emarginate at the bafe, fpongy, conitantly fertile, one-celled, not opening fpon-~ taneoufly, but eafily feparated into two valves at the promi- nent angles ; the lower joint {maller, fomewhat top-fhaped, fometimes perfeétly folid, and fometimes furnifhed with a cell, which is either barren or contains a fingle feed; but a fertile lower joint is very rare, and never occurred to the obfervation of Gertner. Miller, Gert. and Smith. An inhabitant of the fea-coafts of Europe, Afia, Africa, and America. Willdenow defcribes the variety @ of Vahl, which he conjectures to be Iatis Egyptiaca of Linnzus, as a fecond fpecies of his genus Cakile, under the trivial name of Egyptiaca. It differs chiefly in having larger leaves, longer peduncles, and a feed always in each cell; but it feems to be only a variety of the common {pecies. Obf. This genus, like feveral others of the fame natural family, is very perplexed and obfcure, and differently treated by different authors. Linneus, at firft, formed it of fuch {pecies as have rough or muricated filiques or filicles, in- cluding the Erucago of Tournefort, and framed its generic character accordingly: but afterwards, without changing the chara&ter, admitted the Cakile of Tournefort, which has not rough or muricated filicles, and which in his Hortus Cliffortianus and Flora Suecica, he had placed under Ka- phanus. La Marck has abolifhed it entirely, keeping Ca- kile diftinét, and placing the other fpecies under Myagrum, which, he fays, forms with them a very natural genus, con- fifting of fpecies with filicles, in fome refpects fo different from each other, that, if not united under one very general character, they muft conftitute nearly as many genera as fpecies, Juffieu, inftead of uniting it with Myagrum, is rather inclined to divide it into three, Bunias, Erucago, Cakile. Gertner makes its effential character depend on a drupaceous filicle, adding that thofe who are elighted wit BUN with 2 multitude of genera, may divide it according to the internal ftru&ture of the drupe, and the feeds into Bunias, Leelia, and Erucago. In confequence ef this eftablifhed rinciple, he has not only reftored the genus Cakile of ene fort, but has alfo introduced a new one for the Bu- mias cornuta of Linnezus, under the generic name Pugio- nium, from pugio, a dagger, fuggefted by the fhape of the fin- gular proceffes from the filicle. Willdenow and Ventenat have admitted the three genera, afd the latter has alfo #zain “made Erucago a diftin@ genus. In this diverlity of opinion, we have thought it beit to keep the Linnzan genus entire, only adopting the eflential charaGter given by Dr. Smith in his Flora Britannica, which appears to be-equally comprehenfive of the proper fpecies and exclufive of others, ~ Buxias Syriaca, of Gertner and Willdenow. See Awasratica Syriaca. La Marck fays that it has the fruit of his Myagrum, and confequently cant belong to the enus Anaftatica. Gertner, when his plates were engraved, ollowed the arrangement of Linnzus, but, when he wrote the defcriptions, had difcovered that the filicle is properly a drupe, thongh the rind is fo thin as to be fearcely difcerni- ble, and that, therefore, it belongs to his genus Bunias, Bunsas, Gerard. See Brassica Napus. B UM, (fuppofed, like Bunias, to be derived from Bowes, a hill, as is faid, from its affecting high fituations, but that being neither its peculiar nor univerfal charater, it is probably fo called from the form of its root) Earth- nut, Ki -nut, Pig-nut, or Hawk-nut. Lion. gen. 335. Schreb. 468. Willden. 532. Jaf. 223. eat vol a 30. Gert. 807. Bulbocaftanum Tourn. Clafs and order, pentandria digynia. Nat. Ord. Umbellate Linn. Unibel- lifere Jalff. Gen. Char. Umbel univerfal manifold, with rays fewer than twenty: partial, very fhort, crowded. Jnvoluerc uni- verfal fhort, of many linear leaves, fometimes not more than three, or only one, and after the flowers are opened, often entirely wanting : partial fetaceous, the length of the par- tial umbel. Perianth proper {carcely «pparent. Coral uni- verfal uniform. Fiorets all fertile. Cor. proper of five in- flex-cordate, equal petals. Sram. filaments five, fhorter than the corolla, fimple: anthers fimple. Pi/?. germ ob- long, inferior: flyles two, reflexed; ftigmas obtufe. Peric. none: fruit ovate, fplitting in two. Seeds two, ovate, convex on one fide, flat on the other. Linn. five ftriated, the {paces between the ftreaks flightly wrinkled. Gert. Effea, Char, Ovate. Sp. 1. B. Bulbocaflanum. Linn. (B. minus. Gowan.) La Marck, Ill. 197. “ Involucre many-leaved: ftem ftraight and leafy at the bafe.”” Dr. Smith. “ Leaves uniform, involucre many-leaved.”’ Willd. Fruit fomewhat cylindrical, thicker at the apex; ftyles reflexed, deciduous.”” Gouan. Root nnial, tuberous, roundifh. Stem round, alternately Granite, leafy, ftriated, fmooth. Leavrs ‘tripinnate: fegments linear, of ten trifid. Umbels eertitdal, erect. Partial umbels clofe, white. Jnvelucre three times fhorter than the rays. Dr. Smith. Common on the Continent ; rare in England; found by Mastyn in the time of Dil- lenius, near Hornfey wood, and by Mr. William Wood, lately in Kenfington gardens. 2. B. fiexuo/um, Stokes in ‘Withering and Dr. Smith. (B. majus. Govan and Will- denow.) “ Involucre of three leaves or lefs; ftem naked, tapering, and zig-zag at the bafe. Dr. Smith. “Stem ves very narrow, involucre none.’? Willd. “ Fruit “ovate, acuminate; ftyles permanent”? Govan, Root tu Cor. Uniform. Unibe! crowded. Fruit BUN berous, roundifh, Stem elongated under the earth, tapering, zig-zag, white; about a foot and a half high, ereét, branched, leafy, ftriated, fmooth. Radical leaves on long petioles, tripinnate ; fegments linear, pinnatifid and gafhed; item-leaves nearly feflile, triternate, finely divided; fheath fhort, grooved, fmooth, the edge membranous and whitifh. Umbels feveral ; univerfal rays from feven to twelve, partial about ‘twelve. Jnvolucre univerfal and partial various; in Yorkfhire {pecimens, the anivertal involucre*moft commonly confiits of one or two lanceolate leaves, with three coloured ribs, proceeding from a projeéting ring which furrounds the bafe of the umbel; partial one of trom one to three leaves, ex- aétly refembling thofe of the univerfal involucre.and proceed- ing from a fimilarring. Siy/es white, according to Curtis, but in our {fpecimens they are purple, with globular ftigmas. A native of heaths, dry paftures, and woods, in almoft every part of England. Linneus confounded thefe two fpecies, but, as Dr. Smith obferves, appears to have drawn his-de- feription from the Bulbocaftanum, the majus of old authors. Ray knew only one f{pecies, which mutt have been the flexuofum; but Magnol, his contemporary, mentions both in his index of plants growing about Montpelier, and adds that he found them to be fpecifically different by cultivating them in his garden. - Johnfon, in his edition of Gerard, diltinguifhed them, and Dillenius was rather inclined to think them diftin&; though Profeffor John Martyn, on whofe authority he admitted the majus of the old botanifts as a Britifh plant, fufpeCted that the difference was owing to the roots growing nearer than ufual to the furface of the ground. Gouan, who cultivated them during eight years, is furprifed that they have not been diftinguifhed long fince, and gives fpecific differences, which, however, do not fatisfy the prefent profeffor, Thomas Martyn, But Dr. Stokes and Dr. Smith have, we apprehend, now deter- mined the queftion. The tuberous roots of both fpecies, on account of their fweetifh tafte, have long been a favour- ite efculent with boys, and when boiled or roafted are faid to be little inferior to chefyuts. Ray recommends them when feafoned with pepper as a nourifhing, {timulating, food; and the old empirics attributed medical virtues to them, which have long lince been exploded. Gouan and Willdenow have perverfely given the {pecific name majus to the minus of the old authors. 3. B. aromaticum, Linn. abt. 218, * sake involucres of three leaves.’ Root annual, and as Bofe obferves, probably not tuberous. Stem erect, Leaves refembling thofe of Carum Carui, fuper-decompound. Umbel of ten or twelve rays on along, ftriated peduncle. Purtial umbels thort. Univerfal involucre of about fix, fhort, awl-fhaped leaves. Partial involucres of about three leaves, the length of the little umbel. Corolla white. Petals equal, inflex-cordate, Seeds ovate, minute, yelding an aromatic odour, fimilar to Marjoram. A native of Crete and Syria. Buntum. Sauvage, Monf. | See Sison verticillatum. BUNIUS, Dalech. J. Bauh. See Eruusa Buntus. Bunius, Rumph. and Burm. See Stitraco Bunius, now difcovered to be the male of Antide/ina alexiteria. BUNKER’S Hint, in Geography. See Breen’s Hill. BUNKLE’S Manuscript, in Biblical Hiftory, a mo- dern MS. of the four Gofpels, noted in Mill Bu, and 70 in the firft part of Wetftein’s New Teftament. When this ‘MS. was collated by Mill, it was the property of Mr. Bunkle of London; but at prefent it is preferved in the Univerfity library of Cambridge. Whether it was written ‘a fhort time before or a fhort time after the invention of rinting, which laft is afferted by Wetttein, in oppofition to hail, is a matter of Jittke importance. It is — to ate even, alternately branched. BUN have been written by George of Sparta, who was fent onan embafly to England by Pope Sixtus IV. in 1476. It has not the ancient «zac, but the modern chapters, which are found in our printed bibles. Michaelis’s Int, to the New Teftament by Marfh, vol, ii. and in, BUNNAS, in Geography, a river of Hindooftan, which runs into the Jefful; 25 miles S.E. of Oudipour. BUNNICK, Joun Van, in Biography, a painter of hif- tory and portrait, was born at Utrecht in 1654, and under the inftruétion of Herman Sachtleven, became a confider- able artift. Having for fome time affociated with Gerard Hoet in the exercife of his art, he determined to improve himfelf at Rame ; and there became acquainted with Carlo Maratti, and Abraham Genoels, from whofe works and converfation he derived great benefit. Intending to return home, he was detained by the duke of Modena, who en- gaged his fervice by the grant of an honourable penfion, and retained him in his court for eight years. He defigned well, difpofed his figures with elegance and propriety, and was correct in his outline. He died in 1727. His brother and difciple, Jacob Van Bunnif, became an excellent mafter, and diftinguifhed himfelf by painting battles. His fubjects were different from thofe of his bro- ther, but in the manner of his handling and colouring he refembled him entirely. He died in 1725. Pilkington. BUNNOO, or Banou, in Geography, a town of Cabul, fituate between the mountains of Sindia Battch, which lie fouth of Paifhawur and the river Cophenes, or Cow river, or the great river of Bungufh, which is formed by the waters of Ghizni and Gurdaiz, and pafling by Nughz and Bunnoo, difcharges itfelf into the Indus or Sindé, at Dein- kote. N. lat. 33°. E. long. 70° 2o!. BUNNUEL, a town of Spain in Navarre, feated on the Ebro; 7 leagues from Tudela. ~ BUNOLA, a fmall town in the ifland of Majorca. BUNOWEN, a village on the coaft of Connemara, in the weftern part of the county of Galway, Ireland, which gives name to a bay, in which {mall veffels may ride in the fum- mer time, or in moderate weather, the ground holding well, and the water from 2 to 24 fathoms. N. lat. 53° 24’. W. long. 10° 8’. BUNRATTY, a barony in the county of Clare, Ireland, which derives its name from the old caitle of Bunratty, or Bonratti, which was built near the mouth of the {mall river Gearna, that flows into the Shannon, and was confidered a fortrefs of great ftrength and importance. It was built by Thomas de Clare in 1277 for the protection of the Englifh fettlers; and was afterwards the occafional refidence of the earls of Thomond. - Being taken poffeflion of by the adhe- rents of the parliament in 1646, it was befieged by the Infh under lord Mufkerry, and held out fix weeks. It is about 8 miles weft from Limerick. Hollinfhead. BUNT of a fail, in Sea Language, is the middle part of it, formed into a kind of bag, or pouch, that it may catch and receive the more wind. The bunt is chiefly ufed in topfails, the foremoft leech of which is cut with a neck ; for courfes are for the moft part cut fquare, or at leaft with a {mall allowance for bunt or _compafs, which is the middle part of the foot of fuch fails. They fay, the bunt holds much leeward wind ; that is, it hangs too much to leeward. ’ Seamen all agree, that a bellying or bunting fail carries a veffel fatter tothe windward than a ftraight or faft fail: the contrary of which is afferted by Dr. Hooke, who has a dif- courfe to fhew the preference of ftraight to bunting fails. See Hooke’s Pofthum. Works, p. 563, feq. Bunvr-hines, are {mall lines made fait to the bottom of the BUN fomase fails, in the middle part of the bolt-rope to a crene gle ; and fo are reeved through a {mall block, feized to the yard: their ufe is to trice up the bunt of the fail, for the better furling it up. Bunt-line-cloth, is the lining fewed up the fail, in the direGtion of the bunt-line, to prevent the fails being chafed. BUNTINE, a thin woollen ftuff, of which the colours and fignals of a fhip are ufually made. BUNTING, in Oratthology, the Englifh name of the birds of the Emarriza genus. See Emper1z4.— Bunting is the name applied in common to Emderiza Miliaria. BUNTINGFORD), in Geography, a {mall market-town in the county of Hertford, England. It ftands on the banks of the river Rib, near the {pot where the Roman road called Enning-ttreet croffed it. Edward the third, in the 211t year of his reign, granted to this town the privilege of a yearly market, and a fair. In the 41it year of his reign he further endowed it with a weekly market on Saturdays, and a fair in June. This town is only a chapelry to Lay- fton, where the church is fituated, but the inhabitarts are accommodated with a neat and commodious chapel, which was finifhed in 1626. Herearea free-{chool, an alms-houfe, and other charities. The prefent market day is Monday; but the markets are very inconfiderable. Buntingford is 31 miles north from London, and with the remainder of the parish, contains 163 houfes, and 792 inhabitants, Magna Britannia, vol. ii. 973. BUNTSPECHT, in Ornithology; Frifch has the greater woodpecker, picus major, under this name.—K/einer Bunt- Jpecht is the lefler fpotted woodpecker, picus minor, in the fame author. BUNTZLAU, or Bunzex, in Latin Boleflavia, in Geo- graphy, a town of Silefia, ina circle of the fame name, and in the principality of Jauer. It is feated in a fertile coun- try, on the Bober ; and exports great quantities of its beaue titul brown earthen ware. It was formerly noted for the rich mines in its vicinity, and the Silefian bards have cele- brated the limpid and falubrious waters of the queck-brunn or quick-fpring that lies near it. N.lat. 51° 12’. E. long. U5. 1250's Bunrzvau, A/t, an ancient town of Bohemia, in the cir- cle of Boleflaw, founded by Wratiflaus in 915, but reduced by the troubles of the 15th and 16th centuries to an incon- fiderable place. It is feated on the Elbe, 8 miles S.S.W. of Benatek or Benatky. Bunrziau, Jung, atown of Bohemia, and capital of the circle of Boleflaw, built in 973 by Boleflaw the younger, and ranked in 1600 among the royal boroughs by the em- peror Rudolph. It is feated on the Ifer, 28 miles N.N.E, of Prague. BUNYAN, Jorn, in Biography, a very popular writer among perfons of a particular defcription, fprung from an ob{fcure origin, being the fon of a tinker, and was born at Elftow near Bedford, in 1628. His parents gave him an education fuitable to their condition, and taught him to read and write; but his converfation and conduct in early life were remarkably vicious and profane, though not without fome checks, which indicated very ftrong religious impref- fions. In procefs of time thefe impreffions, revived and cherifhed by the converfation of fome pious women, with whom he accidentally affociated, terminated in a thorough reformation, fo that he became as much diftinguifhed for his piety as he had once been for his profligacy. For feveral years he followed his father’s occupation, and in the exer- cife of it travelled about the country, particularly in the neighbourhood of Bedford. He enlifted as a foldier in the parliament army, and at the fiege of Leicefter in Baan ue BUN life was fingularly preferved by his confenting to give up his place as fentinel to a comrade, whofe head was taken off by a mufket ball. At the time of his marriage, his poverty was fuch, that neither he vor his wife poffelled fo much as a difh or a fpoon; but fhe had, what he deemed of greater value, “ The Plain Man’s Path-way to Heaven,” and ** The Pra&tice of Piety,”? which he was accuftomed to read with her, and which afforded him fingular fatisfaGtion and ad- vantage. Of the firccrity of his converfion he had exhi- bited fuch evidence, that he was admitted in 1655 a mem- ber of a Baptift congregation at Bedford ; and he was fo -fegular an attendant on meetings held for religious pur- pofes, that, foon after the reftoration, he was convi&ted of affociating with others in unlawful affemblics and conventi- cles, fentenccd to perpetual banifhment, but afterwards committed to prifon, where he fupported himfelf and family, during a confinement of twelve years and a half, by making tagged laces, and where he employed part of his time in Sera to and praying with his fellow-prifoners. His ibrary at this time contifted only of the Bible, and the Book of Martyrs; and yet he compofed many of his works, and, particularly, his * Pilgrim’s Progrefs,”? whilft he re- mained in prifen. In the lafl year of his confinement, fuch was the eftimation in which his talents and character were held, that he was unanimoufly chofen paftor of the congrega- tion at Bedford. After his enlargement, for which he was in- debted to the compaffionate interference of Dr. Barlow, bifhop of Lincoln, he travelled into feveral parts of Eng- Jand, for the purpofe of vifiting and confirming perfons of the fame profeffion ; whence he obtained the appellation of Bifhop arya.” Upon the publication of King James II.’s declaration for liberty of confcience, Bunyan was ena- bled, by the veluntary contributions of his friends, to build a meeting-houfe at Bedford, where he conftantly preached to very large congregations. He alfo frequently vilited London, and preached there among the non-conformilts ; but in one of thefe vifits he was feized with a fever, aud died at his lodgings on Snow-hill, Auguft the 3:f, 1688, aged 6o. His remains were interred in the burying ground belonging to the diffenters in Bunhill Fields. His religious fentiments were thofe of the moft rigid Calvinitts, to which he was zealoufly attached ; his piety, though blended with fome degree of enthufiafm, was finccre and uniform ; and his moral condut, after the period of his converfion, was not ovly irreproachable, but exemplary, though his zeal expofed both his principles and charaéter to many unfounded re- proaches and calumnies. As he never enjoyed the advan- tages of a liberal education, his public performances, as a preacher, and bis writings, as an author, indicate very ex- traordinary talents. In his preaching, he fpoke with con- fiderable fluency, though not without fome hefitation; and his minifterial labours were count-nanced by the learned Dr. Joha Oven, who occafionally attended his fermons. Of his numerous works the moft celebrated, both for its compofi- tion and popularity, is his ‘¢ Pilgrim’s Progrefs.”’ This work, which bas pafled through more than fifty editions, and which has been tranflated into various languages, has been admired and applauded by fome of the bef judges: and there are few perfons who have not read it, whatever may be their opinion of the theological fyftem on which it is founded, ail of the terrific ideas which it is adapted to excite in the minds of the young. The allegory is well condu@ed and fuftained ; the characiers that are introduced are juftly drawn; ic abounds with lively defeription, and manifefis the exuberance of invention. Lord Kaimes, {peaking in his ‘* Sketches of the Hiltory of Man,’ (vol. i.) of a 7 and * Robinfon Crufoe,” the great favourites ou, V. BUO of the vulgar, fays, that ‘* they are compofed in a ftyle enlivened, like that of Homer, by a proper mixture of the dramatic and narrative :”? and Bunyan’s genius, difplayed in this performance, has been, perhaps, extravagantly extolled by other writers, among whom we may reckon Mr. Granger, Mr. Merrick, and Dr. Roberts, to whofe fentiments great deference is due. Many of Mr. Bunyan’s other works are of the allegorical or parabolical kind; and though not equally popular with the “ Pilgrim’s Progrels,”’ are much ‘ read by a certain clafs of perfons. The moft confiderable of thefe is the “* Holy War, made by Shaddai upon Dia- bolus.” One of the moft interefting of his works is “ Grace abounding to the Chief of Sinners,’”? containing an account of hisown life. Allhis works were colle@ed toge- ther in 2 vols. folio, London, 1736, 1737: and a new edie tion, more complete than any of the preceding, with cop- per-plates, and a recommendatory preface, by Mr. George oe wes publifhed in 2 vols. folio, in 1767. Biog. rit. BUOMMATTETL, Baxenrcr, an early Italian gramma rian, was born at Florence in 1581, and having entered into the priefthood, cifcharged the duties of his tunGion, and purfued literary ftudies at Rome and Padua, and chiefly in his native city. He was amember of feveral academies,and particularly of thofe of Della Crufea and the Apatilti, where he recited leGtures and difcourfes, many of which have been publithed. But he is principally known by bis two books * On the Tufcan Language,” being the firlt work that deferves the title of a grammar of the Italian language, and ftill popular and highly efteemed. Buommattei died at Florence in 1647. Tiraboichi. Gen. Biog. BUON, in Geography, a town of the kingdom of Naples, aod Principato Ultra; 7 miles E.N.E. of Benevento. BUONACCORDO, a {mail ftringed mufical intrument, refembling a fpinet, ufed by children to learo to play on, be- caufe of the fhortnefs of their fingers. The word is Italian, and properly denotes a harpfi- chord. BUONACCORSI, Puiuir, in Biography, an elegant modern Latin writer, was born of a noble family at S. Gi- mignano, in ‘[ulcany, in 1437, and refiding at Rome in his youth, he was one of the founders of the Roman academy, according to the cultom of which he aflumed the name of ‘* Callimaco,”” adding to it ‘* Efperiente,”’ in allufion to the vic.flitudes of his life. Being fufpe&ted by pope Paul II. of acone-rn in a confpiracy again{t his life, he was under a ne- ceffity of fecuring himfelf by flight ; and having wandered through Greece, Egypt, Cyprus, Rhodes, and other iflands in the Archipelago, Thrace, and Macedonia, he at length took refuge in Poland; where he was introduced to king Cafimir, who made him tutor to his fon Albert, and his owe fecretary. He alfo employed him in feveral embaffies. After the death of Cafimir, he was entrufted by Albert, his fuc- ceflor, with the condué& of all the affairs of his court and kingdom ; and though thefe marks of dittin€tion excited the envy of Albert’s courtiers, and many attempts were made to ruin bim, he retained his fovereign’s favour till his death, which happened at Cracow, in 1496. Calimaco, for fuch was the name by which he is diflinguifhed as a writer, wrote in 3 books the life of Ladiflaus, brother and predeceffor of Cafimir, with an account of the battle of Varna, in which he was killed. He alfo compoled a life of Attila, and a {mall treatife on the attempts of the Venetians to excite the Tartars and Perfians againft the Turks. Thefe pieces, with fome orations and letters, have been publifhed together, and pafled through feveral editions. ‘he ftylein which they are written is elegant and forcible, and in the opinion of Paul 3 4 Giovioy BUO Giovio, no hiftorian fince Tacitus has equalled Buonaccorfi. Many unpubdlifhed works are preferved in the Vatican, and other libraries. Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog. ’ Buonaccorst. See Pirzino pet VaGa. BUONAMICI, Castruccio, was bora at Lucca in 1710, and having entered inro the ecclefiaftical fiate, fought advincement at Rome; but being difappointed in his views, he aflumed a mi itary chara&ter, and engaged in the fervice ofthe king of the two Sicilies. He ftill, however, indulged his tate forthe purfuits of literature. His principal works area relation in Lavin of the warof Velletriin 1745, between the Auftrians and Neapolitans, printed in 1746, under the title of “ De Rebus ad Velitras yreftis Commentarius,”’ 4to.; for which work he was recompen{ed with a penfion by the king of Naples, and the rank of commiflary-general. of Artillery: and “ De Bello Italico Commentarii,”’ 4to. in 3 books, 1750, 17513 containing the hiftory of the weria Italy, for which he was honoured by the duke of Parma with the title of count. Thefe hiflories, equally admired fer ac- curacy of detail, and purity of Latin, have been feveral times re-printed. The author’s treatife ‘* De Scientia Militari,’ remains unpublifhed. He died at Lucca in 1761. Nouv. Did. Hit. Buonamici, Lazzaro, was bern at Baffano in 1479, and educated in the univerfity of Padua, where he gained fuch reputation, that Pomponazzi, his tutor in philofophy, fometimes applied to him for the explanation of a paflage in Ariftotle. From Bologna, where he was employed in the inftru€tion of the young perfons of the Campeggi family, he removed to Rome, and became profeflor of the belles lettres in the college of Sapienza. In 1527, when the city was facked, he loft his library, writings, and all his effeGs, and with difficulty faved his life. At Padua he occupied the chair of Greek and Latin eloquence, to which he was invited in 1530, and in this fituation, where he was highly refpe&ted, and where he had a great concourle of ftudents, he remained, notwithftanding feveral applications made for removing him by univerfitics and fovereign princes, till his death, which happened in 1552. He was borne to his grave on the fhoulders of his {tudents. His writings, confifting of ietters, prefaces, and Latin poems, are few, but they are fufficient to eftablith his charaGer as an elegant writer. Notwith- ftanding his profeffional reputation, he diffipated much of his time in the intercourfes of fociety and in play, to which he was fo much addiGted, that he fometimes devoted whole nights to it. His dread of criticifm might alfo prevent his appearing before the public as an author. A collection of his poems was printed for the firft time at Venice in 1572. Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog. BUONAMICO, of Caitstoruano, called Burrav- MACCO, was a Florentine painter, born in the year1262, and a pupil of Andrea Tafi. He was an artilt of great merit, and by Boccaccio celebrated for his wit and humour (vide Il Deca- merone); and Franco Sacchetti in his ** Tre Cento Novelle,’’ relates a flory of him when he was a boy, which fhews the early bias of his mind ; and as it pourtrays the chara¢ter of the man, it may not be without its intereft. Andrea Tafi was a painter of great induftry, and ufed to rife before it was light to purfue his avocation, confidering the gain more than the honour of his profeffion. Early rifing, unfortu- nately, had no charms for his {cholar, and therefore he devifed a fcheme to make him lie in bed till daylight. At the hour ‘Tafi was about to rife, having previoufly provided himfelf with thirty black beetles, and on their backs faftened {mall pieces of wax taper, he lit them up, and fent them, one by one, through a hole in the door, into his mafter’s bed room; making a proceflion of moving light myfterioufly unintelli- BUO gible; which fo alarmed the old man, that he prayed and recommended his foul to mercy, and hid his face under the bed clothes. In the morning he told Buonamico he had feen ten thonfand devils, and that his thoughts were fo diiturbed he could not rife co purfue his profeflion. On the fuceced- ing night, Buonamico diminifhed the number of the bectles; but the repetition produced the fame effect, and fo frighten- ed his matter, that he determined to remove, being perfuaded the houfe was haunted by evil {pirits. _Buonamico then fent to the parifh prieft that he might adminilter comfort. The prieft came and foothed his mind; and Buonamico availed himfelf of the opportunity to make his obfervatious on the — probable caufe of this perplexing event. He obferved that he had always heard devils were great enemies to God; and cenfequently they mult be fo to all painters, as their practice was to paint faints and angels as perfect as prflible, and endeavour to improve mankind, by fhewing, throug’ all the circumftances of human life, the happinefs of heaven and the torments of hell; befides, whenever fiends were reprefented, they were made as hideous as the painters’ imagination could fuggeft: and as it was well known that devilshad more power by night than by day, they played bim this trick to keep him in bed, that he might not interfere with their re- gion of darknefs: by fuch obfervations, which the prieft thought very plaufible, the old man was perfuaded that.it would be proper to lie in bed till day-light. After a few months, however, as the devils grew fainter in his recollec- tion, Tafi’s induftry returned; but as they had played their part fo well, Buonamico recurred to his former expedient, which produced an effeét not lefs frightful and impreffive, Priefts were again fent for to reftore him to tranquillity, whe agreeing with Buonamico in the probable caufe of this itrange appearance, he determined to paint no more by candle-light ; and this ftory was fo generally circulated and believed, that all the painters in Florence were afterwards afraid to paint at night. eiytons the firft works of Buffalmacco, were a feries of religious pictures reprefenting the life of Chrift, painted ina church at Faenza, and other fubjeés from the Old and New Teftament; among which the maflacre of the Innocents is particularly mentioned by Vafari, where defpair and terror, agony and diltrefs, were forcibly exprefled. Of this work nothing now remains, except the original drawings be in ex- iftence, which the fame author defcribes to have been pre= ferved in his time. He alfo painted in the cloifters of the abbey of Septimus, feveral hiftorical fubje&s relating to St. James, to whom the church was dedicated; and on the ceil. ing he painted the four evangelifts. He painted alfo many hiltorical piétures on the outfide of this building, which were well compofed, and executed with fkill. In thefe pi€tures he employed falt in the purple ufed for the fhade tint of the ficfh, which fo corroded and dettroyed all the other colours, that, in Vafari’s time, nothing remained but the purple ; which premature decay this auchor at firk attribwted to dampnefs, but, upon minute in{peGtion, found it was owing to the falt that was employed. For the monaftery of the Carthufians at Florence he paint- ed upon panel two piétures in diftemper; and for the church of San Giovanni feveral, which were deftroyed when the walls were beaten down in the war of 1529. He executed other works at Cortona and Peruggia, Afc-fe and Arezzo, and painted feveral piCtures in the church of St. Petronio in Bologna. ; In the cathedral of Sienna is a Mofaic pavement, made from his drawings; which at this day is a {pecimen of his abilities in defign and compofition, very honourable to his reputation, Some of his lateft works were executed at Pifa, 7 for BUO for the abbey church of St. Paul, taken from the Old and New Teftament ; and in one of thefe, reprefenting Noah’s ark, he irtroduced his own portrait, which is the only por- trait known of him, and is the fame Vafari introduced into the fecond edition of his ** Lives of the Painters.” Buffalmacco enjoyed confiderable reputation, nor was the age wanting, in affording him opportunity to exert his ta- lents ; yet, from the following anecdote, he appears oczation- ally to have worked at a very low price.” Vafari has re- corded, that he painted awhole length figure of St. Corifo- pher, 12 bracciain height, rearly 23 feer, for 8 florins ; and this fed 1s preferved for the fake of a whimfical circum‘tance that attended the cxecution of it. The picture was ordered by a countryman, end was to occupy a wall in a church at Florence ; when Buffalmacco went te paint, he found the wall only 9 braccia in height: that his employer, therefore, might have his meefure, he printed St. Chriftopher lying upon his back; but unfortunately even in this pofition, the wall did not admit of his whole length ; he then turned up the legs perpendicular to the body, which was fo exceedingly ridiculous, that when the countryman came to fee his faint, he flew in a violent paffion, and demanded his money, de- claring that he was both cheated and infalted, but the incerinfifted that he had executed the commiffion with the ri@eft fidelity, and therefore could neither agree with him, nor comply with his requeft: upon which the countryman brought an ation againit him, and in the refult was not more fuccefsful. This propenfity to make merry with life, made Buffal- macco regardlefs of the means by which its decline is fup- ported ; and at the advanced age of 78 years_he died in ex- treme poverty and diftrefs, fupported in his laft illnefs by the charity of an hofpital, and buried by the company of the Mifericordia. WValart bas written his life in 13 quarto pages, containing little more than general commendation and whimfical anecdotes conne&ted with the exercifé of bis profeffion. BUONAROTI. See Ancexo. BUON-CONVENTO, in Geography. See Boxcon- VENTO. BUONHABITACULO, a town of Naples ; 8 miles N. of Policaftro, BUONTALENTI, Bernarpo, called Giranvore, in Biography, a painter of hiftory and protrait in miniature, acquired corre€tnefs of defign, and the knowledge of colour- ing, from Salvati, Bronzino, and Vafari, and the art of miniature-painting from Julio Clovio. His works were much admired for the beauty of the colouring, and for a certain dignity of expreffion in his Madonnas, as well as in his portraits. Befides his merit as a painter, he was much approved asa flatuary and an architeét. He was born at Florence in 1547, and died in 1608. Pilkington. BUONVICINO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Calabria Citra; 11 miles S.E. of Scalea. BUOY, a {mali \fland on the eaft coaft of Newfoundland, between Ferryland head and harbour. See Broyve. Buoy, in Sea Language, a body floating in water, to thew either the fituation of a thip’s anchor, or a danger, as fands, fhoale, &c. that it may be avoided. Buoys are of various forms, and conftruéted of buoyant materials, as wood, cork, &c. The names of the principal kinds of buoys are can, cafk, or cable, nun, and wooden buoys. A can-bucy is made in the form of acone. This kind is particularly employed in pointing out the extremities or fides of any dangerous bank, fand, &c. A buoy for this purpofe is, therefore, large, that it may be feen at fome confiderable’ -diftance, and is fattesed to an anchor, funk in a proper fitua- BU®P tion, to point out the dancer. When there are feveral buoys on the fame {and or fhoal, they are generally painted of different colours, to prevent miftake, as black, white, and red ; thislaft colour is that which is beft perceived, for a white buoy is not eafily obferved in broken water, and in many cafes a black painted buoy is very indiftinét. In going through a narrow chanrel, in place of having buoys on one fide only, there are fometimes buoys on one fide and beacons on the other; but as thefe laft are more eafily broke down by the violence of the waves, buoys may, therefore, be p'eced on each fide; and to prevent miltake, thofe on the one fide fhould be can-buoys, and céfk-buoys on the other fide. For this purpofe it has been propofed, in going in to all ports, to have can-buoys on the ftarboard hand, and cafk-buoys placed on the larboard hand; which varieties, experience has fhewn, may be perceived at a confiderable diftance. For the can-buoy, in confequence of its broad heavy end, fwims chiefly on its fide; while the cafk-buoy, being much narrower and lighter at this upper ecd, {wims more upright, and higher out of the water. Cafk-buoys are any common c2fks ufed for buoys. When calks are employed to float, or buoy up the cable in different places to prevent it from being injured by rocks, &c. at the bottom, they are called cable bucys. Nun-buoys are in form of the middle fruftum of two cones, abutt'‘ng upon a common bale, being cafks, which are large in the middle, and tapering greatly towards each end Wooden-buoys are folid pieces of timber, being in form either of a cylinder, or nun-buoy. They are furnifhed with one or two holes, in which to fix a fhort piece of rope, whofe two euds being fpliced together, make a fort of circle or ring called a frop. Thefe feveral buoys are reprefented in the Plates of /hips. Buoy rope, the rope that conne&s the buoy with the anchor. The length of this rope fhould be very little more than equal to the depth of the water where the anchor is to lic, that the buoy may thereby float, as neariy as poffi- ble, immediately above the anchor, and confequently point out its Gtuation. The buoy rope is ufeful in weighing the anchor, either by means of a boat, or when the cable is broke or run out ; and, therefore, it fhould always be of a fufficient flreng’h for this purpofe, otherwife the anchor may be loft. See Plate of /hips. : Buoy, Slings of the, the ropes which are faftened about it, and by which it is hung. ‘They are curioufly {pliced round the buoy, fomewhat refembling the braces of a drum. Buoy, to fiream the, is to let it fall from the fhip’s fide into the water. This is always done before the anchor is let go, that it may not be retarded by the buoy rope, in its defcent to the bottom. Buoy of the Nore, is fituated about N.E. from Sheernefs fort, on the N.W. point of the ifle of Sheppey, the ecft entrance into Chatham river, or the Medway; and it is at the extreme point of a fond, which runs E.N.E. from the ifland of Grain, or welt entrance cf the Medway. BUOYANT, denotes a thing floating, or apt to float. BUPALUS, in Biography, a celebrated {culptor, de~ {cended from a line of ancettors of the fame profeffion, was a native of Chios, and flourifhed in the Goth olympiad, or 540 years B.C. His brother Athenis was aifo of the fame profeffion. They worked only in the white marble of the ifle of Paros, and executed feveral ftatues at Rome. They were contemporaries with //ipponax, a poct of a de- formed and contemptible figure, whom, for their diverfion. 3X2 they BU? they reprefented under a ridiculous form. The poet re- venged himfelf by writing againtt them a fharp fatire, which, as fome fay, caufed them to hang themfelves. But Pliny fays, on the contrary, that after Hipponax had taken hia revenge, they made feveral very fine ftatues, and particu- larly one of a Diana at Chios, which was placed at a great height, and exhibited a frowning countenance to thofe who entered, and a pleafant one to thofe that departed. Paufa- nias (I. iv. c. 30. p. 355. and L.ix. c. 35.p. 781. ed. Kuhnit) mentions Bupalus as a good architect as well as fculptor. BUPARIA, in L£ntomology, a {pecies of Pimeria of the winged kind; black, and glabrous; thorax lunated ; jaws ftrong, toothed, and as long as the head. Gmel. Obf. This is defcribed by Forfter under the name of Te- NEBRIO Buparius. It inhabits Spain. BUPARITI, in Botany, Rheed. Mal. populeus. BUPHAGA, in Ornithology, a genus in the order Picz, of which only a fingle {pecies has been hitherto difcovered ; and which, being a native of Africa, has received the name of Africana. The generic definition confilts in hav- ing the bill {traight, and fomewhat quadrangular ; mandibles gibbcus, cntire, and more gibbous on the outfide. Legs formed for walking. Linnzus and Briffon have given this bird the name of Buphaga, and Buffon that of Pic-beeuf, from whence the epithet of beef-eater is derived. Trench authors of the pre- fent day write it Picque Beuf. All thefe names refer to a peculiarity of the African Baphaga, which fometimes alights upon the backs of the cattle, and picks holes in them, in order to get at the larve of the ceri, or gad-flies, depofited by thofe tormenting creatures in the ficfh, direétly below the fkin. The f{pecies Africana is between eight and nine inches in length. The prevailing colour of the plumage above is brown ; beneath, and alfo the rump, yellowifh. Bill {carcely an inch in length. ‘Tail cuneated, and confilting of pointed feathers. Legs and claws black. BUPHAGIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ar- cadia, fituate in the weltern part of it, fouth of 'Teiphufa. It derived its name from that of the hero Buphagus, the fon of Japetus and Thornax, who was flain on the moun- tain Pholoe, for daring to offer infult to Diana. Paufanias, ], vili.c. 27. p.658. Ed. Kuhnii. BUPHAGUS,a river of Arcadia, which took its rife near Buphagium, and difcharged itfelf in the river Alpheus, Paufanias. BUPHONIA, from $s;, ox, and Qw»n, flaughter, in An- tiguity, an Athenian feaft or ceremony, denominated from a builock flain therein with quaint formalities. The buphonia was properly a part or appendage of the ceremony of DIiPOLIA. For the origin of the buphonia we are told it was forbid- den by the laws of Attica to ki'lan ox: but it once hap- pened, atthe fealt of the diipolia, that an ox eat the corn, others fay the cakes, which had been dreffed for the facri- fice. Thaulon the priett enraged at this, prefently killed him, and fled for it. On which the Athenians, fearing the refentment of the gods, and feigning themfelves ignorant who had committed the fa@, brought the bloody axe before the judges, where it was folemnly arraigned, tried, found guilty, and condemned. And, in memory of this event, a fealt was inftituted under the denomination of duphonia; in which it was ftill cuftomary for the prieft to fly, and judzment to be given about the flaughter of the ox. BUPHTHALMUM, in Botany, (from fous, bull, and e@baruo: eye) Linn. gen, 977. Schreb. 1321, Jul. 186, See Hisiscus BUP Gert. 1006. Vent. vol. ii, 521. (Alterifeus and Atle. roides, Tournef.) La Marck Illuft. Pl. 682. order, fyngenefia polygamia fuperflua. Nat. Ord. Site, Linn. Corymbifere, Jufl. Gen. Char. Cal. common, imbricated with a double or triple feries of fcales, in fome fpecies all equal and fhorter than the ray of the flower; in others, the outer feries longer and exceeding the ray. Cor. compound, radiate; florets of the dife numerous, funnel-fhaped, with a five-parted rather {preading border ; of the ray more than ten, ligulate, {preading, three-toothed. Stam. filaments five, capiliary, very fhort ; anthers cylindrical, united into a tube. Pi/?. of the dife. Germ ovate, compreifed; fiyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens; ftigma, thickifh, either fimple or bifid. Of the ray, germ ancipital ; ftyle thread-fhaped ; ftigmas two, oblong. eric. commor, the calyx unchanged. Seeds of the dife oblong ; of the ray compreffed, with tharp edges ; both crowned either with a toothed, or gafhed, and almott leafy margin. Receptacle chaffy, convex. Eff, Char. Receptacle chaffy. Seeds crowned with a toothed or gafhed margin ; with fharp edges, particularly in the ray. Species 1. B. frutefcens. Linn. ‘* Leaves oppofite, lar- ceolate ; petioles two-toothed ; flem fhrubby.’? A fmail fhrub about four feet high. Stem {traight, jointed. Bark greyith. Branches buthy. Leaves oppotite, oblong, broader towards their fummit, narrowed into a petiole towards their bafe, counate like thofe of Lychnis, glaucous ; covered with a very clofe, fhort down, and marked with three longitudinal nerves. J/owers yellow, terminal, folitary, peduncled. Calyx-fcales oval, alittle tomentous. Semi florets rather broad, fhort, and toothed. Chaff terminated by a fharp point. La Marck, from a living plant. A native of the Welt-Indies and Virginia. Cultivated in the royal garden at Hampton Court in 1699. 2. B. Peruvianum. La Marck Encyc. ‘ Leaves linear-lanceolate, filky, obfeurely toothed about the middle ; ftem fhrubby.’”’ Similar to the preceding: but {mailer, and of a more filvery appearance. eaves nar- rower, and without teeth at their bafe. Flowers yellow, terminal, folitary. Calyx-fcales ovate ; femi-florets fearcely extending beyond the calyx. La Marck, from a living plant. Found by Dombeyin Peru. 3. B. arborefcens. Dill. Elt. Tab. 38. fig. 43. Pium. [p. tab. 106. f. 2. ‘* Leaves oppolite, lanceolate, without teeth, thick, green.’? La Marck. An ever-green fhrub. Stems two or three feet high. eaves oppotite, connate, lanceolate, narrowed at their bafe, very entire, entirely green and glofly. _ Mowers yellow, terminal, folitary ; femi-florets fhort ; calyx-fcales, large and {mooth. La Marck, froma living plant. 4. B. repens. Linn. Hort. Clif. 4.4 (Verbefina mutica fpec. plant. ? but not Chryfanthemum humile of Plumier) ¢‘ Leaves oppo- fite, fcffile, three-lobed ; ftem creeping.”? Stem jointed, producing at its joints {mall fibrous roots, and ftraight, leafy, flower bearing branches. eaves oppolite, feflile, broad toward their fummit, irregularly toothed, with three fharp pointed lobes. FYoqwers yellow, folitary, terminal. La Marck. Nativeof South America. 5. B. durum. Linn. ‘© Leaves alternate, lanceolate, very entire ; {tem fomewhat fhrubby.’? Roof perennial. Stem a little woody, branched near the top. Leaves alternate, oblong, entire, narrowed at their bafe, a little broader towards the fummit, and ter- minated by a fhort point. Flowers terminal, folitary. Calyx-leaves rather large. La Marck. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 6. B. fericeum. Linn. Jun. Sup. «© Leaves oppofite, crowded, fpatulate oblong, filky ; calyx-fcales briftle-fhaped, fhaggy ; ftem woody.”? Branches thick, woody, covered with the marks of former leaves. Leaves Compo- Clafs and’ —: BUPHTHALMUM. Leaves on the fmaller branches, very entire, clothed with a white, clofe, and very foft pile. Flowers terminal, large, yellow. Lower calyx-feales longer, linear. Linn. Jun. Gathered by Maffon in the ifland of Teneriffe. 7. B. /pe- eiofiffimum. Lion. Mant. « Leavesalternate, embracing the ftem, ovate, nak-d, ferrated, fomewhat ciliate; {tem one- flowered”? Root perennial, fpindle-fhaped. Stem two feet high, fmooth, and even, marked with very fine white lines. Leaves alternate, acute, fomewhat heart-fhaped, compact, reticulated with veins; petioles dilated at the bafe, fome- what membranaceous. Calyx common imbricated with ob- tufe, ovate, largeleaflets. Fiurets of the ray folded, two or three toothed, ycllow; of the dife four-parted, erc@t, pedicelled. Stamens of the dife four, brown, without a germ. Germ of the ray ovate. Seed of the dife none ; of the ray ovate, membranaceons. Receptacle hemi(pkerical. Zcega. quoted by Linneus. Linnzus places this fpecics under Buphthalmum, but doubts whether it is not rather a Silphiur. From Zoega’s ecfcription it clearly belongs to the order polygamia neceflaria. A native of the mountains about Brixen in the Tyrol. §. B. grandifforum. Linn. La Marck, Tiloft. Pl. €82. Sg. 1. ‘* Lezves alternate, lanceolate, fomewhat toothed, fmooth, calyxes neked, ftem herbacéous.” Root perennial. Stems numerous, growing in tuts, gene- rally fimpl-, about a foot andahalf high. Leaves alter- nate, linear-lanccolate, fharp-pointed, f{mooch, flizhtly toothed. Flowers yellow, large, about two inches in dia- meter, terminal. Ca/yx rather fhort: compofed of two rows of narrow-pointed leaflers. La Marck, froma living plant. 9. B. faiicifolium. Linn. (Gert. Tab. 169. f. 1. copied by La Marck Il). Pl. 652.) -* Leaves alternate, lanceolate, fome- what ferrated, pubefcent, calyxes naked: ftem herbaceous.” Root perennial. Stema foot and a half high, ftraight, cy- lindrical, pubcfcent, reddifh, divided at its fummit into two or three fhort branches. Leaves embracing the ttem. Flowers large, ycllow, terminal, folitary, femi-florets very narrow. La Marck, from a dried fpecimen. Receptacle flightly con- vex ; chaff the length of the calyx, broader upwards, xeeled, toothed, the keel extended intoa fhort, flexible arm. Seeds of the dife {maller, oblong, narrow, three or four-cornered, a little comprefled, ftraight ; of the ray, larger, incurved, three-fided, drawn out at the fides into a kind of wing; in both, truncate at the top, and crowned with a toothed rim. The rim of the feeds of the difc is fometimes fo deep- PA gafhed, as to appear compofed of feveral chaffy briftle- aped leaflets. Gert. A native of the South of France, Auftria, Switzerland, and Lufatia, allied to the preceding, to which Gouan joins it, but differs in being abundantiy pubefcent, and having narrower femi-florets. 10. B. helian- theides. Linn. (G. Heretier. Stirp. nov. Tab. 45. Helianthus levis. Lin. fpec. 1278. Silphium Solidaginoides. Linn. fpec. 1302. Rudbeckia oppofitifolia, Linn. fpec. 1280. ) « Leaves oppofite, ovate, ferrated, triply-nerved ; calyxes leafy ; ftem herbaceoos.’? Root perennial, whitifh, branched, fragrant. Stems feveral, two yards high, up- right, branched at the top, naked at the bafe, round, the thicknefs of a quill, of a fea green colour; branches oppo- fite, ftiff like the ftem. Leaves remote, acuminate, ferrated about the middle, decurrent, veined, and wrinkled, flat, reclining, four inches long, two and a half broad. Pe- tioles {preading, embracing the ftem with a kind of ring, round on one fide, channelled on the other, edged at the top by the leaf running along them. FYowers terminating, yellow, from two to three inches broad ; peduncles com- monly three, accompanying the uppermoft leavee, itiff, very long, one-flowered, obfcurely angular, thickened at the top, fiftulous, fometimes with one or two linear fharp braétés. Common calyx concave, {preading, pubefcent; fcales 4 lanceolate, acute, a little ferrated ; thofe of the inner row fpreading, and reflexed at the tip: thofe of the outer row few, twice the length cf the other, and a little hanging down. Fiorets in the difc numerous, with a fharp, revolute border; in the ray about twelve, lanceolate, retufe, two- furrowed above, two-nerved beneath, fpreading very wide, twice or three times the length of the calyx. Germ in the dife oblong, four-cornered and truncate; in the ray three- cornered. Sveds without any pappis cr down, except the rim, which is fcarcely thickened. Receptacle conical ; chaff membranacecus, linear, acute, channelled-concave. This plant has the generic character of buphthalmum, the calyx of filph'um or radbeckia, and the habit of helianthus. Hence it hes inadvertently been given by Linnzus under four different names. L?Heretier. A native of North Ame- rica, whence it was fent by Catefby to the botanic garden at Chelfea, but is faid by Forfter to be found wild every where wichia the tropics. La Marck deferibes a plant une der the fame fpecific name, brought from South America, cultivated in the royal garden at Paris, which does not cor- refpond with the above defcription, and with fome doubt whether it be that intended by Linnwus. Its ems are her- baceous, feeble, not much more than a foot high, growing inloofe tu‘ts. Its /eaves petioled, generally oppofite, ovate, a little potated, obtulely dentate, green, almolt fmooth, and fearcely an inch broad. Flowers yellow, rather f{mall, folitary, peduncled and terminal. Calyx of two rows of oblong feales, thofe in one row riot longer than thofe in the other. ‘he juice of the plant» is a little cauttic. rr. B. Spinofum, Lion. (La Marck, Pl. 682. fig. 2). “ Calyxes acutely leaved , leaves alternate, lanceolate, embracing the ftem, very entire; ftem herbaceous.” Roof annual. Stem a foot and half high, ftiff, hairy, with two or three alter- nate branches at the top. Root-/eaves long, {preading, broader and almoft obtufe at their fummit, narrowed at their bafe. Sem leaves lanceolate, hairy. External calyx-leaves very long, three-nerved, ending in a fpine, {pread open im- mediately under the flower hke the points of a ftar. Flowers yellow, folitary, terminal; femi-florets very narrow. La Marck, froma living plant. A native of Languedoc, Spain, andItaly. 12. B. aguaticum. Linn. (Gert. Tab. 169. co- pied in La Marck, Tilult. Pl. 682. fy. 4.) “ Calyxes obtufe- ly-leaved, feffile, axillary; leaves alternate, oblong, obtufe ; ftem herbaceous.” Root annual, white, fibrous. Stem about a foot high, much branched, cylindrical, pubefcent. Leaves alternate, feffile, oblong, obtufe, hairy. Flowers yellow, rather {mall; fome feffile and axillary, others terminating: > femi-florets broader and fhorter than thofe of the preceding» fpecies. Outer calyx leaves obtule, foft, forming a kind of involucre to the flower. Ja Marck, from a living plant. Calyx leafy at the bafe. Seeds comprefled, bay coloured, hifpid, with whitifh briftles, nearly uniform; thofe of the dife {maller, ovate, acuminate downwards ; thofe of the ray larger, trianpular-wedge-fhaped, much compreffed at the fides, and almoft winged ; both of them crowned with a many-leaved pappus, the leaflets of which are membrana- ceous, acuminate, ciliate-toothed, half the length of the feed. Gert. A native of the fouth of France, Portugal, and the Ifle of Candia. 13. B. maritimum. Linn, (La Marck, Pl. 682. fig. 5.) ‘ Calyxes obtufely leafy, pedun- cled ; leaves alternate, fpatula-fhaped; {lem herbaceous.’” Root perennial. Stems numerous, fix or feven inches high, hairy, branched. eaves long, obtufe, very narrow at their bale, hairy. Lowers yellow, rather large, folitary, termi- nal. L£xternal calyx-leaves refembling thofe of the flem. Native of Sicily and the fouthern parts of Trance. La Marck. 14. B. oleraceum, Martyn’s Miller,‘ Calyeine leaflets acute, conneéted laterally ; leaves oppofite, Janceo- late, B Usp late, curved back.’? Stem herbaceous, two feet high, up- right, round, whitifh, fmooth, branched. eaves linear- lanc-olate, unequally toothed, {moorh, juicy, thick, afh- coloured. Flower large, folitary. Calyx hemifpherical, with fharp leaflets, conneted by a lateral membrane. Dife of the corolla flat, with yellow florets; ray wide, {preading, with many white trifid florets. Receptacle flattifh, with very {mall chaff; crown of the feeds margined, Stigma in the florets of the dife imple. Lour, Cochin. It is an odorous plant, and cultivatedin the gardens of China as a pot-herb. Forfterin Flor. Auftral. names two other fpecies ; B. uniflorum, found in Norfolk Ifland ; and B. procumbens, found in the Friendly Iflands. Of Jufficu doubts whether the frutefcent {pecies, with oppofite leavcs, fhould be placed in the fame genus with thole that are herbaceous and have alrernate leaves. And Gertner is of opinion, that if the feed in all the Afterifci of Tournefort, be not merely margined, but leafy, they ought to forma feparate genus. Propagation and Culture. The firlt two {pecies can be pro- pagated in this country, only by cuttings, which fhould be taken off in-July when the plants have for fome time been expofed to the open air; planted in {mall pots filled with light loamy earth, and plunged into a hot-bed ofa very gentle warmth ; fhaded from the heat of the fun, and occa- fionally refrefhed with a fmall quantity of water. In about fix wecks they may be gradually inured to the open air, and foon after fhould be tranfplanted into frefh pots: when they have taken root, they may remain ina fheltered fituation till the middle of O&ober, and fhould then be removed into the green-houfe. The firft fort is hardier than the other. The feeds of /pino/um and aguaticum may be fown on open borders, either inthe beginning of April, or, which is better, in Autumn, and will require no other care. The maritimum is eafily propagated by flips during the fummer feafon, and requires the fame treatment as the firft and fecond, but will thrive better in a common frame, {creened from froft, than in a green-houfe. The /alicifolium, grandiflorum, and helianthoides, may be propagated by part- ing the roots towards the end of Ofober. BurextTHatmumM canarienfe leucanthemum, Pluk. See CurysaANTHEMUM /fruté/cens. BurxtTHatmum /anuginofum, C. Bauh. See Anacycius valentinus. Bueuruatmum cotule folio, and flore luteo, 2.3. C. Bauh. ; tenuifolium, J Bauh.; creticum, Breyn.; alterum pe- ne, Valch.; flore purpurafcente, Cam. ; and narbonenfes hus. See ANTHEMIS Valentina. BureutHatmum, Linn, Hort. Clif. 414. Flor. Suec. 698. alpinum triumf. See ANTHEMIS ¢indoria. ; Burutuatmum, Linn, Hort. Clif.415.See AmeLLus lychnitis. BuratTHALMuM, Linn. Sp. Pl. Ed. 2. prolifera. Burutuaumum hirfutum, Brown Jam. 321. See Sit- PHIUM érilobatum. BUPLEURARIA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Pua- LENA, (Geometra.) The wings are dentated, green, with a white ftreak, and afmaller one of the fame colour; mar- gin dotted with brown. Fabr. This inhabits Europe. Knock defcribes it under the name of Phalena fe/quiftriata. } BUPLEURIFOLIA, 1n Botany, Pluk. See Corym- _ Brum fcabrum. BUPLEURIOIDES, Walth. See Puyuuis nodla. BUPLEURUM, (from fovs and aA:vpov, bovis cofta, the rib or fide of an ox, alluding, as explained by profeffor Martyn, to a fuppofed ill quality of burfting kine that feed See OEDERA BruseP upon it; but this explanation is better fuited to the etyma. logy of Berpisss, from @s¢ and spx$z, to inflame, a name given by the Greeks, not only to an infe& of the cantharis kind, bet alfo toa plant noxious to cattle, which has been fuppofed to be the fame with the bupleurum of Nicander, Pliny, and other ancient writers. Ventenat, with greater probability, is of opinion, that the name bupleurum alludes to the ftiffnefs, (roideur) of the leaves of feveral {pecies of this genus. The fame derivation was intimated long ago by Dodonzus, who, {peaking of the probable identity of the plant, now called bupleurum, with the ancient one, fays, ‘* nec peffime quadrare nomenclature et effigiature vi- detur: foliis namque longis—multis ftriis lirifve rigidis, quafi coftas in foilis fingulis effizgiantibus, et laterum modo inclufis, ut de heptapleuro loquitur Plinius-)’? Linn. gen. 328, Schr. 460. Gert. 144. Jui. 224. Willd. 523. Gen. Ch. Cal, Umbel univerfal, with fewer than ten rays; partial with fcarcely ten, eret-expanding. Jnvolucre univerlal, either of many leaves, or from three to five, or none; partial of feveral broad leaves, either diftin or all united at the bottom ; ferianth proper, obfolete. Cor. uni- verfal, uniform ; flore's all fertile, proper, petals five, invo- lute, entire, very fhort. Svam. five, fimple, anthers rounds ih. Pifi. Germ inferior. Styles two, reflexed, {mall; /ig- mas very fmall. Peric. none. Fruit roundifh, compreifed, {plitting in two. Sveds two, ovate-oblong, convex on one fide, flat on the other. O4/. In moft of the fpecies, the partial involucres are {pecious, often longer than the co rolla. Effen. Char. Leaves of the partial involucre broad, fpreade ing. Fruit ovate, gibbous, {mall, not crowned at the top. Spec. * Herbaceous. 1. B. rotundifolium. Lion. Hudf. rrr. With. 267. Smith 124. (Perfoliata C. Bauh. &c.) Gert. Tab. 22. f. 7. La Marck, Illuft. Pl. 189. Eng. Bot. 99. Thorough-wax. ‘ Univerfal involucres none, leaves perfoliate.” Linn. Root annual, f{mall, and fibrous; whole plant rigid and fmooth, Stem ere&t, alternately branched, round, leafy, perfoliate. Leaves alternate, ovate, acute, very entire, fomewhat glaucous, nerved. Umbels axe illary and terminal, folitary, on long peduncles, fix or feven rayed, entirely deftitute of an univerfal involucre; little umbels of about eight flowers; partial involucres of five, ovate, acute, unequal leaves, longer than the flowers Flowers yellow, on fhort peduncles, Dr. Smith, and La- Marck. Fruit fmall, ovate, ftriated, gibbous, black. Seeds ovate-oblong, gibbous, terminated at the top by a very narrow, reddifh brown difc; marked on the convex fide with thirteen elevated, linear ftriz or ftreaks; on the flat fide witha fimple furrow. Gert. It derives its Englifh name from its perfoliate leaves, or, as profeflor Martyn ac- cvrately exprefles it, from the fingular circumftance of the flalk waxing or growing through the leaf, by which it may be diftinguifhed from all our other indigenous p!ante. Like the fanicle, it has the reputation of being a vulnerary ; but this, fays Dr. Smith, (Eng. Bot.) is a quality which no medicine can have, any otherwife than as a tonic, ftrength- ening the conftitution ; nor can ‘any external application be {pecifically healing or confolidating, or be ufeful in any other way than as a defence from the air. La Marck {peaks of it as an aftringent, and fays that it is ufed as a cataplafm in umbilical ruptures; but in this cafe, its operation can be only mechanical. A native of moft parts of Europe, chiefly onacalcareous foil, but not very common in England. Martyn intimates, that it is peculiar to the fouthern coun- ties, and fays, that he has never obferved it, except among wheat. We have occafionally found it in the neighboure hood of Leeds, but always among beans. 2. B. opi inne OE BUPLEURUM. Lien. (Tourn. 10, Ital. Helv. 97, Tab. 38.) « Leaves of the partial involucres united ; untverfal involucre of three Jeaves.”? Root perennicl. Stem about a foot high, rotnd, almoft naked, often fimple. Reot-leaves very long, fmooth and grafs like. Univer/al umbel loofe, of five or fix rays. Univerfal involucre of one, two, or three lanceolate leaves. Partiai involucre of one leaf, flightly cut at the edge into eight or nine fegments, furrounding the flowers in the form ef acup, or bain. La Marck and Martyn. A native of the Alps of Switzerland, and Dauphiné, introduced into England in 1775 by Dr, Pitcairn and Dr. Fothergill. 3. B petreum, Linn. and Willd. ‘* Partial involucres writed ; univerfai involucre of five leaves.” Lion. ‘* Little invo- lucres of about five united leaves ; univerfal involucre of five leaves; ftem leaves heart-fhap:d-lanceolate, embracing the flem ; redical leaves linear.”? Wili'd. Radical leaves linear, {effile. Leaves of the univerfal involucre five, equal, rather broad; cf the partial involucres five, united as far as the middie, Linn. A native of the Alps of Switzerland. Ac- cerding to Villars this is only a variety of the preceding. 4. B. graminifolium, Willd. (B. petreum, Jacq. Collec. 1. p- 209. leon. rar... t. 56. Vill. delph. 2. p. 576. t- 14. Allion. Au@. p. 24. La Marck, Flor. Franc. ggo. 10. Encye. vol. i. 517. Martyn in Miller; defcription but not the f{pecific charaGter nor all the fynonyms. Sedum pe- treum bupleuri folio, Pon. bald. 247. B. alpinum, Seguier Veron, 2. p. 15. 3- p. 221.) ‘* Root-leaves long, very nar- row, grafs-like ; partial involucres diftin&, general one of about five leaves.” La Marck. Root perennial, long, thick toward the top. Root-/leaves numerous, five or fix inches long. Stem ebout eight inches high, round, fimple and leaflefs, or having a fingle branch near the top, with one leaf at the bafe, and an umbel of flowers at the end, {maller than that which terminates the ftem. Unmlel loofe, of fix or feven rays. Univerfal iuvolucre of three or five leaves; tial involuere of five, fix or feven fmall, lanceolate, nerved, very diftinét leaves. A native of the mountains of Dau- phiny, Provence, and Switzerland. 5. B. angulofum, Linn. (B. ranunculoides & La Marck.) ‘* Partial involucre five- leaved, orbiculate, general invelucre three-leaved, ovate : leaves embracing the flem, heart-fhaped-lanceolate.””. Nearly allied to B. ftellatum, but the leaves of the partial involucre are always ciflinét: it varies in having its leaves very narrow and ftriated, or lanceolate, and not flriated. Linn, The former variety is a native of Switzerland, the latter, of the Pyrenées. 6. B. pyrenaicum, Willd. (B. pyreneum, Gouan and La Marck.) “ Partial involucres roundifh, emarginate, united ; univerfal three-leaved, cut at the bafe; leaves lan- ceolate, heart-fhaped, embracing the ftem.’”? Willd. It differs from B, angulofum in having much broader, lanceo- late, acute leaves, the radical ones narrowed at the bafe; and in the rays of the umbel being fhorter and fewer; as well as in the peculiar fhape of the general and partial invo- lucres expreffed in the {pecific chara¢ter: from b. flellatum which it refembles in habit, in its broader leaves, thofe of the ftem being more numerous and heart-fhaped at the bafe ; and in the number of the divifions of the partial involucres. Wild. A native of the Pyrenées. 7. B. longifolium, Linn. “ Partial involucres five-leaved, ovate ; generai one of about five leaves; leaves embracing the flem.” Root perennial. Rost-leaves narrowed into a petiole at their bafe, and broad towards their fummit. Stem-/eaves ovate, acuminate. Um- bel terminal, compofed of from fix to nine rays. It refembles B. rotundifolium, but differs in its perennial root and longer leaves, Native of mountains in Germany, Switzerland, &c. 8. B. falcatum, Linn. Elare’s-ear. “* Partial involucres five-leaved, acute ; general, commonly five-leaved ; leaves lanceolate; flem zig-zag.” Root perennial. Stem upright, about a foot high, flender, round, flizhtly zig- zeg, much branched, femetimes tinged with purple. Leaves frequently fickle fhaped ; thofe next the root narrowed at their bafe into petioles, ovate-lanceolate, bright green. forooth, a little nerved 5 the cthers almoft linear. Univerfal umbel loofe, {mali, terminal, of about feven rays ; partial, of ten or twelve. Oniverfal inoolucre of frcm two to five, very unequal, lanceolate, fharp leaves; partial, of five lanceolate, regular leaves, the length of the partial umbel. A native‘of dry rocky foil in the fouth of Europe. It has the charaéter of being a vulnerary and febrifuge: La Marek and Martyn. .9-B. caricifolium, Wild. (B. gramineum, Villars) ©“ Partial involucres, five-leaved, fharp ported ; univerfal one-leaved, lanceolate; lexves linear, attenuated at the bafe.”? Root perennial: Radical Jeaves very long, acute; flem-/eaves, the lower ones a little attenuated, the rett feffite. Umbel of five or fix unequal rays longer than the involucre. / Partial involucr2 fiveeleaved, lanceolate, fharp- pointed. Willd. From a dried fpecimen. A native of the fouth of France and Switzerland. 10. B. odontides, Linn. “ Partial involucres. five-leaved, acute; univerlal, three-leaved ; the central floret higher ; branches divari- cated.” Linn. Both involucres five-leaved, ftcilate ; leaflets lanceolate, three-nerved; rays of the umbel very unequal.”? La Marck. Root annual. Stem from three to eight inches high, fomewhat angular, much branched. Leaves linear-lanceolate, narrow, frnooth, feffile. Jnvolucres awned, concealing the umbels. “La Marck and Martyn. Seeds only a quarter the fize of thofe of B. rotundifolium, not ftriated, either flightly wrinkled or entirely plain, ovate- cylindrical, brown or blackith. Gertner. A native of the fouth of Europe. 11. B. femicompofitum, Lion. “ Umbels both compound and fimple.”? Roof annual. Stem fix inches high, furnifhed from iss bafe with alternate, rather divari- cated branches. Leaves oblong, narrowed into petioles at their bafe, broad and obtufe at their fummit, and ending in a particular {mall point. Simple umbels peduncled ; compound, almott feffile. Allied to the preceding, but differing from it conftantly in fuch remarkable chara€ters, that it ought to be regarded as more than a variety. La Marck. A native of the fouth of Europe. 12. B. ranun- culoides, Linn. ‘* Partial involucres, five-leaved, longer ;. univerfal, three-leaved ; {tem-leaves lanceolate.’? Root pe- rennial, creeping. Stem about eight inches high, fimple. Leaves grafs-like, ftiff. Unmbel unequal. Univerfal involucre ovate, acute, fhort ; partial, equal, obovate, acute. Partial umbels {mall, the length of the involucre. La Marck follows Haller in uniting this {pecics with the angulofum, Gouan adds the petrewum, to which Villars objects as far as the fedum petreum bupleuri folio, gathered by Pona on Mount Baldo 1s concerned, the graminifolium of Vake and this dictionary ; but Villars himfelf fufpe&s that the angulofum, and his graminium, which is Willdenow’s and our caricifo- lium, may be only varieties of ranunculoides, A native of Switzerland and the Pyrenées. 13. B. rigidum, Linn. « Stem dichotomous, almoft naked ; involucres very {mall, acute.” Linn. ‘ Stem much branched, panicled, almott naked ; lower leaves petioled, nerved, rigid ; umbels gene- rally of three rays.”?’ La Marck. Root perennial. Stem flender, nearly two feet high. Lower leaves lanceolate- elliptic, with ftrong white nerves; upper-leaves very {mall and diftant. Umbels terminal, of two, three, or four rays. Univerfal involucre of three awl-fhaped, very fhort leaves ; partial, of five. Linn. and La Marck. A native of the fouth of France. 14. B. tenuiffimum, Linn, “ Slender thorough-wax, or lealt bare’s-ear.”’ (Eng. Bot. 478.) «¢ Umbcia BUPLEURUM. «« Umbels fimple, alternate, generally three-flowered ; in- volucres of five awl-fhaped leaves.”” D. Smith. ‘¢ Terminal umbels compound ; lateral, fimple, with few flowers; in- volucres univerfal and partial, fhort.”? La Marck. Root annual, tapering, but little branched. Stem about a foot high, zig-zag, flender, ftiff, {mooth, ereét, with feveral alternate branches. eaves alternate, lanceolate, narrow, pointed, entire, tapering at the bafe. Unmbels axillary, nearly feffile, folitary, generally three flowered ; involucres awl fhaped, longer than the flowers. Dr. Smith. Termi- nating umbels compound, of from three to five rays ; with a general involucre of from three to five fhort, pointed leaves ; Jateral, fimple, and extremely fmall. La Marck. Haller remarks that the umbels can fcarcely be faid to be reaily compound. Jruit {mall, ovate-oblong, tranf- verfely thicker, rounded on each fide, fomewhat emargi- nate. Seeds pentagonal-prifmatic, marked on the convex fide with three acute-angled and diftant ribs ; the intervals a little wrinkled, of a pale or afh colour. A native of Germany, France, Italy, and England. It is found plen- tifully in falt water ditches on the coafts of Norfolk, Suffex, &e. and, as is aflerted by Hudfon, more fparingly inland, about Cambridge and Huntingdon; but profeffor Martyn obferyes, that it has probably been overlooked in many other places ; being a plant of little appearance and almoft loft among the grafs. 15. B. baldenfe, Willd. ‘* Stem ercét, branched ; leaves linear ; univerfal involucres of about four uncqual leaves, fhorter than the umbel; partial involucres five-teaved.”? Rootperennial. Radical Jeaves linear, broader at the bale. Univerfal involucre of three or four leaves, two larger than the others. A native of Croatia, Carniola, and mount Baldo. 16. B. Gerardi, Murray Syft. 274. (B. junceum, Mench. Roth. Pollich. junceum and La Marck.) Ger. Prov. 233. Tab. 9. good. ‘ Stem erect, much branched; leaves linear, acuminate; vuniverfal involucre five-leaved; partial, five-lkaved, linear-awl-fhaped, longer than the umbel.”? Root annual. Stem from fix to nine inches h'gh, flender, fmooth, with ftraight filiform branches. Leaves \inear, grafs-like, clafping the ftem, ending in a very fhort point, marked with three fne nerves. Umbels ou long peduncles, lateral and te:minating. Univerfal in- wolucre four or five-leaved, linear, awl-fhaped, very unequal ; partial, four or five-leaved, near-fetaceous, unequal, longer than the flowers. JVowers nearly feffile. Seeds oblong, {lriated, appearing as if cut off at the tip. A native of Provence and Auttria, 17. B. junceum, Linn. 8 La Marck. « Stem ercét, panicled; leaves linear; univerfal involucre three-leaved ; partial, fve-leaved.”? Roof annual. Stem trom two to three feet high, ttraizht, round, hollow within, branched in the upper part. Unmbels {mall; lateral ones fimple, of one or two flowers ; terminating ones compound, of two or three fhert rays. Univerfal involucre of two or three leaves, awl fhaped and uvequal; partial, of about four linear awl-fhaped leaves. A native of the fouth of France, of Switzerland, Germany, and Italy. 18. B. nudum, Aiton. Kew. ‘* Stem branched, without leaves; root-leaves cecompound, plain, gafhed ; involucres univerfal and partial lanceolate-oblong.”? Root perennial. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. Introduced in 1778, by Dr. P. Ruffel. * Shrubby. 19. B. fruticofum, Linn. ‘* Leaves lanceolate-obovate, very entirc, {eflile.”? Willd. ¢«* Rather obtufe.’? La Marck. An ever-green fhrub, four or five feet high. Stems firaight, branched, bufhy ; bark of the trunk greyith, of the branches, brown or purplifh. eaves alternate, oval- oblong, rather obtufe, with a very {mall point, coriaceous, fmooth, of a glaucous colour. Unmbels terminal. A. native of the fouth of France, Italy, and the Levant. 20. B. arborefcens, Willd. * Leaves oblong, very entire, pe- tioled.””, Thunb. Prod. 50. It differs from the preceding in having petioled leaves, very acutely, not bluntly, pointed at their fummit; and umbels only half as large, on fhort peduncles. 21. B. coriaceum, Martyn and Willd. Ait. Kew. PHeret. Stirp. nov. (arborefcens Jacq. Ic Rar. 2. teb. 351. \ obliquum Vahl. Symb. gibraltericum, La Marck Encyc.) “ Leaves lanceolate, attenuated on both fides, very entire, feffile. Willd. Leaves lanceolate, coriaceous, oblique.” Hort. Kew. Root perennial. Stems from three to four feet high, upright, fparingly branched, round, annulated with the fears left by the fallen leaves. Branches alternate, upright, marked with lines, fiftulous. Leaves alternate, approximating, long, acuminate, a little coriaceous, half embracing the ftem, with a fharp, reflexed point, and one whitifh nerve, glaucous, permanent, five inches long and near an inch broad. Unmdels of about fifteen rays, alternate ; on a common peduncle terminating each branch, with a few leaves on its lower part, a foot and a half long, and not halt the thicknefs of the branch from which it {prings. Univerfal involucre of about eight, oblong, acuminate. flightly convex, reflexed leaves , partial, five-leaved, {maller, ovate. Seeds oblong, rounded on one fide with five wings, flat on the other. he whole plant is very fragrant when rubbed. La Marck and Martyn from |’Heretier. A native of Spain near Gibraltar; found by Maffon, and introduced in 1734. 22. B. fruticefeens, Linn. ‘* Leaves linear; involucres univerfal and partial.’? An under fhrub, about a foot and a half high. Stem woody, divided into feveral knotty, twilted ramifications, with flender, herbaceous twigs. Leaves alternate, linear, glaucous. Umdels {mall, of from three to five rays. Univerfal involucre of three, fhort, pointed leaves. Ia Marck. A native of Spain. 23. B. Jpinofum, Linn. jun. Supp. Old branches of the panicle naked, thorny; leaves linear.”? Root perennial. Svem low, irregular, with divaricated branches. Lcaves acuminate, three-nerved. Univeral umbel terminal, generally of three rays, which change into {pines after the fruétification is completed ; partial, of five rays. Involucres of very {mall leaves, equal in number to the rays. Linn. jun. and La Marck. A ovative of Spain. 24. B. difforme, Linn. ‘* Spring leaves decompound, flat, gafhed ; {ummer leaves filiform, angular, trifid.”? Stem from five to fix feet high, ftraight, a Intle twifted, branched. In. winter, and the beginning of f{pring, it bears two forts of leaves; the firlt {mall, petioled, compofed of three, flat, trifid, gafhed leaflets ref-mbling thofe of parfley; the others longer, flender, filiform, angular, divided balf way down into three filiform fegments, the middle one the longeft, and each terminated by a very fmall point. In fummer the former kind fall off. La Marck. Univerfal involucre of many awl-fhaped, fhriveliing leaves, conneéted at the bafe ; partial, of five leaves. Umibels fome fimple, others compound. Linn. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. Propagation and Culture. The bupleurums in general are cultivated only in botanic gardens. The feed fhould be fown in autumn, where the plants are defigned to remain, for they are injured by tranfplanting. The fruticofum, called by our gardeners fhrubby Ethiopian Hartwort, will thrive in the open air, and is propagated by cuttings planted in pots filled with frefh loamy earth, and fheltered in winter under a hot-bed frame; they will take root in {pring, fhould be placed in a fhady fituation in fummer, and will not be fit to tranfplant till the autumn, The fruticefeens may be treated in the fame manner, but is not fo hardy. The difforme may allo be propagated by cuttings, which said lake BUP take root if planted in April, in pots filled with light earth, and plunged into a moderate hot-bed. They fhou!d afterwards be enured to the open air by degrees, be tranfpianted into feparate pots, placed with other exotics in a theltered fitua- tion till autumn, and then removed into the green-houfe or dry ftove. If propagated from feeds, they fhould be fown in autumn, fhelrered under a frame in winter, removed to a very gentle hot-bed in {pring, and finally treated like thofe railed from cuttings. The fpinofum, nudum and coriaceum may all be propagated by cuttings, and treated as the diforme. They will probably bear the open air in mild feafons, but are not yet fufficiently common to run that hazard. Martyn’s Miller.” Burceurum villofum. Linn. Sp. Pl. and Syft. Nat. See Hearmaas Depauperata. BUPORTHMUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain at the extremity of the peninfula formed by the Argolide, fouth-eait of Peloponnefus. Upon this mountain were two temples, one of Ceres and Proferpine, and another of Mi- nerva. Paufanias. BUPRASIUM, a town of Achaia, at a {mall diftance north of the river Peneus and of the town of Elis, which gave name to a fruitful country in which it was fituated. It did not exift in the time of Strabo.—Alfo, a river of Pelo- onnefus, m the country of Elis. Steph. Byz. BUPRESTIS, in Entomology, a genus of coleopterous infe&ts, diftinguifhed in a peculiar manner for the uncommon brilliancy and highly metallic fplendour of their colours, which emulate the fineft and molt beautifully polifhed me- tals. The infects of this kind have the antennz ferrated, and as long as the thorax; feelers four, which are alfo fili- form, with the laft joint obtufe, or truncated ; head partly retraGted within the thorax. Lionzus, Fabricius and Gmelin defcribe the following fpe- cizs: unidentata, bicolor, gigantea, vittata, faftuofa, punéta- tiffima, berolinenfis, corrufca, decora, lurida, obf{cura, pun@ta- ta, fafciata, rauca, ftriata, ritulans, o@oguttata, ignita, linea- ta, ocellata, aerofa, maculata, maculofa, ftriéta, fternicornis, chrytis, violacea, aegypatica, mariana, farinofa, fulminans, cyanipes, modetia, blanda, aurata, tripunétata, elegans, chry- foltigma, dorfata, impreffa, ornata, taeniata, cayennenfis, cy- lindrica, fcabra, trochilus, decaftigma, ruftica, canaliculata, acuminata, plebeja, tranquebarica, lugubris, cariofa, undata, auftriaca, fibirica, fplendens, fufca, aurulenta, tenebrionis, fafcicularis, variolaris, onopordi, hirta, rubi, deaurata, niti- dula, lxta, falicis, cyanea, difcoidea, bimaculata, quadrima- culata, novem-maculata, triflis, aenea, cuprea, nobilis, barba- rica, umbellatarum, quadripun¢tata, cruciata, manca, pyg- mxa, minuta, meditabunda, viridis, biguttata, atra, elata, ruficollis, feftiva, linearis, granularis, deprefla, calcarata, fuli- ginola, hamorrhoidalis, quercus, hirfuta, 11-maculata, fex- maculata, varicornis, acuta, nevia, pita, inaurata, tatarica, virginica, nana, marginata, nigra, rofacea, ungarica, nebu- lofa, brottia, flephanelli, rugofa, and coccinea, which fee refpectively. A monographia of the bupreftis tribe is expeéted from the pen of Dr. Schreiber of Vienna, which, in all probability, will contain a greater number of fpecies than thofe enume- rated above. Several entirely new fpecies are alfo defcribed by Mr. Donovan in his recent elucidation of the entomolo- gical produGtions of New Holland; the moft remarkable of which are bupreflis grandis, macularia, limbata, futuralis, guttata, and feveral varieties of variabilis, and imperialis, the jaft of which is mentioned by Fabricius. Syft. Eleuth. Some writers affirm that the larva of the bupreltes live in the folid wood, or in the trunks of decayed trees; but this is rather wncertain, fince they do not appear to be exactly 2° Vou. WV. BUR known in that ftate. The conjecture is, however, plaufible, the perfe& infe&ts being almoft conftantly found upon trees, or plants, and flowers. Few fpecies of this beautiful tribe of infe&ts are found in Europe; the largeft and moft brilliant of thofe hitherto difcovered, are from the Brafils, and other hot climates. BUPRESTOIDES, a fpecies of Atrevasus (Spon- dylis), the colour of which is black; fhells nervous; thorax fomewhat globular. Gmel. Fabr. &c. Deferibed as Bu- prefiis ater by Linn. Cerambyx maxillofus, &c. Degeer.Sca- rabeus, &c. Trifch. Buprestorpes, a fpecies of Carasus, of a black co- lour; antennz and feelers ferruginous; legs piceous. Inha- bits the fouth of Europe. Gmel. &c. BUQUOI, in Geography, atown of France, in the depart- ment of the Straits of Calais, and diftri@ of Arras; 5 miles W. of Bapaume. N. lat. yo° 12’. E. long. 2° 40’. BUR-Parfley, in Botany. See Caucauis. Bur-weed. See SpPARGANIUM. BURA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Peloponne- fus, feated on the ridge of a mountain, weft of the river Crathis. It Suffered much from an earthquake in the year 373 B.C. Paufanias mentions feveral fine ftatues of this city ; and particularly thofe of Ceres, Venus, Bacchus, and Lucina. Venus had a temple, in which was placed her marble ftatue, made by Euclid, an Athenian ftatuary. Bura, in Geography, one of the fmaller Orkney iflands, between Pomona and Ronaldfha. : BURACO ¢e velta, in Ichthyology, the name of a fifh caught on the fhores of the Bralils, and more ufually known among authors by its Brafilian name, Guarsi-coara. BURAGRAG, in Geography, a river on the coaft of Barbary, which rifes in mount Atlas and falls into the At- lantic ocean at the town of Sallee. BURAMOS, an idolatrous people of Africa, in Nigritia, on the borders of the river St. Domingo. Their country extends to the mouth of the Rio-Grande. BURANELLDO, in Biography. See Garurrr. BURATTI, or Burars, in Geography, the name of a barbarous and idolatrous nation, which occupies part of Si- beria. They are called Brat/ki by the Ruffians, and among themfelves Barga Buratt. About the time of the Mongo- lian monarchy, or perhaps at an earlier period, they feem to have taken refuge in the wild mountainous region on the north fide of the Baikal, which tliey {till inhabit. The Roffians found this nation in Siberia, when they conquered that country ; and from the year 1644 they have peaceably fubmitted to the Ruffian fupremacy. The whole Burat nation is at-prefent, in confequence of the border treaty, under the dominion of Ruflia, and comprifes numerous heathenifh people in the government of Irkutfk, where it in- habits the region from the Yenifley, along the Mongole- Chinefe borders, on the Angara, Tungufka, and the upper Lena, about the fouthern Baikal, on the Selenga, the Ar- goon, and itsrivers. Several years ago this government was computed to contain 32,000 tributary Burats; but their prefent number is probably four times as large. ‘They are divided into a great number of tribes, called ‘* Kolbondas,” which are fubdivided into cafts, or “ Aimaks,”’ and each Aimak is compofed of a certain number of ‘“ Chottons.” or villages, containing 10 or 20 families. The oldeft of the Chottons governs it, and fix of thefe Chottons are fubjeé to a “ Schulenga,” or judge, chofen from among their chiefs, and confirmed in his office by the governor of the province. Twenty-four Schulengas form a tribe or Kolbonda, which ig commanded by a common chief, feleéted from among the families of their ancient princes. It is bis province to sett ¥ the BUR the obfervance of the laws, to decide difputes, to diminifh or augment the tribes, and to affemble and command the pro- portion of recruits, which are furnifhed by the nation in time of war, till they are united to the main body of the army. Catharine il. with a view of annexing dignity to this chief, gave orders that he fhould wear a girdie orna- mented with filver, on which is inferibed the name of the caft he commands ; and the Buratt has become proud of this decoration, though it is merely a mark of his flavery. Ac- cording to the accounts taken in 1782, this nation forms 65 cafts, containing 33,000 bows or heads of families; and as they {peak the Mongol language, profefs the religion of the Kalmuks, lead a fimilar kind of life, and manage their flocks in the fame manner with the Barfchkirians, it will be fufficient to refer for an account of feveral particulars relating to them tothe articles Basuxirs, Kaumuxs, and Moncots. They have, however, fome cuftoms peculiar to themfelves. They are allowed to marry as many wives as they can afford to purchafe ; and the price of a bride is paid in cattle of differ- ent kinds. A young girl, according to her beauty and character, may, among the rich, receive roo horfes, 20 camels, 50 horned catile, 200 fheep, and 30 goats. When the cattle are delivered, the nuptials are celebrated. For this purpofe they ereét a “ Jurte,” of felt, entirely new, of a white colour, and very neat. ‘The three firft days are {pent in feafting, finging, and dancing ; and on thefe occa- fions the mufical inftrument is a guitar with two ftrings, re- fembling that which the Ruffians call ‘* Balalaika.’ At the expiration of thefe three days, the marriage is confum- mated. When a hufband dies and leaves feveral wives, fhe who has borne him children, or the eldeft of fuch as have had children, becomes the miftrefs of the Jurte. Thole who have had no children, return to their relations on fine horfes, and carry with them the clothes and prefents which they received from the hufband. If they have no place of retirement, they continue in the Jurte, fubordinate to the wife mother, and are entitled to the tenth of the cattle left by the hufband. ‘The Buratti refemble the Kalmuks in out- ward form, with fome flight variations. Their countenance is fallow, and though they are tall, their bodily fruure is feeble, and they feldom attain to an advanced age. They formerly fuffered much from the {mall-pox, but fince an ino- culation hofpital has been inftituted at Irkutfk, the mortality feems to have been much diminifhed. They now frequently inoculate their own children. They are much fubje& to the itch, from their marner of living, food, and clothing. In chronical difeafes they ufe the warm baths on the eaft fide of the Baikal. Their phyficians are the Schamanes, who pretend to heal them more by facritices, incantations, and fpells, than by natural means. They fubfift by the chace and by their flocks. A Bu:at is known to poflefs a thoufand fheep, befides horfes, and other cattle. Their habitations are hexagonal cabins, conftructed with beams laid over one another, to the height of about 3 feet, with an opening formed at the top by iftakes for the difcharge of the {moke. The Burats area principal branch of the Kalmuks, and differ from the Tungyfes only in their language, which is Mongo- lian. Tooke’s View of the Ruffian Empire, vol.i. and ii. Chantreau’s Travels in Ruffia, vol. ii. Eng. ed. BURAZ, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Natolia; 28 miles S. E. of Degnizlu. BURBACH, a town of Hungary, celebrated for its wine; 8 miles E. of Eifenftadt. BURBARUS, in Ichthyology, the name given by Paul Jovius, and fome other writers on fifhes, to the common carp, Cyprinus carpio. BURBAS, ia Commerce, a {mall coin at Algiers, with BUR the arms of the dey ftruck on both fides, worth half an afper. BURBER, an Egyptian piece of money. It is a thick piece of copper, about as broad as a fixpence; twelve of thefe make a medine there. BURBIDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, between Tuda and Turoqua. Anton. Itin. BURBOT, in Jchthyology, the Englith name of gadus Jota, a filk common in the Trent, and fome few other of ourrivers. It is alfo known by the appellation of the eel- pout. This is muflela fluviatilis of two or three old Latin writers. BURCA, among the Turks, the name of the rich covering of the door of the honfe at Mecca; it is ten feet long, and five wide ; and there are feveral figures and Arabic letters: on it, very richly embroidered in gold, on a ground of red and green. This is carried about in their folemn proceffi ns, and is often made to ftop, that the people may touch it. Burca, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa in Mauri- tania Cefarienfis Ptolemy. BURCARDIA, in Botany (from J. H. Burckhard, M. D. who publifhed Charac. Plant. 1702), a genus formed by Scopoli, and adopted by Schreber, for a plant defcribed by Aublet in his account of the plants of Guiana, and called by him Piriqueta, which has been referred by Willdenow and Bofe to the genus Turmera. See Turnera rus ofa. sy URCHANA, or Burcuanis, in Ancient Geographyy an ifland placed by Pliny between the Rhine and the Cimbric promontory. It was reduced by Drufus, who employed for this purpofe all the Roman forces in thofe arts. BURCHARDIA, in Botany. ricana. BURCHAUSEN. See Burkuausen.. BURCHEIM. See Burkeim. BURCHIELLO, in Biography, an Ttalian poet, whofe family name was Domenico, was a native of Florenee, where he exercifed the trade of a barber, and where his fhop: was the ufual rendezvous of the men of letters in that city. He died at Rome in 1448. His poems, which were a fingular kind of burlef{que, abounded with ludicrous expreffions, old proverbs, and various extravagancies, often unintelligible, and frequently low and indecent, but intermixed with flafhes of wit and vivacity, that became very popular, and eftablifhed a kind of ftyle, called the “ Burchelliefque,” which had *feveral imitators. "The pieces of this poet are chiefly fon- nets, of which the firft edition appeared at Bolognain 1475 ; and another edition, with a comment, no lefs hard to be underftood than the original, was given at Venice in Ts 6 3s The Junti at Florence publifhed all his poems in 1552 and 1568. Whatever amufement performances of this kind might afford in a rude age, and in the infancy of poetry, they have funk into obfcurity by the prevalence of good taite and decorum. Mr. Rofcoe, in his ‘* Life of Lorenzo de Medici,”’ informs us, that a fatire of Burchiello in ¢erza. rima, after the manner of Dante, exiits.in MS. in the library of the duke of Tufcany. BURCKERSDORYF, in Geography, a town of Germany>. in the circle of Upper Saxony, and territory of Newftadt 2 miles N.W. of Weyda. BURCUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afiatic Sar- matia, on the banks of which was built the city of Cucunday according to Ptolemy. BURDA, in Geography, a river of Hindoftan, which runs inte the Godavery, 60 miles E. of Neermul. See CaLiticarea Ame- Burpsy BUR Burna, in fome Middle dee Writers, denotes a garment made of rufhes. BURDACK, an Egyptian veffel, which fheep ufually drink out of at Cairo. They are made of a peculiar fort of earth, which is fuppofed to cool the water, and are always fet ont to the north, to keep the cooler, and covered with a ftrainer, to prevent any thing falling into the water; they are of fo porous a ftru€ture, that the water put into them will get through them in a few days. BURDAH, in Geography, a town of Africa, near the river Gambia, in the kingdom of Tomani. BURDALO, a river of Spain, in Eftremadura de Leon, which nifes in the vicinity of Truxillo, and difcharges itfelf into the Guadiana. BURDEGALA, or Burpicava, in Ancient Geography, now Pourdeaux, a trading port-town of Gaul, in the fecond Aquitania, the capital of the Bituriges Vivifci, feated on the ‘Garumna. Strabo is the moft ancient author who mentions it, and by his defcription he intimates, that the fea-water formed a marfh in its vicinity. The poet Aufonius leads as to conclude, that the Druids had a fchool in this city; it was the place of his nativity, and he had been a profeffor in its fchool. He has given a poetical defcription of this city. See Bourpeaux. BURDEN properly fignifies 2 heavy weight or load. Ringeiberg recommends the bearing- burdens as the beft fort of exercife ; efpecially to ftrengthen men of ftudy. To this end, he had a gown lined with plates of lead, which he could juft lift with both his hands. This load he bore fix or feyen days together, cither increafing or diminifhing it as he found occafion ; by which means he could both write and exercife at the fame time. Burne alfo denotes a fixed quantity of certain commodi- ties. A burden of gad-fteel, is two fcore, or 120 pounds. Burnen, or Buatuen, the weight of a fhip when not overloaded to goto fea, and is ufually expreffed in fons, and fometimes in /a/s.. The common method employed by fhip-builders to find the tonnage of a fhip, is to multiply the length of the keel by the extreme breadth, and the product by half the extreme breadth ; then, this lait being divided by 94, the quotient is the burden in tons. If the fhip is afloat, and the tonnage required, the length of the keel cannot be afcertained ; in this cafe, therefore, fhip- builders ufe the following rule. From the extreme length fubtra&t three-fifths of the extreme breadth, the remainder is the aflumed length of the keel. Now the length of the keel thus found being multiplied by the extreme breadth, and that produét by half the breadth, which laft product being divided by 94, will give the tonnage for merchants’ fhips ; but for thips of war the divifor is 109. According to an a&t as fettled by the 13 Geo. ITI. ay > ixxiv. the burden or tonnage of a fhip is to be found as follows. Meafure the length from the after part of the main ftern-poft elong the rabbet of the keel to a line a pendicular thereto, from the fore part of the main {tem under the bowfprit; from which fubtraét three-fifths of the extreme breadth, exclufive of any doubling, and the re- mainder is to be efteemed the length of the keel for afcertain- img the tonnage; which, being multiplicd by the breadth and half-breadth, and divided by 94, as formerly, will give the tonnage. When it becomes neceflary to afcertain the burden of a thip which is afloat, the following method is to be obferved. Meafure the neareft diftance, at the load water mark, between the after part of the flern-poft, and a plumb line fufpended from the ftern; which, deduéted from the length meafured from the poim on the ftern where the lumb-line was fufpended to a point perpendicularly above the d water mark at the fore part of the ftern, the remainder BUR is the extreme length of the fhip: from which fubtraét three-fifths of the extreme breadth meafured from outfide to outfide of the plank, exclufive of doubling or fheathing, and alfo one-fourth of the depth of the load water line abaft, and the remainder will be the length of the keel for tonnage ; which, being multiplied by the breadth, and by the half- breadth, and the produ& divided by 94, will give the bur- then in tons. In Dr. Mackay’s treatife on *¢ Navigation,” a rule, adapt- ed to logarithms, is given to find the tonnage of a fhip ; and in his treatife on “ the defeription and ufe of the fliding rule,’’ is contained the method of afcertaining the tonnage by that means. From the flighteft refleGtion it will be evident the above- mentioned rules, although fanctioned by praétice and by the legiflature, cannot give the true burthen of a fhip. Neither is the depth taken into the account; and although the length, extreme breadth and depth are taken into confidera- tion, yet the form of the bottom, and the dimenfions of the fhip at various other parts are neglefted; and hence, full built, deep fhips will carry confiderably more than accord- ing to the rule; and fharp low built fhips will be greatly over-rated. Since, therefore, the feveral dutics on fhipping increafe with the tonnage, fhips are generally made deeper than their other dimenfions require, which has the tendency of making them crank. [For a more accurate method of afcertaining the burthen of a ship, fee the article Ton. Burven, /hips of, denote thofe of a larger and heavier fort, carrying 500 tons, or upwards. Burven, or Burtuen, from Bourdon, Fr. a drone. Hence, in Méu/ic, a bale of only one note, a pedale, and the drone of a bagpipe, is called a drone-bafe. And hence, that part of a fong which is repeated at the end of every verfe or {tanza, is called the burden of the Jong. «© At every clofe fhe made, th’ attending throng Replied, and bore the burden of the fong.’’ Dryden. Pope writes burthen : *« Sacred to ridicule, his whole life long, And the fad burthen of fome merry fong.’” Burpen alfo denotes the pipe, or ftring by which fuch-a found is given. Matth. Paris will have the name durden to have been ori- ginally given this pipe, on account of its refemblance to a pilgrim’s flaff, anciently called alfo burdo. BURDO, in Phyfology, a mongrel beaft of burden, pro- duced by a horfe and the-afs, by which it is diftinguifhed from the mule, which is that produced of a male afs by a mare. Burno, or Burpon, in Middle Age Writers, denotes a pilgrim’s long ftaff, as doing the office on that occafion of a mule, or other vehicle. BURDOA, or Burpova, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in Lufitania. Ptolemy. BURDOCK, in Botany. See Arctium Lappa, and XantHium Strumarium, ~ BURDONARIL, an appellation fometimes given to pil- grims, or thofe who went out of devotion to the holy land. The word is formed from purpo, an appellation given to the ftaff wherewith they travelled. BURDUGNO, in Geography, a {mall town of the Morea, feated on the Vatilipotamo, between the mouth of this river and the town of Mililtra. BURDWAN, or Burwan, a town of Hindoflan, in the country of Bengal; 50 miles N. W. of Calcutta. N. lat. 23° 10’. FE. long 84° 30’. BURE, Wiuiam-Francis ve, in Biography, a baok- feller of Paris, eminently fkilled in bibliography, publithed 3 ¥% a fland- 3} - BUR a ftandard work on this fubje&, entitled, ‘* Bibliographie Inftructive, ou Traite des Livres Rares et Singuliéres,’’ Paris, 1763, &c. 7 vols. Svo. He alfo publifhed a ‘ Cata- logue of the Library of M. dela Valiere,” 1767, 2 vols. Svo. ; and “ Mufeum Typographicum,” 1775, 12mo. His ac- counts of different editions are very exact. He died in July 1782, refpe€ted for integrity as well as fill in bis pro- feffion. Nouv. Did. Hilt. BUREBA, in Geography, a country of Spain, in Old Caftile, which was formerly a part of Navarre: its principal town is Birviefca. BUREDGIAT, £/, a town of Egypt, on the weft fide of the Nile, ro miles W. of Menuf. BUREIL, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Caramania; 10 miles S. of Yurcup. BURELLE’, in Heraldry, a term ufed by the French heralds for emblafoning barry ; the fame as the Englith call barrulet. Burevye, or Civitate Borelle, im Geography, a {mall epifcopal town of Naples, in the province of Abruzzo Citra, on the eaft fide of the river Sangro. N. lat. 41° 56’. E. long. 15° 5. BUREN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Welt- phalia, and bifhopric of Paderborn, feated on the Alme; 13 miles S. S. W. of Paderborn. N, lat. 51° 35’. E. long. 8225! nee a town of the United Provinces, in the duchy of Gueldres, and capital of a fine corn country, belonging, before the late revolution, to the houfe of Orange, to which it defcended in 1551, by the marriage of prince William I. with Anne heirefs to Maximilian count of Egmond; 5 leagues N. of Bois-le-Duc, and 6 S. E. of Utrecht. With- out the town is a good caftle, walled and furrounded by a double moat. N. lat. 52°. E. long. 5° 22’. Buren, a town of Swifferland, in that diftri@ of the canton of Berne, called the Upper Argow, feated on the eaft fide of the Aar, over which it has a bridge; 9 miles S. W. of Soleure. N. lat. 47° 6’. E. long. 7° 11’. BURETRAS, the name of a village of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia. BURETTE, Pierre-Jean, in Biography, born at Paris in 1665, was the fon of a furgeon, who, not being very prof- perous in his practice, had recourfe for his fupport to mufic, which he had learned of his mother, an excellent performer on the harp and harpfichord. He firft performed, profef- fionally, at Lyons, and afterwards went to Paris and played on the harp to Louis XIV., who was much pleafed with his performance. His fon, Peter-John, was fo fickly and feeble during in- fancy, that he pafled almoft his whole youth in amufing him- fel on the fpinet, and in the ftudy of mufic; but he had fo ftrong a paffion for this inftrument that he had fearcely ar- rived at his ninth year when he was heard at court, accom- pained by his father on the harp. Two years after, the king heard him again, when he performed a duet with his father on the harp; and at eleven years of age, he aflifted him in giving leffons to his {cholars. It is not generally known that the learned academician, Burette, who had written fo copioufly on the fubjeét of ancient mufic, was fo well acquainted with the modern; which muft have rendered his opinions more valid, and given weight to his reafoning on mufical fubjeGts in general, which a mere man of letters feldom obtains. His tafte for mutfic, however, did not extinguifh his paffion for other fciences. He taught himfelf Latin and Greek with little affiftance from others; and the ftudy of thefe languages inclined him to medical inquiries. At eightcen years old he attended for the firft time the public {chools, went through a courfe of BUR philofophy, and took leffons in the fchools of medicine, And even during this time he learned Hebrew, Syriac, Ara- bic, Italian, Spanifh, German, and Englifh, fufficiently to underftand them in books. He was at length admitted of the faculty at Paris, and practifed with reputation during thirty-three years, having: for his difciples almoft all his brethren who have fince en- joyed the highelt reputation in that capital. : In 1705, he was received into the Academie de Belles Lettres; and in 1706, he had a confiderable fhare in the publication of the * Journal des Sgavans,” at which he laboured more than thirty years. In 1718, he had an ap- pointment in the Bibliotheque du Roi. The public are obliged to the abbé Fraguier for the learned diflertation which M. Burette produced on the mufic of the ancients. This learned abbeé, fuppofing that the Greeks applied the fame fenfe to the word harmony, as is given to it by the moderns, and that, confequently, they knew counterpoint, or mufic in parts, Burrette proved that he was miftaken, and that the ancients meant no more by the term /armony, than we do by proportion. He demonftrated, that the Greeks pra¢tifed no other fimultaneous confonances than unifons and o€taves. This learned and indefatigable inquirer after the mufic of the ancient Greeks, was feized, in 1745, with a paralytic affection, and after languifhing during the whole year 1746, he died in 1747, at 82. His library, confifting of 15,000 volumes, was compoled of the moft curious and well-chofen books that could be procured in all languages. He has fupplied the memoirs of the Acad. des Inferip. et Belles Lettres with differtations on the dancing of the an- cients, on play or gaming, on fingle combat, and on horfe- racing. He enriched thefe memoirs with a tranflation of Plutarch’s treatife on mufic, with notes and remarks, which are difperfed through many volumes of the memoirs of that learned fociety. And this writer mutt be allowed, on every fubje& concerning ancient mufic, the merit of great dili- gence and learning ; but he does not feem always to have been poffeffed of an equal fhare of fagacity, or with courage fufficient to confefs himfelf unable to explain inexplicable paflages in his author. He never fees a difficulty ; he ex- plains all. Hence, amidft great erudition, and knowledge of antiquity, there are a thoufand unintelligible explanations in his notesupon Plutarch. ‘* En ecrivant,”’ faid Fontenelle, “¢ ai toujours taché de nrentendre.’”’—An admirable rule which every writer ought to adopt. Thus much is faid, not with a view to depreciate the merit of M. Burette, to whom almoft all late writers on mufie have had great obligations, and whofe labours have been of fingular fervice to ourfelves, among the reft ; but to fhew how few authors are to be always followed implicitly, or read without precaution. But though we have frequently dif- fered from him, we have adopted his opinion when we thought it well founded; and there has been no fubfequent writer on ancient mufic, who has not frequently availed himfelf of his labours. BURFORD, in Geography, an ancient town of Oxford- fhire, in England, is fuppoled by fome writers to be one of the oldeft towns of the Mercian kingdom. — It is remarkable in the page of hiltory, and in the annals of fporting. Near this town was the fcene of that decilive engagement between the Weft Saxons and Mercians, which liberated the former from the tyranny of the latter. In the year 752, a pitched battle was fought here between Cuthred, king of Weffex, and Ethelbald, king of Mercia, ‘¢ two princes of high f{pirit and ambitious fchemes.”? ‘The conflict was violent, and the latter monarch was compelled to fly for fafety ; yet, dur- ing the engagement, the banner of Mercia, a golden dragon, was BUR was feized and torn by Edelhun. The fcene of this confli& is ftill pointed out by the name of a field a little weltward of the town called Battle-edge ; and the memory of the event is erved by an annual proceffion on the eve of Midfummer = At the conclution of the feventh century, an ecclefiatti- cal fynod was held here to determine the time when Eaiter fhould be held. It was then decreed that Aldhelm, abbot of Maimfbury, fhould announce to the Britith church a {tated and proper period for the celebration of this feitival in future. The horfe-races of Burford are frequent, and much fre- quented by the ftudents from Oxford, and the neighbouring gentry, &c. Here are manufactories for duffels and for rigs. The town is feated in a low, narrow valley on the banks of the river Windrufh. The high grounds are moftly appropriated tocorn, in confequence of which, the markets at this place and at Whitney are abundantly fupplied with that neceflary article. The church is a fpacious and interefting pile of building ; difplaying fome curious fpecimens of an- cient eccefiaftical architecture. Its weftern door is formed with a femicircular arch, ornamented with birds’ heads, &c. and the fouth porch difplays a highly decorated exterior. Near this town is an ancient manor-houle, which was a reli- gious foundation belonging to the abbey of Keynfham in Somerfethhire. ‘This belongs to John Leuthal, efq. a de- {cendant from the famous {peaker to the long parliament. Burford had a charter from Henry II. and is governed by two bailiffs, burgeffes, &c. It is diltant 72 miles N. W. from London, contains 304 houfes, and 1516 inhabitants. Here are a market on Saturdays, and two annual fairs. Plott’s Hiftory of Oxfordthire. Magna Britannia, vol. iv. 4to. Burrorp Saddle. See Sappve. BURG. Sce Bore. Burg, a bailiwick and caftle of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and county of Reufs; 4 miles S. W. of Schleitz.—AlLfo, a town in the eircle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Magdeburg, feated on the Ihle, in which are woollen manufa¢iures; 14 miles N. E. of Magdeburg.— Alfo, a town of the United Netherlands, in the county of Zutphen, feated on the Old Iffel, between Anholt and Deutikem. N. lat. 52°. E. long. 6° 12’. Buxc, or Bours, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weitphalia, and guchy of Berg, feated on the Wippe; 6 miles S. of Soliffgen. Burc-Bernhcim, Mark, a town of Germany, in the circle of Franconia, and principality of Culmbach; 14 miles N. N. W. of Anfpach. Bure-Lengenfeld, a town of Germany, in the circle of Bavaria, and principality of Neuburg, on the Nab; 15 miles N. of Ratifbon. Buac-Scheidungen, an ancient fortified town, but now a church-village of Germany, in the circle of Thuringia ; 3 miles S. E. of Nebra. Buac-Schwalbach, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and county of Naffau-Saarbruck, and in 2 prefetturate of the fame name. ° BURGH-upon the fands, a place lying at a {mall diftance welt of Carlifle, in the county of Cumberland, and’remark- able for the monument ere¢ted there in honour of Edward I. who died there in 1307, on his return from a fuccefsful ex- edition againft the Scots. BURGAGE, in Law, a tenure proper to boroughs and towns, whereby the inhabitants hold their lands and tene- mente of the king, or other lord, at a certain yearly rate. ‘This tenure is deferibed by Glanvil (1. vii. c. 3.), and is exprefsly faid by Littleton (§ 162.) to be but tenure in focage. it is indeed only a kind of town focage; as com- mon focage, by which other lands are holden, is ufually of 3 BUR arural nature, A boroush (fee Boroucu} is ufually dif. tineuithed from other towns by the night of fending members to parliament ; and where the right of ele@ion is by burga tenure, that alone is a proof of the antiquity of the borough. Tenure in burgage, therefore, or burgage tenure, is where houfes, or lands .which were formerly the {cite of houfes, in an ancient borough, are held by fome lord in common focage,, by a certain eltablifhed rent. The free focage, in which thefe tenements are held, feems to be plainly a remnant of Saxon liberty ; and this may account tor the great variety of cuftoms, affeling many of thefe tenements fo held in ancient burgage; the principal and moft remarkable of which is that called Boroucu-Englifh; which fee. There are alfo other {pecial cuftoms in different burgage tenures ; as in fome, that the wife fhall-be endowed of all her huf- band’s tenements (Litt. § 166.), and not of the third part only, as at the common law: and in others, that a man might difpofe of his tenements by will (Litt. § 167.), which in general was not permitted after the conquett, till the reign of Henry VIIL; though in the Saxon times it was allowable. A pregnant proof, fays judge Blackfone (Com. vol. ii. p. 84.), that thefe liberties of focage teuure were fragments of Saxon liberty. Burcace ts fometimes ufed to denote the rent, or quit- rent paid to the chief lord for the houfes and tenements in a town or borough. Burcace free, Burgagium liberum, denotes a tenure, whereby the tenants, after having paid their rent to the fu- perior lord, were exempted from the fervice. BURGANET, in Armoury, a flecl-cap formerly worn by foldiers in battle. It has alfo been ufed in armorial bear- ings. BURGAS, in Geography. See Bercase. BURGAU, a town and caflle in a margraviate of the fame name, in Auftrian Swabia, feated on the river Mindel; 5 leagues N. of Augfburg. Burcav, a confiderable village of Germany, in the circle ef Upper Saxony, and principality of Eifenach; 3 miles S, of Tena. Burcau, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a large fpe- cies of Top-fhell or Trochus. It is very beautifully lined with a coat, of the nature of the mother of pearl; and the artificers take this out, to ufe under the name of mother of pearl, though fome call it after the name of the fhell they take it from, burgaudine. Some other fhells, however, ap- pear pearly, when divefted of their external covering, Among the modern French, Burgaw is a trivial name for {-veral different kinds of fhells of the Turso genus. BURGAUDINE, the name given by the French artiv ficers to what we call mother of pearl. In their works, they do not ufe the common nacre fhell for this, but the lining of the American bergau. . Hence fome call the mother of pearl burgaudine, and others the burgaudine mother of earl. BURGDORF, in Geography, a town of Swifferland, in the canton of Berne, and chief place of a bailiwick, feated on the river Emme; about a league from the town are ful- phureous fountains and baths, which are faid to be beneficial In paralytic and nervous complaints; 8 miles N. E. of Berne, and 12 S.S.E. of. Soleure. WN. lat. 47° 2’. E. long. a= 209'. Buacporr, atown of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and principality of Luneburg-Zell, feated on the Aue: it is walled and moated, and has a caftle; 14 miles E. N. E. of Hanover, and g S. of Zell. BURGE-LES-BAINS, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Allier, and chief place of a canton, pipet iltri¢ BUR difti& of Moulins. ‘The town contains 2,$12, and the canton Ic,104 inhabitants : the territory includes 342 kilio- metres, and 10 communes. BURGE-MASTER of Greenland, in Ornithology. See Procertaria Graciatis. The fame name is given by Ray to the wagel gull, /arus na@vius 3 Wt is alfo called Burgo- matter, and Burgermeifter. In Martin’s Spitzb. Larus Jgucus, the glaucous gull, is termed Burgermeitter. BURGEIN, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the welt fide of the Nile; 17 miles N. of Achmounain. BURGEL, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and margraviate of Meiffen, feated on the Sala; 6 miles S. E. of Dornburg. . Burcet, Birgel, or Mark-Burgel, a very ancient town of Germany, in the circle of Franconia, and principality of Culmbach, feated on a high mountain near the river; 13 miles N. N. W. of Anfpach. BURGEDO, a {mall ifland near the fouth coaft of New- foundland ; 22 leagues N.W. of Miquelon. N. lat. 47° 20%. W. long. 57° 20’. i BURGEON, in Botany, as the term is ufed by Englifh gar- deners, is only another name for a gem or bud. The French botanifts diftinguith three ftages of its growth, by three dif- ferent names. AAt its firft appearance in {pring it is an eye, il; about the folftice it becomes a bud, douton, which con- tinues to increafe during the autumn ; and in the following {pring is a burgeon, bourgeon. BURGESS, an inhabitant of a borough or a walled town, or one who poffeffes a tenement therein. In other countries, burgefs and citizen are confounded together; but with us they are diftinguifhed. Stat. 5 R. Il. c.4. See Borovcu. The word is alfo applied to the magiftrates of corporate towns. , Anciently, burgeffes were held in great contempt, being reputed fervile, bafe, and unfit for war ; fo that the gentry were not allowed to intermarry in their families, or fight with . them ; but, in lieu thereof, were to appoint champions. A bergefs’s fon was reputed of age when he could diftingtly count money, meafure cloth, &c. Spelm. Gloff. Glanvil. lib. vil. cap. 9. Burcess, king’s, Burgenfis regis, was he who, though refiding in another’s jurifdiétion, was exempt therefrom, and only fubje& to the jurifdiGion of the king, unlefs the lord alfo enjoyed royal jurifdiction. In itatute 5 Rich. II. c. 4. where the feveral claffes of perfons in the commonwealth are enumerated, we meet with count, baron, banneret, chivaleer de countee, citizein de citie, and burge/s de bourg. BurceEss is now ordinarily ufed for the reprefentative of 2 borough town in parliament. See BorouGu. Burgeffes are fuppofed to reprefent the mercantile part or trading intereft of the nation. ‘They were formerly allowed, by arate eftablifhed in the reign of Edw. III. two fhillings a day as wages. It is much to be regretted, that the mem- bers for boroughs bear above a quadruple proportion to thofe for counties. The Univerfities were, in general, not em- powered to fend burgefles to parliament ; though once, in 28 Edw. I. when a parliament was fummoned to confider of the king’s right to Scotland, writs were iffued, requiring the Univerfity of Oxford to fend up four or five, and that of Cambridge two or three, of t..cir moft difcreet and learned lawyers for that purpofe. But king James I. indulged them with the permanent privilege of fending con{tantly two of their own body, to ferve for thofe ftudents, who, though ufeful members of the community were neither concerned in the landed nor the trading intereft; and to proteé in the legi- flature the rights of the republic of letters. The right of BUR eleétion of burgeffes depends on feveral local charters and cultoms, which have occafioned infinite difputes; though, by 2 Geo. II. c.24. the right, for the future, fhall be al- lowed according to the lalt determination of the houfe of commons concerning it: and by 3 Geo. III. c. 15. no free- man, except fuch as claim by birth, fervitude, or marriage, fhall be entitled to vote, unlefs he hath been admitted to his freedom twelve calendar months before. No perfor is eligi- ble as a burgefs, who hath not a clear eitate of 3ool. a year. Stat.9 Ann. c.7. See ParLriamMeENT. BURG-Gemunpe, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhime, and principality of Upper Heffe; 14 miles S. E. of Marburg. BURGGRAVE, properly denotes the hereditary gover= nor of a caltle, or fortified town, chiefly in Germany. The word is compounded of bourg, towa, and graf, or rave, count. The burgeraves were originally the fame with what we otherwile call ca/fellans, or comites caftcllani ; but their dignity was confiderably advanced under Rudolph of Hap{burg ; before this time they were ranked only as counts, and below the princes, but under him began to be efteemed on a footing with princes. In fome parts the dignity is much degenerated, efpecially in the Palatinate. ‘There were formerly, accord- ing to Leti, fifteen families who enjoyed the title of burg- graves, thirteen of which are now extin@. But this is dif- ferently reprefented by others. In Bohemia, the title burggrave is given to the chief officer, or to him that com- mands in quality of viceroy. In Proffia, the burgerave is one of the four chief officers of the province. In Guelder- land, the burggrave of Nimeguen is prefident of the ftates of the province. Burcoravs, Joun-Puitip, M. D. in Biography, prace tiled phyfic feveral years, firft at Darmftadt, and afterwards at Frankfort, and was author of feveral interefting works. ‘* Libitina ovans Fatis Hygiee, feu de Medice Artis eque ac Medicorum precipuis Fatis,’”? Frank. 1701, 8vo.; in which he recounts the principal occurrences in the lives of the moit celebrated phyficians from the time of Hippocrates. This was again printed in the year 1706, with fome alterations, under the title of “ Tatrice Hominum Lethique Curiofa. De Exiftentia Spirituum nervoforum, eorumque vera Origine, Indole, Motu, Effeétibus, &c. inCorpore Huthano vivo,” &c. 1725, 4to. Dr. Goelicke wrote an anfwer to this under the title of “ Spiritus Animalis ex Foro Medico relegatus 5”? which produced, from our author, ‘* Spiritus Nervofus refti- tutus,” 4to. 1729; fo this unmeaning controverfy ended. His next work, which gave him much credit with his coun- trymen, was, ** De Acre, Aquis, et Locis Urbis Francofur- tane Commentatio,” 1751, 8vo. He alfo publifhed an edi- tion of ** Herman Conringiss, de Habitis Corporum Ger- manicorum Antiqui et Novi Caufis,” with a commentary, 1727, Svo. Eloy. Dia. Hitt. BURGH, James, an elteemed moral and political writer, was born in 1714, at Madderty, in Perthfhire, and educat- ed at the Univerfity of St. Andrew’s, with a view to the miniftry, which was his father’s profeffion; but, obliged to decline it on account of his health, he embarked in the linen bufinefs, and loft his whole property. This misfortune re- duced him to the neceffity of feeking a fubfiftence in Lon- don, where he was firft employed in correéting the prefs and making indexes, and afterwards as ufher in a fchool. Whilft he occupied this fituation at Great Marlow, in the county of Bucks, he publifhed without his name, in 1745, a pamphlet entitled, ‘‘ Britain’s Remembrancer,”’ which pafled through five editions. In 1747 he became mailer of an academy, which he removed from Stoke-Newington to New= ington- i —« BUR ington-green, and which he fupported with great reputation to himf-If and benefit to his icholars for 19 years. Inde- pendently of the attention which he devoted to his fchool, he compofed and publifhed feveral valuable works ; of which the principal appeared in 1754, under the title or “* The Dignity of Homan Nature; ora brief Account of the cer- tain and eftablifhed Means for attaining the true End of our Exiftence,’”’ 4to. reprinted in 2 vols. Svo. In 1762 he pub- lithed “ The Art of Speaking,” containing rules for elocu- tion, and leffons {elected from ‘ancient and modern writers, in which the emphatical words were diitinguifhed by Italics. The firft volume of his ‘* Crito, or Effays on various Subjects, political, moral, and metaphyfical,” was publithed in 1756, and a fecond volume in 1767. In difcuffing the queition concerning the origin of evil, he afcribes it to the machina- tions of powerful malignant fpiritual beings, from which Chriftianity was defigned to deliver us. In 1771 he gave up the charge of his fchool, and, though he fuffered excruciat- ing pain from the ftone, purfued with great vigour of mind the compofition of a work, for which he had colle&ted a mafs of materials, entitled ‘‘ Political Difquifitions.”” The firt two volumes of this work, comprehending a vaft va. riety of political fubjects, apes in 1774, and the third in 1775; and they were well received by thofe who were zealous in the caufe of public reform. Whillt he was pro- fecuting this work, the painful difeafe, which he had long fuftained with patience and refignation, terminated his life in 1775- Thofe who were in habits of intimate acquaintance and frequent intercourfe with him, highly efteemed him for his piety aud integrity, his focial cheerful temper, and the benevolent ardour with which he devoted himfelf to the pro- motion of the public good. If he was fanguine in his pro- jets, they were fuch as tended, according to his judgment, to the gencral improvement of fociety and of mankind: and though his compofitions are diftinguifhed more by the variety of their fubjects than by accurate arrangement, and by ener- gy rather than eloquence of language, many of them will be read with fatisfaétion and advantage. Befides the trea- tifes already mentioned, he publifhed, at different times, « Thoughts on Education ;” ‘* An Hymn to the Creator of the World;”” “ A Warning to Dram-drinkers,” 12mo. written at the requeft of Dr. Stephen Hales, and Dr, Hayter, bifhop of Norwich; ‘‘ Direétions, Prudential, Moral, Reli- gious, and Scientific,” printed for the ufe of his f{cholars, and fince pirated by bookfellers, and fold under the title of «© Youth’s friendly Monitor ;”’ and feveral periodical Effays on the topics of the times, in the news-papers. Biog. Brit. Buacu, the fame with borough, which fee. Buacu-bote, from burg, pi st and bote, compenfatia, is chiefly ufed for an aid or contribution levied for the repair- ing of a town or caflle. By the law of king Athelftan, the cajflles and walls of towns were to be repaired, and burgh-bote levied every year, within a fortnight after Rogation days. No perfon what- ever was exempt from this fervice ; the king himfelf could not releafe a man from burgh-bote: yct, in after-times, ex- emptions appear to have been frequently granted ; infomuch that, according to Cowel, the word burgh-bote came to be chiefly ufed to denote, not the fervice, but the liberty or ex- emption from it. PRG or brech, a fine impofed on the commn- nity of a town, or burgh, for the breach of peace among them. Burcu-mails, were yearly payments to the crown of Scot- land, introduced by Malcolm ILI. and refembling the rez- farm rents of burghs in England. See Mat. Buacu-majfler, an officer in the tin mincs, who direéts Bae and lays out the meers for the workmen, &c. otherwife de- nominated bailiff and bar-mafter, which fe. Burcu fund buoy, in Sea Language, lies on the coatt of Holla.d, W. by S. from the beacons on Voogel land. On the Texel ifland are four churches, of which Burgh is the moit northerly, except Ooxh, which has no fteeple. BURGHADN, or BurGuuaun, in Geography, a {mall town and citadel of Germany, in a bailiwek of the fame name, i the circle of the Upper Rhine, and bifhopric of Fulda, feated on the mver Haun, and having two churches, one for the Lutherans, and another for the Catholics; 8 miles N.N.E of Fulda. BURGHERMASTERS, Bourcermesters, Burc- MEsTeRS, or BurGomasTers, chief magittrates in the ci- ties of Germany, Holland, and Flanders ; to whom belong the giving of orders for the government, adminittration of juttice, policy, and finances of the place: though the au- thority and office are not every where alike ; each city having its particular laws and ftatutes. The word is formed from the two Flemifh words, borger, burgefi, or citizen ; and mefler, mafler. Some exprefs it in Latin by con/u/, others by /enator.—M. Bruneau obferves, that durghermafler, in Holland, anfwers to what is called alderman and Jheriff in England ; attorney at Compeigne ; capitoul at Tholoute ; conful at Languedoc, &c. BURGHMOTE, a borough-court ; or court held for atown or borough. See Court and More. The word is alfo written Lurgemotus, burgimotus, burgmotus, and burgemote, from burgh, oppidum; and mote or gemote conventus. The burghmote, by the laws of king Edgar, was to be held thrice in the year: by thofe of Henry I. twelve times. Burghmote is different from derghmote, derived from berg, a hill, and mote, aflembly, which denotes an affembly or court upon a hill, and is held in Derbythire for deciding leas and controverfies among the miners. BURGEONES, in Ancient Geography, the name of a people placed by Ptolemy in European Sarmatia. BURGLARY, in Law, or nod@urnal houfe-breaking, burgilatrocinium, called by our ancient law, and now in Scot- land homefecken, an unlawful entering into another man’s dwelling, wherein fome perfon is, or into a church in the night-time ; in order to commit fome felony, or to kill fome perfon, or to {teal fomething thence, or do fome other felonious aét; whether the fame be executed, or not. This crime has been always regarded as very heinous 3 partly on account of the terror which it occafions, and partly becaufe it is a forcible invafion and difturbance of that right of habitation, which every individual might require even ina ftate of nature, and againft which the laws of civil fociety have particularly guarded. Whilft they allow the poffeflor to kill the aggreflor, who attempts to break into a houfe in the night time, they alfo protect and avenge him, in cafe the affailant fhould be too powerful. Such re- gard, indeed, has the law of England to the immunity of a man’s houfe, that it ftiles it his caftle, and will never fuffer it to be violated with impunity ; agreeing in this refpect with the fentiments of ancient Rome, as exprefled in the words of Tully (Pra Domo, 41) * quid enim fanétius, quid omni religione munitius, quam domus uniufeujufque civium?” For this reafon no outward doors can in general be broken open to execute any civil procefs ; though, in cri- minal caufes, the public fafety fuperfedes the private. See Arrest. Hence, alfo, in part, arifes the animadverfion of the law upon eaves-droppers, nufancers, and incendiaries 5. and to this principle it mutt be afligned, that a man may aflemble people together lawfully (at leaft if they do not a 2 cee BUR ceed eleven) without danger of raifing a riot, rout, or un- Jawful aflembly, in order to proteét and defend his houfe ; which he is not permitted to do in any other cafe. 1 Hal. P.C. 547. The definition of a burglar, as given by Sir Edward Coke (3 Ink. 63) is, ‘he that by night breaketh and entereth into a manfion-houfe, with intent to commit a felony.””? In this definition, fays Judge Blackftone (Comment. vol. iv. p. 224) there are four things to be confidered; the sime, the place, the manner, and the intent. ~ y. The time mult be by night, and not by day ; for in the day-time there is no burglary. In confidering what is reckoned night, the day was anciently accounted to begin at fun-rifing and to end immediately upon fun-fet: but the better opinion feems to be, that if there be dayhght or twilight fufficient, begun or left, for difcerning a man’s face, it is noburglary. 3 Init. 63. 1 Hal. P.C. 350.°1 Hawk. P.C. ror. But this does not extend to moon-light: for then many midnight burglaries would go unpunifhed ; and befides, the malignity of the offence does not fo preperly arife from its being done in the dark, as at the dead of night ; when the whole creation, except beafts of prey, is at relt; when fleep has difarmed the owner, and rendered his caftle defencelefs. : 2. As to the place. It muft be by the definition a manfion-houfe ; and, therefore, in order to account for the reafon why breaking open a church is burglary, as it un- doubtedly is, Sir Edward Coke quaintly obferves, that it is «‘ domus manfionalis Dei.’? But it is not neceffary that it fhould in all cafes be a manfion houfe ; for it may be commit- ted by breaking the gates or walls of a town in the night. Accordingly Spelman defines burglary to be ‘ Nocturna diruptio alicujus habitaculi, vel ecclefie, etiam murorum portarumve burgi, ad feloniam perpetrandam.”’ No diltant barn, warehoufe, or the like, has the fame privileges as a manfion or dwelling-houfe, nor is regarded as a man’s caftle of defence: nor isa breaking open of houfes in which no rman refides, and which, therefore, for the time being are not manfion-honfes, attended with the fame circumitances of midnight terror. A houfe, however, in which aman fometimes refides, and which the owner hath only left for a fhort feafon, animo revertendi, is the object of a burglary, though no one be in it at the time when the fact 1s commit- ted. x Hal. P.C. 566. Foft. 77. If a barn, ftable, or warehoufe be parcel of the manfion-houfe, and within the fame common fence, though not under the fame roof, or contiguous, a burglary may be committed in it; for the capital houfe proteéts and privileges all its branches and appartenants, if within the curtilage or homeftall. 1 Hal. P.C. 558. 1 Hawk. P. C. 104. A chamber in a college or an inn of court, where each inhabitant has a diftinét property, is, to all other purpofes as well as to this, the manfion-houfe of the owner. 1 Hal. P. C. 556. A room, or lodging, in any private houfe, is alfo the manfion for the time being of the lodger ; if the owner doth not himfelf dwell in the houfe, or if he and the lodger enter by different out- eward doors. But, if the owner himfelf lies in the honfe, and hath only one outward door at which he and his lodger enter, fuch lodgers feem only to be inmates, and all their apartments to be parcel of the one dwelling-houfe of the owner. Kel. 84. 1 Hal. P. C. 556. ‘Thus alfo the houfe of a corporation, inhabited in feparate apartments by the officers of the body corporate, is the manfion-houfe of the corporation, and not of the refpective officers. Fofter, 38, 39. If Ihire a fhop, parcel of another man’s houfe, and work or trade in it, but never lie there, it is no dwelling- boufe, nor can burglary be committed in it; but if I or my BUR fervant, ufually or often lodge in the fhop at night, it then becomes a manfion-houfe and the objeét of burglary. If the fhop-keeper fleep in any part of the building, however diftin that part is from the fhop, it may be alleged to be his manfion-houfe ; provided the owner does not fleep under the fame roof alfo. Leach’s*' Hawk. P.C. 1. c. 38. § 16. By 13 Geo. II]. c. 38. burglary in the workfhops of the plate-glafs manufa&tory, with intent to fteal the ftcck or utenfils, is declared to be fingle felony, and punifhed with tranfportation for feven years. No burglary can be com- mitted in a tent or booth, ere&ted in a market or fair, though the owner may lodge init. 1 Hawk. P. C. 104; but by Stat. 5 and 6 Ed. VI. c.9. clergy is taken from this offence. 3. As to the manner of committing burglary ; there muft be both a breaking and an entry to complete this offence. But they need not be done at once: for, if a hole be broken one night, and the fame breakers enter the next night through the fame, they are burglars. 1 Hal. P.C. 551. ‘There mutt in general be an a€tual breaking, fo that it may be regarded as a fubftantial and forcible irruption. Such are breaking, or taking out the glafs of, or otherwife opening, a window, and taking out goods ; picking a lock, or opening it with a key; and lifting up the latch efa door, or loofing any other faflenings which the owner has provided. But if a perfon leaves his doors or windows of his houfe open, and aman enters by them, or with a hook or by any other means draws out fome of the goods of the owner, it is no burglary ; but if, having entered, he afterwards unlocks an inner or chamber door, or if he comes down a chimney, he isdeemedaburglar. Ifa perfon enters by the open door of a houfe, and breaks open a cheft and fteals goods, this is no burglary by the common law, becaufe the cheft is no part of the houfe; though this is felony oufted of clergy by Stat. 3 W. and M. c. 9; but if one break open a cup-board or counter, fixed to a houfe, it is burglary. 1 Hal. P. C. 5525 553) 554. I Hawk. P.C. 102. So alfo to knock at the door, and upon its being open to rufh in with a fe- Jonious intent ; or under pretence of taking lodgings, to fall upon the landlord and rob him; or to procure a con- ftable to gain admittance, in order to fearch for traitors, and then to bind the conftable and rob the houfe ; are all deemed burglarious atts, aggravated by the evafions that attend any of them. 1: Hawk. P.C. 102. And alfo, if a fervant opens and enters his mafter’s chamber-door with a felonious defign; or if any other perfon lodging in the fame houfe, or in a public inn, opens and enters another’s door with fuch evil intent ; it is burglary. Nay, if a fer- vant confpires with a robber, and lets him into the houfe by night, this is burglary in both (Stra. 851. 1. Hal. P. C. 53. 1 Hawk. P. C. 103) ; for the fervant is doing an un- lawful aét, and the opportunity afforded him of doing it with greater eafe rather aggravates than extenuates the guilt. As for the entry, any the leaft degree of it, with any part of the body, or with an inftrument held in the hand, is fufficient ; as, to {tep over the threfhold, to put a hand or a hook in at a window to draw out goods, ora piftol to demand one’s money, are all of them burglarious entries. 1 Hal. P.C€. 535. 1 Hawk. P. C. 103. Foft. 108. When feveral come with a defign to commit burg- lary, and one does it while the relt watch near the houfe, the at of one is, by interpretation, the a&t of all of them. The entry may be before the breaking as well as after; for by Statute 12 Ann. c. 7. if a perfon enters into the dwelling-houfe of another, without breaking in, either by day or by night, with intent to commit felony, or bein in fuch houfe, fhall commit any felony ; and fhall in the night BUR tight break out of the fame, this is declared to be burglary, although before this act different opinions were held con- cerning it; Lord Bacon (Elem. 65) holding the affirmative, and Sir Matthew Hale (1 Hal. P. C. 554) the negative. Bat it is univerfally agreed, that there muft be both a breaking. ether in fa@ or by implication, and alfo an entry, in order to complete the burglary. 4- As co the intent: it is clear, that fuch breaking and entry muft be with a felonious intent, otherwife it is only a trefpafs. And it is the fame, whether fuch intention be aGually carricd into execution, or only demonftrated by fome attempt or overt aft, of which che jury is to judge. And therefore fuch a breach and entry of a houfe as has been before defcribed, by night, with intent to commit a robbery, a murder, a rape, or any cther felony, are burg- lary; whether the crime be aGually perpetrated or not. Nor does it make any difference, whether the offence were felony at common law, or only created fygh by ftatute. 41 Hawk. P.C. 105. Burglary, as above defcribed, is a felony at common law, but within the benefit of clerey. The ftatutes, however, of 1 Edw. VI. c. 12. avd 18 Eliz. c. 7. take away clergy from the principals, and that of 3 and 4 W. and M. c. 9. from all abettors and acceflaries before the fa. And, in like manner, the laws of Athens, which punifhed no fimple theft with death, made burglary a capital crime. Pott. Antiq. b. 1. c.26. For encouraging the profecution of offenders, it is ena@ted by ftatute ro and 11 W. III.-c. 23, that any perfon who fhail conviét a burglar fhall be exempted from parifh and ward offices, where the offence was committed, To this, the flatutes 5 Ann. c. 31. and 6 Geo. 1. c. 23. have fuperadded a reward of gol. And if an accomplice, being out of prifon, hall convi&t two or more offenders, he is entitled to a pardon of the felonies enumerated in the a&. Moreover, the flatutes 25 Geo, II. c. 36, 27 Geo. II. c. 3, and 18 Geo. III. c. 19, provide, that the charges of profecuting and convi&ting a burglar fhall be paid by the treafurer of the county where the burg- Aary was committed, to the profecutor and poor witnefles, The ftatute 10 G-o. ILI. c. 48, provides, for preventing the frequent commiffion of burgiarics, that buyers or re- ceivers of itolen jewels, gold, or filver plate, where the fteaiing fhall have been accompanicd by burglary (or rob- bery), may be tried and tran!ported for 14 years, before the convidtion of the principal. And the ftatute 23 Geo. III. c. 88. eneéts, that any perfon apprchended, having upon him any pick-lock key, &c. or other 'mplement, with in- tent to commit a burglary, fhall be deemed a rogue and a vagabond, within ftatute 17 Geo. IT. c. 5. BURGLE, an article of dict of univerfal ufe in the eaft- ern cookery. It confilts of wheat, prepared by firlt foften- ing the grain in hot water, and then breaking and unhufking it by means of a hand-mill ; it is afterwards dried in the fun, and thus preferved for ufe. This food is fometimes, like Tice, made into a ** pilaw’”’ (which fee); but more com- monly, beiog beat op with minced meat, fuet, and {piceries, ‘is formed into large balls, and either boiled or fried. Ruffeli’s Aleppo, vol. i. p. 117. BURGLEN, io Geography, a lordthip of Swifferland, which had tormerly its own counts, afterwards barons, to borh of whom it gave title, but purchafed, in 1579, by the town of St. Gall. To this lordthip belongs a parochial village and feat of the fame name, once forming a town, bay Mis in afhes by the Appenzellers and the town of St. Gall. BURGO pe Osma, a {mall town of Spain, in Old aw ie on a {mall river that foon after runs into the ‘VOL. ¥, BUR Duero, near the town of Ofma; 40 miles S.E. of Burgos. ; BURGO Sanp, lies on the larboard fide of the channel at the entrance into Liverpool, which fee. BURGOMASTER of Greenland, in Ornithology. See Burce-mafer. BURGOO, or Burcour, a fea-faring difh, made of whole oatmeal, or groats, boiled in water, till they burt ; then mixed with butter. It is made in Scotland and in Wales, by mixing oatmeal and water, and boiling it into a poe ga coniftence. It is a cheap and ftrengtheniog iet. Burgoo, etherwife called /ob/clly, is held by Cockburn very proper to correct that thickne{s of humours and coltive- nefs to which the other diet of {failors much difpofes them. Yet the burgoo vi€tuailing is the leaft liked of all their provifions, becaufe of the fcanty allowance of butter to it. The fame author thinks it might be worth the confideration of thofe to whom the care of the feamen is ene to contrive to render this food more agreeable to them. BURGOS, in Geography, a large old city of Spain, the capital of Old Cattile, and of a province of the fame name, forming a kind of femicircle round a hill, on which is 2 caftle, and extending itfelf along the plain to the fmall rapid river of Arlangon, or Arlanza, over which it has a bridge, and along the bavk of which is a handfome paved walk. It is the f@e of an archbifhop, ereGted in 1574. The city is irregular, moft of its ftreets being narrow and crooked, and its houfes high. It has, however, many fine {quares adorned with fountains and ttatues, public buildings, and noblemen’s houfes ; and prefents, at a diltance, by its nume- rous fteeples and edifices, and particularly the epifcopal Pa- lace, fituate without the town, a pleafing view. The cathe- dral is ore of the molt beautiful and belt preferved Gothic ftruGures in Spain; and the chapel, belonging to the con- vent of the Auguttines, is magnificent, and famous for its crucifix, to which extraordivary devotion is paid. Bega, one of its fuburbs, has many convents and hofpitals.; and, among others, a very large one for pilgrims, One of the nunneries is faid to contain 150 nuns, mott of them being of noble extraction ; and the royal hofpital is richly endowed. This city was built in the gth or roth century, on the ruins of the ancient Auca. Its fituation, as it is furrounded by mountains, renders the air extremely cold for nine months iu the year, and for the other three months very hot. The in- habitants of Burgos are faid to {peak the beft Cattilian, or purelt Spanifh, of any in the kingdom. N. lat. 42° 17'. W. long. 3° 42!- a. BURGSTADT, or Burcsrapren, a {mall town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and lordfhip of Schonberg, in which are fume ftuff-manufaétures; 3 miles E. of Pemg. BURGSTALL, a town of Germany, in the archduchy oe Auttria, feated on the river Erlaph; 12 miles S. E. of pe. BURGUETTA, or Evatrauerra, a town of Spain, in Navarre, fituate in the valley ot Ronceval, where the rear- guard of Charlemagne, on his return to Spain, was defeated by the Saracens, and Roland, his nephew, flain, in the year 778: 8 leagues E.N.E. of Pampeluna. Ea voy a town of Spain, in Navarre, feated on the ca. BURGUILLER, a town of Spain in Andalufia, 3 une from Seville. URGUNDIAN Cross, in Heraldry. Knights of this order were inftituted on St. + 3d Magdalen’s day, in 1535, 3 by BUR by Charles V. emperor of Germany and king of Spain, after he had reftored Mulleaffes, king of Tunis, who was driven out of his kingdom by the noted pirate Barbarofla, ‘The emperor being defirous to gain the love of all thofe who had valiantly fignalized themfelves in that war, did, as a reward for their fervices, confer on them this honoor of knighthood, on the day he made his public entry into Tunis ; having on the coat he wore in battle, embroidered with a Burgundian crofs, to which was added a ftee] ftriking {parks of fre out of a flint, with this infcription, Barnaria, which badge was endant from a gold collar. BURGUNDIANS, Burcunpiones, in Hi/lory, were a warlike and-numerous peopic, who, upon the decline of the Roman empire, obtained a permanent feat and dominion in the provinces of Gaul. According to Ammianus Marcel- linus (I. 28.), and Orofius (1. 7. c. 79.), they were originally defcended from the Romans. ‘The latter writer fays, that Drufus Nero, and his brother Tiberius, the adopted fons of Cefar Auguftus, having fubdued the interior parts of Ger- many, left feveral camps in the country, aod part of their army to keep the neighbouring people in TubjeGtion: from the Roman foldiers, who were on this occafion left to guard the Roman camps, are defcended the Burgundians, The caftles and ftrong holds, built for the defence of a country, are called by the Germans “ burgts ;”” and hence the Ro- mana, who guarded them, and their defcendants, were named « Burgundians.” As they embraced the Catholic faith, the ecclefiaftics, whofe {piritual jurifdiGtion they acknow- ledged, have defcribed them as mild and traétable in their Gifpofition ; for in the countries where they fettled, they treated the natives, not as ftrangers whom they had fubdued, but as Chriftian brethren. Pliny the elder (I. iv. c. 16.) fuppofes them to be a German nation, defcended from the Vindili, fuppofed to be the fame people with the Vandals. Valefius (Rer. Franc. p. 48.) diftinguifhes the Burgundians of Germany from thofe of the fame name, who dwelt more to the eaft, on the banks of the Danube. The Burgundians of Germany were fometimes in alliance, and fometimes at war, with the empire; and they are reprefented by contem- porary writers as inferior in bravery to the other Germans, and as dwelling in caftles and fortified places, whereas the other German nations {corned any fence befides their arms. See Socrat. Hift. Ecclef. 1. vii. c. 30. Moft of them were mechanics, and, before they fettled in Gaul, reforted in great numbers to that country, to earn a fubfiftence by their refpeCtive profeffions. As to their form of government, they were divided into feveral tribes, each of which had its re{pcétive chief or king, whofe authority was fo far from being hereditary, that it was not continued during life... If the events of the war accufed the courage or condu& of the king or general, called ‘* Hendinos,” he was immediately depofed ; and the injuftice of his fubje€ts made him refpon- fible for the fertility of the earth, and the regularity of the {eafons, which feemed to fall more properly within the facer- dotal department. The perfon of the prieft, denominated « Siniftus,? was facred, and his dignity perpetual. The kings of the Burgundians did not think themfelves degraded by ferving in the Roman ar nics, by executing fome of the chief offices of the empire, and by receiving, from the em- perors, fuch dignities as they ufually conferred upon their fubjeGts. To the Burgundians is afcribed the firft intro- duétion into Gaul of legal duels, or duels ordered by the magiftrates or judges, eftablifhed in order to difcover, from the event, the truth of contefted fa@ts. Gundebald 1s faid to have been the firft who eftablifhed by law this maxim, that the beft champion is the beft man, and ought to beibe- lieved ; a maxim, indeed, which has often proved fatal to BU R: innocence. This unjuf and fanguinary law was. formally; iffued at Lyons, the 27th of fuse, Abienus being conful,, . that is,in Sor. In the hiftory of the Burgundians nothing particularly wor- thy of notice cccurs till the year 275, the farlt of the empero* Tacitus’s reign, when, in conjuction witb other barbarians, they crofftd the Rhine, overran all Gaul, and made them- {eives mafters of more than 7o cities in that country. But they were foon after defeated, and compelled to fue for peace, by Probus, the fucceffor of Tacitus. In 287 they made another irruption into Gaul, together with the Ale- manni; but were defeated by Maximian.. "See ALEMANNIe In the year 370, tke 7th of Valentinian I. an army of 80,000 Burgundians appeared on the banks of the Rhine,, impatiently expecting the f{upport aud fubfidies promifed by Valentinian ; but after long and fruitlefs expe@ation, they were compelled to retire. Inthe year 407, they followed: the Vandals, Sueves, and Alans, who had entered Gaul the laft day of the preceding year, in order to partake in the fpoils cf thefe wealthy provinces ; but they did not fettle in that country till the year 4%3, when, as it is faid, they obtatned® that part of Gaul which borders on the Rhine, or the prefents Alface, and the remaining part of Germania Prima, which were ceded to them by Honorius.. Thus commenced the kingdom of the Burgundians in Gaul, under Gundicar their firt king. They afterwards, viz. in 435, in conjun@ion with the Hervli, the Huns, and the Franks, entered Belgic - Gaul, committing dreadful ravages wherever they came ; though, upon their firft fettling in Gaul, they had promiled: to affitt the Romans, and ferve in their armies as fubjeQs of the empire. Aetius, having cefeated their army, reduced them to the neceflity of fuing for peace, which, however, was. of no long continuance. About this time they. embraced Chriftianity. Having continued on the banks of the Rhine till the year 438, they were removed by Aetius to the pre- fent duchy of Savoy. During their refidence here, they. made themfelves matters of feveral cities and places in Gaul ; fuch as Lyons, Dié, Vienne, Auvergne, &c. Before the year 490, the Burgundians were malters of the whole of. Lugdunenfis Prima, ftyled by Sidonius Germania Lugdu. nenfis ; and in the years 514 and 528, it appears, from the aéts of the councils of Agde and Epaune, that they were mafters of above 28 cities; and, among others, of Lyons, Vienne, Befangon, and Embrun. In the yeer 490, Gunde- bald, or Gondebaud, condu&ted them into Italy, where they committed unparalleled ravages in Liguria. At this time the kingdom of the Burgundians was defined by the courfe of the rivers Saone and Rhone, and extended from-the foreft of Vofges to the Alps and the fea of Marfeilles. Gondebaud, who died in 509, was {ucceeded by his fon Sigifmund, who difpatched an account of his acccffion to the emperor Ana- ftafius at Conftantisople, and acknowledged himfelf a fubje& of the empire. Sigifmund, by the inhumar affaffination of his fon Sigeric, though he has acquired the honours of a faint and martyr, greatly irritated the Oftrogoths and their king Vheodoric, and occaficned a war between the Franks and Burgundians. In a battle that took place A. D. 5223, Sigifmund was defeated and taken prifoner ;. ard afterwards put to death, being buried alive in a deep well at Orleans 5. and the greater part of the country {ubmitted to the Franks. The Burgundians, however, foon revolted, and proclaimed Gondemar, brother of Sigifmund, their king, who, after a fevere conflict with the Franks, concluded a peace with them, on condition that they fhould reflore to him all the countries which they had feized during the war. This peace lafted 8 years; but in 532 a war broke out between thefe two mations ;, and Childebert and Clotharius, entering the BUR the territories of the Burgundians, laid fiege to Auguftodu- num, now Autun, and obliged Gondemar to fave himfelf by flight, and made themfelves matters of his kingdom, which agreed to ferve in their wars, and to pay them an annual tribute. But they continued, by agreement with their conquerors, to be governed by their own laws; till the reign of Lonis-le-Debonnaire. Anc. Un. Hilt. vol. 17. Gibbon’s Hilt. Decl. and Fail of the Roman Empire, vol. iv, v, vi. ,Burcunpians, the denomination of a political party, which, together with the Armagnacs, divided the whole kingdom of France, about the commencement of the 15th century. See ARMAGNAC. BURGUNDY, in Geography, derives its name from the Burcunpians (fee the preceding article), and, before the revolution, was a very confiderable province of France; bourded on the eaft by Franche-Comté, on the fouth by Lyonnois, on the weft by Bourbonnuis and Nivernois, and on the north by Champagne. The government or pro- vince of Burgundy contained, befides the duchy of the fame name, La Breffe, of which le Bugey and le Valromey form a part, and the coupty of Gex. Its extent from north ‘to fouth is about 60 French leagues, and from welt to eait about 30 leagues. Burgundy is divided lengthways by a ‘chain of mountains, extending from Dijon to Lyons; the eaftern part of the province is an immenfe rich plain, which terminates in the mountains of Franche-Comté and Savoy, and which is watered by the Saone and other rivers that flow into it; the other part of the province is mountainous, and in many places dry and uncultivated. The principal rivers that water it, befides the Saone, are the Seine, the Arman- gon, the Yonne, the Serain, the Ouche, the Dcune, which runs into the Saone near Verdun, the Arroux, the Bour- bonince, the Rhone, the Loire, and the Doubs. The mine- tal waters of this duchy are thofe of Apoigni near Seignelay, Premeau near Nuits, Vevelay, Sainte-Reine, and Bourbon- PAncy. The province is fertile in various kinds of grain and fruit, tobacco, hemp, and flax; and among its wines, which are excellent, we may reckon thofe of Nuits, Beaune, Dijon, Vollenay, Pomard, Chaflagne, Meurfault, Vofne, Savigné, Mercy, Chambolle, Givri, Mercurey, Romaneé. la Tache, Richebourg, Saint-George, and Chamberlin. The mountains furnifh excellent pafture for cattle and horfes. Its mines afford ores of various metals, particularly iron, diffe- rent forts of ftones, marble, granite, and alfo coal, and ochre for dycing. Its foretts fupply abundance of wood. It has alfo various manufalures of iron, wool, linen, and cot- ten. Its corn, wine, iron, wood, wool, and cattle, furnifh the principal articles of commerce. The difti& of Breffe has {ubterraneous lakes; and the cave of Arcy, as well asthe falt {pring of Vezelay, are worthy of notice. The principal towns of Burgundy are D:jon, the capital, Beaune, Chatil- lon-fur-Scine, Auxerre, Autun, Chalon, Magon, Bourg, Belley, Gex, &c. Since the revolution, Burgundy is diftri- buted into the departments of the Yonne, Cote d’Or, the Saone and Loire, and the Ain. The ancient kingdom of Burgundy formed three pro- vinces in the 5th and roth centuries. The firft was that of Provence, which fome authors have called the kingdom of Burgundy Cis-Jurana, in reference to mount Jura, now call- ed Mont St. Claud. ‘This was eftablifhed in 855, in favour of Charles, third fon of the emperor Lothario | , and com- preheoded Provence, properly fo called, i.e. the country contained between the Durance, the Alps, the Mediterra- nean, and the Rhone, together with the duchy of Lyons. The fecond was formed in 888 on the other fide of mount Jura, and called Burgundy Trans-Jurana. I, comprehended ‘ducal line commenced. BUR little befides Switzerland, the Valais, the Genevefe and Chab- lais. The third kingdom was that of Arles, founded in 930, by the re-union of the kingdoms of Provence and Burgundy ‘Trans-Jurana, in favour of Rodolphus II., who was before king of Burgundy Trans-Jurana only. The kings of France poffeffed themfelves fucceffively of this ftate: but the duchy of Burgundy, part of the late govern- ment of Burgundy, was never comprehended within the king- dom of Burgundy Cis-Jurana, or in that of Burgundy Trans- Jurana. Tt formed a diftin® ftate, which continued fub- je& to the kings of France. 1n the partition which took place in 843 between the fons of Louis !e-Debonnaire, Charles-le-Chauve had the part of the kingdom which was fituated to the weft of the Saone; and it was governed by dukes. But the power of thefe dukes gradually advanced to fuch a height, that one of them, named Rodolphus, in the time of Charles the Simple, was eleGted king of France. This dutchy paffed afterwards to Hugh the Great, duke of France, who proved a troublefome neighbour to Rodolph; and his fon, Hugh Capet, feated himfelf and family on the throne of France. His fon and fucceffor, Robert, having inherited Burgundy, gave it to Henry, his eldeft fon, who fucceeding to the throne of France, affizned it in 1032 to Robert I. his younger fon, who was the head of the firit ducal race of Burgundy. This fubfifted for 330 years, and became ex- tin in 1361 in the perfon of Philip I., who died without iffue. King John, being fon to a princefs of Burgundy, in 1361 united this duchy with the’crown, and in 1363 con- ferred it on his fon Philip the Bold, in whom the fecond With his great grandfon Charles the Warlike, who loft his life before Nancy in 1477, the fecond line terminated. Although he left a daughter, Mary, who married Maximilian, archduke of Aultria, and Jobn, prince of Burgundy, count of Nevers and Rethel, who did not die till 1491; Lewis XI. feized upon the duchy, and united it to his crown, which has fince retained it, notwith- {landing the repeated claims and endeavours of the houfe of Autftria to recover it. The various poffeffions of the dukes of Burgundy rendered them the molt confiderable power ia Europe; and in 1433 a decree of Bayle affizned to Philip the Good the firft rank after kings, and named him the firtt duke of the Chriftian world. The dukes of Burgundy were the firft ancient pecrs of Fiance. At the king’s coronation they bore the crown, and girded on him the fword. Burcunpy, Circle of, a circle of the German empire, made a part of it in 1512 under the emperor Maximilian. It took its name from the province of Burgundy, now dif- membered from the empire, and belonging to France, and has long fince ccafed to be reckoned among the circles of the empire. It was formerly under the direétorfhip and fove- reignty of the king of Soain, and comprehended not only Higher Burgundy, or Franche Come, but likewife the 17 provinces of the Low Countries, which in the reign of Charles V. were received as members of the empire. Burcunpy Pitch, {ee Pircn. Burcunpy Pitch, plafter of. See Prasrer. : BURGWARD, Burgwardus, or Burgwardium, in Mid- dle Age Writers, the fame with Butwags. The name is alfo extended to the town, and cven the country about fuch a fortrefs. It is formed from the ‘Teutonic burg, town, and ward, cuflody, keeping. BURHANPOUR, in Geography, a city of Hisdooftan, and capital of the Candeifh country, and at one period, of the Deccan alfo. It is a fine fourifhing city, and is fitnated in the midft of a delightful country. This was one of the earlicft conquefls in the Deccan; and it is now in the hands of the Poonah, or weltern Mahrattas, About 20 miles to 322 the BUR the N.E. of it is a very ftrong fortrefs, named Afeer, or Afeergur. It has a confiderable trade in fine cottons, white and painted, plain, and mixed with gold and filver, for veils, fhaw)s, handkerchiefs, &c.; 135 miles N. of Aurungabad, and 625 S. of Delhi. N. lat. 21° 19’. E, long. 76° 22!. Buruanrour, a town of Hindoottan, in the country of Bengal; 10 miles S. of Moorfhedabad, and ico miles N. of Calcutta. BURIAH, a river of Hindooltan, which runs into the Jumnah, 29 miles S. of Delhi. BURIAL. The a& of interring a deceafed perfon. Of the various modes of burial which have prevailed in the world, it was Cicero’s opinion, (De Leg. ii, 22 ) that inbu- mation was the oldeft: and the records of hiltory undoubt- edly corroborate the notion. Burning, and irclofing the remaing in urns, were perhaps never found expedient, tll national animofities had given rife to inhuman treatment of the dead. The common confent of mankind, from the beginning of time to the prefent moment, has concurred in the propriety and decency of interment: it is a natural aét infpired by humanity ; a praétice, which has been continually obferved by enemies in time of war; and but rarely denied in any country, but to thofe who have violated either the laws of God or nature. The duty of fepuiture, and inftances of the difcharge of it, continually occur in Scripture. David paffes high encomiums on the men of Jabez-Gilead who refcued the bones of their king and prince from the enemy’s walls, and committed them to their family vault. (2 Sam. ii. 5.) It is part of the praife of Tobit that he went about burying his murdered countrymen, at the hazard of his life. And Jeremiah threatens it aa the greateft of punifhments, that the wicked fhould be deprived of burial, and left on a dunghill: (Jer. viii. 2.) or as it is emphatically expreffed, buried with the burial of an afs. Herodotus tells us, (Euterpe, xc.) that in Egypt, if either a native or a fo- reigner was found either deftroyed by a crocodile, or drown- ed in the water, the city neareft which the body was difco- vered was obliged to embalm it, and pay it every refpeful attention, and afterwards depofit it in {ome confecrated place. Ifeus brings it as a proof that Cleon was not the fon of Aftyphylus, becaufe he neither buried him, nor performed his funeral exequies. (Orat. de Hereditate Aftyphyli.) A law of Athens compelled the burial of a dead body found by accident, -and pronounced the refufer impious. Servius on Virgil (AEn. vi. 176.) fays, writers on moral duties place the duty of interring the dead among the firft. It was profana- tion for a prieft to look ona dead body, but the height of impiety to leave it unburied. The Athenians carried their attention to the dead beyond the grave: and Solon, by an exprefs law, forbad apy refleions on their character. On this law Plutarch thus comments: ‘¢ Piety fhould induce us to reverence the dead; juftice fhould prevent us from inter- meddling with the affairs of thofe who no longer exill; and policy fhould lead us to prevent the perpetuity of enmity.” (Solon, p. 89. E.) Dcmotthenes extends the caution itll further: not even any provocation from furvivors of the fa- mily fhould urge us to any refleGtions on the dead; (in Lep- tonein, p. 298.) and every citizen was at liberty to bring an ation againft the abufive party. (Ulpian in loc. Demoft- henes in Beeotos, p. 588. Suidas.) The Cynics, however, feem to have regarded burial with contempt; and Pliny (H.N. 1. vii.) ranks concern about it among‘t the weak- neffes peculiar to man. Among the earlieft inhabitants of the world, neither the modes nor the appropriate place of burial can now be afcer- tained. Nor does it feem that the latter, even in the middle IAL. periods of Jewith hiftory, was always particularly determin- ed. For we find they had graves and fepulchres both in the town and country, in fields, upon the highways, in gar- dens, in their own houfes, and upon mountains: though the general cuftom feems to have been, that the dead fhould be interred without the city. They appear in many cafes alfo to have thought it a misfortuue not to be buried with their fathers. In Genefis (xv. 15.) when the afflidion of Abra- ham’s polterity was foretold, it was promifed that he fhould go to his fathers in peace, and be buried in a good old age. He afterwards pleads moft pathetically with the fons of Heth (xxiii. 3—13.) for the purchafe of a burial place for Sarah. It wasin the cave of the field of Machpelah; and it afterwards received the bodies of himfelf, of Ifaac, and of Jacob. Jofeph’s body, having been embalmed, and put into a coffin, in Egypt, was brought away by the I{raelites when they quitted the country, and buried in a plot of ground in Shechem, which Jacob had purchated of the fons of Hamor (Gen. 1. 25. Jofh. xxiv. 32.) Mofes was fecretly buried in a valley in the land of Moab, (Deut. xxxiv. 6.) and no man knew of his fepulchre. Eleazar, the fon of Aaron, was bu- ried ona hill. (Joth. xxiv. 33.) Joab, in his own houfe in the wildernefs. (1 Kingsii. 34.) Manaffeh and Amon, in the garden of Uzza; (2 Kings xxi. 18. 26.) and Rehoboam, Afa, Jehofaphat, Joram, Amaziah, Azariah, Jotham and Ahaz. in the city of David, with their fathers. ‘ Joath, too, was buried in the city of David,”’ but not in the fepul- chres of the kings. (2 Chron. xxiv. 25.) From the protane writers of antiquity we learn the prac- tice among cther nations: and not only from their authority, but from daily obfervation, we find the high railed Tumulas continued a mark of refpect amongit the living, and a fignal honour amongft the dead in every age of which we have any record. Barrows are the moft ancient fepulchral monuments in the world: and their contents are as various as the diffe- rent people that occupied the globe, or the different circum- {tances by which they were diltnguifhed. The pyramids of Egypt are but barrows of a more folid material; and the church. yard hillock of the prefent day is but a relic of their univerfal prevalence. Homer is very particular in deferibing the barrow of Patroclus. It was firft marked out with a cir- cle; the foundations were then laid round the very #fpot where the funeral pile was ftiil uncooled, and the earth thrown up over them. Topyuecv]o Be onpace, Sepesrsze TE mpoBarovlo Ape wupny® elope dr Viny Ems yorsey EEA. Xsvavles Je Toone, wwoALy xtoy. Il. L. 255—257- The remains of the body were colleéted in a golden urn, but (which is fingular) were not lodged beneath the barrow. Among the diltinguifhed barrows of Greece may be ranked that of Egyptus in Arcadia, which Paufanias de- fcribes as not very large, and furrounded by a margin of ftone: Tus xywue 2 prey, Ads xpnmbos EY KUXAW ATEPKEOMEVOY $ (Arcad. c. 16.), and which Homer admired (Il. B. 603.), as not having feena finer. That of Icarus wasa {mall one, ona headland where he was caft away: (Paufan. Beeot. c. 11.) and that of Achilles in a fimilar fituation, (Odyff. . 36.) See Barrow. With the Egyptians, and the ancient Greeks, (fee Plato, Minoe prope fin.), perfons were occafionally buried, as we have already mentioned in the cafe of Joab, in their own houfes; while in other inftances hiils and rocks were not on- ly receptacles for the ancient inhabitants of Greece, Sicily and Afia, but of the Perfians, and, to this day, of the Chi- nefe. The general praétice of burial, however, among the ancient Perfians, is thus related by Herodotus, (Clio. at 6 T will a a. ie eee BURIAL. , % J will not affirm it to be true, that thefe never are inter- red till fome bird or dog has difcovered a propenfity to prey onthem. This, however, is unquettionably certain of*the Magi, who publicly obferve this cuftom. The Perfians firit enclofe the dead body in’ wax, ard afterwards place it in the ground.” The cuftom to which Heredotus here par- ticularly alludes as the exclufive privilege of the Magi, was afterwards univerfally adopted : and, in part, ftill continues. The place of burial of the Guebres, at the diftance of half a league from Ifpahan, is a round tower made of free ftone: it is 35 feet high, and go in diameter, without gate, or any kind of entrance; they afcend it by a ladder. In the midft of the tower is a kind of trench, into which the bones are thrown. The bodiesare ranged along the wall in their pro- per cloaths, upon a {mall couch, with bottles of wine and wituals. The ravens which fill the coe netery, devour them (Chardin’s Travels.) An exa& model of this curious tower is preferved in the Britifh Mafeum. Among the Egyptians, the body having been embalmed by perfons legally appointed to the exercife of the profef- fion, was returned to the relations, who enclofed it in a cafe of wood made to refemble an human figure, and placed it againft the wall in the repofitory of their dead. (Herod. Euterpe, Sear The cuftom of burning the dead, to which we have already alluded, is, however, of higher antiquity than we may at firft fuppofe. Sau} was burnt at Jabeth, and his bones after- wards buried ; and Afa was burnt in the bed which he had made for himfelf, filled with {weet odours, and divers kinds of fpices; but the praétice exifted, we are afflured, neither in Perfia nor Egypt: the Perfians thought it profane to feed a divinity with human carcafes ; and the Egyptians abhor- red it on another account, being fully perfuaded that fire was a voracious animal, which devoured whatever it could feize ; and when faturated, finally expired with what it had confumed. The Egyptians alfo held it unlawful to expofe the bodies-of the dead to animals; for which reafon they embalmed them, fearing left after interment, they might become the prey of worms. (Herod. Thalia, xvi.) In Perfia, too, at the time Herodotus wrote, the cuftom of burying alive was common: and he was told that Ameftris, the wife of Xerxes, when fhe was of an advanced age, com- manded fourteen Perfian children of illuftrious birth to be interred alive in honour of the deity whom they fuppofed to exift under the earth. ( Poiymnia, cxiv.) Of the ancient E+hiopian practice we have a more minute defcription, related on the tradition of Cambyfes’ fpies. “ After all the moifture is extraGted from the body, by the Egyptian, or fome other procefs, they cover it totally with a kind of plafter, which they decorate with various colours, and make it convey as near a refemblance as may be of the perfon of the deceafed. They then inclofe it in a hollow pillar of cryftal, which is dug up in great abundance, and of a kind that is eafily worked. The deceafed is very con- fpicuous through the cryftal, has no difagreeable {mell, nor any thing elfe that is offenfive. This coffin the neareft rela- tions keep for a twelvemonth in their houfes, offering before it different kinds of viétims, and the firf-fruits of their lauds. Thefe are afterwards removed, and fet up round the city. The funeral ceremonials attending the Scythian kings were ftill more finguler. They were embalmed, and after- wards tranfported through the different provinces of their kingdom, till they were at laft brought to the Gerfhi, in the remoteft parts of Scythia. Here the corpfe was placed upon a couch, (round which, at different diflances, were fixed daggers ; and upon the whole, piecea of wood covered with a branches of willow) in a trench, nigh the {pot where the Boryfthenes begins to be navigable. In fome other parts of this trench one of the concubines of the deceafed, who had been previoufly ftrangled, together with his baker, cook, groom, molt confidential fervants, horfes, and choiceft ef- fe&ts, were buried ; and a mound as high as poflible raifed above the whole. (Herod. Me pomene, Ixxii.) With regard, however, to the Scythians in general, the practice was more fimple. When any one died, the neighbours placed the body on a carriage, and carried it about to the different ac. quaintance of the deceafed ; thefe prepared fome entercain« ment for thofe who accompanied the corpfe ; placing before the body the fame as before the reft. Private perfons, after being thus carried about for the {pace of forty days, were buried. But the Scythians did not all of them obferve the fame cuftoms with refpeé to their funerals: there were fome who fufpended the dead bodies from a tree, and in that {tate left them to putrefy. * OF what confequence,” fays Plu. tarch, “ is it to Theodorus, whether he rots in the earth, or upon it? Such with the Scythians is the moft honour« rs funeral.” The cuftom is alfo mentioned by Silius Itae 1cus ; “* At gente in Scythica fuffixa cadavera truncis, Lenta dies fepelit, pytr liquentia tubo.” The African Nomades obfcrved the fame ceremonies with the Greeks. but the Na/amones buried their deceafed in a Sitting attitude ; and were particularly careful as any one ap- proached his end, to prevent his expiring in a reclined pof- ture. (Herod. Melpomene, cxc ) From the anecdotes of burial which have already been detailed, it thould feem, that both among the Jews and Heathens. the place of interment was ulually without the city. Such, alfo. was the cafe with the Athentaus, the Smyrnzans, the Sicyonians, the Corinthians, and the Syra- cufans. The examples of Numa and Servius Tullus prove that the Romans depofited their dead without the city, before the introduGtion of the twelve tables: and it was a fpeciak privilege granted by the fenate to particular perfons, that they fhould be buried within the walis; (Cic.@e Leg. ii, 23.) and the Jews, at leaft in the latter days of their -xiftence as a nation, as we learn from the ioftances of Lazarus, (Joho xi. 38.) the widow’s fon at Nain, (Luke vii 13) and the dead that were raifed at the crucifixion, (Matt. xxviv 53) obferved the fame place of ‘burial. The Lacedemonians, however, buried within it. It had been a notion u: iverfally prevalent, that the touch of a dead body conveyed pollu- tion; and Lycurgus, the legiflator of Sparta, was ambitious to remove the prejudice. He not onty introduced the cuf- tom of burial within the city, but ereéted monuments near the temples, that the youth might be trained from their infancy to the view of fuch objects, nor fhudder at the {pecs tacle of death. The ancient Greeks and Romans were ftrongly perfuaded that their fouls could not be admitted into the Elytian fields, till their bodies were committed to the earth: and if it happened that they never obtained the rites of burial, they were fuppofed to remain in a wandering (tate, excluded from the happy manfions, for the term of roo years. For thie reafon it was confidered as a duty incumbent upon all tra- vellers who fhould meet with a dead body in their way, to caft duft or mould upon it three times ; and of thefe three handfuls, one, at leaft, was calt upon the head. ' OF thofe who were allowed the rites of buriai, fome were diftinguithed by particular circumftances of difgrace attend. ing their interment: perfons killed by lightning were buried oo by themfelves, being thought odious to the gods; (fee » lis 54.) thofe who watted their patrimony, forfeited the rights BURIAL. right of b:ing buried in the fepulchres of their fathers: and thofe who were guilty of felf-murder, were privately depo- fited in the ground, without the accuftomed folemnities. The Athenian law mentioned by Aélian, (vii. 19.) obliged them to place the body to the weft. This was the original polition of the Athenians, as Solon fhewed in defence of his countrymen’s claims to Salamis; for on opening the graves in that ifland, he proved that the Athenians in it were fo buried in a regular manner, ‘but the Megarenfian invaders at random, and jult as it happened. Laertius (Solone) fays, the Athenians, and the fcholiaft on Thucy- dides, all the Greeks lay buried toward the eaft-; that is, as Kuknius on Elian, (loc. cit.) properly explains it, with their faces looking to the eaft, and their heads to the weft, This praétice among Chriftians has bzen fuppofed:to have a reference to the general refurre@tion. ‘The motive for it among the Heathens has not been affigned. The Athenian pra@tice, however, with regard to thofe who died in the defence of their country, was at once fo patriotic and affectionate, that it cannot but deferve parti- cular attention. It affords an elevated idea of that polifhed people. About three days before the funeral, the bones of the flain were placed in a tent raifed on purpofe, fo that every perfon might have an opportunity to frequent them, and pay the laft tribute of atear. All forts of odoriferous herbs and flowers were ftrewed around the tent ; and each man brought fome in his hand, that he might confecrate ‘them to the manes of his favourite friend. On the fourth day a coffin of cyprefé was fent from every tribe, to carry off the bones of their own members. After which went -an empty covered hearfe, in memory of thofe who could not. be found. ‘I'he proceffion was carried on with a pecu- liar decency of forrow, whilft great numbers of inhabitants, b th ftrangers and citizens, affitted in the train of mourners. The parents of the deceafed attended at the fepulchre to weep. WNoveye could refrain from tears; and the melan- choly diftrefs:-which appeared in the faces of all alike, feemed but a true-capy of the fentiments of all. The bones were accompanied+ in this manner to the pubic place of burial, fituated’in a pleafant {pot without the city, called Cerami- cus, and.committed to the ground. The monument ereéted to theovalour of thefe citizens was adorned with pillars, tro- phies, and infcriptions, fuch as were ufual about the tombs of the :moft honourable perfons, and the ceremony con- cluded with one fptech in praife of them all; the main feope of which was, to animate the living with refolution, by commending the courage of the dead; to infufe a {pirit of patriotifm into the minds of their fellow citizens, by celebrating the principle of aétion which incites the valiant to battle. (Thucyd.) The ceramicus was the place where the flain in battle were always buried, except thofe who fell at Marathon, whofe diftinguifhed merit entitled them toa monument upon the { ot. ‘ Among the Romans, inhumation, we find, was preferred by Nema, the Cornelian family, and Caius Marius; but both Virgil and Ovid fpeak of burning as the prattice before the foundation of Rome; the former (/En. xi. 208.) in the inttance of Pallas; the latter (Faft. iv. 853.) in that of Remus. Plutarch fays, Numa forbade it in his own cafe ; and the law of the Twelve Tables forbade durning as well as burial within the city, Tacitus (Ann. xvi. 6.) fays, Poppza’s corpfe was not burned according to the Roman fafhion. It is a mifapprehenfion of Capitolinus’s words to fuppofe Antoninus prehibited it. Macrobius (vii. 7.) who lived under Theodofius the younger, {peaks of it as left off in his time. (See Mr. Gough’s Sepuilchral Mon. of “Great Britain.) The drapery of the dead amonz the Romans was the foga, which was white in all cafes exceptinthat of the poor, who had it black. The -magiftrates and military men were wrapt in their purple robes of honour, or toga pretexiate, or other precious garments of various colours. Perfons.of rank and fortune were buried in their official habits. Mark Anthony gave his own robe to cover the body of Brutus. By the laws of the Twelve Tables crowns were allowed to be worn on thefe occafions by thofe who kad merited them, and garlands and flowers were caft on the body as it pafled. The funerals of great men were condutted at the public ex- pence. But the bodies of the Roman flaves were thrown to rot in holes dug perpendicularly, called puticuli. (Phil. Tranf. N° 265.) Having thus traced the conformity and occafional varia- tion of praétice among the more ancient nations in the article of fepulture, it may be worth while to deduce its hiftory in England. Both cremation and fimple interment were druidical and ancient Britifh fafhions. The latter rite, however, was obferved with the wild addition of whatever was of ufc in this life, under the notion that it would be wanted by the deceafed in the world below; and in confirmation of this, arms and many fingular things, of unknown ‘ule, are to this day difcovered beneath the places of ancient fepulture. (Pennant’s Tour in Wales, p. 351.) Barrows were their oldeft tombs. Beneath fome we find urns; beneath others {keletons; and in many inftances, both. (Gough’s Sep. Mon. I. iv.) The kiit-vaen or coffin, com= pofed of rough ftones fet edgeways, at the fides and ends, was another receptacle of the dead anciently ufed in Britain; (Ibid. p. xvi.) thefe are frequent in Wales; but feldom found to contain fkeletons, or remains of bodies in them. See Dr. Stukeley’s Abury (p. 13.) of one found.in a barrow at Rowldrich and another (p. 49.) fimilar, in Monkton field near Abury. T'wothat were tound in Purbeck, on making a turnpike road to Corfe, had fkeletons in them. Of this earlier kind and date were the rude {tone chefts under barrows in Orkney, which contained entire bodies. The Tariarian barrows have abfolute ftone vaults under them. (Archeol. ii. 222." The next and laft improvement of the ftone coffin, was by forming it of a fingle ttone with mallet and tool; and this Dr. Pegge aferibed to the Romans; for he apprehended that during the general prevalency of the cuftoms of crema- tion and urn-burial among the Romans, they had not always recourfe to the funeral pile, but that bodies were fometimes interred whole and in their natural ftate. (Sep. Mon. I. xx.) Inftances of Roman coffins of feveral pieces of ftone are cited by Mr. Gough in the Sepulchral Monuments (vol. I. p- xxi.); and others, (p. xxvi.) to prove that the Romans ufed brick coffins, or farcophagi, in their earlieft periods. In the celebrated family vault of the freedmen of Auguftus and Livia, difcovered by the fide of the Appian way, about a mile out of Rome, 1725, among a few marble farcophagi were two of baked-earth, made to contain the body whole. The Romans in Britain buried their warriors near the via flrata or military ways: and hence we may derive the frequent infcription of Sisrr or Asprce Viaror. Woden enaéted a law for burning the dead, which not only the Saxons and the Danes, but the remote Sarmate, and all the Scandinavian nations regularly obferved; and tumulated the afhes, with or without urns, as circumf{tances required, The Danes diftinguifhed by this, and the different 4 funeral BUR fueeral ceremonies three feveral epochs. (Worm. Mon, Dan. p. 40.) The fir, which wes the fame with that in queftion, was called Roi/ild and Breatetijde or the age of burning. The fecond, was ftyled Hoigald, and Hoielfetijde, or the age of tumuli or hillocks, The corpfe at this period was placed entir-, with all the ornaments which graced it during life. The bracelets, or arms, and even the horfe of the departed hero were placed behind the heap. Money, and all the rich property of the déceafed, ufed to be buried with him, from the perfuafion that the foul was immortal (Pomp. Mela, iii. c. 2.) and would ftand in need of thefe things in the other hfe. Among-the northera nations, when piracy was efteemed® honourable, thefe illuitrious robbers direG&ted that all their rich plurder fhou!d be depofited with their remains, (Bar- tholiaus Antigq. Den. 438.) in order to ftimulate their off- {pring to fupport them(clves, and the g'ory of their name by deeds of arms. Hence it is we hear of the vatt riches Gifcovered in fepulchres, and of the frequent violation of the remains of the dead, in expediation oftreafures, even for centurics after this cuftom had ceafed. The third age was called Chrifendsms-cid, when the introdu@ios of Chnif- tlanity put a {top to the former cultoms, From the remarks of the writers who have been already cited, we learn that the cuftom of burning, among the feveral nations ceafed with paganifm. It therefore fell firit into difufe with the Britons; for it was for fome time retained by the Saxons after thcir conqucft of this kingdom ; but was left cff on their receiving the light of the gofpel. The Danes retained the cuftom of urn-burial the laft of any : for of allthe northern nations who had any footing in thefe kingdoms, they were the late who embraced the doétrin-s of Chriftianity. With regard to the barrows or tumuli, fo frequent through the country, we have no good criterion by which a corre& judgment may be made of the people to whom the different {pecies belong : whether they are Dritifh, Roman, Saxon, or Danifh. Some of them confiit of heaps of naked ftones, fuch as thofe in the ifle of Arran; in many parts of Scot- land ;. and in fome parts of Cornwall. Others are compofed with ftones and earth, nicely covcred with earth and fod. And they were fometimes of earth only. The fize of the tumulus ufu2lly marked the quality of the perfon: and the earth and fods, which were {kimmed and paired from the furface round it, were lightly heaped up, and conferred on the deceafed the laft good wih, Sit titi terra levis. The generality of thefe were round; but others were conical ; and fome, 25 on the plains of Wilthhire and at Koliwright, of an oblong form. Finally, other places of ancient fepul- ture confifted only of a flat area, encompaffed like the druidical circles, with upright ftones; and fuch were thofe of Ubbo, and of king Harald in Sweden. (Suecia Antigua and Hodierna, tab. 315.) The urns are alfo found placed in different manners, with the mouth refting dowawards upon a flat flone, fecured by another above; or with the mouth upwards, guarded in a like way. Very frequently the urna are d'feoyered lodged in a fquare cell compoled of flags; and fumetimes more than one of thefe cells are found beneath a carn or tumulus, Mr. Pennant even met with no fewer than feventeen, near Dupplin in Perthhhire, cifpofed in a regular form. ‘The urns found in thefe cells are ufually furrounded with the frag ments of bones that had refited the fre; for the friends of the deceafed were particularly careful to colle every particle ; which they placed, with the remains of the charcoal, about the IAL urns, thirking the negle& of it the utmoit impiety. (Pennant’s Tour in Wales, loc. cit.) The introduction of Chriftianity made a great alteration in the mode of burying the dead. Cremation ceafed. The believing Romans betook themfelves to the ufe of farcophazi. The Romanized and converted Britons would natvraily do the fame. The Saxons as the fucceffors of the Britons inclined from the very firft to adopt their praétices. And after the arrival of St. Auftin in 596, and the confequent converfion of the nation, ccffins, as well as the mode of plecing the body to the eatt, univerfally took place. The oldeft inflance of a ceffin that we know of in the Saxon times, was that of Etheldreda in 695 (Sep. Mon. I. xxvit.) 5 and from this time downward, fone coffins have been con- tinuslly difeovered in every part of England. They may be regularly traced-among us from the ninth century to the reign of Henry ITI.: and in fome cafes to that of Henry VELI. (Gent. Mag. 1759. p. 66.) In the Norman times it was the cuftom to bury monks in the bare ground. Warin, the twentieth abbot of St. Albans, in 1195, ordered that they fhould be buried in {tone coffins as more decent. (Matt. Paris,. vit. ab. Albani - 95-) s eArrong the primitive Chriftians burying in cities was not allowed for the firll 300 years, nor in churches: for many ages after; the dead bodies being firft depofited in the atrium or church-yard, and porches, and porticoes of the church. On. the introdu@tion of Chriltianity into this Country, a regular form of difpofing of the dead bodies took place. The altar in the firft Chriftian bafilic was placed in the ealt of it, under a window, to receive the firft advantage of light, or in conformity with what is faid of our Lord’s alcenfion. The people for greater regularity in worthip were taught to: look towards the altar; and the dead for a fimilar reafon, were buried-with their faces the fame way 5 except the priefts who were ordered by the fame authority to face the congregation. ‘The reafon alleged by Gregory the Great for burying in churches or in places adjoining to them, was that their relations and friends, remembering thofe whofe fepulchres they beheld, might hereby be led to offer up prayers for them. Hence too that ttriking and folemn addrefs which marked the epitaphs of the monkifh ages: Orate praanima miferrimi peccatoris. Gregory’s reafon was afterwards transferred into the body of the canon law. To this fuperftition,. and the profit arifing from it, we may afcribe the original of church-yards. In the eighth century, the people began to be admitted into them, and fome princes, founders, and bifhops, into the church. ‘lhe praétice, firft introduced into the Romith church by Gregory the Great, was brought over here by Cuthbert, archbifhop of Canterbury, about the year 750: and the practice of erect- ing vaults in chancels and under the altars was begun by Lanfranc, archbifiop of Canterbury, when he had rebuilt the cathedral there, about 1075. From that time the matter feems to have been left. to the dilcretion of the bifhop. It was remarked to the writer of the prefent article bya learned antiquary, who is now no more, that in ancient times in this, and perbap2 in other countries, then Roman Catholic, interment was never pra@tifed on the north fide of the church. An opinion prevails that it was left for ma- lefattors, for the unbaptized, for fuicides, and for fuch as had incurred the greater cenfure of the church: and common obfervation. will confirm the faé&, at the prefent moment, that many more graves occur on the fouth than on the north fides of our churches. An extract from a letter Fur Tet of Mr. Samuel Denne (the gentleman above alluded to) affords a curious illuitration of what has been aflerted. «* There is reafon to believe that fifty years ago the north fide of the church-yard of Wilmington (in Kent), might be unoccupied by corpfes; and in 1733, on digging a grave to the north of John Chapman’s head-ftone, for the inter- ment of Richard Harman of Stonehill, not a human bone was found, nor were there any marks of the ground’s having been before moved. But in 1745 and 1746, when the hofpital of the regiments of infantry encamped upon Dart- ford-heath, was in the manfion houfe formerly belonging to the Langworth family, 35 foldiers who died in the hofpital were buried in this {pot. : “© On ovening the ground for the interment of one of ‘them, midway between the wall of the church, and the fence of the church-yard, and about ten feet to the weft of Mr. Fowke’s tomb, John Woodmanfey, the parifh clerk, dif- covered an earthen pot containing money, of filver. The quantity was not known, nor does any attention feem to have been {hewn to the date of the pieces laf c. ined. Tn con- fequence of this omiffion there is an ignorance of one cir- cumftance that might nearly have afcertained in which na- tional commotion this treafure was concealed. It is, how- ever, an obvious remark that the owner of it thought this «quarter of the church-yard a very fecure place, which adds weight to the opinion, I have already hinted, that the parifhioners of that age had an infuperable obje€tion to the burying of their relations and friends behind the church.” In regard to the rites of burial as they are praétifed in “the more diftant quarters of the globe, our obfervations will ibe few. In Fapan, Peru, Pegu, Mexico, Tartary, Siam, and the Great Mogul’s dominions, the dead are burned: and for people of fuperior confideration the fires are made with aromatic woods, gums, balfams, and oils. In China, we are told it was formerly the cuflom to bury flaves with emperors and princes, and fometimes alfo their concubines alive; but this cruel praétice has given way, in modern times, to the more harmlefs one of burning reprefentations of their domeftics in tin foil, cut into the fhape of human beings, and of placing their ftatues in wood or ftone upon their gravee; this feems to be the remain of the Scythian cuftom which has been already quoted from Herodotus. The laft remains of a relation are interred with all the honours that the family can afford. (Barrow’s Travels in ‘China, p. 483.) Among the Birmans the deceafed is burnt, unlefs he is a pauper, in which cafe he is either buried or caft into the river, as the ceremony of burning is very expenfive. When the pile has been reduced to afhes, the bones are gathered and depofited ina grave. Symes’s Ava, p. 314. With every: ‘erent tribe among the Hottentots, we are affured, the funeral ceremonies are alike. The deceafed is thruft either naked, or with his peliffle on, into a hole 4m the earth or fubterraneous paflage, where the body ufually becomes the prey of fome wild beaft: though the relations generally thruft brufh-wood or bufhes into the aperture of the hole or paflage. (Sparrman’s Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, i. 358.) Another cuftom of a more norrid nature is likewife related on the fame authority ; Sparrman fays, that it is a common pra¢tice, in cafe of the mother’s death, to inter children at the breatt alive. In New South Wales, the dead are burned, afterwards depofited in the ground, and a funera! hillock raifed upon the afhes. (Hunter’s Voyage to New South Wales, p. 64.) Laflly, we fh ll mention, the cuftom of burial among the South Sea “Sfands At Ota eite the inhabitants bury none in the orai, but thofe offered in facrifice, or flain in battle, or the children of chiefs which have been ftrangled at the birth: Ain a& of atrocious inhumanity too common. When a perfon of eminence dies, even if a child of the fuperior clafs, he is preferved and not.buried, unlefs “he died of fome contagious or offerfive difeafe. They take out the vifcera, and dry the body with cloth, anointing it within and without with the perfumed orl, and this is frequently repeated. The relations and friends, who are abfent, perform their part of the funeral rites at their arrival, each female pre- fenting a piece of cloth to the corpfe; and they continue to drefs and decorate the body as if alive, and to furnifh it with provifions, fuppofing that the foul which hovers round receives fatisfaction from fuch marks of attention; they therefore not only take care of it thus, but repeat befo-e it fome of the tender fcenes which happened during its life time. While any offenfive fmell remains they anoint the corpfe with fweet-{cented-oil, and furround it with garlands of flowers. A dead chief is ufually carried round the ifland to the different diftri€ts where he had property, or where his particular friends refide ; and the funeral ceremony repeated: but after a tour of fome months, he ts brought to reft at the place of his ufual refidence. Some bodies are preferved like dricd parchment; others, when the fieth is mouldered away, are burned. (See the Firft Miffionaries Voyage, p. 363, 364.) By our common law, the granting of burial within the church is the exclufive privilege of the incumbent: except in cafes where a burying place is preferbed for as belonging to a manor-houfe. (Gibfon, 453.) The church-wardens, by cuftom, have, however, a fee for every burial there, by reafon the parifh is at the expence of repairing the floor. ( Watfon’s Clergyman’s Law, cap. 39.) By the flatute, 30 Car. 2. ft. 1. c. 3. for the encourage. ment of the woollen manufactures, and prevention of the exportation of money for the importing of linen, it is enaéted, that no corpfe of any perfon fhall be buried in any fhirt, fhift, fheet, or fhroud, or any thing whatfoever made or mingled with flax, hemp, filk, hair, gold, or filver, or in any ftuff or thing, other than what is made of fheep’s wool only; on pain of 51. And an affidavit fhall be made for this purpofe either to a magiltrate or the officiating minifter. By the canons of the church (Can. 68.), no minifter thall refufe or delay to bury any corpfe that is brought ito the church or church-yard (convenient warning thereof being given him before) except the party deceafed were denounced excommunicated majore excommunicatione, for fome grievous and notorious crime, and no mag able to teltify of his repent- ance. Therewcre anciently other caufes of refulal, particularly of heretics, againft whom there was an efpecial provifion in the canon jaw, that if they continued in their herefy they fhould not have chriftian burial: though no inftances of its enforcement occur fubfequent to the period of the reformation. They who had not received the holy facra- ment, at lcaft at Eafter, wete exchided from Chriltian burial by a law of the Lateran council, which became afterwards a law of the Englifh church. In like manner, perfons killed in duels, tilts, and tournaments. But, at this day, thefe prohibitions are reftrained to the excommunicate, the unbaptized and {uicides. Buriat, Chriffian, is often ufed to denote that which is performed in holy ground, and with the ufual fervice or ce- remonies of the church. Burst is alfo ufed to denote the dues paid for interment, efpecially to the minifter, The burial fee paid to the prieft on openirg the grave, was called by our Saxon ancettors foul-feot. Phil. Tranf. N° 189. 8 Buriay BUR Buridt of an afi, afni fpultura, an ignominious kind of burial out of holy ground, under the gallows, or in a high- way, where feveral roads meet, and performed by public hangmer, or the like. Such is that of fuicides, excommu- nicated perfons, &c. fometimes denominated canine burial, or burial of a dog. * In the m'ddle age we alfo find mention of a peculiar kind of buriels, called imscocation. praStifed on the bodies of perfoos excommunicated, Du Cange. Buriat of the crucifix, Sepultura crucifixi, denoted a re- prefentation of the bunal of Chrift, anciently. performed an- nually in churches on the day of the Parafceue. Du-Cinge. Buniats, in computations of mortality, denote deaths, and ftand oppof:d to births. In this fenfe, we have efti- mates of the burials in Brandenburg, in Frankfort, Breflaw, &e. Phil.Yranf. N° 261. 229. and 176. By a ftatute under king Cliarles II. a regilfter is to be k-pt in every perifh, of all perf:ns buried within the fame, or at the common burial-places thereof, Stat..33 Car. II. ce. 3+ See Morrariry. Buaiar is alfo uled for the inclofing of vegetable or mi- peral bodies in the ground, for divers purpofes. Lord Ba- con gives divers experiments of burying fruits, &c. for pre- fervation and condenfation, and to give nourifhment to their re{peétive trees. Works, tom. iii. p. 80. : Some commend burials in the earth, others in wheat, to feafon timber when firit felled, and to make it of more dur- 2ble ufe. Chemiits fometimes bury their cements. The Cninefe are faid to bury their porcelain, to give it the greater beanty. BURIANA, in Geograpdy, a town of Italy, in the territory of Sienna, near the lake of Caftighone; 16 miles S. of Montieri. BURIAS, or Buran, one of the Manillas or Philippine Iflands, fouth of Luzon, about five miles in compefs, inha- bited by a few tributary Indians, who are compriled in the parith of M:fbate, which is another larger ifland fouth of it, and not far diftant from Ticao. N. la'. 12°30'. E. jong. 122° of. BURICH. Sce Bopericu, Buaicu, is alfo a town of Germany, in the circle of Swabia, and margraviate of Baden-Durlach: five miles from Philiphourz. BURIDAN, Joun, in Biography, a celebrated {chool- man of the 14th century, was a native of Bethune, and be- came profeffor in the univerfity of Paris, and, as fome fay, regent in 1320. Aventine relates, that he was a difciple of Ockam, aad being attached to the feet of the Nominals, was obliged by the prevalence of that of the Realifts to quit Paris, and to remove to Germany, where he founded the univerfity of Vienna. He wrote ‘* Commentaries on Arif- torle’s Logic, Ethics, and Mctaphyfics;”’ but he has been principally remarkabl: on account of the fophifm or argu- ment, commonly called “* Boridan’s Afs.”” This feems to have been iatroduced for the purpofe of illuftrating the doc- @rine of that neceffity of yielding to imprefiiuns of the fenfes under which beatts are placed, and in which they are fup- pofed to differ frum man, who poffeffes free-will, or an in- ternal felf-determining power. With this view, Buridan feigned an hangry afs, placed between two meafures of oats, in {uch a maoner, that each made exatily the fame impref- fion on his fenfes ; in which cafe, for want; of a power of ebufing one rather than another, he muft die of hunger. The term * Buridan’s Afe,” has been fince proverbially ufed to denote difficulty and hefitation in determining betweeu two objeGs. Ga. Did. BURIE, in Geography, 2 town of France, in the Lower Vou. V. = ‘ BUR Charente, and chief place of a canton, ia the diflri& of Saintes ; the place contains 1510, and the canton 10,283 inhabitants; the territory comprebends 127% kiliometres, and 11 communes. _ BURIGNY, N. Levesove pe, in Biography, an elti- mable man of letters, was born at Rheims in 1691, and de- voting himfelfto literary purfuits, acquired univerfal refpect for the mildnefs and fimplicity of his charaéter. He was a member of the Parifian academy of belles Icttres; and pro- longed his life, with the exercife of his faculties, to his g4th year. His works are “ A Treatife on the Authority of the Popes.” 1720, 4 vols. rzmo. * Hiftory of Pagan Philofophy,” 1724, 12mo., and 1754; General Hiftory of Sicily,”” 1745, 2 vols. 4to.; “A Tranflition of Por- phyry on Abftinence from Fleth,” 1747, r2mo.; “ Hiftory of the Revolutions of Conftantinople,” 1750, 3 vols. 12mo.; “ The Life of Grotius,” 1754, 2 vols. 12mo.; of Erafmus,” 1757, 4 vols. 12mo.; “* of Boffuet,”? 1761, r2mo.; “ of Cardinal du Perron,” 1768, 12mo.; all in French. His works, which in their general charaéter are correét, but dif- fufe and languid, ace efteemed as valuable colleétions of au« thentic fa&ts. Nouv. D:&. Hitt. BURIS, in Surgery, a name given by Avicenna, and fome other old authors, to a (cirrhous hernia, caufed by a hard ablcefs. BURKA, in Geography, lies in the ifland of Angra, ia the gulf of Baffora. and has a fpacious harbour, with plenty of water. See AnGra-ifland. BURKE, Epmunp, in Biography. was born in Dublin, on the firft of January, 1730. is father was an attorney of the Proteftant perfuafion. The fon was placed, during the early part of his education, under the care of Abraham Shackleton, a Quaker fchoolmalter of confiderable merit, for whom his i!lultrious pupil eatertained fo large'a fhare of affefion through life, as never to omit paying him an an- nual vilit of gratitude and refpeét, during a period of forty~ years. [rom Ballytore near Carlow, the retidence of Shac- kicton, Mr. Burke was removed, at the age of fixteen, to Trinity College, Dublin, It is underftood that he was More attentive to the iaftructions of his conntry {chool-maf- ter, from whom he early derived much of his multifarious knowledge, than to the more regular difcipline of tuition, inftituted by the univerfity. He gained no prize; but he obtained his fcholarfhip, during the fecond year of his ‘refi- dence, which proves him at Icaft not to have been deficient in claffical attainments; for of fuch are that honour and emo- lument the reward. He wascontemporary with Gold{mith A but it does not appear that any friendfhip commenced bee tween thefe two great men, till after the pocm of the « T'ra- veller” had eltablifh-d Gold{mith’s reputation. There is no foundation whatever for the opinion, that Burke was bred a Catholic; and it feems now generally agreed, that he did not finifh his ftudies at St. Omer’s. He was acanili- date for the profefforfhip of logic at Glafgow, but was too late in hisapplication. On tlus difappointment, he repaired to London in 1749, after having taken his bachelor’s degree, and entered himtelf amember of the Temple, with a view of being called to the bar. Ac this time, the narrownefs of his finances reduced him to the neceflity of writing for the periodical papers ; to which, he contributed effays on literary and political topics: but though the {phere in which he moved was not that of plea- fure and fafhion, he procured an introdu@ion to the cele- brated Mre. Woffingion, the aétrefs, in whofe fociety he pales many of his Jeifure hours. The feverity with which i¢ applied himfelf both to compofition and fludy, having Confiderably affcéted his health, Dr. Nugent was called iv, 4A whe BURKE, who removed him from the imadequate accommodations of the Temple to the comforts of his own houfe. The atten- tion of the family, and the particular kindnefs of Mifs Nu- gent, led to a matrimonial conneGtion, in which Mr. Burke’s expe@ations of domeftic happinefs were fully anfwered. Mr. Burke’s firft acknowledged publication was, “ A Vindication of natural Society ; or a View of the Miferies and Evils arifing to Mankind, from every Species of artifi- cial Society ;”” written in imitation of lord Bolingbroke, for the purpofe of attacking ironically that writer’s philcfo- phy, and expoling its injurious confequences. It did pot meet with the reception which has fince been thought to have been juitly due to its merit as a compofition. He was not however difcouraged by this failure from pubhifhing his ** Effay on the Sublime and Beautiful,’ which had been compofed prior to the “ Vindication,” but referved for the advantage of making a firft appearance under cover of a well-known and admired chara@er. Both thefe works came out in 1756. Though there was no name to the ¢ Inquiry,” the firft edition was fold within the year, and a fecond publifhed in 1757, with an “ Introduétory Difcourfe concerning Tatte.”” The applaufe which attended this performance was vot tem- porary, nor the conneétions confequent on it without per- manent advantage. It procured him relief from his pecuni- ary embarraflments, and an eafy introdu@ion to the circles of the firlt rank and abilities. Among the firft who fought his acquaintance, were Dr. Johnfon and fir Jofhua Rey- nolds, to whom he has been fuppofed to have furnifhed the compofition of the “ Difcourfe to the Royal Academy.”’ Much has been faid on the fubject ; but there feems no rea- fon for depriving the late illuftrious prefident of the fame at- tached to an excellent writer, as well as an originalj and ac- complifhed artift, It was Mr. Burke’s intention to have controverted the theories of Berkeley and Hume: he then thought of rival- ling the hiftoric labours of the latter in Memoirs of his own Times ;” forthis purpofe, he had made himfelf mafter of Englith hiftory, efpecially fince the revolution ; and the proje&t ended in the eftablithment of Dodfley’s ** Annual Regitter,” a very valuable work, of which he had the principal direftion from 1758 to 1789. In 1761, he accompanied ‘* Single-fpcech Hamilton” to Ireland. This latter gentleman made one very excellent {peech in the Englith, and one more in the Irith houfe of commons; and Mr. Burke has been faid to have been the compofer of both thefe {peeches, but probably with as little reafon as in the cafe of fir Jofhua’s difcourfes. On Mr. Burke’s return from Ereland, with a penfion of 3ool. per annum, It was no longer neceflary to write for periodical publications. He, however, eontributed occafionally to the * Public Advertifer,?? where the excellence of his writings introduced him to the notice of the marquis of Rocking- ham, while Mrs. Woffington recommended him to the duke of Néweaftle. He accordingly became private {ecretary to the marquis, at the inftance of Mr. Fitzherbert, and mem- ber for Wendover on lord Verney’s intereft, and thus com: menced his political career. In February 1764, was founded that club, which’ after- wards became diftinguifhed by the title of the Literary Club. Sir Jofhua Reynolds was the firft propofer, and Johnfon ac- ecded to the plan, in the hope of enlarging his circle, and recovering the opportunities for converfation, which he hed loft by the diffolution of the meeting in Ivy-Lane. The original members of the literary club were, befides the two founders, Mr. Burke, Dr. Nugent, Mr. Beauclerk, Mre Langton, Mr. Chamicr, fir John Hawkins, and Gold{mith. They met at the Turk’s Head, in Gerrard ftreet, Soho, on: i every Monday evening through the year. About the time of Mr. Burke’s entrance on public life, men’s minds were equally agitated by the meafures of gos vernment refpe€ting Mr. Wilkes, and the growing difcon- tents in America. Of the two parties in oppofition, that of Mr. Pitt having infifted on very peremptory conditions, re{peting court favourites and fecret advifers, the duke of Newcattle, of whofe party, on account of his age and in- firmities, the marquis of Rockingham was confidered as the leader, clofed with the terms on which a new adminiftratioa waa propofed. Mr. Burke now, with a facility to which: he was too prone, feccded from his old friendfhip with Mr. Hamilton ; but he is faid, at the fame time, to have re- figned the penfion procured through that geatleman’s in- tereft. From thistime he became a profeffed party-man ;: a bondage to which he was in fome meafure compelled, by laying himfelf under pecuniary obligations to the marquis of Rockingham. The nature and extent of the favour he re- ceived have been vaiioufly reprefented ; but it is certain. that a confiderable part, if not the whole of the purchafe- money for his villa at Beaconsficld, of which he now took pof= feffion, was promifed either as a loan ora gift by the marquis. On his entrance into parliament, he took infinite pains to qualify himfelf for the difcharge of his new duty. Among: other fources of improvement, he difdained neither the writ- ings of the fathers, the fubtleties of the fchool divines, the perufal of precedents and records, nor the oratorical cons tefts of the Robin-Hood fociety. His principal opponent. at the Robin-Hood was a baker, of whom Gold{mith faid, that ‘* Nature intended him to have prefided in the court of chancery.” He procured his feat in 1765, and his firft {peech was on the flamp a&. [It attracted the notice, and: obtained the applaufe of Mr. Pitt : Mr. Burke was princi pally confulted by the Rockingham adminiftration on the- affairs of America, and the middle courfe was adopted ins conformity with his advice, The weaknefs of the party, and the feeblenefs of their policy, foon brought the miniftry toa clofe; and its diffolution was haftened by Mr. Burke’s projeét of a Canadian conttitution. which lord Northington condemned in the moit angry and contemptuous language... Mr. Pitt then made his own terms,.as he thought, with the: court. Mr. Burke had fcarcely time to defend the condu& of his friends in print, before their fuccefiors refigned, and: the parliament was diffolved. Mr. Burke was re-ele&ted for Wendover, the Grafton miniftry came into power, and Mr.. Burke was the principal orator of oppofition. He was ad verfe to the expulfion of Wilkes, and made an able f{peech to prove his fubfequent eligibility, though he difliked the- general chara€ter of the man. About this time, the letters. of Junius began to appear ;. and on this occafion, the pubiic have not loft fight of their propenfity to. attribute all able compofition to Mr. Burke. There feems to be not the Jeaft foundation for fuppofing him to have been their au-- thor. He, however, gave his opinions and principles at confiderable length, in his ** Thoughts on the Caufés.of the: prefent Difcontents.’” The leading features of this pam-. phlet were, a pointed inveGive againit inner cabinets and fecret influence, and a pifture of what a houfe of commons ought to be. Thofe who feek in this work for proofs of: pouitical apoftacy in later life, will not find the evidence fo. decifive as they expe&t. The remedies propofed were not. thofe of democracy, but of a fellow-feeling to be eftablifhed between. the ariftocracy and the people. As a proof that the views of the author did not even then rife up-to the expetations of the whig-party in general, he was attacked by Mrs. Macaulay, as well'as by the friends of the court. 7 While a BURKE. While lord North was minifter, the impetuofity of fy{te- Matic oppolition feems to have carried Mr. Burke’s vindica- tion of freedom further than was compatible with that fond- nefs for ancient eftablifhments, which always exilted in his mind, and became fo much ftronger in the latter part of life. He took a diftinguifhed part in the debates on the liberty of the prefs. During the whole of the American war, he uni- formly oppofed the minifter with zeal and ability, and defend- ed the people with warmth and energy. His habits during this period were thofe of fobriety and literary induitry, as weli as of parliamentary vigilance and exertion. It is to the credit of both parties that political differences made no breach between Burke and Johnfon. The latter, en taking leave of his hoft at Beaconsficld, wifhed him all che fuccefs on his canvas at Briftol, which ‘ eould poflibly be wifhed him by an honeft man.”’ The famous Briftol eleGtion took place in 1774, when Burke and Cruger, an American merchant, turned out lord Clare and Mr. Brickdale, the former reprefentatives. So little affittance did Mr. Burke derive from Mr. Cruger’s eloquence on the huftings, that the conftant and only {peech of the latter was, ‘I fay dittoto Mr. Burke! I fay ditto to Mr. Burke!” It would exceed the limits of this article to detail Mr. Burke’s controverfy with Dean Tucker, on the part which he took on every great political queftion. It is neceflary, however, to mention, that on the queftion of parliamentary reform, the Rockingham branch of oppofition oppofed the mealure; and the duke of Richmond, lords Shelburne, Chat- ham, and Camden, Mr. Dunning, and Mr. Fox defended it. The leading features of Mr, Burke’s political condué, while pay-matter general in the Rockingham and Fox ad- miniftration, was the aduption of the plan for economical reform, which had been reje¢ted by the houfe cf commons in 1780. It however underwent feveral moditications. The political convulfions which cnfued on lord Rockingham’s death are well remembered. ‘The coalition, and the India bill were fuggefted and puthed forward with much ardour by Mr. Burke, and principally, if not entirely, produced that decline of popularity, which both himfelf and his friends ex- perienced. The event in which Mr. Burke ftood moft prominent be- fore the public, in the interval between the formation of Mr. Pitt’s miniftry, and the French revolution, was the impeach- ment of Mr. Haftings. His {peeches on this occafion were among the moft {plendid triumphs of his eloquence, though not among the moft folid atteitations of his judgmest. They were ron ir by intemperance and exaggeration, apparently produced rather by the ambition of rivalling Tully in his eloquent and claflical abule, than arifing from a fober exami- nation of faéts, or a ferious conviétion of guilt. The charges of avarice and malice have never been adequately fupported, and can only be mentioned to be denied in grave and impar- tial basal Mr. Burke had never been remarkable for an even temper in the difcuffion of political queftions: his irritability in- creafed with his years, and his conduct became intemperate and violent. He injured the caufe, and incurred the dif- pleafure of his affoctates on the queltion of the regency, and burft afunder all the ties of friendfhip, aa well as political counc&tion, on the breaking out of the French revolution, That event, together with the condu@ and opinions of Mr. Burke relating to it, ia fo recent, that it will be fufficient barely to enumerate his publications on the fubject, with the fingle obfervation, that he feems from this time forward to have cherifhed his ariftocratical principles into the molt inveterate bigotry, and to have negatived in turn every maxim of pra¢tical freedom, which he had formerly enforced. Stiil, however, it is to be hoped, that his mea{ures, as a public man, may candidly be attributed to impetuofity of cha- racter, and dudility of imagination, rather than to any worfe motives. The celebrated ‘¢ Reflexions’”? were publifhed in OGober 1790, which were firlt anfwered by Dr. Prieftley, 1 vindi- cation of his friend Dr. Price, and afterwards by Thomas Paine in his * Riszhts of Man.’’ The next publication of Mr. Burke was his “ Second Letter toa Member of the National Aflemb y;”? and the third, his ‘* Appeal from the new to the old Whigs,” in confequence of the publication from the whig ciub, declaring Mr. Fox to have maintained the pure doctrines of Englith whiggifm. In 1791, Mackintofh’s “ Vindicie Gallice’”? appeared, and Mr. Burke’s principal publications afterwards were, his *¢ Letter to Lord Fitzwilliam,” and * Thoughts on a regi- cide Peace.” On the clofe of Mr. Haflings’s trial, Mr. Burke retired fron parliament; but his domeltic comfort was irretrievably impaired, and his life probably fhortened by the death of his fon, in the year 1794. The father furvived three years, which were principally employed in aéts and fchemes of be- nevolence to the French emigrants and their families. He retained his faculties in perfection to the laft, and died with- out bodily ftruggle, or difcompofure of mind, on the Sth of July, 1797. r The qualities of Mr. Burke’s mind will be beft exempli- fied by a few of his opinions on literary fubjeé&ts. Virgil and Lucretius were his favourite Latin poets. He preferred the fatires and epiltles of Horace to the odes. He elteemed the Greek hiftorians and orators more highly than the La- tin. The delineation of ancient manners and charaéters in Homer delighted him; and he read the O lyfley more fre- quently than the Itad. Among the dramatic wricers, he gave the preference to Euripides over Sophocles. The mo- dern authors with whom he was moft pleafed, were Bucon, Shakf{pear, Addifon, Le Sage, and Fielding. He thought Richardfon far inferior to the latter: he did not like Swift, and had a very poor opinion of Gay; particularly of his ‘ Beggar’s Opera.” He paid much attention to farming, and difplayed tatte in his improvements at Beaconsfield. He was one of the molt fuccefsful gentlemen farmers, and conftantly {upplicd his family in town from the produce of his own eliaic. He was particularly hofpitable, and indulged in the pleafures of the table, but never to excefs. He was liberal to common beggare; and afcribed the ordinary principle of diicoursging them, rather to avarice than policy. As a fpeaker, Mr. Burke was charaéterifed by a fuper- fluity of ideas and images, often too abundant to be applicd with propriety, or {elected and arranged with judgment. Early in life, he was remarkably carcful of his language, and revifed his fpeeches with attention. Latrerly, he be- came blameably diffufe and extravazanr, though his ingenuity never failed. He was particularly ambitious of excellence in the management of his voice and action; yet, after all, the former was but harfh, and the latter forcibie, but firaned, His ** Effay on the Sublime and Peautiful’’ has placed him in the highelt clafs of writers on {ubjects of talte aad eriticifm; nor can his whole charadtcr be fummed up with fo much ftrength, concifenefs, and truth, as in the memor- able words of Johnfon: ‘¢ Burke is one, with whom, if you were to take thelter from a fhower under a gate-way, you 4A2 would BUR would fay you had been in company with the moft extraor- disary man you had ever fen.” Burke, in Geography, acounty of America, in Morgan dillrist, North Carolina, containing 9799 inhabitants, of whom 776 are flaves. It is about 80 miles long, and 40 wide. The lands between the mountains, and on the rivers, are very fertile. Its capital is Morgan-town. Burks is alfo a. county in the lower diftri of Georgia, containing 9506 inhabitants, of whom 2067 are flaves. Its chief towns are Louifville and Waynefborough. Burge is alfoatownfhip of Caledonia county, in the ftate of Vermont; about 15 miles weft of Upper Amonoofock river. BURKEN, a town of Germary, in the circle of the Lower Rtine and eleGtorate of Mentz; 27 miles E. of Heideiberg. BURKERSDORF, a royal town, with a citadel, of Auftria, in the circle below the foreft of Vienna, lying on the rivulet of Wien. BURKHAUSEN, a well-built town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Bavaria, feated on the Salz2, with a caftle on a hill, the capital of a regency, and having four churches, and a Jefuits’ college; 26 miles N.N. W. of Saltzburg. BURKHEIM, or Purxueim, a town of Germany, in the circle of Bavaria, and duchy of Neuburg; 7 miles W.S.W. of Neuburg. BURKI, atown of Poland, in the palatinate of Kiov. N. lat. 48° 50’. E. long. 32° 6’. BURKITT, Witiiam, in Biography, was born at Hitcham, in Northamptonhhire, in1650, and, after a previous grammatical education, was admitt:d, at the age of 14 years, “into Pembroke-hall in the univerfity of Cambridge. Upon taking his degree, he quitted the univerlity, and became chapiain ina gentleman’s family. His firit fettlement, after his ordination by bifhop Reynolds, was at Milden in Suffolk, where he continued to officiate for 21 years, firlt as curate, and afterwards as reGtor, and where he was much efleemed as a plain, practical, affeGtionate preacher. In 1692 he ex- changed this fituation for the vicarage of Dedham in Effex, where he died in 1703. His charaéter was diftinguifhed for picty and charity. He was aétive in making colle€tions for the relief of the French proteftants in 1687, &c. and in pro- coring the fettlement of a worthy minilter in Carolina: and by his laft will he provided for the accommodation of a lec- turerat Dedham. He has been principally known asa writer by his &* Commentary on the New Teftament.”’ BURKUNSTADT, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Franconia, and bifhopric of Bamberg, feated on the White- Mzyn. ; BURLAMAQUI, Joun-James, in Biography, an emi- nent civilian, was defcended of a noble family, originally from Lucca, and born at Geneva in 1694; where he be- came honorary profcflor of jurifprudence in 1720. After traveling into France, Holland, and England, he com- menced the exercile of his fun@tions, and rendered his fchool famous and flourifhing. One of his pupils was prince Fre- devic of Heffe-C-ffel, who, in 1734, took him to his refi- dence, and detained him there forfome time. Upon his re- turn to Geneva, he furrendered his profefforfhip; and in 1740 entered into the grand council; and, asa member of this iiluf- trious body, he continued to ferve his fellow-citizens till his death, in 1750. Asa writer, he was diltinguifhed lefs by his originality than by his clear and accurate method of de- tailing and illuftrating the principles of others; among whom are Grotius, Puffendorf, and Barbeyrac. His works are, * Principles of Natural Law,’? 4to. ve 1747, often BUR reprinted, tranflated into various Janguages, and long ufed as a text-book in the univerfity of Cambridge; and “ Poli- tical Law,” 1to. Gen. 1751; a pofthumous work, compiled from the notes of his pupils. Burlamaqui was much cftcemed in private life; and refpected as a lover of the fine arts, and a patron of artifts. He hada valuable colie@ion of pistures and prints; and a medal of him was ex-cuted by Daffier in a flyle of fuperior excellency. Nouv. Did. Hutt. BURLATS, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Tarn, and diftri& of Caftres, 4 miles ealt of it. BURLAW, or Byruaw, éurlawa, in Middle Age Writers, denotes country laws, or the jaws concerning couns try affairs. Du-Cange. See Bye Law.' BURLEIGH, in Biography. See Crcic. BURLESQUE, a jocole kind of poetry, chiefly ufed in the way of droliery, either to excite laughter mercly, or to provoke derifion and ridicule. Of the former kind is ‘* Vir- gil traveftie,’’ which degrades a grave fubjeG, by a,certain colouring, fo as to be rilfible; and of the latter, the ‘ dee of Evileau, which jays hold of a low and trifling incident ta expofe the luxury, mndolence, and litigious temper of a fet of monks. ‘This kind of burlefque produces effe@ by cle- vating the ftyle far above the fubje€t, and yet affecting to corfider it as of the utnioft dignity and importanee. In a burlefque poem, fuch as the Lutrin, the Difpenfary, and Hu- dibras, machinery may be employed with greater advactage than in any other {pecies of poetry ; and the more extravagant the machinery 1n a ludicrous poem, the greater is the enter- tainment which it affords. ‘ Burlefque,” fays Mr. Shen- ftone, (Works, vol. ii. p. 182. 3d edit.) “* may, perhaps, be divided into fuch as turns chiefly npon the thought, and fuch as depends more upon the expreffion; or we may add a third kind, conlifting in thoughts ridiculoufly dreffed in language much above or below their dignity. “The Splendid Shilling of Mr. Philips, and the Hu7ibras of Butler, are the molt obvious inftances. Butler, however, depended much upon the ludicrous effc€& of his double rhymes.”? Dr. Johnfon, in his life of Butler (Lives of the Poets), after obferving, that * burlefque confilts in a difproportion between the Kyle and the fentiments, or between the adventitious fentiments and the fundamental fubje@,’’ adds, that this, ** like all bodies compounded of heterogeneous parts, contains in it a principle of corruption, All d:ifproportion is unnatural : and from what is unnatural, we can derive only the pleafure which novelty produces. We admire ita-while as a flrange thing; but, when it is no longer ftrange, we perceive its deformity. It is a kind of artifice, which by frequent repe- tition detes itfelf; and the reader, learning in time what he is to expeét, lays down his book, as the fp-ctator turns away from a fecond exhibition of thofe tricks, of which the only ule is to fhew that they can be played.” F. Vavaffor maintains, in his book ‘“¢ De Ludicra D'cs tione,”’ that burlefque was abfolutely unknown to the anci- ents; againft the opinion of fome others, that one Raistoviusy in the time of Ptolemy Lagus, turned the derious fubje&ts of tragedy into ridicule; which, perhaps, is a better plea for the antiquity of farce than of burlefque. Tne Italians feem to have the jufteft claim to the inven- tion of burlefque. The frit author in this kind was Bernia ; he was followed by Lalli, Caporalli, &c. From Italy it pafled into France, and became there fo much the mod-, that 11 1649 appeared a book under the ttle of * ‘The Peflion of our Saviour, in Buricfque Verfe.”? Thence it came into England; but the good fenfe of the Englilh never adopted nor owned it, notwithitanding one or two have excelled in it. ' BURLETTA, BUR BURLETTA, Ital. from durlare, to jeit, be jocular, de- ride, turr to ridicule, in AMfufic. It is extraordinary that the term burletta, fo common in {peaking of comic operas, appears in no mufical di@ionary. Comic operas began by an intermezz9, a fingle a@ or fcene, as an a& tune between any two ads of adrama. See Opera Burra. BURLING of Cloth. See Crotu. Buatine /ron, an inttrement ufed by the mannfa€turers of cloth, and borne in the arms of the company of weavers ar Exeter. Buruines’ Rocks, in Geography, lie on the coaft of Por- tugal, 14 leagues about N.N.W. from cape Rocque, com- monly called the rock of Lifbon, and 18 leagues S. W. from cape Montage. Behiod the Burlings are a good road and anchorage, under the great ifland before the Hermitage, and ro fathoms water. N. lat. 39° 20/. W. long. 9° 37° BURLINGTON. Sce Barptincron. Burtincton, a county of America, in New Jerfey, ex- tending acrofs from the Atlantic ocean onthe S. E. to Delaware river, and part of Huntingdon county on the N. W., in Jength about 6o miles, in breadth about 80. A great part of it is barren; but about three-tigbths of it are under cultivation, generally level, and well-watered. It has 23,521 inhabitants, including 188 flaves.—Alfo, a city, the capital of the above county, under the government of a mayor, aldermen, andcommoncounci}, Theextent of the townthip is 3 miles slong the Delaware, anda mile back ; being about 18 miles N. E. of Philadelphia, and'11 $. W. from Trenton. The ifland, which is the mott populous part, is about a mile each way; and included in 1803 282 houfes, and 2256 inhabitants. The fireets are commodioufly fpacious, and moftiy ornamented with rows of trees. The town is oppo- fite to Briftolin Pennfylvania, where the river is about a mile wide. Under the fhelter of Mittinicunk aod Burlington iflands is a fafe harbour, conveniently adapted for trade, but too near to Philad-lphia to allow of much foreign commerce. Burlington was firlt fettled in 1677, and has an academy and a free-fchool. Mittinicunk ifland belongs to the latter, and yields a yearly profit of 180!. ‘This town has places of wor- fhip for the Friends, the Epifcopalians, the Methodifls, and Baptilts. It has a market-houfe, a work-houfe, a free- {chool, anda gaol. Here are I:kewife a nail manufaftory, and a brewery. N. lat. 40° 8’. W. long. 74°. Buacincton, a towsthip of America, in Orfego county, New York, divided by an act of the lepiflature in 1797 into two towns.—Alfo, a pleafant township, the chief m Chit- tenden county, Vermont, fituate on the fouth fide of Onion rivér, on the caf bank of lake Champlain, and containing 815 inhabitants. The governor and patrons of the college of Vermont have feleéted this healthy and agreeable fituation for a feminary, conftituted tor the education of young per- fous of all denominations. Burlington is 22 milea diltant northerly from Vergennes, 122 from Besnington, and 332 from the city of New York. N. lat. 44° go". Allo, a new townthip in Middlefex county, Maffachuietts, incorporated in 1799; about 12 miles N. of Bolton. Burrineror, or Ouinefiea Bay, lies on the ealt fide of Jake Champlain, ebont'74 miles N. by E. from Crown point, 69 S. E. from lake St. Francis in St. Lawrence river, and 70 foutherly from St. fohn’s. N.iat.44? 224, BURLO, a town of Getmany, in the circle of Wett- phalta, acd bifhoprie of “Muniter; 4 miles N.N.W. of Borchen. i % : BURMAH. See Birman Empire. © ‘ BURMANN, Faawers, in Biography, a famous theo- logreal proicfior, was boro in 1628 ap Leyden, where he re- ‘ the degree of doéor of laws. BUR ceived his education ; and after having for fome tinte officiated as minilter at Hanau, and as agent of the college at his native place, he was invited to the chair of theology at Utrecht. In this ftation he diftinguifhed himfelf by his leGtures and writings. He died in 1679. His publications are ** Commentaries on the Pentateuch and Hiftorical Books of the Old Tcftament,” written in Dutch, and printed at different times: An Abridgment of Theo- logy,” 2 vols. gto. in Latin; ‘ Exercitationes Acade- mice,’? 2 vols. 4to., and fome controverfial pieces. Moreri. Gen. Biog, Burmann, Peter, an eminent philologift, was the fon of the preceding, and born in 1668 at Utrecht, where he was educated, and where he attended the le@ures of the learned Grevius. Devoting him(elf to the profeffion of the law, be ttudied for fome time at Leyden, and in his 20th year took Having gained reputation in the exercife of his profeffien, he was, in 1696, appointed profeffor of eloquence and hiltory in his native city, and afterwards of Greek and politics. From this time he de- voted himfelf wholly to hterature, andsbecame one of the mott laborious commentators and editors of the age. He publifhed, with his own notes and thofe of other critics, Velleius Paterculus, Quintilian, Valerius Flaceus, Virgil, Ovid, Suetonius, Luctn, Phedrus, and Petronius, and alfo a colleGion of the minor Latin poets, in 2 vols. 4to. He alfo wrote a treatife “On the Taxes of the Romans,’ edited feveral learned works, with prefaces and notes, and was the author of various ¢iffertations, difcourfes, and pieces of Latin poetry. Asa commentator, he was diftirpuifh- ed more by his induftry and erudition than for his genius and tae; and though he is deficient in the elucidation of ob- feure and difficult paflages, he has accumulated a mals of materials from which other grammarians and critics may de- rive great advantage. He was twice re@or of the univerfity, and thrice private fecrctary to the academical fenate ; and to his other honours was added the profeflorfhyp of the hitlory of the United States, He died in 1741. Moreri. Gen. Biog. Burmann, Joun, M. D. of a noble and wealthy family, and of no mean literary acquirements, employed much labour and expence in editing various botanical works, particularly thofe giving accounts of plants procured from the Indies, In 1736 he publifhed an edition of Weinman’s Herbal, to which he added feveral plates with African plants. His next publication, in which he had the affittance of Linneus, then a young man, was the ‘* Thefaurus Zeylanicus, exhibens Piafitas in Infula Zeylana nafcentes, Iconibus illuftratus,”” 4to. 17375 taken from various travellers, with new deicriptions and places. The following year he was appointed profeflor to the botanical garden at Amiterdam, and foon after pub- lifhed * Rariarum Africanarum Plantarum, Decades De- cem,” 4to. principally from Witfen and Vanderitell, to which, however, he made feveral additions. He tranflated Rumphius’s great work int Latin, which he enriched with valuable notes, and publifhed under the ritle of “ Everhardi Rumphii Herbarium Amboinenfe, continens plantas in ea, et adjacentibue Infulis repertas.”” His laft labour was pro- curing engravings to be exceuted, from the drawings of American plants left by Piumier, to which he added ran er Bi with the modern, and former names. His on, Burmann, Nicoras Lawrence, following the fteps of his father, took his degree as doctor of medicine at Leyden, in 1759, and publifhedy for his inaugural thefis, * Specimen Botanicum de Geraniis,” 470. In 1768, at Amiterdam, Flora Jadica, accedit ferics Zoophytorum Jndicorum, nec now BUR non prodromus Flore Cappenfis.”’ Eloy. Di&. Hift. Gen. Biog. BURMANNIA, in Botany (in honour of John Burmann M.D. profeffor of botanyat Amfterdam, author of Thefaurus Zeylanicus, &c.). Linn: 397. Schreb. 542. Willd. 606. Juff. 50. Ciafs and order, hexandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Caronaria, Linn. Bromelia, Jail. Gen Ch. Cal. perianth long, one-leaved, prifmatic, co- loured, with three longitudinal, membranaceous angles ; the mouth trifid, {malJ. Cor. petals three, ovate, oblong, placed in the mouth of the calyx, very minute. Stam. filaments fix, very fhort; anthers in the mouth of the calyx, placed twe by two, feparated by a reflexed joint. i. germ fuperior, cylindrical, half the length of the calyx ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the corolla; ftigmas three, obtufe, concave. Periz. capfule covered by the calyx, cylindrical, three- cornered, three-cellcd, three-valved, opening at the angles. Seeds numerous, very {mall. Ef. Ch. Cal. prifmatic, coloured, trifid; angles mem- bramaceous. Petals three. Cup/ules three-celled, ftraight. Seeds minute. Obf. Ia Marck defcribes the calyx as having its border -divided into fix fegments, the three inner ones {mall, with the fhape of petals. Jufficu, in conformity with the prin- ‘ciples of his-fyftem, with refpeét to all monocotyledinous ‘plants, had before adopted the fame idea. He ityles it a very fingular genus, allied to no other, except perhaps to ‘Hy poxis. Species, 1. B. diflicha Linn. (La Marck. Illuft. Pl. 225.) Spike double.’”’ oot perennial, fibrous, fmall. Stem tix or feven inches high, upright, ftraight, fimple. Root /eaves .¢ight or nine, grals-like. Stem leaves fhort, acuminate, al- ternate, fheathing. Spites divaricated. Flowers on fhort peduncles, in a fingle row on the upper fide of each {pike, -ere&t, blueifh, permanent ; braétesawl-fhaped. La Marck. ‘Native of Ceylon in watery places. 2. B. difora. ** Flowers two.” Linn. Smaller than the preceding. Root ftrong and fibrous. Stem naked, almoft capillary. Keot leaves very ftraight. /owers one or two at the fummit of the ftem, purple. A native of marfhes in Virginia, La Marck. Both thefe fpecies were cultivated by Mr. Miller, in 1768, but they are difficult to preferve in gardens, for as they will not thrive when planted in dry ground, they mult be planted in pots plunged in troughs of water, fo as to cover the furface of the mould about three inches. The troughs in which the firlt fort is planted muit be conftantly kept ina warm ftove. ‘The other fhould be placed in a green-honfe in winter, but in fummer may be expofed to the open arr, With this management they will fometimes bear flowers. Martyn’s Miller. BURMANNIANA, in £ntomolozy, a [pecies of Pua- peNA (Tortrix) of aiarge fize. ‘his inhabits Surinam. The wings are pale, with four black coftal {pots on the an- terior pair. Ginel. &c. BURN, in Surgery, is a lefion of the animal body, occa- fioned by the application of heat in a folid form. It differs from a scALD, only inafmuch as the Jatter is produced by the application of heat in a fluid form. The confequences of a burn are more or lefs ferious, in proportion to the extent and depth to which the ignited fub{tance produces its effets. An extenfive burn in an irritable perfon will fometimes occafton death, although the f{ubjacent parts be not deeply injured ; and a deep burn, of fmall extent, may likewife prove fatal, according to the ftruéture or importance of the part affected. The firk effects of a burn are to caufe pain and inflam. Haller. Bib. Botan. BUR mation; prefently afterwards, the exhalent arteries, being excited to action, will effufe a quantity of ferum under the fin, and raife the cuticle like a blifter: if the burning acts deeply. it will kill and decompofe the fubjacent flefh, fo as at length to produce an ef{char. Io treating burns, we muft attend to the exifting fymp- toms. If the fkin remains whole, and the accident be re- cent, we fhould immediately have recourfe to very cold ap- plications, with the view of difcufling inflammation and abating pain. For this purpofe, ice-water, lime-water, a folution of acetated ceruffe, or Goulard’s extract of lead, properly diluted, may be ufed with great freedom. Spiri- ‘tuous applications, which produce cold on evaporating, have been recommended with the fame intention. The common people, with good reafon, advife mafhed potatoes, or ture nips, to be applied cold, as a poultice. But the above means are only proper in the beginning, and where the fkin is not removed, fo as to leave an excoriated or raw furface. In conjunétion with thefe antiphlogiftic remedies, we may abate pain and procure reft by the liberal exhibition of opium ; at the fame time interpofing laxative medicines, and enjoining abfolute repofe to the injured part. The plan, however, muft be fomewhat different in cafes of deep and deftru@tive burns, where fuppuration, ulcera- tion, or mortification, are likely to enfue. In the fecond ftage or degree of burns, where the mifchief has penetrated rather deeply, but not below the common integuments, it is ufuel to apply to the part a drefling of foft ointment, which will not irritate or produce pain ; fuch as the fpermaceti ointment, faturnine cerate, elder ointment, or equal quantities of oil, and lime-water fhaken together, and applied feveral timesa day. The antiphlo- giftic regmen fhould alfo be obferved, if the inflammatory fymptoms run high. But, when the nature of the cafe is very ferious, and there is room to expect a gangrenous or floughing ulcera- tion, in confequence of the burn being very extenfive, we muft be cautious not to pufh the antiphlogiftic treatment too far; nay, it may even be altogether unappropriate, and a tlimulating or tonic courfe of remedies may be proper. Mr. Edward Kentifh, of Newcaftle, who has had much practice among the workmen in the coal mines, where ex> plofions often occur, is of opinion that pure alcohol or oil of turpentine is the beft local application at the begin- ning, and a cordial diet to fupport the patient’s ftrength. Our own experience juftifies that gentleman’s plan, and efpecially in very deep burns, where floughing proves inevi- table. We fomctimes, however, have found it neceflary to mix equal patts of olive, or linfced oil with the turpentine, to prevent its giving unfuflerabie pain. It is fcarcely requilite to add, that in the event of gun- powder, or any other extraneous fubitance, being forced into the burned part, it fhould be gently wafhed away or removed with all poffible care. If great tenfion arife in the part, we fhould occafionally employ warm emollient cata- plafms and anodyne fomentations. When the vitality of a member has been totally deftroyed, fo that its ufe is irre- coverable, we may be compelled to amputate the limb. See Moxa, Caustic, Caurtry, Heart, Scatp, and AMPUTATION. Burn éaking, or Beating, m_ Agriculture, the operation of cutting or paring off the furface of turf, and reducing it to afhes by meags of fire. It is principally employed as a method of bringing into cultivation {uch walte and other lands a8 contain much coarte grafs, or other vegetable pro- du€tions on the furface. Where this is not the cafe, it can féldom probably be.made ufe of to fo much advantage. It is BURNET. jsin fome diflri&s termed Burn-beating 3 and allo Denfhi- ring, from Devonhhire, a county in which it has-been long practifed. See Parinc and Burnine. Burn, feart. SeeCarptarcia. BURNET, Gutsert, in Biography, an eminent Englith prelate and writer, was born at Edinburgh in 1643. His father was the defcendant of an ancient family in the fhire of Aberdeen, educatzd for the bar, eiteemed for judzment and knowledge in his profeffion, and difintereited in the exercife of it. As to his religious principles he was a mo- derate epifcopalian; and iv the time of Cromwell lived in retirement, but after the reforation was appointed one of the lords of Scffion. Hs mother was exemplary for virtue and piety, and zealoufly attached to the Prefbyterian dif- eipline. Having received the firft rudiments of education from his father, he profecuted his itudies in the colleze of Aberdeen, and made fuch proficiency, that when he was fcarcely 14 years of age, he took his degree of Matter of Arte, and became a ftudent of civil law. But foon chang- ing his purpofe, he devoted himfelf to divinity ; and at the ege of 18, he was put upon his trial as a probationer, Or expectant preacher. Declining, on account of his youth, to accept a good living which was offered him, he finithed his education by means of the counfel and converfation of fome eminent Scots divines, and, in 1663, vifited the two Englifh Univerlities, where he had an opportunity of intercourfe with the moft learned perfons of that period. Having again refufed ecclefiaftical preferment in tland, he travelled into Holland in the following year, and after refiding for fome time at Amiterdam, he pafled through the Nether- lands into France, and made fome ftay at Paris. On his return to Scotland by way of London, he became a member of the Royal Society; and, in 1665, he received pricit’s orders, and was prefented to the living of Saltown. Here he difcharged the duties of his office with exemplary affi- duity, and gained the efteem of the prefbyterians, though he was the only clergyman in Scotland that ufed the liturgy of the church of Engiand. At this time he incurred the refentment of the epifcopal order, by drawing up a memorial of the abufes of the Scots bifhops, copies of which he circu- lated among all the prelates of his acquaintance ; but this condu@, on the part of a young mau at the age of 23 years, gave fuch offence, that Sharp, archbifhop of St. Andrew’s, propofed to deprive and excommunicate him. Again& this attack Burnet made a fpirited defence, and Sharp proceeded no farther. In 166g he accepted the of- fice of theological profeffor in the Univerfity of Glafow, and continued for four years and a half to perform the duties of it with fingular diligence ; expofing himfelf at the fame time, by his moderation, to the ill-will of the zealots of both the epifcopaiian and prefbycerian parties. His pam- phlet, publithed this year, and entitled, “ A modeft and free Conference between a Conformift and Non-couformitt,”’ was well received by all candid perfons, though it did not efcape the cenfure of bigots. Notwithftanding the time and attention which he devoted to his public leétures, he was oa 10 in arranging the papers of the Hamilton family, and compiling from them his ‘* Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton ;” and he was thus led to negociate and concludea reconciliation between the carl of Lauderdale and the duke of Hamilton. During his ftay in London on this occafion, he was offered.a Scots bifhopric, which he refufed. On his return to Glafgow, he married lady Margaret Kennedy, the daugh- ter of the earl of Cafliiis; who was diflinguifhed by her piety and knowledge, and though inclined to the party of the prefbyterians, was far from being a zealot, and had given evidence of her loyalty, even at the rifk of her life, during the ufurpstion of Cromwell. In 1672, Burnet publithed “ A Vindication of the Authority, Conftitution, and Laws of the Church and State of Scotland; in which he defended the royal prerogatives of the crown of Scotland, and the eftabl:fhment of epifcopacy in that king- dom, againft the principles of Buchanan and his followers. Tris publication drew upon him the cenfures of Dr. Hickes, whole calumnies he confuted, and occafioned fome fevere refleGiions of Dr. Swift, by whom he is charged with having altered his fentiments concerning the dotrines of paflive obedience. Whereas the illegality of refiftance, merely on account of religion, probably in oppofition to the violent Scotch covenanters, is the point for which he con tends. It feems, indeed, always to have been his opinion, that refittance could not be jultified by fingle a&ts of oppreffion, and that it was not lawful till attempts were made to over- turo the very bafis of the conftitution. In recomp-nce for this acceptible fervice to the court, he was again offered a bifhopric, with the promife of the firft erchbifhopric that fhould become vacant; but he declined accepting this dignity. {n the following year he vifited London with the oftenfible defign of obtaining a licence for the publica- tion of his ‘* Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton,”? and, as. it is faid, with a fecret purpofe of withdrawing himfelf from fate concerns, under a perfuafion that popery was the pre- vailing intereft at court. At this time, however, he was a favourite with his Majelty and the duke of York, and was nominated one of the king’s chaplains in ordinary. In an: interview with the king, to whom he was introduced by the duke of Lauderdale, he ufed all the freedom which, as he thought, became his profeffion. But fufpeGing the de- figns of the court party, he inclined to the oppolition in the Scots parliament, and thus incurred the enmity of the duke of Lauderdale, who preferred accufations againft him, which deprived him of the royal favour. Asa meafure of perfonal fecurity, he refigned his profefforfhip at Glafgow, and de- termined to fettle in London; but upon his arrival there he was coldly received by the king, and (truck out of the litt of his chaplains. He was now conlidcred as a fufs ferer for his principles, and, in 1675, having refufed the living of St. Giles’s, Cripplegate, which was offcred him, he was appointed, by the recommendation of lord Holles, preacher at the Rolls, and he was foon after chofen lec- turer of St. Clement’s, where he acquired the reputation of a very popular preacher. In the courfe of this year he was repeatedly examined at the bar of the Houfe of Com- mons with refpect to the defigns of Lauderdale, and obliged to communicate fome particulars that had paffcd be- tween himfelf and the duke in private converfation. The alarm that agitated the country at this time, occationed by the progrefs of popery, induced Dr, Burnet to write «* The Hiftory of the R-formation of the church of England ;’? the firft volume of which appeared, in folio, in 1679, when the popifh plot occupied the public attention: the pub- lication of this work was heghly acceptable, and the author received the thanks of both houfes of parliament, which was an honour that had no precedent, and he was requefted to complete it. Accordingly, in 1681, he publifhed the fecond volume. The third volume, being a * Supplement” to the two former, appeared in 1714. ‘This work, though it was attacked by many cenfortous critics, has been gene» rally efteemed the moft valuable of the author’s pevibrit= ances, and contains a correét and ample account of the tranfations to which it relates. Le was well received abroad as well as at home, and very much contributed to advance the reputation of the auchor. Dr. Birch, in hio Life of Archbifhop Tillotfon (p. 59.) obferves, that thisis one BURNET. ane of the mot valuable hiftories in our own or any other language, and that the publication of it was of moft fea- fonable fervice to the nation, amidit the elarms of popery. Dr. Apthorpe alfo fays (fee Letters on the Prevalence sof Chriftianity), that Bfhop Burnet, in his immortal hiltory of the Reformation, has fixed the proreftant religion in this country, as long as any religion remains amongs us ; and the fame learned writer calls him the Englifh Eufebius. An in- cident occurred about this time which led to an interview between Dr. Burnet and the earl of Rochefter, whofe cha- raéter as a perfon of wit and profligacy is well known. Having been requetted to vifit the unhappy female with whom the earl had had a criminal conn<étion, 10 a dangerous illnefs, he treated her in a manner which rendered this lord defirous of forming an acquaintance with him. Accordingly alarmed by his fituation and profpeéts in the clofing fcene of life, he invited and encouraged the vilite of Dr. Burnet, and the refult of many conferences that paffed between them on religious fubje&ts_ was the earl’s converfion to the Chrif- tian faith, and his fincere repentance. Of their mutual intercourfe, and the efleSs produced by it, we have an interefting relation in an ‘* Account of the Life and Death of the earl of Rochefter,”? publifhed by Dr. Burret in 16805 a very popular work, which was perufed with great fetrsfac- tion by all the friends of religion. Of this book, Dr. John- fon fays (Prefaces, &c. to the Works of the Poets, vol. iv) that it ought to be read by the ** critic for its eloquence, the philofopher for its arguments, and the faint for its piety.” During the alarm of the popifh plot, Dr. Burnet was frequently confulted by king Charles concerning the {tate of the nation, and allured to fupport the conrt intereft by the offer of the bifhopric of Chichelter, whieh he re- fufed ; but he availed himfelf of an inducement which attendance at the death-bed of Mrs. Roberts, one of the king’s miftrefles, fuggefted, for writing a letter to his Majelty, in which he ufed great freedom in reprehending the wices and crrors both of hts private life and: publ’c adminil- tration. When the king had perufed it twice he threw it into the fire, and {poke of the writer with difpleafure. Dr. Burnet at this time recommended moderate mealures; and inttead of the exclufion of the Duke of York, he propoled the fcheme of a prince regent; and yet he maintained a fteady adherence to his friends, nor did any profpeét of pre- ferment induce him to abandon them, ‘The {peech delivered -by lord Ruffel on the {caffold, is faid to have been-penned by Dr. Bornet.. In 1682 he publithed his * Life of Sir Matthew Hale,?? and his ‘ Hiftory of the Rights of Princes in difpofing of Ecclefiaftical Benefices and Church Lands,” together with an “ Anfwer” to the animadverlions of an anonymous writer on the latter performance. Iu the following year, perceiving the ftorm that was gathering, he retired to Paric, where he was well received; and at this time appeared his * Tranflation and Examination of a Let~ ter, written by the laft General Aflembly of the Clergy of ‘France to the Proteftants inviting them to return to their Communion, &c.’’ and alfo his ‘* Tranflation of Sir Thos. ‘More’s Utopia,’? with a preface concerning the nature -of tranflations. In 1684, he was fo much the object of court-refentment, that he was difcharged trom the office of leGurer at St. Clement’s by the king’s mandate to the -reGtor ; and, by an order tran{mitted from the lord-keeper North to Sir Harbottle Grimfton, Matter of the Rolls, for- -bidden to preach any more at the Rolls chapel. In the fol- lowing year he pubiifhed his ‘* Life of Dr, William Bedell, ‘bifhop of Kilmore, in Ireland,’”? Upon the acceflion of king James, be left the kingdom, and lived in a very retired manner at Paris, that he might incur no {ufpicion of being concerned in any confpiracies in favour of the duke of Mon- mouth; and from Paris he travelled into italy, and was agreeably received both at Rome and Genevg. At the latter place be remontftrated againft the fubfe-iptions to the formulary, commonly called “ Corfenfus,?? a confent of doce trine, that was impofed upon thofe who were admitted into orders ; and fucceeded tn releafing the clergy of Geneva from fuch fub{criptions. After a tourthrovgh the fouthern parts of France, Italy, Switzerland, and many parts of Germany, of which he has given an account in his ‘* Tiavels,” publith- ed in 1687, (in which year alfo, appeared his ‘* Trarflatton of Ladtantivs, concerning the death of the perfecutors,’’) he was invited to the Hague by the prince and princefs of Orange, and had a great fhare in the councils relating to England. However, to gratify king James, and in com- pliance with an earneft requeft communicated by his am- baflador at the Hague, he was difmifled from the court, thouzh he {till retained his influence. This expreffion of royal difpleafure was followed by a profecution for high treafon, inftituted againft him both in Scotland and Eug- land ; and as the States refufed to deliver him up at the demand of the Englifh court, defizns were formed for feiz- ing his perfon, and even for d-itroying him. Abcut this time Dri Burnet marricd Mrs. Mary Scott, a Dutch lady of large fortune, noble extraction, from a branch of the family of Buccleugh in Scotland, and very diftinguifhing accom- plifhments. In the whole condu& of the revolution m 1688, Dr. Burnet took a very aftive part; and having notificd the proje@ at an early period to the houfe of Hanover, he ac- companied the prince of Orange in his expecition to Eng- land, as his chaplam: upon his landing rear Exeter, he drew up the affociation for purfuing the ends of the prince’s declaration ; and as foon as king William was advanced to the throne, his attachment and fervices were recompenfed by promotion to the fee of Salifbury, to wnich he was con- fecrated in 1689. Having taken his feat in the honfe of lords, he recommended modcrate meafures with regard to the clergy who fcrupl-d to take the oaths, anda toleration of the Proteftant diflenters ; and upon occafion of fettling the fucceffion of the crown, he was appointed by the king to propofe in parliament the duchels (afterwards eleétrefs) of Brunfwick, as next in fucecflon after the princefs of Denmark and her iffue. He was thus engaged in en epilto- lary correfpondence with princefs Sophia, which laited till her death. In this year, he addreffed to the clergy of his diocefe a ‘ Fattoral Letter,’ concerning the oaths of alle- giance and fupremacy ro king William end queen Mary, in which he grounded the title of their majefties to the crown upon the right of * conqueft ;’’ and in fo doing, he gave {uch offence to feveral. members of parliament, thet they pro- cured an order for burning the book by the hands of the common executioner. A fimilar offence wes committed by Charles Blount, efq. (fee Buounr), and it incurred the fame cenfure and ignominy. “As {oon as the bifhop was releafed from his parliamentary duty, he withdrew to his di- ocefe, and applied with exemplary diligence to his epifcopal fun@ions, which he performed in a manner that engaged univerfal refpe&t and elteem. Befides being indetatigable im preaching, Icctunng, catechifing, confirmmg and examin- ing for-holy orders, he inttituted at Salfbary a {mall nur- fery of ten ftudents in divinity, to each ef whom he allowed a falary of gol. a year. But when he found that this infti- tution gave offence, and was confidered as a kind of tacit cenfure upon the method of education at the univerfities, he laid it aide, In 1692 he publifhed his treatile, entitled “ The Pattoral Care,” al:uftrating and enforcing the duties of SERN ET, of the clergy: and in the following year, * Four Difcourfes to the Clergy of his Diocefe,” on the “ Truth of the Chrif- tian Religion,” the “ Divinity and Death of Chrift,”’ the « Tnfallibility and Authority of the Church,”? and the «© Obligation to continue in the Communion of the Church.” In 1694, he preached the funeral fermon of archbifhop Tillotion, and vindicated his memory from the attacks of his enemies; and, in the following year, he wrote in the higheft ftrain of eulogy, an “ Effay on the Character of Queen Mary, on occafion of her death.”? Having loft his wile in 1698, he foon fupplied the lofs by a marriage with Mrs. Berkiey, whom he entruited with the care of his children, and who feems to have been well qualified for under- taking this charge, as fhe was a lady of diitinguifhed bene- volence and piety. Hier treatife, entitled, “* A Method of Devotion, or Rules for holy and devout Living, &c.” was publifhed in Svo. and well received. In the fame year, bifhop Burnet was appointed preceptor to his highnefs the duke of Gloucefter, and he took great pains in the condv& of his education till his death. In 16y9, he publifhed his « Expofition of the 39 Articles of the Church of Eng- land,”? which, notwithitanding the cenfure pafled upon it by the lower houfe of convocation, and feveral private at- tacks, bas been reckoned a learned and judicious perform- ance. It was undertaken at the requett of queen Mary, revifed and coreéted by archbifhop Tillotfoa, and perufed and approved before publication, by the archbifhops Teni- fon and Sbarp, and the bifhops Stillingfleet, Patrick, Lloyd, Williams, and More. Bifhop Burnet had the ho- nour of firft projecting the fcheme for the augmentation of poor livings, which was fan@tioned in 1704 by aét of parlia- ment. See AucmenTaTion. During the remaining years of his life, he was employed in the compofition and publi- cation of feveral treatifes appropriate to his profeflion, among which, we may reckon a colleGtion of ‘ Sermons,” and “ Pamphlets,”’ 3 vols. 4to. 1706; an“ Expofition of the Church Catechifm,”’? 1710; and ‘* Sermons on feveral Oc cafions,” with an ** Effay towards a new Book of Homi- lies,”? and a “* Preface,”? containing a judicious and elabo- rate defence of the revolution. He was alfo the author of a great variety of pieces, fome of which were publifhed during his life, and others after his death. A catalogue of his works, drawn up by Dr. Flexman, is annexed to the later editions of his “‘ Hiftory of his own Time.’? To this catalogue, fome few publications have been added in the la edition of the “* Biographia Britannica ;” and particu- larly “ Thoughts on Education,” printed at London in 1761, from an original MS., drawn up when the author was not quite 25 years of age, and containing a variety of obfervations which indicate much knowledge and refleGtion. The clofe of his life, which was terminated by a pleuritic fever on the 17th of March 1715, was fuitable to the charaéter which he had uniformly maintained, and mani- fefted that tranquillity and firmnefs, which his religious prin- ciples were adapted to produce and jultify. His remains were depofited in the parifh church of St. James’s, Clerken- well. By his laft will he left orders, that the ‘* Hiltory of his own Time” fhould not be printed till fix years after his death, and then faithfully, without adding, fupprefling, or altering it in any particular. Accordingly, the firit vo- lume was printed at London in 1723, and the fecond in 1734, with an ‘* Account of the Author’s Life’? annexed to it, in folio, by his fon, Thomas Burnet, efq. This work has given rife to a great number of ftrictures, and various fentiments have been entertained concerning it. At its firft appearance, a general clamour was excited againft it among a Sate and bigh church-men ; and many other perfons OL. . were offended by the freedom with which particular charac- ters were drawn, and particular fas reprefented, The wits too combined to expofe it to ridicule. The real merit ot this hiftory feems to be very candidly and impartially ap- pretiated in the lafi edition of the “‘ Biographia Britannica. Allowing for the errors and inaccuracies common to the hiflorians of that period, for fome inftances of party preju- dice and credulity, and for that difpofition to look on the dark fide of a charaéter, and to exaggerate the failings and faults of public men, which in fome cafes may have given a bias to the author’s judgment ; admitting his integrity, and his defire to ftate the truth of faéts according to the belt of his knowledge ; and recolleGing that when he appeals to the teftimony of others, he honeitly refers us to his authoris ties, and that feveral of the fa&ts which occur io his hiftory, and which were at firft diferedited or confidered as dubious, have, fince his time, been proved to be true; this hiftory may be regarded as containing, upon the whole, a faithful and interefting reprefentation of times and manners. ‘* In fhort, it is written with a fpirit of integrity and liberty that cannot fail of recommending it to a judicious reader 5 and there are few hiftories in our language which will be found to convey more folid and ufeful information. Accordingly, notwith{tanding the various attacks to which it hath been expofed, it feems to be rifing in reputation; and, in our opinion, (Biog. Brit.) it clearly deferves the encomium which hath lately been beftowed upon it by a very elegant poct.”” “ Yet Burnet’s page may lafting glory hope, Howe’er infulted by the fpleen of Pore. Tho’ his rough language hafte and warmth denote, With ardent hosefty of foul he wrote : Tho’ critic cenfures on his work may fhower, Like faith, his freedom has a faving power.” Hayley Eff. on Hilt. p. 51. This teftimony deferves the more to be regarded, as the bithop has fpoken of poets in terms fomewhat difparagings and thus incurred the obloquy of perfons of tafte. Virgil for his fancy, fays Burnet, in his *‘ Thoughts on Educa- tion,” deferves not the name of a poet, but of an eloquent verfifier. Dryden he reprefents, probably referring to his plays, and not to his perfonal charaster, as a moniter of immodefty, and of impurity of all forts: and Prior he ftyles, one Prior, though he had long before diftinguifhed himfelf by his elegant poetical productions. Asa writer, though the bifhop ought not to be ranked in the firft clafs of authors, he deferves the praife of perfpt- cuity, vigour, and variety of knowledge; and qwe ought therefore to allow for party-prejudice, when we advert to the afperity with which Dr. Swift has reprobated his ftyle. What were his fentiments as a theologian, we may infer from the publications already enumerated, and paticularly from the teftimony borne to his vindication of the 39 articles by the principal dignitaries of the church. With his ate tachment to the church, he blended a confiderable degree of moderation and liberality towards Proteftant diffenters, and others who differed from him: and with refpe& to po- litical matters, although he has been reproached as a party~ man, he was candid in his judgment of perfons of different conncétions, and he even exercifed great kindnefs towards fome who had engaged in defigns againft the government. In his general charaéter, he was pious and devout, conde- {cending and communicative, benevolent and charitable ; ex emplary in the diligence with which be performed all his cle- rical and epilcopal fun@ions, difinterefted as a patriot, and eminently ardent and active in his profecution of every 4B meafare, BUR SEY. meafure, which, in his judgment, tended to the public good. His failings were vanity, credulity, felf-importance, over-officioufnefs, and a kind of gofliping garrulity. It is natural to imagine, that, confidering the times in which he lived, and the oftenfible part which he took in public and political concerns, he would not be likely to efcape re- proach ; but notwithftanding the freedom and feverity with which his principles and charaGter have been {crutinized and cenfured, his name has defcended to poiterity with ho- nour, end his public fervices at an intereiting period in the hiftory of this country, as well as his private charaCter, will be recognized with veneration by all perfons, who are at- tached to the interefts of conftitutional liberty and the Pro- teftant religion. Bifhop Burnet, by his fecond wife, Mrs. Mary Scott, had feven children, three fons and tour daughters. His three fons furvived him, as well as two of his daughters. William, his cldeft fon, was educated as a gentleman-com- moner in the univerlity of Cambridge, and made choice of the profeffion of the law. Having been a great fufferer in the South Sea fcheme of 1720, he became governor, fic ft of New York, and the Jerfeys, and afterwards of the Mafla- chufetts and New Hampthire. He died at Bofton in 1729; - and was the author of a tract, entitled, ** A View of Scrip- ture Prophecy.” Gilbert, the bifhop’s {econd fon, was educated at Leyden, and as a commoner of Merton college, in the univerfity of Oxford, with a view to the church. Having entered into holy orders, he was king’s chaplain in 1715, when he could not be 3o years of age, and he is faid to have contributed to a periodical paper at Dublin, entitled ** Hibernicus’s Letters,’ and alfo to another valuable paper, entitled « The Free-thinker,’’ afterwards publifhed in 3 vols. 12mo. ~and now become fcarce. He was alfo a diftinguifhed writer on the fide of Hoadly in the Bangorian controverfy, and was confidered by this eminent prelate as one of his belt de- fenders. His * Full and Free Examination of feveral im- portant Points relating to Church Authority, &c. &c.’’ was pristed in 1718, Svo. and has been reckoned a matterly performance, difplaying great liberality of mind, {trong powers of reafoning, and an accurate acquaintance with feripture. In 1719, he publifhed an Abridgment of the third volume of his father’s Hiftory of the Reformation. He died in early life. The Gilbert Burnet who abridged the Boylean leGtures was a different perfon. See Boyre’s Lec- ures. Thomas, the bifhop’s third fon, enjoyed the fame advan- tages of education with his two elder brothers. He was admitted a commoner of Merton college in the univerfity of Oxford, and having ftudied-two years at Leyden, made a tour from France, through Germany, Swifferland, and Italy. Upon his return to England, he devoted himfelf to the profeflion of the law, and in early life purfued a courfe of diffipation, which occafioned great uneafinefs to his fa- ther. At this time, however, viz. in 1712 and 1713, he wrote feveral political pamphlets in favour of the Whigs againft the adminiftration of the four laft years of queen Anne. One of thefe pamphlets caufed his being taken in- to cuftody in January 13713: and in another, entitled * Some new Proofs, by which it appears, that the Preten- der is truly James the Third,” he gives the fame account, in fubftance, of the Pretender’s birth, that was afterwards publifhed in the bifhop’s Hiftory of his own Time. Notwith- ftanding thefe literary engagements, he {till purfued his wild courfes ; but one day, being unufually grave, his father afked him what was the fubje&t of his meditation: ‘* A greater work,” replied the fon, “ than your lordhip’s Hiftory of the Reformation ;” “what is that, Tom?’ ** My own reformation my lord.”? “I fhall be heartily glad to fee it,” faid the bifhop, ‘* but almoft defpair of it’ This, however, was happily accomplifhed after the bifhop’s deceafe; and Mr. Burnet became, not only one of the beft lawyers of his time, but a very refpe€table charaéter. After the acceffion of George I. he wrote a letter to the earl of Halifax on the «© Neceflity of impeaching the lace Miniftry,?? which was followed by ‘* A fecond Tale of a Tub, &c.”’ being a fatire on the earl of Oxford aud his miniftry. Soon after his fa- ther’s death, he publifhed ‘ A CharaGter of the right re- verend Father in God, Gilbert Lord Bifhop of Sarum; with a true Copy of his laft Will and Teftament.?? Mr. Burnet was alfo concerned with others in writing a traveftie of the firft book of the Iliad, under the title of ** Home- rides,” which gave occafion to Mr. Pope for introducing him into the Dunciad, and in a weekly paper called the *¢ Grumbler.”? About this time he was appointed his Ma- jefty’s coniul at Lifbon, where he remained for feveral years. Upon his return, he refumed the profeffion of the law, and rofe through feveral gradations of preferment, in 1741, to the rank of one of the juftices of the court of common pleas. He alfo received the honour of knighthood, and be- came a member of the royal fociety. In the court of com- mon pleas he continued, with great reputation to his death, which happened on the 5th of January 1753. His charac- ter was that of an able, upright judge, a fincere friend, a fenfible and agreeable companion, and a munificent bene- factor to the poor. A remarkable claufe in his will, in which he expreffes the fentiments of a judicious and candid perfon, who underftood the true nature of Chriftianity, and, who, whilft he gave the preference to the church of England, was perfuaded that no religious eftablifhment was entirely free from defe&ts, furnifhed occafion for fome ftrifures in a ferious and fenfible pamphlet, entitled ‘© The true Church of Chrift, which, and where to be found, &c.’? Some po- etical productions of his youth were publifhed in 1777, 4to.; the charaGteriftic excellence of which is an eafy nee gligence and elegant fimplicity. Befides fir Thomas Burnet, there lived in the laft century another Tomas Burnet, who was an eminent divine, and au- thor of feveral valuable publications. He was educated in New College, Oxford ; became re€tor 0: Weil Kingfton, Wilts, and prebendary of Sarum ; and died in May 1750. His four principal works are, “ An Anfwer to Tindal’s Chriftianity as old as the Creation ;” a ‘¢ Treatife on Scrip- ture Politics;’? a ‘© Courfe of Sermons preached at Mr. Boyle’s Leéture ;”? and an “ Effay on the Trinity,”’ in which latt performance he endeavours, with great ingenuity and plau- fibility, to unite the rationality claimed by the Unitarians, with the orthodox language of thole who admit the Atha- nafian doétrine of the Trinity. Gen. Di&. Biog. Brit. Burnet, TxHomas, a learned and ingenious divine, erro- neoufly fuppofed to be a native of Scotland, was born at Croft, in Yorkfhire, in 1635, entered, in 1651, at Clare- hall, in the Univerfity of Cambridge, under the mafterfhip of Mr. John Tillotfon (afterwards archbifhop of Canterbury), and upon the removal of Dr. Ralph Cudworth from the matter- fhip of that college to that of Chritt-college, admitted of that houfe, and chofen fellow in 1653, and in 1661, fenior protor of the Univerfity. After his travels, as tutor to the earl of Wilthhire, and as governor to the duke of Bolton, and the earl of Offory, afterwards duke of Ormond, he fettled at home ; and became diftinguifhed as an elegant writer and an acute philofopher. Of his celebrated work, entitled “‘TellurisThe- oria Sacra,”? &c. the firft two books were publifhed in 1680, and the two remaining books in 1689, in 4to, This per- formance BURN ET. formance was fo much admired on its firft appearance in La- tin, that the author publifhed an Englith edition of it, in fubftance the fame with the Latin, but newly compofed with a variety of additions, in two volumes ; the firft of which was dedicated to king Charles IL. and the fecond to queen Mary. To the fixth edition, in 1726, is added, the * Au- thor’s Defence of the Work from the Exceptions of Mr. Warren, and the examination of Mr. Keil.”? Of this theo- ry a particular account will be given in a future article. See Eaatu. We hhall here obferve, that though the principles of it have been demontitrated to be erroneous, and it can be regarded only as a beautiful philofophical romance, it was much applauded on its firft appearance, and many perfons were {educed by the invention and ingenuity difplayed in it, and by the elegance of its compofition. Among its ad- mirers we may reckon Bayle, who entertained a very high opinion of it, and particularly Mr. Addifon, who addrcfled to the author an elegant Latin poem, into which he has tranf- fufed the fancy and fublimity of the original. The mathema- ticians, however, were not fo eafily feduced. Mr. Keil at- tacked it with feverity ; and Mr. Flamttead obferved con- cerving it, that “ there went more to the making the world than a fine turned period ; and that he was able to overthrow it in one fheet of paper.” In 1685 Dr. Burnet was clected, by the intereft of the duke of Ormond, into the matterfhip of the Charter-houfe ; and foon after he entered into holy or- ders. In his fituation at the Charter-houfe he refifted the illegal attempt of king James I1. co introduce one Popham, a pepilt, as a penfioner into that houfe; and his oppofition to him was fupported by the other governors, the lord chancel- lor Jefferies excepted, fo that the king defilted from purfuing the conteft. After the revolution, Burnet was appointed chaplain to king William, and through the intereft of Arch- bifhop Tillotfon, clerk of the clofct to that prince. In 1692 he publifhed his ‘* Archeologie Philofophice,”? in which he not only queftioned the literal hiftory of the fall, but imprudently introduced an imaginary dialogue between Eve and the Serpent, which gave great offence. So fenfi- ble was he of the imprudence of this dialogue, that when a new edition of the ‘* Archeologiz” was printing in Hol- land, he delired that it might be fuppreffed, and it was like- wife omitted in the fecond edition of the year 1733. To this work was prefixed a dedication to king William, in which the charaéter of that prince is drawn with great ftrength and elegance. The ciergy were fo offended by the publication of this work, that it is faid to have occa- fioned his removal from the office of clerk of the clofet ; and though he was favoured by king William, and patronized by archbifhop Tillotfon, the fcepticifm and heterodoxy charged on his writings, prevented his preferment in the church, and particularly his advancement to the epifcopal bench, and even to the fee of Canterbury, which is faid to have been in contemplation. He died September the 27th 1715, and was buried in the chapel of the Charter-houte. After his death were publifhed two pofthumous treatiles ; one entitled ** De Fide et Officits Chriftianorum,”’ being part of a larger defign, and a valuable compend of Chriftian doGtrine and duty, written with a liberal {pirit, but not deemed altogether unexceptionable ; and the other, entitled * De Statu Mortuorum et Refurgentium ;’? to which is added an appendix,‘* De Futura Judzorum Reftauratione.” In this work the author has given greater {cope to his fancy; attacked the doétrine of the eternity of hell-torments; and contended for the final falvation of the whele human race. But fo apprehenfive was the author left his notions concern- ing the temporary duration of future punifhments fhould be made an ill ufe of by the bulk of mankind, that in a note to this work, he earneftly protefled againtt its being tranflated. Dennis, however, in defiance of the author’s proteltation, not only publifhed atranflation of the treatife, but with a fidelity which can hardly be thought a fuffictent excufe for the effrontery of it, inferted the note in IE... lifh at the bot- tom of the page. Dr. Burnet was alfo the author of three {mall traéts in oppofition to Mr. Locke, to which was pub- lifhed a reply by Mrs. Cockburne, contained in Dr. Birch’s edition of that lady’s works. Whatever opinion may be entertained of Dr. Burnet’s {péculations, philofophical and theological, his ftyle, both in Latin and Englith, has been univerfally admired for its elegance and perlpicuity. Biog. Brit. Brucker’s Hitt. Philof” by Enfield, vol. ti. p. 484. Burnet, THomas,a Scotch phyfician, educated at Edin- burgh, where he arrived at the honour of being fellow of the Royal College, and phyfician to the king, was author of * Thefaurus Medicine et Pra@tice ex prettantiffimorum Medicorum Obfervationibus colle@us,”’ ato. London, 1672. It has been frequently reprinted, and contains many curious and ufeful obfervations. Alfo, ‘ Hippocratis Contractus, in quo Hippocratis Opera omnia in brevem Epitomen re- ducta debentur,” Svo. Edinb. 1685. A convenient com- endium, with perpetual references to the Opera Oamnia. Haller. Bib. Med. Burnet, in Agriculture, the name of a plant that may be culuvated in fome cafes with advantage, a8 a green winter food for different forts of animals. As the providing ofa large fupply of green food for live ftock, efpecially fattening fheep, ewes, ard lambs, and for milch cows, during the winter and early {pring months, is an object of the greatelt importance to the farmer, he fhould not negle& the culture. of fuch plants as promife to be beneficial in this way ; for as turnips, though well adapted to the purpofe, cannot be preferved in fevere winters, and clover, rye, and other grafles are not ready fofliciently early ; burnet, in fuch cafes, fhould be attended to in this view. It is not, probably, however, fo agreeable a food for animals as that of fome other plants, but from its ftanding feveral winters without injury, and be- ing an early plant, it may frequently be found bighly ufeful. It fucceeds on almolt any forts of foil but thofe of a ftrong clayey nature, and may be fown, like other feeds, with corn, and covered by means of a flight harrowing. ‘The produce isin proportion to the goodnefs of the land. The quantity of feed fown is commonly about a bufhel toan acre. The . author of the New Farmer’s Calendar thinks it advantage- ousto mix burnet with ray-grafs and white clover, or with the latter alone, not only with the view of fecuring a good bottom, but to render the herbage more palatable to cattle in general, which he has been convinced, by ocular proof, have no great relifh for burnet: they, however, become ac- cultomed, he faye, to its cucumber-flavour in time, and contented with it; no {mall inducement to which is, that they are commonly fed with it when no other grafs is to be obtained. And Mr. Young obferves, that it does well mixed with ray-grafs, or cock’s-foot, in the proportion of about three pecks of burnet to one of either of the other two. April 1s recommended as the proper feafon for fowing bur- net with crops of barley or oats, covering it in by two hare rowings. It may likewife be fown with buck-wheat in May, with great propriety. In the railing of crops of this fort much depends upon having good well ripened feed of the true kind, which is always the beit provided by collecting it from the beft plants by the farmer himfelf. When defigned for fheep pafture, the beft method of fowing this crop is probably that of broadca{t over the furs face ; but in otber cafes the drill mode may be employed, 4B2 of Bo. & Of the falubrity of this plant there is, the firt of thefe writers thinks, ‘no queftion; and even its medicinal virtues are confidently {poken of, particularly for theep fufpetied of unfoundnefs. It is excellent winter-food for deer and rabbits. Several reafons are to be affigned for the ill fuccefs which has attended various attempts to cultivate this grafs, as will appear in the following direGtions. Its chief ufe is as an early grafs, and whillt young; and it muft never be given to cattle when o!d and italky, nor kept to that fate when intended for hay. In fa&t, buraet fhould always be reckoned out of feafon when other graffes can be had. It ne- ver ought to be fed but from January to the end of April 5 and upon lands proper for it, with judicious management, it will afford pafture even in January. It receives lefs injury from froft than any other herbage, and will even grow in the winter months, provided the weather be not too fevere. If fhut upin April, it will mow at Midfummer ; after which it mutt be referved for feed until January or February, when, if the weather be favourable, it may be cut and carried to the ftock, asin fummer, and afterwards fed, but not too clofe, with fheep, until the time of fhutting up again. It will produce upwards of a ton of hay “per acre, and may be mowed again for feed; but if driven fo hard, of courfe it wiil not produce fo large a quantity of {pring-feed as when mowed but once. The value of the feed upon an acre will be from five to ten pounds.”? But, * granting the truth’ of this account of burnet,’’? continues the: fame author, * it would be altogether fuperfluous to enlarge upon its value to a live-{tock farmer ; but fuch advantages will ever be looked for in vain upon a cold barren clay, or without the feeds being frefh and good, or without culture and manure, even on a proper foil. One of the firft objects is, to be fure the feed be good, which is feldom the cafe, burnet being a grafs very little cultivated, and in which he has been more than once foiled in his endeavours to raife a crop, from that cir- cumftance It may be further advantageoufly cultivated in drilla, and treated precifely like lucerne, a method which he has la’ely adopted. It may be fown indifferently either in fpring, {ummer, or autumn. It frequently happens that the crop is thin until the third year, but afterwards very luxuri- ant, fully covering the foil. It is further obferved, that burnet is a native of this country, growing fpontaneoufly in many parts, particularly, as he has obferved, upon Salifbury Plain, whence he is of opinion, an indication may be drawn of its proper foil; like lucerne, it defies drought in fummer, which makes it valuable in another point of view. The feed has been warranted as good food for horfes as corn ; a con- fideration for thofe who may have the convenience of bruif- ing it.”” ee the twenty-firft volume of the Annals of Agriculture we have the following ftatement of the advantage derived from five roods of wet land, a {trong tenacious loam, ona dry and clay-mixt bottom, eaten off by ewes and lambs in _ the beginning of April, befides the ftraw, which was care- fully laid up for winter provifion for fheep, in wet weather, and the chaff for horfes with their corn, which are reckoned together with a week’s keep of fifty fheep, juft taken out, as tantamount to the expence of mowing, drefling, and carting. : Pan ace Keep of 30 couples for three weeks at 6d. per week mie gh eta - - Behe po To ditto, to days, at 4d. per weck OF On 6 Value of feed at 103. per bufhel = = ae 13) oO fo B35 14 6 BUR Brought forward #.15 14 6 Rent, at 15s. per acre - 018 9 Tythes and town charges « oO 7: 6 ’ itl ST fet. a Jae The land on which burnet is fown fhould always be made perfeGily fine before the feed is put in. The true management of this fort of crop, according to Mr. Young, isnot to cut it down much in the autumn or winter feafons, asthe great peculiarity of the plant is to afford a full bite in March; and when you have it fix or eight inches high in OGober, more food will be fourd at that period, fer it retains its leaves, as the winter frolts have but little effet upon it. * Some,” fays he, “ who have found fault with it, and aflerted that it is unprofitable, have fed off the after-grafs bare in the autumn, and Iet their fheep and cattle get into itin winter. It is then no wonder the burnet does not anfwver the charagter given of it by others, who have managed in a different ma&ner.”? The crops of this fort which are defigned for feed, fhould be cut about the beginning of Julv, when care fhould be taken that it doesnotfhed. It is the bett pra@ice to threfh it out in the field in the fame manner as many other forts of {mall feeds, the ftraw being made into hay. The produce in both feed and hay is very confiderable. When intended for hay, it fhould be cut rather early in order to prevent its becoming too coarfe. Befides the modes cf application for which it has been already recommended, it is of vaft utility as an early {pring feed for fheep. The intelligent author of the Farmer’s Calendar has obferved that, ‘* an acre of it, managed pro- petly, will at this feafon yield much more food than an acre of clover and rye-grafs.” The importance of the feed and chaff of this plant, as pro- vender for horfes, has been highly fpoken of by fome, but its advantages in this way have not been yet afcertained by any fatisfactory fet of experiments. Burnet, in Botany. See Porerium and Sancui SORBA. Burnet Saxifrage. See PimPINELLA. Burnet, Burneta, or Burnetus, in Middle Age Writers, denotes brown cloth made of dyed wool. In which fenfe the word ftands contradiftinguifhed_ from’ brunus, which was applied to the wool undyed. BURNEY’s Istanp, in Geography an ifland on the north-eaft coaft of Siberia, in the Frozen Sea; about 3 leagues from the main. BURNHAM-Market, a town of Norfolk, in En- gland, has the latter part of its name to diftinguifh it from other Burnhams in the fame county. It is fituated near the coaft, on the northern extremity of Norfolk. Here was formerly a {mall monaftery of White Friars, or Carmelites, of which Robert Bale was prior. At Burnham-Deepdale are fome falt marfhes, which are found to be very conducive to the fattening and prefervation of fheep. On the high grounds along this coait are feveral tumuli, which fome of our topographers attribute to the Saxons and Danes, who were flain here during the piracies of the latter. Here is a {mall weekly market on Mondays, and the parifh contains 159 houfes, and 743 inhabitants. Buroham-market is 118 miles N.E. of London. BURNING, the ation of fire on fome pabulum, or fuel, whereby the minute parts thereof are torn from each other, and put into a violent motion; and fome of themaf- fuming the nature of fire themfelves, fly off in orbem, while the s BURNING. . the reft are diffipated in form of vapour, or reduced to afhes. See ComuusTion. : Buasinc is alfo applied to the aétion of divers things which are cold to the touch, or do not contain fire. * In this fenfe agua fortis is faid to burn cloth. There are certain fogs which burn orfeorch the corn. Virgil obferves that fevere cold itfelf will durn, that is, have much the fame effe&son the parts of the body as fire itfelf, in caufing gargrencs. BuaninG, extraordinary cafes of.—We have inftances of perfons buret by fire kindled within their own bodies. A woman at Paris, who vfed to drink brandy in excefs, was one night reduced to afhes by a fire from within, all but her head and the ends of her fingers. Novum Lumen Phof- phor. accenf. Amft. 1717. Signora Corn. Zangari, or, as others call her, Corn. Bandi, a lady aged 62, of an uoblemifhed life, near Cefena in Romagna, underwent the fame fate in March, 1731. She “had retired in the evening into her chamber, fomewhat in- difpofed, and in the morning was found in the middle of the room, reduced to afhes, all except her face, fkull, three fingers, and legs, which remained entire, with the fhoes and ftockings on. The afhes were light, and, on prefiing be- tween the fingers, vanifhed, leaving a grofe flinking moitture behind, with which the floor was fmeared; the walls, and furniture of the room, being covered witha moift cineritious foot, which had not only ftained the linen in the cheiks, but had penetrated into the clofet, as well as into the room over-head, the walls of which were moiftened with the fame vifcous humour. Mem. de Trev. an. 1731. p. 1293. Sig. Mondini, Bianchini, and Maffei, have written dif- courfes exprefs, to account for the caufe of fo extraordinary an event: common fire it could not be, fince this would likewife have burnt the bed and the room; befides that it would have required many hours, and a large quantity of fuel, to reduce a human body to afhes; and, after all, a confiderable part of the bones would have been left entire, as they were anciently found after the fierceft funeral fires. Siz. Mondini attributes this effe& to lightning. A philo- fopher of Verona maintains, that fuch a conflagration might have arifen from the inflammable matters wherewith the human body naturally abounds. Sig. Bianchini accounts for it from an internal fire, occafioned by fpirit of wine camphorated, which the lady ufed by way of bath or lotion, when fhe found herfelf out of order. Maffei’s fyftem is a combination of the three laft: he fuppofes it owing to lightning, but lightning generated in her own body ; agree- able to his doétrine, which is, that lightning does not come from the clouds ; but is always produced in the place where it is feen, and its efie&s perceived. Che humours of her body, naturally inflammable enough, were become preterna- turally fo, by her putrid indifpofition ; and thefe, by per- fpiration, had enveloped her body with an atmofphere of the fame kind, replete likewife with mineral matters, whereby its activity was heightened. She had probably rifen in the night to ufe her lotion, and, by the friction of her hand, had helped to kindle the flame. We have various relations of feveral other perfons being burnt to death in this unaccountable manner; as Grace Pet, of Ipfwich, aged 60, in 1744; who had previoufly diank a Jarge quantity of fpiricuous liquor, and the trunk of whofe body was found incinerated, refembling a heap of coals covered with white afhes, and amu 2 an extremely feetid odour and {moke; and Mary Clues, of Coventry, 52 years of age, in 1772, who had been much addiéted to in- toxication, fo that {carcely a day paffed in which fhe did not drink at leafta pint of rumor annifeed water. Inher cafe no- i thing remained of the flkin, the mofeles, and the vifcera ; the bones of the cranium, the breaft, the fpine, and the upper extremities, were entirely calcined, and covered with a whitith efforefcence; and the room was filled with a very - difagreable vapour. A fimilar inftance is mentioned by Vicq. d’Azyr, in the * Encyclopedic Methodique.” A woman about the fame age, who indulged to excels in fpi- rituous liquors, and went to bed every night in a flate of intoxication, was found entirely burnt, and reduced to afhes, Le Cat, in a memoir on fpontaneous burning, mentions feveral other inftances of combuftion of the human body ; and two other facts of a fimilar kind are publifhed in the ‘¢ Journal de Medicine,” (vol.lix. p. 440.) An attempt has been made to eftablifh the opinion, that thefe deftroying in- ternal fires are caufed in the entrails of the body by en- flamed ¢fRuvia of the blood, by juices and fermentations in the ftomach, by the many combuitible matters which abound in living bodies, for the ufes of life, and, finally, by the fiery evaporations which exhale from the fettlings of {pirit of wine, brandies, and other hot liquors in the tunica villofa of the ftomach, and other adipofe or fat membranes ; within which thofe f{pirits engender a kind of camphor, which in - the night-time, in fleep, by a full re{piration, are. put ina ftronger motion, and are more apt to be fet on fire. See Phil. Tranf. N° 476. p. 453, feq. Ibid. vol. Ixiv. part ii.. » 340. Others afcribe the caufe of {uch perfons being fet on fire, to lightning ; and their burning fo entirely, to the greater quantity of phofphorus, and other combuitible matter they contained. \ ; M. Pierre Aime Lair communicated tothe ‘ Philoma- thic Society” at Paris, a memoir on the fubje&t of the ap- parently {fpontaneous combuftion of living individuals of the human fpecies ; and in addition to the inftances already men- tioned, and fome others which he recites, he informs us, that Dr. Swediaur related the cafes of fome perfons at War- faw, who, having drank abundantly of malt fpirits, feil down in the ftreet, with the {moke iffuing out of their mouths; and the people, who came to their affiltance, faid they would take fire ; for preventing which, they made them drink a great quantity of milk, or ufed a more fingular ex- pedient, by caufing them to {wallow urine immediately on its evacuation. ‘The circumftances colleGted from the feve- ral inftances recited by M. Lair, are reduced by him to the nine following faéts: 1. ‘The perfons who have experienced thefe effets of combuttion, were generally much addicted to the drinking of extremely ftrong fpirituous liquors : and accordingly it has been remarked, that the inbabitants of the north are moft fubje& to thefe accidents, 2. They were ufually very fat. 3. This combutlion has happened more frequently in the cafe of women. 4, Thefe women were old. 5. Their bodies did not appear to have been burned by a combuftion perfeétly fpontaneous; but it ap- pears that the fire had taken place in confequence of fome very flight external caufe, fuch as the fire of a taper, can- dle, or pipe of tobacco. 6, The extremities of their bo. dies, fuch as the legs, the hands, or the cranium, efcaped the fire. 7, Water, inftead of extinguifhing the fire of the burning parts of the body, gave it a greater velocity ; a circumitance which alfo occurs in fat that is burnt. 8. The fire very flightly damaged, and, in many initances, did not injure the combuftible obje€ts which were in contact with the body at the moment it was burning. 9. ‘I'he combuf- tion of.thefe bodies left a refidue of oily acd fostid afhes, with a greafy foot of a very penetrating and difagreable {mell. After reciting thefe feveral circumftances, the au. thor endeavours to afcertain the caufe of fo furprifing a phenos BURNING. phenomenon, and with this view he advances feveral hypo- thefes, which it is needlefs to detail, as the facts are not fuf- ficiently numerous nor well known to admit of eflablifhing a fatisfaGtory theory concerning the fpontaneous combuftion of human bodies. The author, however, appears to attri- bute it to a particular ftate of the fat produced by fpirituous liquors; and he founds his opinion priscipally on the pecu- liar corpulence of the perfons who have fallen victims to thefe accidents, and on the obfervation that has been made, that the parts which were not fo fat, fuch as the extremi- ties of the head, have efcaped. And, laltly, he fupports his theory by the well known fa& of the {pontaneous combuf- tion of a mixture of animal foot and linfeed oil, which is a mixture fimilar to that of a fat body containing charcoal in a very minute {tate of divifion. Burnine is alfo a denomination given by phylicians to divers diforders, on account of a fenfation of heat that at- tends them, .In which fenfe-we fay a burning revER. See Causus. Among the divers fpecies of madnefs incident to dogs, one 1s called the durning madnefs. If a mare which has been covered, and the colt knit within her, be covered by another horfe, he is {aid to durn her. Burninc is more particularly ufed for the herpes, or ignis facer, called ER¥SIPELAS and arfura. Burninc, among Surgeons, denotes the application of an aCtual cautery, that is, a red-hot iron inftrument, to the part affe&ted ; otherwife denominated cauterization. See Cau- TERY. Burnine, in Antiquity, was a practice much ufed by the Greeks, Romans, and northern nations; and ftill retained by many people in both Indies, with refpeét to their dead. See Buriav. In this fenfe, durning ftands oppofite to burying ; though, after burning, the bones remaining, and afhes, have been -ufually collected into urns, and depofited in the earth. Burning is not fo ancient among the Greeks as intetring ; though we find it obtained in the time of the Trojan war : and it is reported by the {choliaft on Homer (Iliad. «.) to have been firft introduced by Hercules. At and after the Tro- jan war, burning was generally practifed by the Grecians ; infomuch that when Lucian (De Luétu) enumerates the various methods ufed by different nations in the difpofal of their dead, he exprefsly afligns burning to the Greeks, and interment to the Perfians. Socrates in Plato’s Phedon, mentions both cultoms: and it appears, that fome of them confidered the cultom of burning as cruel and inhuman ; whence a poet, cited by Euttathius (Il.«.) introduces a perfon, exclaiming againft, and calling out upon Prometheus to hafte to his affitlance, and fteal, if poffible, from mortals the fire he had given them. Others afcribe the origin of cthis praétice, which prevailed very anciently, not only in Afia, but in the weftern parts of the world, to refpe& and frisndfhip for the deceafed ; whofe afhes they depofited ia urns, and preferved with great care, and interred with funeral honours. Potter. Arch. lib. iv. cap. 6. tom. il. Kings were burnt in cloth made of the afbettos-ftone, that their afhes might be preferved pure from any mixture with the fuel, and other matters thrown on the funeral pile. And the like ufage is ftill retained for the princes in Yartary. Among the Greeks, the body was placed upon the top of the pile, on which were alfo thrown divers animals, and even flaves and captives. befides unguents and perfumes. In the funeral of Patroclus, we find a number of fheep and oxen thrown in, then four horfes, followed by two dogs, and laftly, by twelve Trojan prifoners. Hom, Il. xxiii, i To this cuftom of flanghtering animals, and of condemns ing flaves or captives to the flames, on eccafion of burning the dead, Virgil alludes (Ain. x, 518. xi. 82. xi. 197.); and alfo Cicero (Flacc. 38.). Afterwards gladiators, denomi- nated Buftuarii, (which fee,) were made to fight, as a fub- ftitute to human facrifices. Thus alfo among the Geuls, flaves and clients were burnt on the piles of their matters (fee Cef. Bell. Gall. vi. 17.): and among the Indians and Thracians wives were burnt on the piles of their hufbands ; and if one man had feveral wives, there was fometimes a conteft among them, which fhould be preferred, and the preference was de- cided by let. Elian. vii. 18. Serv. in Ain. v.95. A fimilar practice has long exifted among the Brachmans of Icdia. See Branmins. Thusamong the Romans, friends teftified their affcétion; as Piotinus to his patron (Plin. vii. 36.), Plautius to his wife Oreftilla, (Val. Max. iv. 6. 3.) Soldiers to Otho (Tacit. Hift. ii. 49.), and Mnetter, a freed- man, to Agrippina, (Tacit. Annal. xiv. 9.) The body of the deceafed was covered with the fat of beafts, that it might the fooner be confumed, it being regarded as a fingu- lar blefling to be quickly reduced to afhes. For the fame reafon, when a number of bodies was arranged to be burnt on the fame pile, they blended thofe of moilt temperament, and which were eafily inflamed, with others: and to this purpofe Plutarch (Sympof. 1. iii. Quett. 4.) and Macro- bius (Saturn. |. vii. c. 7.) obferve, that to ten men it was cuftomary to add cne woman. Soldiers ufually had their arms burnt with them. The garments worn by the living were alfo thrown on the pile with other ornaments and prefents ; a piece of extravagance, which the Athenians carried to fo great a length, that fome of their law-givers were forced to reftrain them, by fevere penalties, from defrauding the living by their hberality to the dead. The pile was fet on fire by fome of the neareft relations, who prayed and offered vows to the winds to effiit the flames, that the body might be quickly confumed. While the body was burning, in the cafe of celebrated commanders, the foldiers and attendants expreffed their refpe& for the dead by making a folemn proceffion three times round the pile, accompanying their motions with fhouts and found of trumpet: and the friends of the deceafed ftood by the pile, pouring forth libations of wine, and calling upon the de- ceafed. When the flames ceafed, the remains of the fire were extinguifhed with wine, and the bones and afhes were colleéted, fometimes wafhed with wine and arointed with oil, and fometimes inclofed with fat ; and then depofited in urns of gold, filver, wood, ftone, or earth, according to the condition of the deceafed ; thofe of perfons of rank were adorned with flowers and garlands, and fometimes they were covered with cloth till they were lodged in the earth. Ho- mer. I]. xxiit. xxiv. Virgil, /En. vi. Potter. ubi fupra. The Romans, at firft, ufually interred their dead. See Buriat. But they adopted, at an early period, the cuftom of burning from the Greeks (fee Plut. in Numa) ; and this cuftom is mentioned in the laws of Numa, and of the twelve tables (Cic. de. Leg. 11. 22.), but it did not become general, till about the end of the republic. Sylla was the firlt of the patrician band of the “‘ Gens Cornelia,” that was burnt : and he is fuppofed to have ordered it, left any one fhould dig up his body, and diffipate his remains, as he did thofe of Marius. Pliny (H.N. 1. viti. c. 54). Euftathius affigns two reafons for the prevalency of burn- ing in Greece; the firit, that bodies being thought to be unclean after the foul’s departure, were to be purified by fire: and that the foul, or purer part, being feparated by the flames, from the grofs inactive matter, m git take its flight BURNING. fight to the heavenly manfions with more freedom. This latter opinion obtained fo much, that the Indian philofo- phers had not patience to wait for burning till after death ; they had recourfe to it in their life-time ; ereGted themfelves piles for the purpofe, to loofen their fouls from confinement. Calanus, who followed Alexander out of India, finding him- felf indifpofed, obtained that prince’s leave to prevent the “ete of his diftemper, by committing himfelf to the ames ; and Hercules, before his reception into heaven, was purified from che dregs of earth by the fame means. Quin- til. Declam. x. Potter. ubi fupra. Pliny affures us, that burning was brought into ufe among the Romans. on occafion of the cruel ufage which the bodies of the dead Romans underwent in enemies’ countries. But this muft only be underftood in regard of the common ufaze ; fince we find mention of burning as praGtifed by fome even in the ea-lielt ages of Rome; Numa forbade his own body to be burned, commanding it to be laid entirein a ftone cof- fin, which fhews that the practice of burning was not then unknown at Rom. Under the emperors, as we learn from Tacitus (Annal. xvi. g.) it became almoft univerfal. In fome cafes burning was exprefsly forbid, and looked upon asthe higheitimpiety. Thus infants who died before the breeding of teeth, were entombed unburnt, in the ground, in a particular place fet apart for this ufe, called /uggrunda- rium. The like was praétifed with regard to thofe who had been ftruck dead with lightning, who were never to be burnt again, but buried in the {pot where they fell, called didental, which fee. _ Some fay, that burning was denied to fuicides as a pu- nifhment. The manner of burning among the Romaias was not un- like that of the Greeks; the corpfe being brought without the city, if they defigned to burn it, was carried dire@tly to the place appointed for that purpofe ; which, by the law of the twelve tables, was without the city: (Cic. de Leg. ii. 23.) according to the cuitom of other nations, as the Jews, (Matt. xxvii. 53. John, xix. 20. and 41.), the Athe- nians, (Cic. Fam. iv. 12. Liv. xxxi. 24.), and others, (Cic. Flace. xxxi. Tufe. v.23. Plut.in Arat. Strabo, 1. x.) If this place joined to the fepulchre, it was called du/lum, if feparate from it, uflrina: the body, when brought thither, was laid onthe rogus, a pile of wood prepared to burn it on, built in fhape of an altar, but of different height, accord- ing to the quality of the deceafed ; and at the ciftance of 6o feet from any houfe. The wood ufed was commonly from fuch treea as contained moft pitch or rofin; and if any other were ufed they fplit it forthe more eafy catching fire ; round the pile they fet cyprefs trees, probably to hinder the norfom fmell ofthe corpfe. The body was not placed on the bare pile, but on the couch or bed on which it lay. The eyes of the deceafed were opened, (Plin. ti. 37.) to which Virgil is thought to allude, ABa. iv. 214. This done, the next of blood performed the ceremony of lighting the pile, which they did with atorch, turning the face all the while the other way, as if it were done with relu€tance. Daring the ceremony, more efpecially at the funeral of an illu{trious commander or emperor, decurfions round the pile were performed, with enfigns inverted, and games were cele- brated ; after which, when the fire was extinguifhed, and the embers foaked with wine, came the offlegium, or gather- ing the bones and afh dedu&ed for the lofs of power, in confequence of the impediments that the glafs of which it was made mutt occafion, as weil es the four refleGtions {i. e. two reflcGtions on the immerfion. and two more on the emerfion of the rays of heat), by way of diminution; but we will endeavour to appreciate it after making a full allow- ance for thefe dedu@tions, which muft neceffarily refult from every means of concentrating the folar rays, and which mutt be confidered to be as the fri€tion of an engine, of which nature they really partake. The folar rays received on a circular furface of 2 feet 84 inches, when concentrated within the diameter of one inch, will be 1056.25 times its intenfity, or this number of times greater than the heat of the fun as felt on the furface of the earth. We will fuppofe that as the heat of the air, in ordi- nary fummer weather, is 65°, and ia fultry weather is 75°, the average of which is 70°, and that we take this degree as the average cffe&t, the accumulated power of the lens, on the fuppofition of an equal effec over the whole furface of the focus, will be equal to 73938°. It muft be recolleéted by thofe who have had an oppor- tunity of exemining the effets of this lens, that the external part of the focal light was lefs intenfe than that part which was near the centreof it; or, rather, that the effect was very much accumulated in the centre: but as it is poffible that the refraétion of the light and of the caloric fluid may not take place in the fame angles, we thiake it fafeft to confider it as of an uniform ¢ffeét, and after d ing one-fourth part thereof as a compenfation, there remains 55454°, as the ex- preffion of its power. Aa the appitcation of the fecond lens reduced the diame- ter of the focus to half an inch, the effect, without allowing for the redudtion of its power, would be equal to 221816°, but dedu&ing one-fourth for the fecond tranfmiffion, there remains 166362° as the expreffion of its power. Suppofing that the rays of the fun emanated from a point, the focus of the lens would alfo be a point; for the rays tranfmitted throngh one edge of the lens would meet thofe tranfmitted through the other edge, fo that the focus would be without parts, or a mathematical point ; but as the fun is known to meafure 31! 32” during the apogee, and 32! 38! during the perigee, the focus muit neceffarily be 0.7 105 parts of an inch diameter at Midfummer, and 0.7594 at Ciriftmas. The length of the luminous axis at Midfummer muft, from the fame caufe, be 3.428 inches, ani', at the oppofite period, 3-557; becaufe the dimenfion of the focus is actually depen- dent on the apparent diameter of the fun, the femi-diameter being to be added to increafe the meafure of the converging rays on each of the oppofite fides, the tangent of which 18 the femi-diameter of the focus: and by the fame means the length of the axis is difcovered, adding to and fub- traGing from the converging angle, by which means the points at which they meet on the axis are difcovered. Thefe two points dilclofe the commencement of the luminous appear- ance thereon, The variation between the above calculated diameter of the focus and what it really was, points out the errors in the inftrument, which muft arife from one of two caufes, or from both, viz. that the axis of the two fides are not coin= cident, or that they are not oppofite to each other; fhould the difference have been occafioned by either, the focus would have been elliptical ; but as this was not afcertained, itcan only be faid that a very fmaill deviation in each would have occafioned this enlargement of the focus; and poffibly they might have a&ed in contrary ways, which would have made it nearly circular, ; But as this lens was exported many years ago, we ate not able to determine whether the focus ftated to have been one inch diameter was afcertained by its burning effect, or by the diameter of the focal rays: if by the diameter of the rays, the enlargement thereof mult have refulted from the above caufes; but if from its burning power, it tends rather to eltablifh the theory of Dr. Herfchell, that the rays of caloric are lefs refrangible than thofe of light, and that the true burning focus lies rather beyond the apparent focus. We are far from thinking the above ftatement an extrava< gant fuppofition, when it is recolleSted, that all the expe- riments on which we ground our opinion were made witha total expofure of the fubltances to the action of the circum ambient air ; and had the property of this fluid, as to its con- duéting power of heat, been then well underftood, fo as to have prevented the diminution of the effe&t, we are well fatisfied the refult would have juftified our conclufion. The ingenious experiments of Mr. Wedgwood, and the extenfive ufe cf his pyrometer, for the admeafurement of heat required to melt metals, are now too well underflood to require any eulogium in this place; it 1s fufficient to ftate that he eftimates the heat required to melt the following fub- flances to be as follows: ‘ Tahr. or byWedg, Red heat vifible in day light - 1047° ° Fine gold - - . 5237 32 Welding heat of iron greateft 13427 95 Catt iron melts - - 17977 130 Greatett heat of his {mall furnace 21877 100 Extremity of the {cale of his pyrometer 32277 240 The power of the lens cltimated by this pyrometer will be found to be 1096°, and fuppofing the hotteft furnace to be 246°, the focal heat thereof is 5.2975 times greater, In BURNING-GLASS. In juftification of the opinion we have given, we now pro- ceed to fubmit a feleted enumeration of the experiments which were made with this juftly celebrated initrument, under the infpeGtion of major Gardner, brother to the admi- ral lord Gardner, together with fome gentlemen of the Royal Society. rey e Ge Subftances fufed, with their Weight and Time Ss | ve , of Fufion. SUF 8 = = = wm Gold, pure, - - - -| 20| 4 Silver, do. - - - =1'20 4. 3 Copper, do. - - - =) agree Platina, do. - - “| 10 3 Nickell, - - -| 16} 3 Bar Iron, a Cube, - - -| ro | 12 Caft Iron, a Cube, - - -| 10 3 Steel, a Cube, - - - -| ro | 12 Scoria of Wrought Iron, - - -| 12 2 Kearfh, - - = - -| 10 | 3 Cauk, or Terra Ponderofa, - - “rout 7 A Topaz, or Chryfolite, - - 3) 45 An Oriental Emerald, - - spi 125; Cryftal Pebble, - - 1 al 6 Topaz, - - - -| 10 | 39° Flint Oriental, © - -| 10 | 39 Rough Cornelian, = - 7 10 | 75 Jafper, - - - -| 10 } 2! Onyx, - - - -} 10 |2 0 Garnet, . - - - -| 19 |17 White Rhomboidal Spar, s -| 10 | 60 Zeolites, - - - - =| 10 } 2 Rotten Stone, - - - -| 10 | $0 Common Slate, - - -| 10 2 Afbeltos, - - = -| 10 | Io Common Lime Stone, - - | 19 | 55 Pumice Stone, - = -| 10 | 2 Lava, - - - loro tay Volcanic Clay, = = - -| 10 | Go Cornifh Moor Stone, . ° -| 10 | 60 Mr. Parker farther informs us, that a diamond, weighing 10 rains, expofed to this lens for 30 minutes, was reduced to 6 grains; during which operation it opened, and foliated like the leaves of a flower, and emitted whitifh fumes, and when clofed again it bore a polifh, and retained its form. ‘The editor has been favoured by Mr. Parker, jun. with the following additional obfervations on the powers of this Jens. Gold remained in its metallic ftate, without apparent diminution, notwithftanding an expofure at intervals of many hours: but what is remarkable, the reft, or cupel, which was compofed of bone alh, was tinGtured with a beautiful pink colour. Platina. The experiments evince that the {pecimens were in different {tates of approach to a complete metallic form : feveral of them threw off their parts in fparks, which in moft inftances were metallic. Copper, after three minutes expofure, was not found to have loft in weight. fron, fteel-fhear. What is remarkable in this experiment is, that the lower part, i.e. that part in contaGt with the charcoal, was firlt melted, when that part which was expofed to the focus remained unfufed: an evidence of the effeét of flux on this metal. Tron {coria, and the turnings efiran, The fcoria appears to have been melted in much lefs time than the turnings, a refult that might have been expected to have been dire@ly the reverfe ; but fome allowance mult be made for the pro- bable difference in the effets or intenfities of the folar rays at the periods at which the experiments were made. Calx of iron from vitriolic acid, precipitated by mild fixed alkali, weighing 5 grains before expofure, weighed afterwards 54 grains ; which indicates an increale of weight by an abforption of phlogifton. Regulus of zinc began almoft inftantly to flow, and was nearly evaporated; the remains were magnetic. Regulus of cobalt was completely evaporated in 57", Regulus of bifmuth was nearly evaporated when expofed on a charcoal reft; but on black lead it began to fufe in 2", and very foon after paffed into a ftate of complete fufion; it loft only half a grain in weight from an expofure of 180"; on a bone-afh reft it fufed in 3", and in 180! it was reduced to 74 grains. Regulus of antimony: 33 grains were fufed in 3" on chars coal, and after 195" there remained only 11 grains; but when expofed on a charcoal relt for the fame time, there remained afterwards 25 grains, which fhewed a magnetic affection. Fine kearfh from the cannon foundery evaporated very faft during 120", and in 30” more the remainder began to flow into globules, which, on being cold, were attraéted by the magnet. ‘This experiment of itfelf fupports the claim of thia infrument to a vaft fuperiority over the heat of any furnace hitherto known. Cryftal pebble of North America: 5 grains expofed con- trated in 15", perfectly glazed in 135", cbullefced in 150", and when taken out appeared femi-diaphanous, of a flate colour. Several of the femi-cryftalline fubftances, expofed to the focal heat, exhibited fymptoms of fufion: fuch as the agate, oriental flint, cornelian, and jafper; but as the probability is that thefe fubftances were not capable of complete vitrifica- tion, it is enough chat they were rendered externally of a glafly form. Garnet completely fufed on black lead in 120", loft 4 of a grain, became darker in colour, and was attraétcd by the magnet. Ten cut garnets taken from a bracelet, began to run the one into the other, in a few feconds, and at laft formed into one globular garnet. The clay ufed by Mr. Wedgwood to make his pyrome- tric teft, run in a few feconds into a white enamel. Seven other kinds of clay fent by Mr. Wedgwood were all vitrified. Several experiments were made on limeftone, fume of which were vitrified, but all of which were agglutinated; it is, however, fufpeéted that fome extraneous fubltance muft have been intermixed. A globule produced from one of the fpecimens, on being put into the mouth, flew into a thoufand pieces, occafioned, it is prefumed, by the moif- ture. StalaGites Zeolithus {patofus: 9 grains took a globular form in 60"; in 148 the globule began to get clear; in 155” was perfectly tranfparent, and as it grew cold dimi- nifhed in tranfparency, and at laft refolved itfelf into a beau tiful red; on being cut by a lapidary, it was found to be fo hard as to ferve as a diamond to write on glafs. Several fpecimens of lavas, and other volcanie produc. tions, were expofed to the focus of the lens, all of which yielded to its power. ‘This furnace of nature, the volcano, is {uppofed to be hotter than any furnace conftru€ted by the I art BURNING.-GLASS. art of man, and as none of thefe fubftances have been found perfectly vitrified, the conclufion is, that the volcano muft exceed them in its power. The following obfervation made by major Gardner, he ap- plies to all the experiments made by him during a period of many months ; we will ufe his own words : “ That no fubltance can remain any length of time in its focus unfufed or unvitrified, unlefs 1t be externally white or diaphanous ; but ina number of inftances even thefy properties do not prevent their being fufed or vitrified: when they do it appears, in the firlt cafe, that the rays were in part re- fleGted (perhaps before they came in conta with the in- tenfely white fubftance); and from this circumftance the fun’s rays are prevented from exerting their tuil power upon them.” Some experiments were made in the year 1802, with Mr. Parker’s lens, with the view of afcertaining whether the moon communicated any heat to the earth, in common with the refleGed light from which we derive fo much ad- vantage. This experiment was attended by fir Jofeph Banks, with feveral members of the Royal Society, together with Dr. Crawford, who provided the mott fenfible thermome- ters ; but after applying them to the luminous focus, fo far from a perceptible increafe of heat, it was thought there was perceived rather a diminution thereof ; but this fufpicion did not lead them to a fair inveftigation of the fact. Since this period fome experiments have been made that evince the power of communicating cold by reflection ; but as this fa& bas not yet been explained confiflently with the prefent received theory, we fhal! content ourfclves with taking notice of the experiment made by M. PiGet. Two concave mirrors being placed at the diftance of 104 feet from cach other, a very delicate air thermometer was put into one of the foci, and a glafs matra(s full of {now inthe other. The thermometer funk feveral degrees, and rofe again when the matrafs was removed. When nitric acid was poured. upon the fnow (which increafed the cold). the thermometer funk 5° or O° lower. Here cold feems to have been emitted by the fnow, and refleted by the mirrors to the thermometer, which it is thought could not happen unle{s cold were a ‘fubftance. Tt has been found that upon an admixture of equal quantities of fnow, which is always at 32°, and of water heated to 172°, the refult is that the compound only retains the lowelt heat of 32°, fo that 140° of heat or caloric difappears. Much has been faid refpeGing the point or degree at which the thermometer fhould indicate the prefence of heat. ‘The experiments of Dr. Crawford feem to place it at 1268° below the prefent o. Mr. Kirwan places it at 1048”. Meffrs. Lavoifier and La Place at 2736°; and by a mixture of four parts of fulphuric acid with three pints of water, it feems that it fhould be placed at 5803° below o. Experiments of this kind may be made ad infinitum, and in time it may poflibly be afcertained that cold isa real fub- ftance ; but for the purpofe of getting an anfwer to the prefent queftion, we will accommodate the fcale of Fah- renheit, by adding 109° thereto, fo as to make the o cor- re{pond with the caloric imbibed by fnow or ice before it can melt. The average temperature of the air, mentioned under the article Burninc Gla/t, of 70° will be now con- fidered as 178 of the new {cale. The fuperficies of {pherical bodiesiare to each other as the {quares olihat refpeétive diameters. The diameter of the moon is confidered to be 2180 miles, and its mean diftance from the earth 240,000; from which it follows, on the fuppofition that all the folar rays received by the moon were refle&ed back, and that the earth was abfolutely without heat, that the effe& of this refleQion would be found to be .00367 of a degree (for 240.c00 X 27; 178° :: - 2180° ; .co367); which multiplied into 1056.25, and this fum increafed tour times for the increafed power of the fe- cond lens, wonld give 15.51234° as the heat of the focus 5 92.28765° below the prefent o, or 124.28766° below the treezing point. This differtation is interefting in another point of view, for this calculation afcertains that the light afforded by the moon, when compared with that by the fun, abitraCting all impediments in both cafes, is only as 1 to 48480. A fubfeription was propofed for raifing the {um of 700 guineas, towards indemnifying the charges of the inventor, and retaining the very curious and ufeful machine above deferbed in our own country; but from the failure of the fub{cription, and fome other concurring circumf{tances, Mr. Parker was induced to difpofe of it to capt. Mack- intofh, who accompanied lord Macartney in the embafly to that country ; and it was left, much to the regret of philofo- phers in Europe; at Pekin; where it remains in the hands a perfons who, molt probably, know neither its value nor ule. ; Burnine of Heath, in Agriculture, a praGtice employed in fome diftricts for clearing ground covered with this fub- ftance, in order to procure grafs and herbage for cattle- The moft proper time for this bufinefs is towards the latter end of the fummer, when the plants are withered: care fhou'd be taken that the fire extends no farther than is in- tended, by clearing away all the grafs, and other dry vege- table matters, on the fide which is to be preferved from the flames, to a diftance fufficient to prevent all communication ; the grafs and other fubftances which are cut down, being {pread uponthe part intended to be burnt, may ferve for kindling the fire after they are become dry, and in a ftate fit for combuttion. For this operation a fair calm day fhould likewife be cho- fen ; when, by kindling the fire on the fide the wind blows from, the danger of its fpreading too extenfively is more fully guarded againft. If, however, notwithflanding: thefe precautions, it fhouid fpread to places intended to be pre- ferved, and where there is no water, the molt effectual way of {topping the progrefs of it is to dig a trench; as, by throwing up the earth on the fide where the fire is, the grafs is covered and the flames thereby hindered from extending farther, Burnine of Lime, the procefs of converting hard or ftrong calcareous fubftances into lime by means of fire. See Lime Lurning. Burnin of Straw, a wafteful diffipating pra&ice em- ployed in fome diftriéts for the purpofe of converting it into afhes for manuring land. It is obferved by Mr. Young, in the Report of Lincolnfhire, that ‘* the moft*fingular practice he ever met with in manuring fubfifls on the Wolds; it is that of {preading dry flraw on the land and burning it. At lord Yarborough’s, he fays, he firft heard of this cuftom. His lordfhip’s tenant, Mr. Richardfon, a very good and in- telligent farmer, gave him the account, having long practifed it with fuccefs. The quantity is about five tons an acre, At Great Lumber he /raw-durnt a piece in the middle of a field preparing for turnips, and on each fide of it manured with ten loads an acre of yard-dung, and the burned part was vilibly fuperior in the crop. In another piece the fame comparative trial was made, in 1796, for turnips: and now, in 1797, the barley is equally fuperior. On another farm he had at Wold-Newton he didit for turnips, then barley, a aid BUR Jaid with fainfoin; and the burnt flraw was better in all thofecrops than yard dung: Burning grein this manner returns great crops ; but the expence ts toohigh. He is clearly of opinion, -that it is the warmth from the fre that has the effect, and not the afhes; for the quantity is nothing, znd would blow away at one blaft. It is proper to obferve, fayshe, that they do not value ftraw uied in feeding cattle at more than 4s. or 5s. aton. Mr. Mailis of Lumber is of the fame opinion, and thinks four tons are enough; and never knew that fail for turnips. ‘This ftraw burning hufbandry the reporter found again at Beleflay. Mr. Lloyd, who, he fhould obferve, is an excellent farmer, thinks that it takes fix tons per acre, which will laft longer in its effet, and beat the dung which that ftraw would mzke, and in general laft longer than common dsnging. Keeping much cattle, he cannot practife it, but highly approvesit. In difcourfe at Horn-caltle ordinary on burning ftraw, the practice, he fays, was much reprobated ; yet an inftance was produced that feemed to make in favour of it. Mr. Elmhurift, of Hazlethorp, burnt twelve acres of cole feed ftraw on eight acres of the twelve, and the efle€t was very great, and feen even for twenty years, He fowed wheat on it, four bufhels an acre, and had five quarters: the four acres upon which nothing was burnt, much the better land, yet the crops on the burnt part were by that mode equal to therelt. But in another fimilar experiment for turnips, Mr. Rancliff ob- ferved, the refult and the effet lafted only fer one crop. Mr. Kirkham, who was in company, gave it as his opinion, that, as cattle would not eat flubble, it might be beneficial to colle and ftack that, and, before turnip fowing, burn it. he reverend Mr. Allington of Swinap has burnt on the land for turnips, the long-ftraw dung from the furface of the farm yard, and has had better turnips there than where the dung was laid. This has been the cafe in two experiments he has made.”? On {tiff adhefive foils it is pro- bable fome advantage may be produced by the aétion of the fire in this mode, but in other cafes it muit be a wafteful praGice. The nature of the land on which thefe trials were mz2de is not, however, mentioned. « About Tathwell,” the reporter adds, “ there is no burning ftraw upon land; Mr. Clough, Mr. Hyde, and Mr. Pearfon, feouted the idea of fuch a thing being common. It has, however, been tried there, for Mr. Oldham of Elk- ington did it, after ploughing for turnips, with long ftraw from the yard, and he fucceeded well for the moft part.” Burnine of Land. See Parine and Burnine. Burnine of metals, uffio metallorum, is either performed by fire, or by corrofive falts ; which latter is alfo denominated CEMENTATION. The firft preparation of moft ores is by uftion, or burning, whereby to difpofe them for fufion. ‘This is ufually per- formed by expofing them, without addition, to a naked fire ; fometimes fixed alkalics and abforbents are added, to hinder the avolation of the metalline particles. Some hold burnmng in the ftone or glebe moft advantageous ; others burning in the meal. Phil. Tranf. N° 109. The bafer metals, tin and lead, may be burnt like plants to afhes. For gold and filver, the cafe is otherwife. BurninG mountains. See Voucano, EarTuQuaxeé, Mounrain, &c. Seealfo AZrna, Hecra, Vesuvius, &e. The ancients defcribe a meteor under the denomination of burning buckler, clypeus ardens. Flin. Hitt. Nat. lib. it. cap. 34. Mem. Acad. Infcr. tom. vi. p. 95. Travellers into Italy defcribe a burning {pot of ground at Firenzuola, in the Apennines, out of which a crackling dame continually arifes, yet without any cleft for it to iffue 6 BUR out at.- Maffei fuppofes the fteams which the place yields, to be a kind of native pho/phorus ardens, which take fire on their coming in contaét with the air. : Burninc, among Painiers.—Several of the painters’ co- lours require burning, to fit them for ufe, as lamp-black, um- ber, ivory, &c. The burning, or rather drying, of lamp-black, is performs ed by fetting it over the fire in an iron ladle, or crucible, till no fmoke arifes from it. ‘To burn umber, they putit in large lumps into a naked fire, where it is left till thoroughly red-hot. Ivory mut be burnt, to make a black, in two crucibles, luted, covered with coals. BurninG, in Lnamel Painting. See ENAMELLING. Burninc is alfo an operation in Pharmacy. Simples are frequently burnt in earthen-veflels, either to reduce them to afhes, asin the preparation of vegetable falts, or in order to dry them, that they may be more commodioufly pulverized, as is practifed in regard of hartfhorn, &c. Burnine phofphorus. See PHospuorus. Burnine plant. See Eupnorsia. Burnine /pring, in Natural Hiflory. See Sprinc. Burnino zone, in Geography. See Torriv zone. BURNISHED gold or fi/ver, denotes thofe metals laid on any work or leaves, and afterwards pafled over with a burnifher to heighten their lufture. BURNISHER. See Burnisuine. BURNISHING, the operation of giving an uniform and brilliant furface to a variety of fubftances by fri€tion, with a polifhed hard infirument ufually called a burnifher. The modes of politu.e in ufe among artifans may, per- haps, be all reduced to four :—the afperities of a rough f{urface may be removed by cutting off the protuberances, as in planing; by abrading them, as in filing and poli/hing ; by obtunding them with the hammer, as in plani/bing; and by accomplifhing the fame purpofe in the manner now under our confideration. It will be readily perceived, that the two latter operations can only be performed on fuch fubftances as poffefs a certain degree of malleability or du@ility ; thofe which are brittle, as glafs or hardened fteel, will neceflarily be incapable of be- ing burnifhed. To {peak of all the defcriptions of artifans who ufe this procefs would be to enumerate almoft the whole of thole who work on metals. The inftruments with which it is pers formed are alfo as variens as the furfaces to be fubjected to their aGtion: we fhall therefore only {peak of fuch as are ufed for plane furfaces. The burnifher in this cafe is gene- rally a piece of very hard fteel three or four inches long, and about one eighth of an inch thick, with a fomewkat convex edge, not much unlike that of the fleel which is commonly ufed for ftriking fire, all the angles of it being fmoothly rounded off, fo that the longitudinal fection of the part to beapplied to the fubject is a femi-ellipfe of creat eccentricity, the edge of which is nearly femi-cylindrical. It is applied in different ways according to the nature and extent of its ufeinthe workfhop. The manufa€turers of ornaments for ftoves, who ufe a great number of burnifhed plates of foft fteel, frequently infert it into the lower extremity of a wooden pole, which is fufpended over the work-bench, frora one end of a {trong wooden {pring fixed horizuntally in a frame attached to the ceiling, acd preffing downwards ; fo that the workman has only to pafs it backwards and for- wards horizontally at right angles to its own plane, over the furface of the plate, its preffure being produced, or, at leaft, affifted by the a&iion of the fpring. Some workers in metal apply the burnifher by attaching it to the underfide of a lever, which has a handle at one end, and is hooked er other BUR other into a fixed flaple ; others fix it obliquely into one end of a ftaff, the other end of which is curved Ike a fcythe, and paffes over the right fhoulder of the workman, who is by this means enabled to exert a confiderable degree of preflure; and others again merely infert it into a handle, or a fhort bar with a handle at each end, and apply it in the fame man-° per as a common rafp or file, or in fome inftances as if fhad- ing with a black lead-pencil. In whichever of thefe modes the burnifher is applied, the direction of its motion fhould be always reGtilinear, parallel to itfelf, and at right angles with the edge of the inftrument. There is alfo another method of applying the burnifher, which is by keeping the inflrument itfclf at reft, whilft the furface, fubje&ted to its aétion, is turned in a lathe. The procefs is thus conducted by the brazier, ironmonger’s founder, pewterer, and indeed all the artifans who employ that engine. There are two precautions neceffary to be obferved in this operation: the one is to keep the femi-cylindrical edge of the inftrument as highly polifhed as poffible by frequently touching it on a piece of buff leather, rubbed with finely prepared crocus martis, and the other to keep the furface to be burnifhed conftantly lubricated during the friGion, with fome liquid of a fmooth confiftence, fuch as milk, oil, or a folution of foap, the latter of which feems to be the fitteft, and moft generally approved of for this purpofe. If this be negleGted the furface is apt to ripple up before the inftru- ment, and the ridges thus produced being laminated, by the continuance of the fri€tion, into very thin flakes or {cales, the work becomes defaced by dark coloured {pots and ftreaks, which are frequently iridefcent like thofe on the wings of a butterfly, and the procefs confequently fails. Bookbinders burnifh the edges of their books by rubbing them with a dog’s tooth. Gold and filver are burnifhed with a wolf’s tooth, a dog’s tooth, or the blood ftone, or by tripoli, a piece of white wood, emery, and the like. Deer are faid to durnifh their heads, when rubbing off a white downy {kin from their horns againit a tree, they thru them, as it is faid, into a reddifh earth, to give them a new colour and luftre. BURNLEY, in Geography, a market town of Lanca- fhire, in England, is feated on a peninfula of land between the rivers Calder and Brown, which unite their flreams a Jittle north of the town. Its advantageous fituation oa thefe ftreams has occafioned feveral manufaétories to be eftablifhed here. Amongft thefe are fome cotton machines, fulling mills, corn mills, and a mill for grinding dyers’ wood. The church of this place, a large handfome ftruGure, is under Whalley, and though only a curacy, is confidercd a very valuable living. Some lead mines have been difco- vered in the vicinity of the town, and various Roman coins have been found. Burnley isa great thoroughfare. The coun- try around it abounds with pit-coal, and great quantities of free-ftone, flag-ftone and flate, are obtained from quarries in this neighbourhood. Here are a grammar f{choo!, and two diffenting meeting houfes; a market on Mondays, and five annual fairs. Inthe vicinity of the town is a very fine feat, lately belonging to Charles Townley, efq. who had amaffed the fineft acd moft valuable colleétion of ancient fculpture in this country. Burnley is 211 miles N, of London; and it contains 687 houfes, and 3305 inhabitants. Whitaker’s Hiftory ot Whalley, &c. 4to. BURNOOSE, an article of drefs among the Arab Bedoweens and Kabylee, in Barbary ; correfponding to our cloak and worn by them over their hyses. This forms a confiderable branch of their woollen manufeétory. It is pris in a piece, and refembles in its fhape the garment of ou. V. BUR the little god Telefphorus, being ftraight about the neck, with acrape, or Hippocrates’ fleeve (for a cover to the head,) and wide below like acloak. Some of them are likewife fringed round the bottom, like Parthenafpa’s and Trajan’s garment upon the baffo relievos of Conttantine’s arch. The burnoole, without the cape, feems to anfwer to the Roman fa/lium; and with it to the dardocucullus, res ferred to to by Martial, |. xiv. 178. ‘© Gallia Santonico veftit te dardocucullo.” BURNS, Roseart, in Biography, was the fon of a far- mer near the town of Ayr, the capital of Ayrfhire, in Scotland, where he was born on the 29th of January, 1759. The family had all of them been farmers in the north of Scotland, but the misfortunes of the poet’s father, had oc- cafioned him to accept the fituation of gardener to a gentle-~ mean of fmall fortune in the neighbourhood of Ayr, in which employment he continued for the firft fix or feven years of the poet’s life. The father was a man of obferva- tion and experience, as well as of ftri& integrity, and wifhed to keep his children more under his own eye, than was confiftent with the fervice in which he was engaged. For this purpofe, he ventured on a {mall farm on his maf- ter’s eftate, and joined with fome others of his neighbours to provide a fchoolmafter for their children, Robert Burns was principally diftinguifhed at thefe early years, by a re- tentive memory, a ftubbornnefs of difpofition, frequently attendant on genius, and an enthufiaftic piety. At the age of ten or cleven, he was not only well grounded in Englifh grammar, but fomewhat more than ufual of a cri- tical f{cholar. He was principally indebted to a credulous and ignorant old woman in the family, for furoifhing him with thofe legendary and fupernatural tales, which feed a poetical imagination with its richeft repaft. The firlt re- gular compclitions in which he tuok pleafure were, The Vifion of Mirza, and a hymn of Addifon, which came within the compafs of his {chool ftudies. The Life of Hannibal, and the Hiflory of Sir William Wallace were the firft books he read as a volunteer, and they gave him more pleafure than any he read afterwards. Nor was polemical divinity without its attractions, but he foon raifed the ery of herefy againft himfclf, and it purfued him threugh life. He gained at this time a flight knowledge of Wrench, and received afterwards fome lcflons in practical mathematics ; but his ftudies were rendered irregular by the neceffity of hard labour owing to the advanced age of his father, and the ill fuccefs of his farm. Robert was the eldeft of feven children, and a very dexterous ploughman. But his father’s matter died, and they fell into the hands of a faGor, againft whofe infolence and rapacity they had to contend, tll the fixteenth year of the poct, who now began firlt to exercife his funétiona as fuch, in confequence of his firft amorous attachment to his harve/ partner of fourteen. Soon after- wards his father removed to a Jarger farm, on which the family fubfilted comfortably for four years; when they be- came embarraffed by litigation with their landlord, and William Burns was only faved from a prifon by the inter- vention of a mortal difeafe. During thefe four years, hia reading was confined to Salmon’s and Guthrie’s Geographical Grammars, the Spe&tator, Pope’s Works, fome of Shak- {peare’s Plays, Tull and Dickfon on Agriculture, the Pan- poe Locke’s Effay on the Human Underftanding, Stack houfe’s Hiftory of the Bible, Jultice’s Britith Gardener’s Directory, Boyle’s Le&ures, Allan Ramfay’s Works, Taylor’s Scripture Doétrine of Original Sin, A fele& Col- leétion of Englith Songs, which he carried with him when he drove his cart, and Hervey’s Meditations. He was very awkward in his perfon and ge a difadvantage which 4D be BURNS. he fought to remedy by attending a country dancing-matter, in oppofition to his father’s dire& negative. This produced an unfortunate difagreement between them, to which he attributed ia a great meafure the fubfequent diffipation of his habite,, Thus did his life pafs till his twenty-third year; bodily labour was his employment, and a fucceffion of love adven- tures his amufement. The bias of his mind was ftrength- ened by the addition of Triftram Shandy and The Man of Feeling to his library. He now engaged witha flax-dreffer in a neighbouring town; but the fhop took fire, while the partners were caroufing, and the poet was left without a lix- pence. After his father’s death, he joined his fecond bro- ther in a farm, but without fuccefs. During this period, he formed a conneGion with a young woman, the confe- quence of which induced him to give her an acknowledg- ment of private marriage. Her parents, however, finding his fituation fo defperate, prevailed with her to relinquihh it. He was driven to the verge of ruin, and threatened with a gaol, when he engaged to go to Jamaica. Bntas his com- pofitions had become popular in the neighbourhood, he re- folved to publifh his poems before he quitted his native country. The firft edition, in 1786, produced him rearly 20]. for the expences of his voyage; he had taken the lait farewel of his friends, when a letter from Dr. Blacklock, advifing a fecond edition, carried him to Edinburgh, and opened at once new profpets to his poetical ambition, and new temptations to thofe fenfual propenfities, which deprav- ed his genius, and fhed a pernicious influence over his fu- ture life, His genius and talents introduced him into the circles both of rank and literature ; and his powers of converfation are faid to have increafed the applaufe beftowed on his writ- ings. Profeffor Dugald Stewart obferves, in a letter to Dr. Currie, ‘* that all the faculties of his mind were equally vigorous; and his predile€tion for poetry was rather the re- fult of his own enthufiaftic and impaffioned temper, than of a genius exclufively adapted to that {pecics of compofition. From his converfation I fhould have pronounced him fitted to excel in whatever walk of ambition he had chofen.’’ He had gained five hundred pounds by the fale of his poems, with part of which he entered on the farm of Ellif- Jand, on the banks of the river Nith, fix miles above Dum- fries, in the year 1788. He had previoufly been placed on the lift of candidates for the office of excifeman; and un- fortunately for his health and morals, he afterwards ob- tained the appointment. Before he hired the farm, he had become the hufband of the young woman mentioned above, who had been turned out of doors by her father. He was now become a parent in his turn; in the fuccefs of his un= dertaking the happinefs of his family was involved, and he determined, after pondering ferioufly on the paft, to aban- don the fociety and diffipation of which he had been en- amoured. itis greatly to be regretted that he found it fo much eafier to form than to execute his project of reformae tion, At the end of the year 1791, he found it neceflary to refien his form into his landlord’s hands, and remove to a {mall houfe at Dumfries. Here he was betrayed into an appro- bation of the French revolution, more ardent than was con- fiftent with the opinions of his fuperiors. He was therefore fubje@ed to the animadverfion of the board, but retained his fituation by promiting more guarded behaviour, on the inter- vention of a friend. ‘* Among the inhabitants of Dum- fries,” fays Dr. Currie, ‘ there were never wanting perfons to fhare his focial pleafures ; to lead or accompany him to the tavern ; to partake in the wildeft falles of his wit, to witnefs the ftrength and degradation of his genius,’ Thus befet where he was moft vulnerable, it is a fubjeG of greater forrow than furprife, than he fhould have fallen into thofe irregularities, which terminated his fhort career in July 1796, in the thirty-eighth year of his age. Yet, lowered as was his character, and pernicious as were his habits to his corpo- real frame, he retained his vigour of mind and imagination to the laft, and never, in his greatelt diftreffes, loft fight of honour in bis pecuniary tranfactions, or bartered his inde- pendence to fupply his neceflities. With refpeét to his focial charaGter, it is exa@tly fixed by the lively remark of a Scotch lady, that no man’s conver- fation ever carried her fo completely off her feet as that of Burns. The charaGter of his poetical compofitions is ftrongly marked with the impreffion of his birth and fation. He took no pains either to elevate his imagery, or polifh hie dialect. He adopted the fimplicity of nature for his guide, and refrefhed himfelf at the ftream of native fenfibility, in his weary pilgrimage through an ob(cure and unhappy life. He is always interefting, but never fplendid. His fcenery is drawn on the fpot, and his chara&ters and incidents bear the ftamp of biographical and hiftorical truth, rather than of poe« tical f€tion. His humour is rich, his pathos is natural, and he fometimes rifes to the fublime : but his fuperiority is moft decifively eftablifhed in the defcriptive. His poetical charaGter cannot be better concluded thantn the words of Dr. Currie. “ To determine the comparative merit of Burns would be no eafy tafk. Many perfons, afterwards diftinguifhed in lite- rature, have been born in as humble a fituation of life; but it wou'd be difficult to find any other who, while earning his fubfiftence by daily labour, has written verfes which have attraéted and retained univerfal attention, and which are likely to give the author a permanent and diftin- guifhed place among the followers of the mufes. If he is deficient in grace, he is diltinguifhed for eafe, as well as energy ; and thefe are indications of the higher order of ge- nius. ‘The father of epic poetry exhibits one of his heroes as excelling in ftrength, another in fwiftnefs; to form his per- fe& warrior, thefe attributes are combined. Every fpccies of intelie¢tual fuperiority admits perhaps of a fimilar arrange. ment. One writer excels in force, another in eafe; he is fuperior to both, in whom both thefe qualities are united. The force of Burns lay in the powers of his underftanding, and in the fenfibility of his heart; and thefe will be found to infufe the living principle into all the works of genius which feem deftined to immortality. His fenfibility had an uncommon fange. He was alive to every {pecies of emo- tion.. He is one of the few poets that can be mentioned, who have at once excelled in humour, in tendernefs, and in fublimity; a praife unknowa to the ancients, and which in modern times is only due to Ariofto, to Shakfpeare, and perhaps to Voltaire. To compare the writings of the Scottifh peafant with the works of thefe giants in literature, might appear prefumptuous; yet it may be afferted, that he has difplayed the foot of Hercules. How near he might have approached them by proper culture, with lengthened years, and under happier aufpices, it is not for us tocalculate. But while we run over the melancholy ftory of his life, it is ime poffible not to heave a figh at the afperity of his fortune ; and as we furvey the records of his mind, it is eafy to fee, that out of fuch materials have been reared the faireft and moft honourable monuments of genius.”? In his correfpondence there are much good fenfe, and an admirable turn of expreffion. The late Dr. Robertfon thought Burns’s profe equal to his poetical compofitions ; and the public in general are nearly of the fame opinion. His critical powers were more matured, and his tafte more correét BUR correé than can at all be accounted for by his opportunities ; and the circumftance muit be afcribed to the happy tempera- ment of a mind, which could by fympathy affimilate itfelf to that ttate of refinement and cultivation, ufually the refult of fcholeft:c inft v@ion, or the elegant purfuits of polite life. On the whole, the charaéter of Burns is equally interetting, asa noble fpecimen of untutored nature, forcing ufelf to a level with the higherand more favoured claffes of its fpecies ; and inftruGtive a3 a warning, that the advantages of the conflict, however fuccefsful, are irretrievably loft, unlefs difcretion is called in to fecure and perpetuate the trophies won by ge- nius. Perfons of keen fentibility are expofed to peculiar dangers ; and poets are perhaps of all others the defcription of men, who contribute molt to the refined pleafures of fociety, and arc leatt fucce{sful in appropriating to themfelves their own individual fhare of perfonal happinefs or pubiic eftcem. Their cccupations are calculated to increafe the peculiarities, rather than to ftrengthen the governing powers of their minds; their fenfibility is indulged at the expence of their peace, and the pride of genius is foothed by contempt of the ordinary rules, which rcftrain the paffions of common men. ‘To caules like thefe mult we attribute, and on fuch grounds of pailiatioa mu we excufe, the morbid melan- choly, the {ceptical propenfities, and the intemperate habits of Burns. When thefe are forgotten, or only remembered through the faveurable medium of candid biography, his ms, with ali the diladvanteges of an obfcure diale@, will be recited by his ruftic couutrymen, as long as the fim- picity of their feelings remains unfophilticated, and read with admiration by the critic, as Jong as the laws of poetry and critici{m are tuffered to accord with the dictates of nature. BURNT, in fpeaking of medicines, imports as much as imperfcétly calcined. See Carcination. Burnt bodies are generally dry and aftringert. The other medical qualities belonging to bodies are frequently deftroyed, at lealt impaired, by the burning. Buant-Clay, in Agriculiure, fuch clay as has undergone a procefs of calcination by mcans of fire. In this procels, it 1s fuppofed by Dr. Darwin that oxygen is combined in large proportions either with the clay itfelf or the metallic particles which it may contain, and on this account probably becomes ufeful asa msiure. This bufinefs may be accom- plifhed by means of clamps or kilns, or fimply by piling up heaps of clay loofcly together, with a little dry brufh-wood, or other fimilar combultible materials in the middle of them to which the fire may be applied. In this way much ma- nure may be eafily procured, where the materials abound. Caleined clay, as a manure, is probably molt proper for clofe compact foils, as it opens and renders them more porous, and thereby difpofes fuch lands to part with their vegetable novrifhment more readily. It is alfo fuppofed, by the author we have juft mentioned, that calcined clay, as it cxifts in {oft bricks, has a power of decompofing marine fait, as he once obferved in a cellar, where beef had been long falted on one fide of a nine-inch wall, the wooden falting-tub for which was attached to it; a great eflor:fcence having appeared on the other fide of the wall, which he believed to be foffil aikali, or natron. If this idea be juft, fays he, the foft bricks from old buildings, or clays fo far purpofely burnt, may in this manner be ferviceable to vegetation, by feparating the foffil alkai from the fea-falt, wafhed from decompofing animal and vegetable fubftances, which, by converting carbon into an hepar carbonis, a3 lime is fuppofed to do, might render it foluble in water, and capable of being ablorbed by the lymphatic veflels of the roots of plaats. And, continues he, BUR if clay, calcined toa certain degree, and thus united with ozygen, poflefled the power of decompofing marine fale, there is reafon to believe, when it is more flowly united with oxygen by its expofure to the atmofphere by the fpade or plough, that it may poflefs the fame property, and that this may have given rife to the very contradi@tory reports concerning the ufe of fea-falt in agriculture, as it may pro- bably be of great advantage to clayey foils, but perhaps not fo to other foils. See Cray. Buant-grain, a vegetable difeafe frequently met with in the cars of grain, but which is probably not yet well under- flood ; the charaéteriftic marks of which, according to fome, are, that the plants which produce burnt ears are {trong and vigorous ; that the infcGted ears are not at firtt diftinguith- able from thofe that are healthy; but, when they are palt their bloom, they appear of a deep green colour, ap- proaching to blue; they afterwards become whitifh, and are then eafily known. ‘ As this change of colour is effeéted by the fun, when a number of white ears have been fuddenly perceived in looking over a wheat field, the fun’s heat has been often thought to caufe this diftemper, or a fog pre- ceding that beat. And though all the cars produced from one grain are commonly infeéted, yet found ears are met with on plants which bave produced others which were infe&ted. Some ears have even been obferved, part of which only were vitiated; and, finally, fome grains incloling partly a white flour, the remainder black duit.” Ir has been farther remarked, that, in burnt ears, the chaff, or outward coat, is commonly found, with this fingle difference, that, when the ears are nearly ripe, it appears more withered and dry than in the healthy ears. The hufk which immediately inciofed the grain is not deftroyed, but has confiltence enough for the grain to preferve nearly its uatural form, with a whitifh look; and the burnt grains are fhorter, rounder, and lighter, than fuch as are unin- fected ; they are fometimes larger and fometimes {maller. The furrow which runs the length of a grain of wheat is fometimes totally effaced, at others vifible: the piftile at the extremity of the grains are dried wp, but the bud of a burnt grain is not ville. Till the blooming feafon, there is very little difference between the difeafed grains and thofe which ere healthy ; they are only a little more {welled : bur, in the blooming feafon, the infe¢ted ears afflume a bluifh colour; the chaff is more or lefs fpeckled with {mall white {pots: the grains are of a deeper green, and larger than in the natu al fate, and, as long as they preferve that colour, they adhere {trongly to the chaff. ‘The diltemper, it is faid, bas often attacked very young ears, while yet inclofed in the fheath. The ftamina on the fides of the grain are then dried up and fickly; the embryo in part takes the deep green co.our above mentioned; the infected ears have not the confittence of thote that are healthy. In the fame proportion as the diltemper advances, the chaff becomes dry and whitith. The grains have fome degree of firmnefs. Ou opening them, which may ealily be done with the nail, there appears an uné¢tuous, dark-brown, ftinking fubftance. The duft of burnt grain has alfo fome cohcfion or tenacity. By others it is, however, fuppofed to originate trom infeéts ; in which view we have the following remedies propofed on the authority of experiment in the feventh volume of the Bath papers. ‘The trials were made in the middle of a twenty-acre clofe, the refidue of which was fown with the fame kind of wheat, and treated in the fame mode as Nos. 1. and II, and was equally as clean, and the crops have been fo ever fince. The writer’s mode of medicating his wheat was as in No, II, No. Ll. Sowed five drills with Mr. Cooke’s machine, 4Da with BUR with wheat treated agreeable to Mr. Middleton’s re- ceipt. “No. II. Sowed five drills with wheat wetted with old urine, three quarts to.a bufhel, and turned about with a fhovel till all the urine was imbibed, then plenty of quick- lime fifted over it, and turned over and over with a fhovel, and left in a heap till the next morning. * No. III. Sowed five drills with wheat fleeped two hours in a ftrong lye, made of wood-afhes and lime, and laid on the barn floor to dry. “ No. IV. Sowed with five drills of the fame kind of wheat.”” The refult was as follows: «« Nos. II. and II. Scarce a burnt ear to be found in them. «No. III. About a twentieth part burnt. ** No. IV. Near a fourth burnt. ** No. V. Picked ten good corns out of an ear, the re- mainder were burnt; planted them in the garden; fix only vegetated, which produced feventy-two ears, one root of which only was burnt; confequently the opinion that the good corns in a burnt ear produce burnts again is fallacious, otherwife the whole muft have been burnt.?’ The above experiments feem to prove, fays the writer, that ‘* wetting wheat with old urine, and drying it with lime, is a preventative ;”? and he conceives that an infec, by depofiting its egg, eggs, or feed, on the corn, when growing, is the caufe of durnts. Suppofing this to be the cafe, ‘the wetting the corn with brine, urine, or ftrong lye, would of courfe deftroy fome of the eggs or feed, or even an animalcule, and the lime, by its corrofive quality, annihilate the remainder ;’’ but ‘ fhould any of the eggs, &c. remain on the corn animable, there may be here and there a burnt in the crop.”’ But, ‘if onthe other hand the infeé fhould depofit its egg, eggs, or feed, in the earth, it is poffible the brine, urine, and lime, wherewith the corn is as it were coated when fowed, may be unpleafing to the delicate tatte of the little animal, and prevent its wounding the tubes of the plant.”? Farther and more accurate expe- riments are, however, ftill wanting to fully elucidate and afcertain the nature and beit modes of preventing this vege- table malady. See Smur. Burnt i/land, in Geography, an ifland in Chriftmas Sound, at the fouthern extremity of South America.—Alfo, an ifland near the fouthern coaft of Newfoundland ; 15 miles E.S. E. from Cape Ray. N. lat. 47° 3o!. W. long. 58° 50, ” Burnt iflands, a clufter of iflands in the Indian ocean, fituate on the coaft of Malabar, W.N.W. from Goa. N. lat. 15° 15/. E. long. 73° 30!, Burnt planet. A planet is faid to be burnt, combuflus, when it is in conjunction, or nearly fo, with the fun. Thus Saturn is faid to be burnt when not above five degrees diftant from the fun; Jupiter when fix, &c. Planets in this fituation are fuppofed by aftrologers to be much weakened or enfeebled in their influences. Burnt way, combufla via, among Afirologers, that part of the zodiac from the beginning of Libra to the middle of Scorpio; or, according to others, from the middle of Libra to the end of Scorpio, comprehending 45 degrees; a {pace fuppofed very unfortunate, and in which the planets are much enfeebled in their virtues, efpecially the moon. Vital. Lex. Math. p. 118. Burnt-wine. See Wine. Burnt-coar ifland, in Geography. See Penosscor bay. BURNTISLAND, or Brunr-isuanp, is a parith, and royal burgh, and fea-port town in Fifefhire, Scote 7 BUR land. Mr, Pennant defcribes it as “ the bef harbour em the ceaft, formed by arocky ifle, eked out with piers.’? Thia harbour, though capacious, and of great depth, at high tides, is dry at low water, The town is fituated on the banks of the Frith of Forth, upon a peninfula which is fcreened on the north, by an amphitheatrical range of hills. It is nearly oppofite to Leith, from which it is diftant fix miles, and about nine miles N. W. from Edinburgh. From the remaing of fortified walls, and entrenchments, it appears that this place has been garrifoned, and was probably firit fortified by the French, when allied to the queen regent during the troublesof 1560. Cromwell befieged it during his ufurpa- tion, and forced the inhabitants to capitulate, though not without certain conditions which ultimately proved advan- tagecus to che town; for, among other {tipulations he agreed to repair the ftreets and harbour, and build the quay. In 1715, the town was furprifed and taken by the rebels, who boldly oppofed all refiftance, and paffed part of their troops from this place over to the oppofite fhore. Before the union, the trade of Bruntifland was very confiderable, and confitted principally in the exportation of corn and malt to England, but this trade has declined for many years, and: it is not till very lately that the town has felt the benefit of its revival. At prefent here area {ugar-houfe, a vitriol work, and a diftillery, befides fhip building, which is carried on to fome extent. The town is governed by 21 perfons who are denominated, and divided into 14 guild counfellors, 3 of. whom are bailiffs, and 7 trade counfellors. The parifh and environs of Burntifland are diverfified with mountain and plain. To the weftward of the town the fhore is rocky, and on the eaft it is fandy. The rocks conftitute a good defence to the harbour, and at the fame time furnifh fufficient fea-weed to make 12 or 15 tons of kelp annually. Within thefe are fome produétive oyfter- beds, and other fhell fith frequent the receffes. ‘ The hills in the neighbourhood of the town exhibit many appearances of volcanic fire; one is extremely like an extinguifhed volcano, the crater being converted into a lake on the top of the hill, fimilar to thofe obferved by the abbé Spallan- zani.’”? (See his Travels in the Two Sicilies). On the north fide of this hill are feveral bafaltic columns, and near the fummit are the remains of an encampment, called Agricola’s Camp. ‘The population of this parifh in 1801 was 1530, W. long. 3° 5’. N. lat. 56° 8’, Pennant’s Tour in Scot land. Gazetteer of Scotland. BURNTWOOD. See Brentwoop. Burnxtwoopn river, a river of North America, which. flows from Burntwood lake through Split lake into port Nelfon river, and there difcharges itfelf into Hudfon bay. The lake is in N. lat. 55° 3'. W. long. 98° qol. BURONZO, a town of Italy, in the country of Vere. celli ; 12 miles N. W. of Vercelli. BUROW, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and principality of Anhalt Zerbit ; 2 miles W. of Cofwick. BURR, the round knob of a horn next the deer’s head. Burr denotes a hollow triangular chiffel, ufed to clear the corners of mortifles. Burr, in Botany. See Bun. Burr, in Geography, a {mall rocky ifland, with fome fmaller rocks often covered by the water in its neighbour hood on the eafters coaft of the county of Down, Ireland, a little to the north of which is tolerable anchorage. It is nine Irifh miles fouth of Donaghadee, and as many north of the entrance into Strangford lough. N. lat. 54° 28'. W. long. 5° 19! Burr, BUR Burr, in Heraldry, means a brosd ring of iron behind the place made for the hand on the tilting fpear, which burr is brought to the reft when the tilter charges his [pear to fecure it. Burr-pump. See Birpce and Pump. Burr reed, in Botany. See SPARGANIUM. Burr-flones. See Miry-flones. BURRA, in Geography, a large and fertile mountain of Arabia, near Homran. Burra, one of the Shetland iflands of Scotland, fituated on the weftern coaft of the main land. N. lat. 54° 28!. E. long 1° 32’. BURRAMPOOTER, or as it is called by the people of Afam, Burrampoot, a large river of Afia, and the nobleft tributary ftream of the Ganges, derives its name from a Sanferit word, Brahma-pooter, which fignifies the © Son of Brahma,” and became known to us, as a capital river, in confequence of the furvey made of it by Major Rennell, m 1765. He found it to be rather larger than the Ganges, and that its courfe previous to its entering Bengal was from the eaft, although all former accounts reprefented it as proceeding from the north. This noble river has its fource on the oppofite fide of the fame mountains that give rife to the Ganges, and firft takes its courfe eaftward, or direét- ly oppofite to that of the Ganges, through the country of Thibet, where it is named ‘ Sanpoo” or ‘ Zanciu,” which bears the fame interpretation as the ‘“* Gonga”’ of Hindooftan, namely, ‘ the river.”? After winding with a rapid current through Thibet, it wafhes the border of the territory of Laffa, and then deviating from an ealt to a fouth-eaft courfe, it approaches within 220 miles of Yunan, the wefternmoft province of China. Hence it turns fuddenly to the wefi through Afam, where it probably changes its name, being there called Burrampoot, and enters Bengal on the north-eaft. After its entry into Bengal, it makes a circuit round the weftern point of the Garrow mountains ; and then, altering its courfe to fouth, it meets the Ganges about 40 miles from the fea. After the river Megna has fallen into the Burrampooter, it communicates its name, though a much fmaller river, to the other, during the reft of its conrfe. A fingular circumftince, lately difcovered, attends the courfes of the Ganges and Burrampooter, with refpe&t to each other. Iffuing from oppofite fides of the fame ridge of mountains, they direét their refpeCtive courfes towards oppofite quarters, till they are more than 1200 miles afunder ; and afterwards meet in one point near the fea, after each has performed a winding courfe of more than 2000 miles. The Burrampooter, during a courfe of 400 miles through Bengal, bears fo intimate a refemblance to the Ganges, except in one particular, that the fame defeription may ferve for both. The exception is, that during the Jatt Go miles, before its junction with the Ganges, it forms a fiream, which is regularly from 4 to 5 miles wide ; and which, the frefhnefs of its water excepted, might pafs for an arm of the fea. In attempting to convey an adequate idea of the grandeur of this magnificent objet, major Rennell adopts the poetical language of Thompfon, in his “ Seafons 5” a Scarce the mufe Dares ftretch her wing o’er this enormous mafs Of rufhing water; to whofe dread expanfe, Continuous depth, and wond’rous length of courfe, Our floods are rills nae The major, in accounting for the fingular breadth of the -Megna, is led to fuppofe, that the Ganges once joined it where the Iffamuty now does near Fringy-bazar, and that tneir joint waters {cooped out its prefent bed. The prefent “janttion of thefe two mighty rivers below Luckipour, pro- duces a body of running frefh water, hardly to be equalled BUR in the old hemifphere ; and, perhaps, not exceeded in the new. It now forms a gulf interfperfed with iflands, fone of which rival, in fize and fertility, our Ifle of Wight. The water at ordinary times is hardly brackifh at the ex- tremities of thefe iflands; and, in the rainy feafon, the fea (or at leaf the furface of it) is perfeétly frefh to the diftance of many leagues from the fhore. For ar account of the bore in the Megna, fee Bore. Rennell’s Memoir. BURRAS-pfife, an inftrument ufed by goldfmizhs, con- fifting of a copper box with a {pout, having teeth likea faw ; fometimes alfo ufed by furgeons for the application of cer- tain folid medicines by infperfion. BURREL-/)y, in Entomology. See WRINGLE TAIL. BURREN, in Geography, a barony in the northern part of the county of Ciare, Ireland. It is very mountainous, and Cromwell’s forces which were fent to harrafs the inhabi- tants for refufing to pay contributions, complained that it had neither wood, water, nor earth, fufficient to hang, drown, or buryaman. Such, however, is the luxuriance of the pafturage, inter{perfed among the rocks, that thele feeming!y barren hills fupport a great number of cattle, and very large flocks of fheep. BURRISAKANE, a port town of the county of Tipperary, Ireland, 79 Irih miles S. W. from Dublin. BURRISHOOLE, avillageand parifh of the county of Mayo, Ireland, fituated near the mouth of a {mall river of the fame name, which falls into Newport or Clew bay, about two miles north of the town of Newport. It was once of fufficient importance to give name to the barony it is in; and evento the bay alfo. There {till remains fome part of a monaftery founded here by one of the family of Bourke or Burgho of the branch called M‘William Ough- ter. The barony is very mountainous, and entirely deftitute of wood, but the foil in the vallies, which is mottly moory loam, is pretty good fortillage, in which it is almoft exclu- fively employed. The barony includes the large ifland of Achill, anda great number of other iflands. BURROCK, a fmall wear or dam, where wheels are laic in ariver, for the taking of fifhs BURROS.1N-OSSORY, a poft town, of the Queen’s county, Ireland, near'the confines of Tipperary ; 53 Inth miles S.W. of Dublin, BURROSILEAGH, a> poft town of the county of. Tipperary, Ireland ; 77 Irifh miles S.W. from Dublin. - BURROUGH. See Boroven, Burroucu, Epwarp, in Biography, one of the earlieft reachers among the Quakers, was born of parents belong- ing to the eftablifhed church, at or near Kendal, in Welt- morland, about the year 1634. In early life, he was dif- tinguifhed by his piety and virtue, as well as by the maali- nefs of his refolution, and the courteoufnefs of his temper. Anxious for the purity of religious worfhip, he adopted, in his twelfth year, that of the prefbyterians, becaufe be con- ceived it tobe molt conformable to the feriptures. At the age of 17, he attended the preaching of George Fox ; and though at firlt he confided in hia own ability to refute the doftrines which were taught by this zealous propagator of the tenets and praétices of the Quakers, he was profelyted by conferences with him, and became an ardent partifan of this feé&. This fecond change of his religious-opinions in- cenfed his parents to fuch a degree, that they turned him out of doors; and to this hardthip he fubmitted witho st re- pining. At the age of 20, he accompanied his intimate friend, Francis Howgill, to London, where he embraced every opportunity that offered itfelf, of addrefling affemblies of people ; and Mes were his natural eloquence and the fer vour of his zeal, that he fucceeded in gaining profelytes. His fuccels, however, excited the. interference of the magif tratesy BUR trates, and, in the year 1654, he was committed to prifon. But he was foon releafed, and vifited Ireland, where he re- mained more than fix months: and during his refidence in thaz country he publifhed a book, entitled ‘© The Trumpet of the Lord founded out of Zion, which founds forth the coatroverly of the Lord of Hofts;’? in which he expofes the vices of various ranks of fociety, and particularly accufes Cromwell for fuffering oppreffion to be praétifed in his name. This work was followed in 1657 by feveral private letters addreff-d to the proteCtor, containing admonitions againit pride, and remonttrances againft the perlecutions of his brethren. Cromwell, it is faid, difclaimed in reply any difpofition to perfecute. On the acceffion of Richard Cromwel', he renewed his remonftrances to him and his council, and in terms fufficiently explicit, predigted the in- flability of the new government. In 1659 he made a vifit to Dunkirk, for the purpofe of difputing in the convents aud monatteries, and of attempting to convert their inhabi- tans. ‘This attempt was perilous, and ferved only to excite horror and averfion. Upon his return to England, his zeal was kindled by the news of the bloody perfecutions of the Quakers by the Prefbyterians cf New England: and imme- diately after the relto ation of Charles IL. he obtained ac- cecfs to him, and fo far fucceeded in reprefenting the dif- trefled ftate of his brethren in America, as to procure a mandamus, and the anpomtment of Nicholas Snattock, a Quaker, banilhed from New England on pain of death, to cary it out to the colony. Notwithttanding the laudable interference of Charles on this occafion, a perfecution again{t the Friends commenced in 1662 in his own metropolis, which he adopted no means of preventing. Burrough was -at this time, at Briftol; but as foon as he received the intell!- gence, he determinec to confront the ftorm in London, ‘though in parting with his fricnds he had intimated an ap- prebenfion, that his own life would be the facrifice. Soon alter his arrival he preached at a meeting-houfe of the fo- ciety, and was committed to Newgate; and refufing to pay the fine impofed upon him at the enfuing feffions, he was remanded to prifon, where, with 150 other perfons con- fined on the fame account, he remained about eight months. At length, he fell a facrifice to the fever that carried off many of his companions, and expired on the r4th of Febru- ary 1662-3, in his 28th year. During his illnefs, his mind retained its ufual vigour, and he derived confolation from the conviction, that he had paffed his life in performing the will of his maker. Again{t his enemics he retained no ani- molity, but prayed by name for Richard Brown, the alder- man, who had committed him. His chara¢ter, notwith- ftanding the enthufialt of the new fe to which he was at- ‘tached, appears to have been truly eftimable; and his efforts for reilraining the fpirit of perfecution, redound much to aishonour. H's works were numerous ; and they were colleed in 1672 in one volume, {mall folio. Gen. Biog. Burroven-duck, in Zoology, a common Englifh name for the TADORNA. Burroucus’s Machine, in Mechanics, a machine for grinding and polifhing glaffes, invented by Mr. Burroughs of Southwark, tor which the Society of Arts gave hima premium of 7ol. This machine confilts of acog-wheel A, P/.[J.Opties.fig. 4. i2 feet in diameter, carrying 72 cogs; whichturn a trundie- head B, one foot four inches in diameter, and furnifhed with eight rounds; and alfo an horizontal fpur-wheel C. of 12 cous, and one foot eight inchesindiameter. The trundle- head B turns a {pur-wheel D. of ten cogs, and two feet eight inches in diameter. This {[pur-wheel has two cranks, a, 4, I BUR in its fhaft ; one of which @ gives motion to a wooden frames c, about 34 inches long and rg broad. On the under fide of this frame are faftened by fcrews twelve picces of polifhed metal, each five inches and a half long, and three broad, covered with leather ; and underneath thefe polifhers, a glafs plate cemented in another frame is placed on the bench d, and polifhed with tripoli by the motion given to the upper frame by the crank a. The nuts of the fcrews which faften the polithers to the upper frame are not {crewed clofe to the wood, in ordey to give the frame room to play; by which contrivance the perpendicular mfe of the crank is avoided, and the motion of the polthers always parallel and equal. The under treme may be moved by the hand in any di- rection without {topping the machine: by which means the plate, when larger than the polishing frame can cover in its motion, will be equally polifhed in every part. The other crank, 4, gives motion to two other polithers marked 2, 9, which have an alternate motion by the bend- ing of the crank; they move upon the fame plate, and have an equal number of polifhers as that already defcribed. The fame crank alfo gives motion to a contrivance repre= fented at ¢ tor polithing fpectacle-glaffes. It confiits of two fegments of the fame {phere ; one concave and the other con= vex. On the latter the glaffes are cemented; and polifhed by the former, which is moved by the crank 6. ‘The cons vex fegmsnt may be moved round by the hand without ftopping the machine, fo that all the glaffes on its fuperticies wil be equally pouhed. The other {pur-wheel C, by means of a crank in its fhaft, gives motion to another frame g, employed in grinding the gla(s-plates. The rod 4, extended from the crank f to the frame g, is faltened to the latter by means of a pivot, in order to admit of a rotatory motior, as well as that given it by the crankin a longicu jinal dweection. This rotatory motion is eff is the rcfleGtion of Mr. Knox, in his cffay on parental indulgence (Effays, vol. ii. p- 344.) who fay, ‘¢ Inhumanity even io a Bufby cannot admit of palliation.”” Asa man of learning, Dr. Bufby is known by feveral books, fuch as Latin and Greck gram- mars, and editions of the fatires of Juvenal and Perfius, and of the epigrams of Martial, adapted to the ufe of his fchool, and evincing his fkill and accuracy as a grammarian. After the reftoration, he was made a prebendary of Weitminfter, as well as treafurer and canon refidentiary of the church of Wells ; and in the fame year he alfo tock his degree of do&or in divinity. To the church and monarchy he was zealoufly attached, and he infufed fim:lar principles and {pirit into the minds of his pupils, among whom were feveral who occupied fome of the higheft offices in the {tate. Several inftances of his private and public charity are r corded. Having, by a courfe of temperance, notwithitanding the fatigues of his public ftation, attained to the advanced age of 89,.he died in 1695, and was buried in Weltminfter abbey, where a- monument, with an ample, laudatory in{cription, was ere@ted to his memory. Biog. Brit. BUSCA, in Geography, a town of Italy, .in the province of Coni; 7 miles W. of Coni. BUSCHE, Herman Von Dem, in Latin Bu/chius, in Biography, a diftinguifhed {cholar, who concributcd to the revival of literature, and the improvement of taite in Ger- many, was the defcendant of a noble family in Weftphalia, and born at the cattle of Saflenborg in the bifhopric of Minden, in 1468. After a previous courfe of ftudy im proved by travels through Italy, France, and Germany, and various a(tempts to excite amore his own countrymen a tafte for pure Latinity, he eftablifhed a fchool at Cologne; but here his refidence was made uneafy to him by the monks, fo that in 1506 he removed to Leiplic. The ecclefiatlica,, however, whofe Latin ftyle he condemned, and which he wifhed aod laboured to reform, counteraéted his efforts of improvement, and he was under a neceflity of often changing his abode. At Cologne, whither he returned after hie tra- vels in Germany and the Low Countries, he publifhed « Pemptades Decimationum Plautinarum,”’ and a ‘“ Com- mentary on Claudian de Raptu Proferpine.’”? The clergy again molefted him in this city, as he had given them frefh: occafion of offence by aiding Ulric Von Heton in com- pofiag the celebrated * Epiftola Obfcurorum Virorum,” in which the moneftic Latin of that period is the fubje& of ridicule. From Cologne, he removed to Wefel, where, as. reCtor of the Latin fchool, he read the works of Luther, Melan&hon, and Pomeranus, which had been jutt publifhed, . From Weiel, he went to Wittenberg ; and, at the recom- mendation of Luther and others, the landgrave of Hefle ap- poe him profeflor of hiftory at Marpurg. where he pub- ithed “* A Treatife on the Authority of the Word of God.’” About this time he embraced the doGtrines of Luther, and married in the year 3527, Towards the clofe of his life, he. BUS he had an unhappy quarrel with the anabaptifts at Munfter, which agitated a conftitution, already enfeebled by years, to fuch a degree, as to occafion his death, in 1534. Hig prin- cipal works are “* Commentar. in Donatum ;” “ Annot. in Silium Italicum ;”? «* Comment. in primum lib. Martialis 5”? + Scholia in Aineid ;”? ** Annot. ad Juvenal;’’ ‘“ Epigram- matum, libri iii, ;?? “ Comment. in Satyr. Perfit,”’ Paris, 1644. He alfo publifhed many Latin poems. According to the account given of his writings by Erafmns, they are nervous, lively, and avimated, and difplay great acutenenefs of jadgment; and his ftyle is faid to approach nearer to that of Quintilian than to that of Cicero. Gen. Biog. BUSCHETTO, Da Duticuio, acelebrated Greek ar- chite&, was a native of the ifle of Dulichio, and employed, in 1016, by the republic of Pifa, in building and ornamenting their dome or cathedral church; which he enriched with many marble columns, and which has ever fince been reckoned one of the moft fumptuous edifices in Italy. He died at Pifa, where was ere€ted a monument to his memory, bearing an infcription which intimates his extraordinary knowledge of the mechanic powers. His difciples were numerous, and he is regarded as the principal founder of the fcience of archi- te€ture in modern Italy. Felibien, Vies des Archit. BUSCHING, Antuony-Frepericx, a well-known geographer, was born at Stadthagen, a town of Germany, in 1724, and inftruéted for feveral years by Hauber, after- wards paftor of a German congregation at Copenhagen, in the Greek, Chaldaic, and Syrian languages, and alfo in aftronomy, algebra, and other branches of the mathematics. In 1744, he entered asa theological fludent at Halle, where he derived fingular benefit from the patronage of the cele- brated profeflor S. J. Baumgarten; and in 1746, he pub- lifhed his firft work, which was ‘* An introdudtion to the Epiftle of Paul to the Philippians,” with a preface by his patron. At the clofe of his academical fludies be began his exegetical le@tures on Ifaiah, which were followed by thofe on the New Teftament. In 1748, he was invited to fuper- intend the education of the eldeft fon of count Lynar, at Koftritz ; where he was alfo employed in revifing a Ger- man edition of Vitringa on Ifaiah, and where he commenced an extenfive correfpondence with perfons of eminence in the Jiterary world. In the following year he accompanied count Lynar to Peterfburgh ; and in the courfe of bis jour- ney thither he formed the plan of a new geography, with a view of fupplying the imperfe€tions of Hubner’s and Hager’s works on this fubje&. After encountering fome difficulties and difcouragements in the progrefs of his undertaking, he determined to devote his whole time to it ; and releafing him- felf from his engagements as tutor, repaired, in 1752, to ‘Copenhagen, where he enjoyed peculiar advantages for the completion of his work. During his refidence in this city, he conduted a monthly publication, in which he gave an account of the ftate of the arts and fciences in Denmark. In 1754, he removed to Germany, and at Halle wrote a dif- fertation, entitled ‘* Vindicie Septentrionis,” announcing alfo his intention to commence a courfe of lectures on the conftitution of the principal {tates of Europe; but he was diverted from profecuting this plan by an invitation to the office of extraordinary profeflor of philofophy at Gottin- gen, with a falary of 200 rix-dollars to enable him to finifh his geography. Accordingly, he accepted the invitation, and having fettled at Gottingen, in 1754, he married in the following year a literary lady, feveral of whofe poetical pieces he had previoufly publifhed. This lady had been elefted an honorary member of the German fociety at Gottingen, and had alfo been named imperial poetefs laureat by Haber- lein, pro-reGlor of the univerfity of Helmitadt, In the BUS profpe&t of a vacancy in the chair of theological profeffor in, the univerfity of Gottingen by the death of Mofheim, Bufching was advifed by his friends, in 1755, to offer himfelf as a candidate; but as he had conceived a diflike to the theology of the fchools, he thought it moft honourable to announce his fentiments to the public, before he undertook the office of theological profeffor. Accordingly, on occa- fion of his applying to the theological faculty of Gottingen for the degree of doftor, he delivered to them, in MS., his “¢ Epitome theologie e folis facris literis concinnate, ct ab omnibus rebus & verbis {cholafticis purgate,’”? which he afterwards printed ; and, after fome oppofition, he obtained the degree. This differtation was afterwards reprinted with additions ; and as it contained fome points of doétrine that were thought exceptionable, he was accufed of heterodoxy, > and ordered by a refcript iflued in 1757, to forbear publifh- ing any thing on the fubje& of theology, till it had been fubmitted to the infpeétion of the privy-council of Hanover; and he was alfo commanded to abftain from giving theolo- gical leGtures, particularly on difputed fubje&s. He remon- {lrated againft this treatment, and ina letter to Munckhaufen, the Hanoverian minifter, he expreffed his purpofe in the fol- lowing declaration: ‘* If your excellency fhould make me chancellor of the univerfity, with a falary of a thoufand dol- lars, on condition of my teaching nothing but the ufual theology of the fchools, I would refpe&tfully refufe your offer.” At this time Bufching had a falary of 400 dollars at Gottingen, befides pecuniary prefents from the minifter, and fome privileges, which enabled him to expedite his great geographical works, In 1759, he was appointed public pro- feflor of philofophy, and the firft part of his geography had already gone through three editions. He was now at leifure to profecute it; and, that he might not be interrupted, he declined accepting feveral advantageous offers. On the fub- je of education he had publifhed a treatife, compiled from his leQures at Gottingen, which very much contributed to his reputation, In 1761, he undertook the office of paftor to a Lutheran congregation at Peterfburgh; and here he founded a {chool on a large fcale for the benefit both of boys and girls. To this {chool he paid particular attention ; and in 1763, it had rifen to fuch reputation, that it con- tained apwards of 300 fcholars of yarious nations and feéts ; and Catharine II. granted to it, by the recommendation of field-marfhal count Munich, feveral privileges. But on oc- cafion of a difpute between Bufching and his congregation refpeGting this new inftitution, he abandoned the direGtion of it, and determined to return to Germany; though the emprefs Catharine was very defirous of retaining him in Ruffia. Among other conneétions which he formed during his refidence at Peterfburgh, he contraéled an inti- macy with Muller, the celebrated hiftorian and traveller ; and from the information he thus obtained with regard to Ruffia, he was enabled to publifh his ‘* Hiftorical Maga- zine.” The place which he feleéted for his refidence, with a view to the profecution of bis literary labours, was Altona; and here he continued, declining fome advantageous propofals, made to induce bis return to Gottingen, and refolving never to accept a penfion, till the year 1766, when he was appointed dire@or of a gymnafium at Berlin. In this capital he was treated with great refpe&t; and befides the employment of fuperintending the fersinary committed to his care, he en- gaged in writing various elementary treatifes for the ufe of the different claffes in the Latin and French languages, na- tural hiftory, the hiftory ef religion, the fine arts, &c.5 which were favourably received by the public. His incefs fant application, however, impaired his health, and brought on a pulmonary complaint with which he was eee dor 2 evera BUS feveral years, and which terminated his ufeful life, in 1793, after he had been dire&tor of the gymnafium at Berlin for 26 years. He was buried in his garden at mid-night, with- out pomp or ceremony, according to his own defire expreffed in his will. In his own delineation of bis charaéter, he ac- knowledges, that though he was candid and open-hearted, affable, ready to afliit others, and of a compaffionate difpo- fition, he had behaved with harfhnefs to many p-rfons, and on various occafions. He expreffes his confidence in the Supreme Being, his firm faith in the Saviour of the world, and his fatisfa¢tion with the difpenfations of providence. His temper, he fays, was warm, and occafionally irritable ; and his firmnefs had fometimes affumed the appearance of obftinacy; and his quicknefs had betrayed him occafionally into precipitation. ‘* lam moderate,’’ fays he, ‘in all things; contented with little, and malter of my appetites. In my intercourfé with the world I expeét too much from myfelf ; Lam therefore often diffatisfied with my own conduG@; and on that account with to confine my intercourfe within a very narrow circle, and to fhun fociety. I am free from pride, but not void of ambition, though I often ftruggle with this paffion, and on refleCtion endeavour to fupprefs it. I am fo much attached to labour, that it feems to me a requifite to life, and that my impulfe to it is greater than to any fenfual leafure whatever.” Buiching was a ready writer, fo that his literary produc- tions amounted to more than a hundred, con‘ifting of elemen- tary books, relating to fchools and education, and fuch as were theological, hiftorico-geographical, and biographical. Although his works poffefs confiderable merit, they abound with repetitions, and his ftyle is diffufe and inelegant. But the department in which he principally excelled was that of geography. His “ Geography” comprehending Europe and the Ruffian part of Afia, contains a variety of intereft- ing and ufeful information; and was publifhed after the year 1754, at different periods, in fingle volumes, of which eight editions were publifhed during the life of the author. His «* Magazine for Modern Hiftory and Geography” was com- prifed in 22 parts, 4to. and publifhed between the years 1767 and 1788: and his ‘* Weekly Account of new Maps’ ap- peared in detached parts, during an interval of 15 years, from 1773 t01787. Gen. Biog. "’BUSCHOFF, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Courland ; 8 miles S. of Seelburg. ‘ BUSCHWEILER, a town of France, in a diftri& of the fame name, in the department of the Lower Rhine, for- merly Alface. BUSE, in Ornithology. See Farco Buteo. BUSELAPHUS, Caji, in Zoology, See Antitore Busauis. BUSENTO, in Geography, a river of Italy, which runs into the fea, near Policattro. - BUSEY, a town of the ifland of St, Domingo, fituate near Port-au-Prince, and having a fort. BUSH, a toft or aflemblage of boughs or branches. Busu alfo denotes a coronated frame of wood hung out, as a fignat taverns. It takes the denomination from hence, that, anciently, figns where wine was fold were bu/hes chiefly of ivy, cyprefs, or the like plants, which keep their verdure long. And hence the Englith proverb “ Good wine needs no bu/b.”? Bese, in Geography, the name of ariverin Ireland, which after taking a winding courfe through the northern part of the county of Antrim, falls into the north channel about a mile welt of the Giant’s Caufeway. Busu-town. See Harrorp. . Busu-harrow, in Agriculture, an implement conftituted BUS of any fort of buthy wood, interwoven in a kind of frame confifting of three or more crofs bars, fixed into two end- pieces in fuch a manner as to be wider behind than before, and very rough and brufhy underneath. To the extremities of the frame before are generally attached two wheels about eight or twelve inches in diameter, upon which it moves 5 fometimes, however, wheels are not employed, but the whole rough furface is applied to, and dragged on the ground Sce Harxow. J Busu harrowing, the operation of harrowing wi inftrument of the kind deferibed above. It is she tentt fary on grafs-land, or fuch as has been long in the ttate of pafture, for the purpofe of removing the worm-cafts and of breaking down and reducing the lumps and clods of the mauures that may have been applied, and thereby rendering ie rere eine of being wafhed into the ground, or, in ome meafure, for removing the mofh re on the furfaces of fach ealice igannniaee’ rather dry time fhould be chofen for the i the bufinefs, in order that thefe fubfances no ba pulverizable ftate, and of courfe more readily broken down and applied to the roots of the grafs plants. It fhould ne- ver be attempted when there is fuch a degree of moifture as to produce clogginefs. Busu-vetch, a plant of the vetch kind, which may pro- bably be cultivated to advantage by the farmer, where lu- cerne and other plants of a fimilar nature cannot be grown It is obferved by Mr. Swayne, in the third volume of the letters and papers of the Bath Society, that “its root is perennial, fibrous, and branching ; the ftalks many, fome of them fhooting immediately upwards, others creeping juft under the furface of the ground, and emerging, fome near to, and others at a confiderable diftance from the parent ftock The {mall oval leaves are conne@ted together by a mid- rib, with a tendril at the extremity: the flowers are in tha e like thofe of the common vetch, of a reddifh purple etwas the firft that bloffom ufually come in pairs, afterwards to the number of four at a joint ; the pods are much fhorter than thofe of the common vetch, larger in proportion to their length, and flatter, and are of a black colour when ripe; the feeds are fmaller than thofe of the cultivated {pecies fome fpeckled, others of a clay colour.” Being a perennial plant it fhould feem, he thinks, * to be a very proper kind to inter= mix with grafs feeds for laying down land intended for paf- ture; and that it is as jultly entitled to this epithet as any herbaceous plant whatever, having obferved a patch of it growing in one particular {pot of his orchard for I4 or 15 years palt. It is not only a perennial, but an evergreen ; it fhoots the earlieft in the {pring of any plant eaten by cattle with which he is acquainted, vegetates late in autumn, and continues green through the winter, though the weather be very fevere ; add to this, that cattle are remarkably fond of it.” See Vicia. Thefe peculiarities fhould make it particularly valuable to the farmer as a green food for fheep in the winter and {pring, when food of that denomination is fo exceedingly fcarce, The fame writer has likewife obferved, that, “ the chief reafon which has hitherto prevented its cultivation has been the very great difficulty of procuring good feed in any quan- tity. The pods,” he finds, “ do not ripen altogether; but as foon almoft as they are ripe, they burft with great clafticity, and {catter the feeds around ; and after the feeds have been procured, {carce one-third part of them will veges tate, owing,” as he fuppofes, * to an internal defeét, occa- fioned by certain infeéis making them the nefts and food for their young.” It BUS Jt appears from this author’s account alfo, that a crop of ‘this kind of vetch “‘ may be cut three or four times, and in fome cafes even fo early as the beginning of March ;” a circumftance of much importance to fuch farmers as have a large ftock of cattle. In his trials with this plant, cut in this way, a plat of good ftiffifh loamy land, of twenty-five {quare yards, produced, : rit cutting, 16lb. green, fuppofed 4lb. dry. zd do. 130 do, would have weighed 214 dry. 3a do. 62 do. would have weighed 14 dry. 4th do, 764 do. would have weighed 122 dry. ‘Total 284% greer. 52 ary. An acre, therefore, fays he, reckoning 4840 {quare yards fo it, in the fame circumftances, would have produced the total amount of Tons cwt, qre. lb. 24 It 3. 3 green. 4 gy 3. 15 dry-fodder. And it is further added, *¢ that at the time the firft cut- ting was made there was fcarce a green blade of grafs to be {een ; and that the feafon, till after the third cutting, was as unfavourable to vegetation as perhaps any in the memory of man.” It is faid to fucceed beft on foils of the clayey kind; but from the ftems rifing fo clofely together there is danger, in moilt feafons, of their rotting at the root. See VETCH. Busu, buraing, in Scripture Hiflory, denotes that bufh in which God manifefted himfelf to Mofes at the foot of mount Horeb, as he was feeding the flocks of his father-in-law, by the {chechinah or fymbol of bis prefence in a flame of fire. Exod..chap. iii. The emblem of the burning-buhh is ufed as the feal of the church of Scotland, with this motto: «© Tho’ burning, is never confumed.” Busu-lime, among Dird-Catchers, denotes an arm or bough of a.bufhy tree, full of thick and long, yet fmooth and ftraight twigs, daubed over with bird-lime, and placed on fome hedge where birds frequent, ufed efpecially for the ‘taking of pheafante and fieldfares. See Brrv-/ime. BUSHEER, or Asuscu£unur, in Geography, che capi- ‘tal of an.independent ftate of Arabia of the fame name, near the Perfian gu!ph, pofleffing a commodious harbour, in which Ships can approach clofe to the houfes. This circumftance ‘induced. Nadir Shah to ftation a fleet here. Since that time, this city has been better known, anc become more con- fiderable. It is at prefent the fea-port town of Schiras; and the Englifh, the only European uation who continue to trade with Perfia, have a factory in this place. The Arabs inha- bating the ditlri@ of Abufchehhr are not of the tribe of Houle, who poffefs all the ports on the whole coaft from Bender Abbas to Cape Berdiftan. Among them are three eminent families; the two &rft of which have been, from time immemorial, fettled in this country. The third, named «« Matarifch,”? came lately from Oman, where they were employed in fifhing, entered into alliance with the other two, and found means to ufurp the fovereign authority, which they have now held for feveral years. The prefent {cheich of this family pofleffles likewife the ifle of Bahrein, by which he is enabled to maintain fome fhipping, and he has alfo confiderable domains in Kermefir. By abandoning the Sunnites, becoming a Shiite, and marrying a Perfian lady, he had rendered himfelf edious to his fubje@s and neighbours; and his children are no longer reckoned among the Arabian nobility. Abu-{chaehhr hes fouth from Bender- Rigk, which fee. BUSHEL, a meafure of capacity for things dry; as grains, pulfe, dry fruits, &c. containing four pecks, or eight gallons, or one eighth of a quarter. BUS Du-Cange derives the word from bufellus, buflellus, oF biffellus, a diminutive of bux, or buza, ufed in the corrup- Latin for the fame thing: others derive it from Jufulus, an urn, wherein lots were caft; which feems to be a corruption from dusulus. Buffellus appears to have been firft ufed for a liquid mea- fure of wine, equal to eight gallons. * O80 libre faciuat galonem vinir &F oéfo galones vini faciunt buffellum London, que eff oGava pars quarterii.” Che word was foon after transferred to the dry meafure of corn of the fame quantity. ** Pondus odo librarum frumenti facit buflellum, de quibus ofo confiflit querterium "’ By 12 Henry VII. cap. 5. a bufhel is to contain cight gallons of wheat: the gallon, eight pounds of wheat, troy weight; the pound, twelve ounces troy-weight ; the ounce, twenty flerlings; and the fterling, thirty-two grains, or corns of wheat growing in the midit of the ear. This fandard bufhel is kept in the Exchequer; when, being fiilcd with common {pring water, and the water mea- fured before the houfe of commons in 1696, in a regular parallelepiped, it was found to contain 2145.6 folid inches ; and the faid water, being weighed, amounted to 1131 Oz. and 14 penny weights troy. Greaves, Orig. of Weights, 25. By a& of parliament made in April 1697, it was deter- mined, that every round bufhel witha plain and even bottom, being made 184 inches wide throughout, and eight inches deep, fhould be efteemed a legal ‘* Wincheiter buthel,”? according to the flandard in his majcity’s exchequer. A veffel thus made will contain 2150.42 cubic inches; and con- fequently the corn gallon contains only 2684 cubic inches. Ward’s Mathematics, p. 36. Befides the ftandard or legal bufhel, we have feveral Iccal bufhels, of different dimenfions in d:fferent places. At Abingdon and Andover, a bufhel contains nine gallons ; at Appleby and Penrith, a bufhel of peafe, rye, and wheat, contains 16 gallons; of barley, big, malt, mixt malt, and oats, 20 gallons. A bufhel contains at Carlifle, 24 gal- lons; at Chefter, a bufhel of wheat, rye, &c. contains 32 ga'lons, and of oats 40; at Dorchefter, a bufhel of malt and oats contains 10 gallons; at Falmouth, the bufhel of ftricken coals is 16 gallons, of other things 20, and ufually 21 gal- lons ; at Kingfton upon Fhames, the bufhel contains eight and a half, at Newbury, 9; at Wycomb and Reading, eight and three fourths; at Stamford, 16 gallons, Hough- ton. Colle&t. tom. i. n. 46. p. 42. At Paria, by the old meafures, the bufhel was divided into two haif bufhels ; the half bufhel into two quarts; the quart into two half quarts 3 the half quart into two litrons; and the litron into two half litrons. By a fentence of the provoft of the merchants of Paris, the bufhel was to be eight inches two lines and an half high, and ten inches in diameter ; the quart four inches nine lines high, and fix inches nine lines wide; the half quart four inches three lines high, and five inches diameter; the litron three inches and an half high, and three inches ten lines in diameter.—Three bufhels made a minot, fix a mine, twelve a feptier, and an hundred and fourty-four a mu'd. In other parts of France, the bufhel varied : fourteen one eighth bufhels of Amboife and Tours made the Paris fep- tier. Twenty bufhels of Avignon made three Paris fep= tiers. Twenty bufhels of Blois made one Paris fepticr. ‘T'wo bufhels of Bourdeaux made one Paris feptier. “hirty- two bufhels of Rochel made nineteen Paris feptiers. Oatg were meafured in a double proportion to other grains; fo that twenty four bufhels of oats made a feptier, and 248 a muid. The bufhel of oate was divided into four picotina BUS coting, the picotin into two half quarta, or four fitrons, For falt four bufhels made one minot, and fix a feptier. For coals eight buthels made one minot, fixteen a mine, and 320 a muid. For lime, three bufhels made a minot, and forty-eight mivots a muid. See Measure and Weicnr. By 31 G-. III. c¢. 30. the bufhel by which all corn fhall be meafured and compnted for the purpofes of this a&, fhall be the Wincheiter bufh |, and a quarter fhall be deemed to confit of 8 bufiels: and the juftices of each county, and the mayor of fuch cities and towns as are counties of themfeclves, or enjoy exempt jurifdiGtions, and from which returns are by this a@ dire¢ted to be made, fhail caufe a ftandard Winchefler bufhel to be provided and kept; and ali meaferes fhall be computed by the ftricken and not by the heaped bufhel: and where corn fhail be fold Ly weight, s7ibs. avoirdupoile of wheat fhall be deemed equal to one Winchefter bufhel ; and gslbs. of rye; 4glbs. of barley ; 42lbs. of beer or bigg, and 3S3lbs. of oats; and further, 5Olbs. of wheat-meal, aslbs. ot wheat-flour, 53tbs. of rye- meal, 48lbs. of barley-meal, 41lbs. of beer or bigg meal, and 22\bs. of oat-meal, fhall be deemed cqual to every fuch bufhel of corn unground. And for thé more eafy meafuring ground corn in fecks, the proper officer may make choice of and weigh two facks out of any number not exceeding twenty, and fo in proportion; and thereby compute the uantity of the whole. And the infpetor of corn ,returns all make a comparifon between the Winchefter meafure and that commonly ufed in the city or town for which he is infpector; and within one month after his appointment, fhall caufe a ftatement in writing of fuch somparifon to be hung up in fome confpicuous place in the market and town- hall of fuch city and town; and fhall renew the fame if defaced, and fhall return a copy thereof, to the receiver of orn returns. BUSHING. See Coaxryc. BUSHMILLS, in Geography, a {mall town of the county of Antrim, and province of Ulifter, in Ireland, where there 1s a bridge over the river Bufh, In the bed of the river, near the bridge, are ranges of bafaltic columns, fimilar to thofe of the Giant’s-caufeway ; and alfo onthe fummit of an adjoining mountain, In the neighbourhood is the ruin of the caftle of Dunluce, which is fituated in a fingular manner on an ifolated abrupt rock, perforated by the waves; which have formed under it a very fpacious cavern. The only approach to this caftle is along a narrow wall, built fomewhat like a bridge; which circumance muft have ren- dered it almoft impregnable before the invention of artillery. Bufhmills is 120 miles north of Dublin, and about 6 miles caft of Coleraine. Hamilron’s Antrim. BUSHWICK, a fmall but pleafant town of America, in King’s county, Long Ifland, New York. The inhahit- ants, 540 in number, are chiefly of Dutch extraftion; and of thefe gy are ele&ors. BUSHY Ruws,a north-eaft branch of Sewickly creek, near the head of which is General Boquet’s field. ‘The creek runs fouth-eafterly into Youghiogeny river, 20 miles S. E. from Pittfburg, in Peonfylvaria. BUSIR, or Bousi, anciently Bufris, the name of four different towns or villages of Egypt, viz. one on the weft fide of the Nile, at a {mall diflance trom the pyramids, and 18 miles S.W. of Cairo, N. lat. 29° 56/. E. long. 31° 6'. —A\lfo, another on the weft fide of the Nile, 7 miles N.W. of Achmounain or Hethhmuncin. N, lat. 28° 10’. E. long. 30° 44’. See Bussass.—A third near the weftern banks of the Nile, 42. milee S.W. of Atheh—A fourth in the Delta, ae welkern fide of the eaft brauch of the Nile; Vou. VY. BUS shout 5 miles S. of Semennud, mentioned by Herodotus (|. i.e. 59). See Businis. © BUSIRIS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Partuto, (Hefp: Urb.) with oblong entire wings of a black colour; on the anterior pair two yellow {pots and dots ; pofterior ones with a yellow difk. Thisisa native of India. Donov. Inf. Ind. Busiris, in Ancient Geography, 2 city of Lawer Egypt, row Busir, onthe Bufiritic branch of the Nile, and capital of the Bufiritic nome in the Delta; faid to have been burlt by Bufiris, a crucl tyrant, who was flain by Hercules; but Strabo (Geog. vol. ti. p. 1154.) denies the exiltence of fuch a perfon. Ifis had a ftately temple ere€ted to her in this city, fome ruins of which are faid to be fill remaining. The Bufiris of the Thebais, the fecond Bufivis mentioned in the preceding article (Bu sir), having revolted from the Remans, was deftroyed by Dioclefian in his expedition againit Egypt, A.D. 296. Busrris, in Hifory, the name of feveral kings, who, according to Diodorus Siculus (!. 1. c. 17-) reigned in Egypt; one of whom is faid to have built the magnificent zud power- ful city to which the Greeks gave the name of Thebes. He acknowledges, however, that the barbarity of a certain Bu- firis was fabulous; and that the table was greunded ona cultom praétifed in Egypt, of facrificing all the red-haired people they met with, mott of whom were flrangers, as the natives of the country were fearcely ever of this colonr, to the manes of Ofiris: Bofiris fignifyng, in the Egyptian tongue, the fepulchre of Ofir's. Virgil ranks the bar- barity of this tyrant among the fiGtions of the poets. Virgil, however, has been cenftired for applying the epithet * In- laudati”’ to Bufiris (Georg. |. iii. v. 3.) 5 a8 it does not fuf- ficiently exprefs the terror which the cruelty of fuch a montter tended to excite. Aulus Gellius(l. ti.c. 6.) has endeavour- ed to vindicate Virgil’s ufe of this term, as implying a tacit condemnation and deteftation of the charaGter of Bufiris, becaufe a perfon who, in all things, and at all times, remains unpraifed, “ iliaudatus,’” muft be the worll and the mott wicked of wretches; and if “ iaudare’”’ be confidered as fignify- ing, in old Latin, to name, * illaudatus’’ being the fame as « jllaudabilis” implies, in Virgil’s ufe of it, that Buliris did not deferve to have his name repeated. Bayle, diffatisfied with thefe apologies for the Roman poet, fuggefts that this verfe is one of thofe in which poets are forced. upon ac- count of the length or fhortnefs of fyllables (the different feet) to employ ulelefs words, mere expietives, or even fuch as prejudice the fenfe. Aithough Ifocrates made a panegy- ric on the tyrant Bufiris, Bayle fuggefts that he only in- tended to cenfure the impertinent panegyric of Polycrates, a teacher of oratory in the ifland of Cyprus, who had write ten the elogium of Buliris, and the accifation of Socrates, Melanéthon, from his refearches (in Chron. lib. it.) concludes, that Bufiris was probably the Pharaoh who oceafioned the deftruction of the children of the Ifraelites. Orofius places him 775 years before the foundation of Rome; and, accord~ ing to Eufebius, he was contemporary with Jofhua, about 709 vears before Romulus built Rome. Gen. Dict. BUSITIS, in Geography, a diltriét of Arabia Deferta, faid to have derived its name from Bus or uz, Nahor’s fecond fon, and to have been the country of Liihu, the fourth interlocutor in the billory of Job; called by the LXX. Buzerss. BUSK, a town of the duchy of Courland; 18 miles S8.S.W. of Mittaw. BUSKIN, Coravanws, an article of drefs, fomewhat in the manner of a boot, covering the foot and mid«leg, aud tied beneath the knee : very rich and fine, and ufed princi- pally on the flage by ihe actors in tragedy. 4aFk The BUS The bufkin is faid to have been firlt introduced by Ai{chy- lus: it was of a quadrangular form, and might be worn in- differently on either leg. Its fole was made fo thick, as by means of it, men of ordinary ftature might be raifed tothe pitch and elevation of the heroes they perfonated : in which it was diftinguified from the fock, worn in comedy ; which was alow, popular fhoe. By aid of this appendage, the fta- ture of the tragic ators was frequently increafed to four cu- bits, or about fix Englifh feet and half an inch, the height of Herculesand the moft ancient heroes. The bufkins raifed them four or five inches; while gauntlets lengthened their arms; and their breaft, fides, and every part of the body, were rendered apparently thicker in proportion. Dempfter obferves, that the bufkn was not confined to actors only, but girls likewife ufed it to raife their height ; and travellers and hunters to defend themfelves from the mire, &c. As the bufkin was the diftinguifhing mark of tragedy on the ftage, we find it in clafficauthors frequently ufed to fig- nify “* tragedy itfelf,”? and to exprefs ftrong and vehement declamation or lofty flyle, which was ufually affected by thefe actors of coloffal figure. BUSKY, in Geography. See Buck. BUSLEIDEN, Joun, in Biography, a native of Arlon, in Luxemburg, became matter of the requelts in the court of Charles V. and counfellor to the fovereign council of Mechlin. He was alfo employed in embaflies to pope Julius II, and the kings Francis I. and Henry VIII. Asa manof litera- ture he was diftinguifhed, and he was an intimate friend of feveral learned men, particularly of Erafmus and fir Thomas More. He founded, in the Univerfity of Louvain, the col- lege of the three tongues, for teaching Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. On his journey to Spain, in 1517, he fell fick, and died at Bourdeaux. The only piece of his writing is a letter prefixed to More’s Utopia. Gen. Di&. BUSODRA, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, ijn the Arabian Irak ; go miles N.W. of Baflora. BUSS, in Navigation, a {mall fhip, ufed by the Englifh and Dutch in the herring-fifhery, which fee. The word is originally Flemifh, duis, or buys, which fig nifies the fame. The fhip has three fhort mafts, cach in one piece. On each is carried a fquare fail, and fometime a top-fail above the main- fail. In fine weather are added a fort of ftudding failto the Jower fails, and a driver. Occationally is alfo added a jib for- ward, upona {mall bow{prit or fpar. To fhoot their nets, the feamen lower the main and fore-mafts, which fold on deck by large hinges, and ftow aft upon crotches. The bufs is commonly from forty to feventy tons burthen. It has two apartments, one forward, and the other aft; the former of which is ufed as a kitcben. Every bufs has a matter, an affiftant, a mate, and feamen in proportion to the fize of the veffel. The mafter commands in chief, and without his ex- prefs orders the nets can neither be caft nor taken up; the affiftant has the command after him; and the mate is next in order, whofe bufinefs is to fee the feamen manage their yigging ina proper manner; to attend to thofe who draw in their nets, and thofe who kill, gut, and cure the herrings, as they are taken out of the fea. The feamen generally engage by the voyage; and their provifions confit com- monly of bifeuit, oat-meal, and dried or falt and frefh fifh. Buss, Bufa,isalfo the name of/a large fort of veffel of war, in ufe in the middle age, {poken of by antiquaries and hiftorians under the’ feveral denominations of duffz, bu/cia, burcia, buza, bucca, and bucia, : BUSSCHOFF, Herman, in Biography, a Dutch phy- fician, was born at Utrecht in the beginning of the 15th cene BUS tury, and refided many years at Batavia, in the Eaft Indies; and while in that country, was induced, he fays, to make ufe cf an Indian do@trefs, to cure him of the gout, by burn- ing little conical pellets of moxa (the pith of a fpecies of artemilia,) on the parts affeGted; a mode of treatment in that and various other complaints, in great repute in China and Japan. The operation lafts, he fays, about half an hour, and ts attended with very little pain. It leaves {mall {cars on the parts, which in a few days are digetted out, and the little uicers that remain heal under any common appli- cations. As fodn as the operation was over, he fell into a profound fleep, which iafted twenty-four hours. On waking he was entirely free from the pajn of the gout, and the {welling and tendernefs of the parts which remained were diffipated in a few days. A {cond attack of the gout, which occurred {ome years after, was cured in the fame man- ner. He had known, he fays, {chirrous tumours, nodes, and lethargies relieved by the fame application. Having col- le&ted accounts ofa fufficient number of cures effeted in this way, he wrote a {mall treatife on the fubj-€, in the Dutch language, and fent the manufcript to Holland to be printed. He alfo fent a parcel of the moxa, and of matches made of fandlewood, which the Indians ufe to light the pel- lets with, The book was printed in 1675, at which time fir William Temple was ambaflador at the Hague, and on his being attacked with the gout (it was his firlt fit) he was eafily induced to try the remedy, which procured him the promifed eafe. The following year he publifhed an effay on the cure of the gout by moxa, with an account of the me- thed of ufing it, and the benefit he had received from it, The fame year Buffchoff’s book was tranflated into Englifh, on the recommendation, fir William fays, of the profeffors of Grefham College, but no notice is taken of them in the title or preface to thetranflation. It was publifhed in 12mo. with chirurgical oblervations by Henry Van Roonhuyfen. The remedy became for a time extremely popular here; but, not being found to anfwer the expe@ations that had been raifed, itis long fallen into difufe. It is probable, however, than in recent cafes, and’ in conftitutions not broken by in- temperance, fome benefit might accrue from the application. Haller. Bib. Med. The Author’s Preface, &c. BUSSET, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Allier, and diftri& of La Paliffe; 5 miles S.E. of Caffel. < BUSSETTO, a town of Italy, and capital of a {mall dif- trict in the duchy of Placenza; 8 miles S.E. of Cremona. BUSSI, Bussissi, or Borssiss1, an ifland of Africa, in the Atlantic, near the ifland of Biflao. bee BUSSIERE-Badil, a town of France, in the departs ment of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Nontron ; 8 miles N. of it. The place contains 1,230, and the canton 7,049 inhabitants: the territory ins cludes 150 kiliometres, and 9 communes. Busstere-Galande, a town of France, inthe department of the Upper Vienne, and diftri of Limoges; 5 leagues S.W. of it. Bussiere-Poitevine, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Vienne, and diftri& of Bellac ; 10 miles N.W. of it. BUSSIERES, Joun pe, in Biography, a diftinguifhed writer of France, was born, in 1607, at Ville-Franche, in Beaujolois, and entered among the Jetuits. His poems, written in French, are forgotten ; but his Latin poems, firlt printed at Lyons, in 1658, 12mo. are ftill read. Of thefe the principal is ‘* Scanderbeg,’? an heroic poem in 8 books ; befides which there are ‘© Rhza Delivered,” fome Idylls and Eclogues. DBuflicres likewife wrote a ** Hiftory of Be eas 2 vo. So BUS 2 vols. 4to.; and sn abridgement of univerfal hiftory, en- titled “¢ Plofeuli Hiftoriarum.” He died in 1678. Bussizres, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne, and diftri€ of Langres; 4 leagues S.E, of Langres. BUSSORES, by corruption from Bufora in Perfia, whence they were originally brought, a name given by fome to that [pecies of pigeon called the carRieR. BUSSOVATZ, in Geography, a town of Bofnia; 20 miles S. of Serajo. BUSSY & Grand, 2 town of France, in the department of the Cére d’Or, and diitrict of Semur, three leagues N.E. of it. BUST. See Bost. Bust, or Busro, in Sculpture, that portion of the hu- man figure, which comprifes the head, neck, breait, and fhoulders ; the Italians aifo apply this term to the human fizure as low as the hips, with or without the head and arms. This definition of the buft agrees with that f{pecies of fculpture which reprefents the portraits of illufirious Romans, either entirely round and mounted on pedettals, or in alto relievo on the fides of farcophagi, or other fepulchral monuments, and was molt likely of Roman produdtion ; very different from the Erme of the Greeks, which we cail Terms: The Erma was a four fquare prop with the head of fome divinity or man upon it. "The etymology of the Italian bufto is perhaps from the Latin, buflum; Feftus fays ‘* the place is properly called bufium, in which the dead is burnt and buried, (quafi bene uftum,) as if welt burnt; whereit is only burnt, but buried in another plece, the firft is faid to be ultrina, (ab urendo,) burning ; but buftum, the place of burial, which we call the fepulchre:’? as many of thefe buftos have been principal ornaments of the fepulchre, they may have de- rived their name from the fituation, or, on account of their confequence in it, have bad its name transferred to them. The feries of Roman emperors in the capitol, and the fine bronze butts in the king of Naples’ colleGion at Portici, exhibit examples of every {pecies in this kind of feulpture. Bernini and other artifls among the moderns, have hkewife left examples of the feveral varieties. Busts, Communicative, in Acouffics, are two heads of platter of Paris, plac-d on pedettals on the oppofite fides of a room, and conneéted with each other by means of a tin tube about an inch in diameter, pafling from the ear of one head, through the pedeftal under the floor, and afcending to the mouth of the other. The end of the tube which ad- joins the ear of the one head, fhould be confiderably larger than the end which proceeds from the mouth of the other. The whole apparatus fhould be fo contrived, that there may not be the leaft fufpicion of any communication. Ifa perfon {peak witha low voice into the ear of one buit, the found will be reverberated through the length of the tube, and will be diltin¢étly heard by every one who fhall place his ear to the mouth of the other. By means of two tubes, one pafling to the ear and the other to the meuth of cach head, two perfons may couverfe together, by applying their mouth and ear reciprocally to the mouth and ear of the bults; and at the fame time, other perfons that fland in the middle of the chamber, between the heads, will not hear any part of the converfation. If a buft be placed on a pedeftal in the eorner of a room, and two tubes, fuch as thole above men- tioned, be fo difpofed, that one may pals from the mouth, and the other from the ear of the bufts through the pedettal and the floor, to an under apartment, we fhall obtain what is called the “ Oracular head.” There may be likewife wires that pafs from the under jaw and the ‘eyes of the bult, BUS by which they may be eafily moved. A perfon placed inthe under room, who, at a given fignal applies his ear to one of the tubes, will hear any queition that is afked ; and may im- mediately reply, favouring the deception by moving at the fame time the mouth and the eyes of the buft, by means of the wires. Hooper’s Rational Recreations, vol. ii. p. 203, &Cce BUSTA Gallica, wasa place in ancient Rome, wherein the bones of the Gauls, who firft took the city, and were flain by Camillus, were depofited. It diffcred from Busta Gallorum, a place on the Appennines, thus called by reafon of many thonfands of Gau!s killed there by Fabius. BUSTARD, in Geography, a river of Upper Canada, which runs into the river St. Lawrence, weltward of Black river, in a bay of its own name. It communicates within ~ land, with» feveral lakes in its extended courfes; and at its mouth lie the Ofiers iflaads. N. lat. 49° 20!. W. long. 68° 5/. Busvrarp isalfo a bay on the eaft coaft of New Holland, with a good anchorage in five fathoms. S. lat. 24° 4!. E. long. 151° 42). Busraxp, in Ornithology. See Oris. BUSTIA, in Geography, a town of Enropean Turkey, in the province of Albamia; 52 miles W.S.W. of Delfino. BUSTLETON, a poft-town of America, in Philadel- phia county, Pennlylvania, about ten miles N. W.of the city. BUSTO Grande; a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mi- lan; 16 miles N.W. of Milan. BUSTUARIZ mache, a kind of public profticutes, who frequented the duffa or tombs, which it feems were or- dinarily places of rendezvous for perfons of this defcription« Others {uppofe that thefe were women hired to attend a fu- neral, and lament the lofs of the deceafed. BUSTUARII, a kind of gladiators, among the ancient Romans, who fought about the buftum, or pile, of a de- ceafed perfon, in the ceremony of his obfequies. The pratice at firft wes, to facrifice captives on the tomb, or at the buitum, of their warriors: inftances of which we have in Homer, at the obfequies of Patroclus, and among the Greek tragedians, Their blood was fup- pofed to appeafe the infernal gods; and render them propi- tious to the mates of the deceafed. In after-ages, this cultom appeared too barbarous; and in lieu of thefe vidims they appointed gladiators to fight; whofe blood, it was fuppofed, might have the fame efle€&t.— According to Vale. rius Maximus and Floras, Ma-cus and Decius, fons of Brutus, were the firlt, at Rome, who honoured the funeral of their father with this kind of fpeétacle, in the year of Rome 489.—Some fay, the Romans borrowed this cultom from the Hetrurians ; and they from the Greeks. BUSTUM, in Antiquity, denotes a pyramid or pile of wood, whereon were anciently placed the bodies of the de- ceafed, in order to be burnt. The Romans borrowed the cultom of burning their dead from the Greeks, The de- ceafed, crowned with flowers, and dreffed in his richeft habits, was laid on the bultum. (See Burxina.) Some authors fay, it was only called butlum, after the burning, gua- Si bene uflum : before the burning it was more properly cailed pora: during it, rogus ; and afterwards, bu/lum. When the body was only burnt there, and buried eliewhere, the place was not properly called duflum, but uflrina, or uffrinum. Busvum, inthe Campus Martius, was a ftruture wherc- on the emperor Auguitus firlt, and, after him, the bodies of his fucceffors were burnt. It was built of white ftone, furrounded with an iron palifade, and planted within fide with alder trees. BLusrum was alfo figuratively applied to denote’any tomb. Whence thofe phrales, facere buflum, violare buflum, &c. 4F2 Bustum BUT Bustum of analtar, was the hearth or place where the fire was kindled. BUSULGINO, in Geography, a fettlement of Siberia, on the Indigirda ; 288 miles N.N.E. of Lafchiverfk. BUSULUTZH, a diftri& of Reffia, in the province of Orenburgh and government of Ufa, feated on the Samara, near the river Bufuluk ; 172 miles S.W. of Ufa. BUSZA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Brac- Jaw ; 52 miles S.W. of Braclaw. BUTCHER, a perfon who flaughters cattle for the ufe of the table, or forfale. The method of flaughtering cattle by a feparation of the fpinal marrow, is now fuccefsfully praétifed in many parts of the world, and is mueh recom- m BUTTERFELDE, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and New Mark of Brandenburg ; 5 miles N. of Barwalde. BUTTERFIELD, a fettlement of America, in Cum: berland county, and diftri& of Maine, containing 189 inha- bitants, and lying about 43 miles N. from Falmouth, on Cafco bay ; having Butterfield-flip on the north, and Bucks town on the fouth. BUTTERFISH, in Jchthyology, a {mall fpecies of the Biennius genus, called {pecifically by naturalilts gunnellus, and the /potted blenny: it is diftinguifhed by the name of butterfi/p. by the inhabitants on feveral of the Englifh coalts. Donov. Brit. Fifhes. See BLENNIUS GUNNELLUS. BUTTERFLY, in L£xtomology. See Paritio. Butrer-ry, /atyrion, in Botany. See Orcuis. Burrerrcy fi/h, in Ichthyology, an Englifh name of the ocellated blenny, Blennius ocellaris, a fifh found in the Me- diterranean fea: and which is diltinguifned by having a large black ocellar {pot in the anterior part of the dorfal fin, whence this fifh is fuppofed to bear a fanciful refemblance to the wing ofa butterfly. BUTTERHILL, in Geography, a high round hill of America, on the weft bank ef Hudfon river, at the northern entrance of the High-lands. BUTTERIS, in Farriery. See Buttress. BUTTERMERE, in Geography, a village of Cumber- land, in England, is feated in a part of the country which has been frequently admired and defcribed by topographers and tourifts. The majeftic mountains, and tranfparent lakes of this diftri@, prefent thofe wild and delightful features of land{cape, which cannot fail to awaken fenfations of pleafure and delight. The village has nothing peculiar to excite no- tice, but the water or lake, which gives name to the place, is particularly beautiful. It occupies an area of about one mile anda half in length, by haif a mile in breadth. Its wellern (hore is hemmed in by a range of rugged mountains, rifing abruptly frem the margia of the water. Thefe aflume a dark and heavy afpeét, and are known to the fhepherds, who are almoft the only perfons that trace their craggy fteeps, by the names of Hay-cock, High-crag, High-tftile, and Red-pike. ‘The ealtern fhores rife more gently, are par- tially wooded, and admit of cultivation at a fhort diftance from the lake; the north end is fkirted by the verdant vale of Buttermere, and the fouthern extremity is bounded by Ho- nifter-crag, which forms an abrupt termination toa chain of mountains. From this fteep, numerous torrents are con- tinvaliy pouring down their foaming waters isto the lake : one of thefe catara&ts falls between four and five hundred yards. The river which furnifhes the principal fupply of water to the lake, flows through Gatefgarth-dale, which is defcribed by Mr. Gilpin asa moft fingular and tremendous fcene. It winds flowly and folemnly in one large fegment ; being a narrow concave valley, the fides of which are almolt perpendicular, and compofed of a broken craggy rock. The river which runs through this valley, is as wild as the valley 7 itfelf, BU: irfelf. Ithas no banks, but the fragments of rocks, no bed - beta channel compofed of rock ftrata, among which the water forces its courfe. The middle of the vailey is adorn- ed,as thefe valicys in fome partsare, by a craggy hill; on the top of which ftands the fragment of a rock, that looks, in Offian’s language, like the fone of power, the rude deity of defolation to which the fcene is facred. Giipin’s Tour to the Lakes, &c. Burtrer-nuts, a poft-town of America, in St. Jago county, New York, 25 milesS.W. of Coopers.town, containing 1358 tohabrtants. BUTTERY.—Officersin the king’s buttery are a gen- tleman, yeoman, and three grooms of the buttery. ‘The but- tery avong usis ufvally placed near the cellar; being com- monly the room next the top of the cellar ftairs. BUTTHARD, in Geozraply,a town of Germany in the circle of Franconia, and bifhopric of Wurzburg. BUTTING, imbctare, in Middle Age Writers, is ufed for tunsing of wine, or putting it into butts. Buttinc-pillar. See Pitrar. BUTTLINGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Lunenburgh Zell. BUTTNERA, or Bytrnera, in Botany. (in honour of D.S.A. Bittner, profeffor of hotany at Gottingen,) Linn. Gen. 268. Schreb. 366. La Marck. Illuft. 383. Willd. 417. Juff. 217. Vent. vol. ini. rg8. Clafs and or- der, pentandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Malvacer uff. Gen. Ch. Cal. one-leafed, five-cleft, deciduous; feg- ments ovate-‘anceolate, acute, widely fpreading. Cor. petals five, oblong, arched towards, a hittle connivent, dilated and three-lobed at their fummit ; the middle Jobe extended intoa long filiform kind of awn, reficéted outwards. Ne@ary fur- rounding the germ, pitcher-fhaped, five-toothed. Stam. filaments five, awl-fhaped, inferted between the teeth of the nc Gary 5 fhort, ftretched outwards, covered by the arches of the petals: anthers ovate, twined. Pi/. germ{uperior, globular, five-fur- rowed: ftyle awl-fhaped, fhort; ftigma obtufe, pentagonal. Peric. capfule globular, muricate, five-grained ; grains two- valved, opening at the inner fide. Seeds folitary, ovate. Eff. Ch. Ca/, five-cleft ; petals five, arched, three-lobed at their fummit, the middle lobe prolonged into a filiform kind of awn. Cap/ule five-grained, muricate. Sp. B. /eabra Line. fpec. ** Leaves lanceolate, rib and petioles prickly.” (Loef. it.313. Aubi. Guian. 1. 241, t. 96.) Root perennial. S¥em fhrubby at bottom; branches alternate, long, angular, armed with fhort, refiexed, cartila- ginous prickles. Leaves tincar-lanceolate, alternate, toothed, midrib armed with recurved prickles; lower ones petioled, upper feffile: flipules two, dvciduous. J /owers axillary, ngle, on fhort peduncles. Found by Aublet in Guiana, between Cayenne and Couror. 2. B. carthaginenfis, Linn. Mant. “ Leaves ovate; rib and petioles prickly.” (B. acu- Jeata Jacq. Americ. 76. pitt. 41.) Root perennial. Stem with branches fpreading on cvery fide in the manner of the common bramble, rather woody, five-cornered; the furrows and angles obtule, armed with crooked, reficxed prickles, tender branches, round, prickly, alternate. Leaves {mooth, quite entire, or with only one or two ferraturce, alternate, deciduous; thefe on the old branches ovate, acute, four inches long or more, on the younger lanceolate-acuminate, Jefe. Racemes fhort, aggregate, and axillary on the younger branches. J/owers without {mell, fmall, white, very nume- rous. A native of Carthagena and St. Domingo. Obf. La Marck and Willdenow unite the two preceding; but in con- currence with profeffor Martyn, we have not ventured to oppofe the authority of Jacquin, who affirms that his acu- 5 — plant are not the fame {pecies. 3. B. ova- ou. Vv. Bo W~? fa. La Marck. * Leaves ovate, ferrated ; petioles unarmed ; branches five-angled, prickly; {tem ere@.’”? (La Marck Tllufle Pi. 140. Cavan. Diff. 5. t. 149. f.1). Root perennial. Stem four or five feet high, without prickles; branches all afcend» ing, rather flender, green, {mooth, fupple, prickly at the an- gles. Leaves about an inchlong. FYocvers axillary, in a {mall corymbus or umbel, from three to fix together, on fhort pee duncles. Ca/yx with five acute, expanded divilions. Petals trifidat their fummit; the middle feament a very long purple or violet thread. Foundin Peruby Jofeph de Juffieu, who fent feeds to the royal garden at Paris. Deferibed from the living plant by La Marck. 4. B. corda/a. La Marck (Buttnera acu- leata Dombey Herb- Peruv.) ‘* Leaves cordate, zcu- minate, ferrated, pubefcent beneath; petioles without prick- les, -Stem prickly.”? A Sarmentofe thrub about eight feet high. Stem five-angled; prickles on the angles incurved. Leaves three inches broad. Flowers whitifh, in {mall pedun- cled, axiliary umbels. Cap/ides round, Mightly hifpid. Found by Dombey in the neighbourhood of Lima in Perv. 5. B. tee reticaulis. Wa Marck. ‘* Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acumi- nate, very entire: branches prickly, round.’? La Marck Lil, Pl. igo. f. 2. Branches a little pubefcent. Leaves petioled, two inches long, about haif an inch broad. Cap- Jiles {mall, round, more hifpid than the preceding, Native of Peru, gathered by Jofeph de Juflicu. 6. B. microphylla. Linn. Mant. ‘“* Branches zigzag, even; leaves ovate, ob- tufe, on fhort peduncles.” La Marck. A fhrub. Stem four or five feet high, much branched at its fummit; prickles folitary, ftipular, horizontal; branches green, fmooth, fup- ple, obtufely angular. Leaves fomctimes emarginate, entire, {mooth, about half an inch long. Lowers Enall, whitifh green, peduncled, axillary, from three to five together. Calyx one-leafed, with five {preading divifions. Petals trifid ; feg ments linear, the lateral ones the fhortett. Cap/ule thorny allover. La Marck. A native of America, cultivated in the Imperial garden at Vienna. 7. B, herbacea. Willd. ‘ Leaves heart fhaped, toothed, without glands; ftem herba- ceous, without prickles.”? Willd. Roxb. Corom. 1. tab. 29. A native of the Eaft Indies, on the fummits of mountains. 8. B. catalpefolia. Willd. ‘ Leaves heart-fhaped. very entire; ftcm climbing, without prickles.”? Jacq. Hort. Sch.t. 46. A native of Caracas in South America. BUTTOCK, in Ship Building, that part of the after- body of a fhip, bounded by the counter and quarters, and having the iter poft in the middle. The buttock is the fupport of the after-part of the fhip ; it ought not, however to be too full, becaufe then the fhip would be difficult to fleer, nor too lean, as, in a rough fea, the after-part will fall down too much. BUTTOCKS ofa horfe, in the Manege, are fituated be- low the crupper and the origin of the tail, and extend te the place where the hind-leg joins the body. BUTTON, in its moi ordinary acceptation, fignifies a well known appendage to garments for convenicithy faftening them together. i Trifling as thisarticle may appear to fome of our readers to be in itfelf, there is certainly no manufaéture which in- cludes fuch an infivite variety of operations as that of the button-maker. The nomber of fubflances of which they are made is almoft inconceivable, and cach requires a dillinét fet of manipulations. Amongt{t them are gold, filver, plated copper, white-metal, pinchbeck, fteel, japanned tin, glafe, foil tones, mother of pearl, ivory, bone, horv, tortoife- fhell, jet, cannel-coal, paper, leather, and a thoufand others; exclufive of thofe buttons which confit of a mould of wood or bone covered with filk or mohair, and the manufséture of which belongs to a different clafa of artifans. ‘It would 4H very . B Ut TO.N. sery far exceed the limits of a work like the prefent if we were toenter into allthe details of fomultifarions a bufinefs as this ; we fhall therefore only trace a few outlines of the pro- ceffes moft ordinarily in ufe. Of the manufadure of metal buttons. “Thefe are originally formed in two different ways; the blanks are either prerced out ofa large fheet of metal with a punch driven bya fly- prefs, crcaft in a pair of fiefs of moderate fize, containing 19 or 12 doz. each. In this latter eafe, the fhanks are pre- vioufly fixed inthe fand, exa&ly in the centre of theimpref- fion formed by each pattern, fo as to have their extremi- tics immerfed in the melted metal when poured into the fiafk, by which means they are confequently firmly fixed in the button when cooled. See Founpery. The former procefs is generally ufed for yellow buttons, and the latter for thofe of white meta). We hhall firft give an inftance of the former mode of pro- cedure as ufedin the manufacture of gilt buttons. The gilding metal is an alloy of copper and zinc, containing a {mailer proportion of the latter than ordinary brafs, and 19 made either by fufing together the copper and zinc, or by fufing brafs with the requifite additional proportion of cop- er. This metal is firft rolled into fheets of the intended thicknefs of the button, and the blanks are then pierced out as before mentioned. The blanks thus formed, are, when intended for plain buttons, ufually planifhed by a fingle ftroke of a plain die driven by the fame engine, the fly- prefs ; when for ornamented buttons, the figure is frequently alfo ftruck in like manner by an appropriate die, though there are others which are ornamented by hand. The fhanks which are made with wonderful facility and expedition by means of a very curious engine, are then temporarily attached tothe bottom of each button by a wire clamp l:ke a pair of fugar-tongs, anda {mall quantity of folder and refin applied to each. They are in this flate expofed to heat on an iron plate containing about a grofs, tll the folder runs, and the fhank becomes fixed to the button, after which, they are put fingly in a lathe, and their edges turned off {moothly. The furface of the metal, which has become in a Small degree oxidated by the ation of the heat in foldering, is next to be cleaned, which, in this, asin a great variety of other inftances in the manufaGture of metallic articles, is efle&ed by the procefs of dipping or pickling; that is, fome dozens of them are put into an earthen veffel pierced full of holes like a colander ; the whole dipped into a veflel of di- luted nitric acid ; fuffered to drain for a few feconds: again dipped fucceffively into four or five other veffels of pure wa- ter, and then dried. The next operation is the rough burnifhing, which is per- formed by fixing the buttons in the lathe, and applying a burnifher of hard black ftone from Derbyfhire: the minute pores occafioned by the fucceffive aétion of the heat and the acid are thus clofed, and the fubfequent procefs of gilding confiderably improved, both with regard to economy and perfection. The firft ftep towards the gilding of all the alloys of cop- per conlifts in covering the furface uniformly with a thin {tvatum of mercury, by which means the amalgam, which is afterwards applied, attaches itfelf to it much more rea- dily than it would otherwife do. This part of the procefs is called quicking, and is effe€ted by flirring the buttons about with a bruh in a veflel containing a quantity of nitric acid fuperfaturated with mercury ; which latter is, of courfe, by the fuperior clective attraGion of the copper for the acid, precipitated in its metallic ftate on the buttons, whofe fur- faces become uniformly and brilliantly covered with it. The mercury which hangs in loofe drops on the buttons is then fhaken off by jerking the whole violently ina kind of earthen colander made for the purpofe; and they are then ready for - receiving the amalgam. The amalgam is made by heating a quantity of grain gold with me-cury in an iron ladle, by which means the former is foon diflolved, andthe whole is then poured into a veff-l cf cold water. The iuperabundant mercury is ftrong- ly preficd out through a piece of chamois leather, and the remaining amalgam, which is of about the confiftence of butter, is then fit for application. This is performed by ftirring the buttons, whofe furfaces are already thinly covered, or wetted with mercury, inan eerthen veflel with the requifite proportion of amalgam and a {mall quantity of diluted nitric acid, by which means the amalgam alfo attaches itfelf to their furfaces with a confider- able degree of equality. The neceflary quantity of gold is about five grains to a grofs of buttons of an inch in diame- ter. The next procefs is the volatilifation of the mercury by heat, which is ufually called by the workmen drying off. This is performed by firit heating the buttons in an iron pan, fomewhat like a large frying pan, till the amalgam with which they are covered becomes fluid, and feems dif- pofed to run into drops, on which they are thrown into a large felt cap, called a gilding cap, made of coarfe wool and goat’s hair, and ftirred about with a brufh to equalize the covering of the furface by the gold. After this, they are again heated, again thrown into the pilding cap and ftirred, and thefe operations fucceflively repeated till the whole of the mercury is volatilifed. ‘This part of the procefs, as will will readily be conceived, is extremely unwholefome, and has the moft terrible effeéts on the conftitution of the workmen, fo that it would be no {mali defideratum, (and it does not feem to be difficult), conveniently to effet this agitation and friGion of the heated buttons in a covered veffel ; in which cafe alfo, though of inferior importance, the volatilifed mer- cury might be faved. Tor preventing the waite and injury attending this procefs, an apparatus refembling that deline- atedin Plate 11. Mifcellany, fig. 1. has been partially and fuccefsfully adopted by Mr. Mark Sanders, an eminent but- ton-maker of Birmingham. «¢ A hearth of the ufual height is to be ereéted. in the middle of which a capacity for the fire is to be made; but inftead of permitting the fmoke to afcend into the top A, made of fheet or caft iron, through which the mercury is volatilifed, a fue for that purpofe fhould be conduéted back- wards to the chimney B. An iron plate, thick enough to contain heat fufficient to volatilife the mercury, is to cover the fire-place at the top of the hearth C. ‘There muft be an afh-hole, D. under the fire-place. The fquare {pace E, feen in the fire-place, is the flue, which ferves to carry the {moke back ane the hearth into the chimney B. The door of the fire-place and afh-pit may either be in front, as repre= fented in the plate, or at the end of the hearth at F, which will perhaps lefs incommode the work-people. It would be of great advantage if the {pace between A and the iron plate C was covered up with a glals window coming down {fo low as only to leave fufficient room for moving the pan backwards and forwards with facility. Ifthe fides were alfo glafs inftead of brick-work it would be {till better, as the work-people would be ableto have a full view of their work without being expofed tothe fumes of the mercury, which, when volatilifed by heat communicated to the pan by the heated iron plate over the fire-place, would afcend into the top A, appropriated for its reception, and defcend into the tub G, covered at top and filled pretty high with water, By this means the hearth would, in fact, become a 4 difliting a. ET OLN, dift lling apparatus for condenfing and recovering the volati- lifed mercury. In the tub G the principal part would be recovered; for, of what may {till pafs on, a part would be eondenfed in afcending the tube H, and fail back, while the remainder would be eff:€ually caught * the tub shee [, at the top, and partly filled with water. The latrer tub thould be ni the oes of the building, and the def- cending branch of the tube H fhould go down into it at leatt 18 inches, but not into the water. The chimney or the afh-pit fhould be furnifhed with a damper to regulate the heat of the fire. The water may be occafionally drawn out of the tubs by a fiphon, and the mercury clogged with heterogeneous mat- ter may be triturated in a piece of flannel till it pailes through, or placed in a pan of theet iron, ikea dripping. pao, in a fufficient degree of heat, giving it a tolerable in- clinatios, fo that the mercury, as it gets warm, may run down and unite in the lower part of the pan. But the mer- cury will be mott effectually recovered by expofiaz the reli- duum left in the flannel bag to diftillation in a retort made of iron or of earthen ware. When the mercury is volatilifed from the buttons, or, as the workmen denominate it, when the buttons are dryed off, they are finally burnifhed, and are then finifhed and fit for carding. ; , The reader unacquainted with this branch of manufacture will be furprifed to learn how far a {mall quantity of gold, incorporated with mercury, will {pread over a {mooth forface of copper. * Five grains, worth one fhilling and threepence, on the top of a grofs, that is, 144 buttons, each of one inch diameter, are fufficient to excule the manufacturer from the penalty infli@ed by an a& of parliament ; yet many, upon an aflay are found to be deficient of this fmall quan- tity, and the maker fined and the buttons forfeited accord- ingly. Many hundred groffcs have been tolerably gilt with half that quantity; fo extremely far can gold be fpread, when incorporated with mercury, over the furface of a fmooth piece of copper.” Philofophical Magazine, N° 33. . 19, &e. : The white metal buttons which are compofed of brafs alloyed with different proportions of tin, after having been caft as before mentioned, are polifhed by turning chem in a lathe, and applying fucceffively pieces of buffalo fkin glued on wood, (or buffs as the workmen call them) charged with wdered grinditone and oil, rotten ftone and crocus martis. ley are then cwhite-boiled, that is, boiled with a quantity of grain tin-in a folution of crude red tartar, or argol, and laftiy. Gnithed with a buff with fincly prepared crocus. Glafs buttons. Thefe articles are alfo frequently wholly compofed of glafs of various colours in imitation of the opal, lapis lazuli, and other ftoness he glals is in this cafe kept in fufion, and the button nipped out of it whilft in its plaf- tic ftate, by a pair of iron moulds, like thofe ufed for calting piftol thot, adapted to the intend-d form of the button : the workmen previoufly inferting the fhank into the mould fo that it may become imbedded in the giafs when cold. Mother of pearl buttons. This fubftance is alfo frequently ufed in the madufa@ture of buttons; in which cafe, the mode of fixing in the thank isfomewhat ingenious. Itis done by drilling a hole atthe back which is under-cut, that is, lar. ger at the bottom than the top, like a mortife, and the fhank being driven in by a fteady ftroke, ita extremity ex- pands on ftriking againft the bottom of the hole, and it be- comes firmly rivetted into the button. To thefe, foil-flones are alfo frequently added, in which cafe, they are ufually attached with ifinglafs-glue. Steel fluds are alfo often ri- vetted inté buttons of this and various other kinds. See Fort-sronss and Stups. Shell butions. Tinis name is given to thofe buttons which confilt of a back which is generally of bone without any fhank, but corded with catgut, and covered in front with a thin plate of metal (truck with a die. They are now, how. ever, much lefs in ufe than formerly. The backs are cut out with a brace whofe bit is a circular faw, like that of a furgeon’s trephine, and the four holes through which the catgut paffes are drilled by four drills moving parallel to each other, and ating at once. They are then corded by children who tie the catgut’ on the infide: the cavity is filled with melted refin, and the metal thell applied warm. The button is then prcfled between two centres ina lathe, which are forced tozether by a weight ating ona lever, (an ingenious application of this engise frequently made ufe of in this manufa&ture), and the edge of the thell turned down during its revolution with a {mall bornither. In the year t790, a patent was granted to Mr. Henry Ciay of Birmingham for a new method of maufacturing buttons of flate, or flit ftone; and in 1800, Mr. Jofeph Barnett of the fame place obtained’ a patent for an improved mode of making buttons, by fixing two fhanks, or other faftening, on one button, one on each fide, on the under fur. face, oppofite to each other, intead of only one in the centre. The pre@ice of wearing buttons confifting merely of a mould covered with the fame kind of cloth as the garment itfelf, being at prefent extremely general, it may perhaps be proper to remark, that this is prohibited on pain of pe- cuniary penaltiss, from 40s. to 51. per dozen, by feveral fta- tutes which have been made at different times for the pro. motion of this manufa&ure; and under which, feveral con- victions have taken place within a few years. Thefe are, to W. 3. c 2, 8 Ann. c. 6. 4Geo. c, 7- and 7 Geo. ¢. 12. The importation of buttons is prohibited on pain of forfeiture, and penalty of rool. on the importer, and sol. on the feller, by 13 & 14C. II. c. 13- § 2. and 4 W. III, Exo. M2. By 36 Geo. IIT. c. 60, any perfon putting falfe marks on gilt buttons, erafing any marks except {uch as exprefs the real quality, or any other words, except gilt or plated, incurs the penalty of forfeiting fuch buttons, and alfo 5l. for any quautity not exceeding 12 dozen; and if above, after the rate of rl. for every 12 dozen. The penalty, however, does not extend to thofe who mark the words double and treble gilt, provided, in the cafe of double gilt buttons, gold fhall be equally {pread upon their upper furface, exclufively of the edges, in the proportiou of 10 grains to the furface of a circle 12 inches in diameters; and in that of treble gilt, the gold hall amount to 15 grains in the fame Proportion, The penalty on making falie bills of parcels, exprefling any other than the real quality of fuch buttons, is 20/.; and that on mixing buttons of different qualities, forfeiture of the fame, and gl. for any number between one and 12 do. zen, and above this number 1). for every 12 dozen. In’ order to afcertain what fhall be deemed gilt or plated but. tons, gilt buttons hall have gold equally {pread upow the upper turface in the proportion of five grains to the furface of a circle 12 inches in diameter; and plated buttons hall have the fuperficies of the upper furface made of a plate of filver fixed upon Copper, or a mixture of it with other mea tals, previoufly to its being rolied into theets or fillets, All pecuniary penaities may be recovered by aétion or fuit Within three calendar months, in the courts of Weltminiter, and one jultice may, by warrant, caufe metal buttons hable to 4H2 forfeiture, BUT forfeiture, to be feized and kept in fafe euflody, to be pro- duced as evidence upon any action, or caule them to be deftroyed. Pecuniary penalties may alfo be adjudged by two juftices in the place where the offender refides, or the offence is committed. This a&, however, does not extend to buttons made of gold, filver, tin, pewter, lead, or mix- ture of tin and lead, or iron tinned, or of Bath or white metal, or any of thefe metals inlaid with itcel, or buttons plated upon fhells. Burton, in Botany, aterm fometimes ufed for a bud, in the technical language of the French naturalifts; it is the middle ftate between the eye and the burgeon. Burton, in Building, denotes a flight faitening for a door or window, made to turn on a nail. Burton of a lock, denotes a round head ferving to move the bolt. Burton, in Chemiffry, fignifics the metal which is col- le@ed generally in a roundifh mafs at the bottom of a cru- cible after fulion, or which remains in the cupels after ¢cupellation. Button, in Fencing, fignifies the end or tip of a foil, be- ing made rousdifh, and ufually covered with leather, to pre- vent making contufiors in the body. Buttox of the reins of a bridle, in the Manege, is a ring of leather, with the reins put through it, running all along the length of the reins. See Brine. To put a horfe under the button, is when he is ftopped, having no rider on his back, by the reins being laid on his neck, and the button lowered, fo far that the horfe’s head is brought in by the reins, and fixed to the true pofture or carriage. Burtrons, in reference to the Rigging of a thip, denote fmail pieces of thick leather under the heads of nails that are driven through ropes. Button and Loop, a short piece of rope, having at one end a walnut knot, crowned, and at the other end an eye. Tt is ufed as a becket to confine ropes in. Button’s Bay, in Geography, lies on the welt fide of Hudfon’s bay, north of, and near to Churchill river. It is fo called from fir Thomas Button, who, attempting to difco- ver a north-weft paflage, loft his fhip, and came home in a foop built in the country. Burron’s Jfles, are five {mall iflands at the fouth end of Hudfon’s {traits near the north coat of Labrador, and near the entrance of cape Chidley. N. lat. 60° 18'. to 60° go’. W. long. 65° 10! Button Jfland, called ailo Bern iffland, an ifland of the Indian ocean, north of Java, and near Banca and Billiton. S. lat. 5° 49!. E. long. 105° 48’ 30". This ifland, as well as the Cap in the fame longitude and S. lat. 50° 58" 30", are fteep and rugged, and difficult of acecfs. Ata little dittance they appear like the remains of old caitles, mouldering into ruio, with tall trees growing upon the tops of them; but, at a nearer view, they exhibit traces of a volcanic origin. In the Cap are two caverns, running horizontally into the fide of a rock, and containing a number of the birds’ netts, fo much prized by Chinefe epicures. See Birvs’ Nels. Button flone, in Natural Hiflory, a kind of figured ftone fo denominated from its refembling the button of a gar- ment. Dr. Hook gives the figure of three forts of button-ftones, which feem to have been nothing elfe but the filling up of three feveral forts of fhells. hey are all of them very hard flints, and have this in common, that. they confit of two bodies, which feem to have been the filling up.of two holes ex vents in the fhell. Polth. Works, p. 284. Dr. Plott BU deferibes a new f{pecies of button-ftone, finely ftriated from the top, after the manner of fome hair buttons, on which account it may be denominated porpites, unlefs we fhould rather take it for a new fpecies of echinites. Hitt. Oxf. chap. 5. § 178. This name is alfo given to a peculiar fpecies of flate found in the marquifate of Bareith, in a mountain called Fichtelberg ; which is extremely different from the common forts of flate, in that it runs with great eafe into glafs in five or fix hours time, without the addition of any falt, or other foreign {ubltance, to promote its vitrification, as other ftones require. It contains in itfe'f all the prizciples of glafs, and really has mixed in its fubitance the things neceflary to be added to promote the fufion of other itony bodies. The Swedes and Germans make buttons of the glafs pro- duced from it, which is very black and fhining, and it has hence it name button-ftone. They make feveral other things alfo of this gis{fs, as the handles of knives, and the like, and fend a large quantity of it unwrought ia round cakes, as it cools from the fufion, into Holland. Button-tree, or Button-wood, in Botany. See Cepuas LanTHus and Conocarpus. In North America the Platanus occidentalis is alfo called button-wood. Button-weed. See SPERMACOCE. BUTTONNESS, in Geography, a cape of Scotland, on the fouth-eaft extremity of the county of Angus, in the German ocean, at the north-weit of the entrance into the frith of Tay; 9 miles E. of Dundee. N. lat. 56° 26’. W. long. 1° 33’. BUTTRESS, a dutment, or mafs of {tone, or brick, ferv- ing to prop or fupport the fides of a building, wail, or the like, on the outfide ; where it is either very high, or has any confiderable load to fuftain on the other fide, as a bank of earth, &c. See Arcu, and Arc-pouranrT. The theory and rules of duttre/es, or props for eafing walls, is ranked among the deliderata of architecture. They are ufually placed leaning againft the edifice they are to fultain, We find them ufed againft the angles of fteeples; churches and other buildings of ftone; alfo along the walls of fuch buildings as have great and heavy roofs, which would otherwife be fubje& to thruft the wall out. They are alfo placed as fupports againit the feet of arches turned crols great halls, in old palaces, &c. and are much ufed in. fortification. 2 Butrress, Burrrice, or Butreris, likewife denotes a tool, made of fteel and fAtted to a wooden handle, ufed by- farriers, to pierce the fole of a horfe’s foot, which is overs grown; to pare the hoof; to fit the fhoe; and to cut off. the fkirts of the fole that overcatt the fhoe. BUTTS, Wittram, in Biography, born towards the end’. of the 15th century, was educated at Gonville coilege in- Cambridge, where he appears to have taken his-degree of doétor in medicine. Being diitinguifhed for his fuperior: abilities, he was appointed phyticien to king Henry VIII. ; and though he was not one of the founders of the College, of Phyficians, as Granger calls him, he was one of their early members, being admitted in the year 1529; and was, in fuch repute for his learning, that Dr. Ca‘us dedicated his works to him. It isalfo probable, tha: he affifted the furgeons, in procuring their charter, as his portrait is among thole of. the members who were prefent when it was delivered to the. company. Geodail’s Coilege of Phyficians.- Aikin’s Biog.. Mem. of Medicine BUTTSTADT, or Burrsrert; in Geography, a town, of Germany, in tbe.circle of Upper Saxony, and paneipaliias Q BUX of Weimar, fituated on the Loffe, and carrying on a great trade in cattle with Poland and Hungary ; 9 miles N. of Weimar. BUTUA, Bupoa, in Ancient Geography, a town of Il- Iyria, named Buthoe by Steph. Byz. and Butwa by Prolemy, See Bupoa. BUTUNTUM, or Brrontum. a town of Iraly, is that partof Apulia called Peucetia, fouth-ealt of Bavium, on the Trajan way. BUTUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of SpHinx (Zygaena, Fabr.), the wings of which are greenith and fhining, at the tips darker; abdomen fulvous. Fabricius. Inhabits South America. Burtus, Sphinx dutus of Cramer, is the {pecies deferibed by Fabricius under the neme of Goma, which fee. Burus, or Butts, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower Egypt, feated on the weft of that branch of the Nile an- ciently called Hermopoliticus, and which running near to Sebennytus, now called Samanoud, difcharges itfelf into the Take of Bourlos or Berelos. It was famous for an oracle of Latona, called Butis, and in fome ref{pe&s the fame with Iifis, which was confulted by perfons that repaired to it from all parts of Egypt. ‘The temple of this divinity was {pacious and magoificent ; furrounded by a portico fitty feet high, which was fupported by marble columns, and the fanCtuary was formed out of an enormcus mafs of granite, Go feet fquare and fix thick, and weighing 15,000,000 pounds. It was hewn in a quarry in the ifle of Philé, near the cataracts, and conveyed on rafts, through a diltance of 200 leagues, to the place where it wasdepofited. Butus was alfo decorated with two temples in honour of Apollo and Diana. Herodotus, 1, xi. c. 155. Strabo, 1. 17. vol. ii. p. B02. ; BUTZBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and principality of Upper Heffe, fituate in a marthy, but fertile, plain ; 7 miles S.S.W. of Gicflen. BUTZOW, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and principality of Schwerin; 24 wiles N.E. of Schwerin. BUUDER, or Bupensrane, a trading place and fifh- ing port of Iceland. BUVETTE, or Beuverrz, in the French Laws, an eflablifhed place in every court, where the lawyers and coun~ fellors may retire, warm themfelves, and take a glafs of wine by way of reirefhment; at the king’s charge. There is one for each court of parliament, but thefe are’ only for perfons belonging to that body; there are others in the palais whither other perfons alfo refort. UXALOONS, in Geography, aa Indian town of Ames rica, on the north-welt bank ot Alleghany river; nearly 25 miles from Fort Franklin, at its mouth. BUXBAUM, Joxuw Cuaistian, in Biography, applied himfelf folely to thé Rudy of botany, in which he acquired confiderable celebrity. Elis firlt work, *¢ Enumeratio Plan- tarum in agro Halenfi, locifque vicinis nafcentium,” was publifhed in 1721 at Halle in Saxony, near which place he apptars to have been burn. Hailer commends this catalogue, which contains many of the minuter plants, moffes, and fun- gufes, fome of which were then firft noticed, This pro- cured him fo much credit, that he was fent for to Ruffia and made member of the academy at Peterfburg. He then went to Conttantinople, and vifited feveral of the iflands in the Archipelago, attentively examining all the varieties ot plants, found in thofe rich countries. Asthe fruit of thefe travels, he ubbthed, in 1728. 4to. ** Cencuria prifoa Plantarum circa yzantium et in Oriente obfervatarum. Petrop.”? in which he briefly defcribed fome new and many very rare plants. BUX He died the following year, but had previoufly prepared a fecond, third, and tourth centuries, which were publifhed in 1729, 1733, and 1740. A fifth century, with an appen- dix, was added. Befides thefe, he was author of feveral communications on the fubject of botany, which were pub- lithed in the firft, fecond, third, and fourth volumes of the Commentaries of the Imperial Academy at Peterfourg. Hail. Bib. Bot. BUXBAUMIA, in Botany (from Buxbaum, a German botanift, who travelled in Ruflia, and publifhed defcriptions of new plants.) Linn. gen. 562. Schreb. 1659. Juffieu 12. La Marck Ene. Clafs and order, Crypiogamia mufci. Nat. ord. Mufct Linn. and Juff, Gen. Ch, Capf. ovate, oblique, gibbous, on one fide. Periflome double ; outer one of fixteen teeth truncate; inner membranaceous, plaitec. Species, r. B. aphylla. ‘* Capfule ona fruit ftalk; leaves none.” Linn. Amen. 5. tab. 1. Dll. Mufe. tab. 68. Se Flor. Dan. 44. La Marck, Ill. Pl. 872. Fruit fall {wel- ling at the bafe into a black, fomewhat villous. {mall bulb ; half an inch long, dark, red, gloffy, ere&. Cap/ule of an uniform pale colour, ovate, gibbous, about the fize of a com- mon pez. The only mofs known without leaves. "Turner. Spice Mafe. Hib. This curious plant was firft difcovered by Buxbaum on the banks of the Volga, near Aftracan; after- wards by Monti in Italy, and Celfius fen. in Sweden, both of whom fent {pecimens to Dillenius ; and by Haller in Swit- zerland, and by others in different parts of Europe. It has lately been found near the Jake of Killarney in Ireland. 2.B. foliofa (B.feffitis Semid Hed, Phafcum Flor. dan. t. 249. up-' per fig. Phafcum montanum Hud. Maximum Light. Sphag- num acaulum maximum Dill. tab. 32. f.13.) ‘Stem none; capfule nearly feffile, leaves linear-lanceolate.”? Dr. Smith. - La Marck Iilutt. Pl. 872. f. 2. Eng. Bot. 329. Stem very fhort, or rather none. Leaves numerous, lanceolate, flat, keeled, acuminate; inner ones with a briftly tooth on each fide towards the fummit. Cap/ule folitary, nearly feffile, the fize of a grain of wheat, ovate oblique, {mooth green; calyptra awl-fhaped, red; lid conic, ftriated; exterior fringe: obfolete ; interior membranaceous, white, plaited, clofed.’ Dr. Smith.. A native of England, and other parts of Enrope. BUXE Fiorp; in Geography, a bay on the welt coaft of ' Welt Greenland, N. lat. 64° 15'. W. long. 49° 40! BUXENTUM, now Poli-caflro, in Ancient Geography,’ a town of Italy, in the ealtern part of Lucania, called by the Greeks Pyxus. It was founded by Micythus, a prince of Meffana in Sicily, and afterwards deferted. It was colo- nized by the Romans. Strabo, Livy. According to Strabo (1. 6. vol. i, p. 253.) Pyxus was the name of a promontory, ort. and river. BUXI, in Entomology, a Specics of Tirura (Tipula fave ra of Schrank), The colour is yellow; head and tho black ; wings brown and incumbent, - A native of Europe, Gmel. &c. Bu xt, a fpecies of Cxtrmes, having fetaceous antenna,’ and yellowifh brown wings, Pfylla Viridis, &c. Geoffroy. BUXTEHUDE, Dierricn, in Biography, fon of John Buxtehude, organiit at St. Olaus at Eifneur, was a difciple of John Thiel, and organift of the church of St. Mary in Lubec. Matthefon, in his Wollkommene Capel meifter, p- 130. cclebrates him’as a tamous orgamift and compoler, and {peaks of fix fuites of leffons for the harplichord of his compofition, in which the motion of the planets is reprefent- ed or delineated. With this is printed a choral compofition to German words, being a lamentation on the death of his father, In 1696 he publifhed two fets of fonatas a violin, viola 4 BUX viola da gamba, ¢ cembalo. Miatthefon, in his Life of Han- del, tells us, that ‘* he and Handel travelled together to Lubec, upon there being a vacancy in an organilt’s place, and in the qwaggon, compofed feveral double fugues, da mozte not da penna. Buxtehude was then at Lubec, and an admi- rable player on the organ; however, Handel’s powers on that inftrument aftonifhed even thofe who were accuftomed to hear that great performer. BuxTenube, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Bremen, feated on the Efte, which fills the ditches. The fortifications have been razed: 16 miles W.S.W. of Hamburg. BUXTON, Jepepian, in Biography, a perfon deferving to be recorded on account of his fingular memory and powers of celculation, was the fon of a {chool-mafter at Elmeton, a {mall village near Chefterfield. in Derby hhire, and born, pro- bably, in 1704 or 1705. His education, notwithfanding the profeffion of his father, was fo much negleéted that he was never taught to read or write. His whole attention eems to have been abforbed by the different dena minations and relative proportions of numbers to fuch a degree that he took hardly any notice of external ebjects, except with re- foc& to their numbers. When any interval of time was mentioned to him, he immediately gave the amount of it in minutes; aod he affligned alfo the number of hair- breadths in any diftance that chanced to be {poken of, although no queftion was propofed to him. To fuch a degree was he capable of abftraétion and of fixing his atten- tion, that no noife difcompofed him, and that no incidental queflion or occurrence could divert his thoughts, or occafion any confufion, fo as to prevent his renewing and purfuing his calculation, which he performed by mere memory, with- out the aid of pen or paper. It would be endlefs to recite patticular inftances of his powers of computation, and of the methods he ufed for folving the moit operofe and intri- cate queftions relating to numbers. By merely ftriding over a piece of land he coud tell the contents of it as accurately as 1f he had meafured it by the chain. His conftant appli- cation to figures prevented his making the fmalleft acquifi- tion in any other branch of knowledge; nor did his ideas feem to be extended beyond matters of mere calculation. In 1754 he vifited London, and was introduced to the Royal Society, before which he gave feveral fatisfactory evidences of his peculiar talents for computation. In this vifit his curiofity was excited by a {trong defire to fee the king ard royal family, but in this he was difappointed. At the play-houfe he feemed to be altogether uninterelted by the fplendour of the fcenery or the a&ion of the perform- ers; and during the dances his attention was engaged in reckoning the number of fleps. After a fine piece of mutic, he declared that the innumerable founds produced by the inftruments perplexed him beyond meafure, but he counted thé’ Words uttered by Mr. Garrick in the whole courfe of the entertainment, and affirmed that in this he had per- feGtly fuccecded. He was married and had feveral chil- dren. He fubfilted by iabowr, and remained contented in obfcurity ; and proionged his life to the age of about 7o years. Biog. Did. Buxton, in Geography, a large handfome village of Der- byfhire, in England, 1s celebrated for its mineral waters, the fame of which occafions 1t to be much frequented by valetudinarians, and many other perfons, who refort hither for health or pleafure. It is fituated in two parifhes, but the principal part forms achepelry to Bakewell. Buxton lies in an extenfive hollow, with bleak elevated traGs of moor land completely furrounding it. Several plantations have, however, been made of late years on the adjacent BUX hills, and fome land cultivated. The late Dr. Gale, ae appears from a manufeript of his quoted in Gough’s Addie tions to the Britannia, placed the Aquis of Ravennas at Buxton; though he had previoufly conje€tured it to be at Aidon, in Northumberland. That its warm fprings were known to the Romans, is evident from various concurring circumitances. Several ancient roads concentrate at this fpot, particularly one called the Bath-way, or Bathom- gate, which commences at Brough, a Roman ftation, near Hope, and was traced by the late Mr. Pegge; and another, that came from Manchetter, and is known in different parts of its courfe by the appellations of High-ftreet, Street- fields, Street-lane, Old-gate, &c. Specimens of Roman workmanfhip have alfo been difcovered here at different times. Bifhop Gibfon mentions a Roman wall “ cemented with red Roman plailter, clofe by St. Anne’s well, where are the ruins of the ancient bath.’ This wall was taken down in the year 1709, when Sir Thomas Delves of Chefhire, in memory of a cure he had received from the waters, erected a ftone alcove over the well, Some capa- cious leaden cifterns, and different articles, apparently Ro- man, were found in digging the foundation. The fhape and dimenfions of the ancient bath, which was about fix yards from the prefent bath-room, were clearly difcovered when the building of the Crefcent commenced in the year 1781. Its form appeared to be an oblong fquare; it mea- {ured from ealt to weft 30 feet, and 15 in a contrary direce tion. The {pring was fituated at the weft end; and at the ealt might be perceived a flood-gate, by which the water was let out. -Che wall was built with limeftone, covered on the outide with a ftrong cement ; the floor confifted of lime mixed with coarfe fand, faturated with blood. Near one end a cavity was formed in the floor refembling the figure of a boat, extending circularly in length almoft, from one fide wall to the other; its breadth was about two yards; and its depth below the level of the floor, at the deepeft part of the curvature, about eighteen inches s the water was conveyed into this room by a leaden pipe., Though the very early ufe of the Buxton waters is apparent frem the above circumftances, we have no record of their being in ufe in the middle ages, or of their having obtained. any high reputation till the fixteenth century, when Dr. Jones gave them celebrity by a treatife on their beneficial qualities. About this time the earl of Shrewfbury erected a houfe for the reception of vifitants, on the fite of the building now called The Hall, part of which belonged to the old fabric. This ball becoming infufficient to accom- modate the increafing number of vilitors, moft part of it was. taken down in 1670, when a new enlarged edifice was erect- ed on the fpot by William, third earl of Devonfhire. This building, which has been frequently improved, is fill the principal hotel for the reception of company. Within it are the baths, adjoining, but in diftinét apartments, five in num- ber; the gentlemen’s, the ladies’, the poor’s, and two private. The fprings have been calculated to throw up about fixty gallons of water every minute. The time requifite to All the baths is two hours and fifty minutes. The water is ufually drank at St. Anne’s well; a modern, but elegant little building in the antique ftyle, where it is conveyed into a white marble bafon, from the original fpring, through a narrow grit-ftone channel, This well is regarded as one of the feven wonders of the Peak; chiefly from the circum- ftance that both hot and cold {pring water may be obtained within twelve inches of each other, from a double pump, fituated on the opp-fite fide of the building to that which contains the bafon. The principal ornament of Buxton is. its Crefcent, a magnificent range of building, which was erected | BUXTON, erefted by the duke of Devonhhire within the laft twenty from the defign and under the fuperintendance of Mr, Carr, the archite&. It confiils of three ftories ; the lowet ruttic, forming a beautiful colonnede, which extends the whole length of front, and is feven feet wide within the pillars ard eleven feet high. The divifions between the windows above, are formed by Tonic pilalters, which extend toanelegant baluftrade that fkirts the whole front, the {pan of which is 257 feet. ‘The Crefcent is built with grit-ftone obrained near the fpot, end feced with fine free-ftone, pro- cured from a quarry about two miles diftant. Near the back of the Crefcent are the fables, an extenfive pile, which was alfo conftruSted at the charge of his grace of Devon- fhire, who is faid to have expended 120.000. in completing the whole. The poor who refort to Buxton, on bringing a certificate from the minifter of their parifh, and medical attendant, vouching for their being proper objects of cha- rity, are admitted to partake of the benefit of 2 fund formed by colle@ing one fhilling from every vifitor who flays here more thana day. This is appropriated to the purchafe of neceflary medicines, and fupplying fourteen indigent per- fons with fix fhillings weekly for one month: they are alfo permitted to bathe gratis. Buxton feafon generally com- mences in June, and concludes in O&ober. In thefe months aflembiies are hetd three days in the week, and a {mall theatre is opened on the other three days. Boxton contains about 100 houfes, chiefly of ftone; the inhabitants, generally refident, are about 4oo. The vilitors in the bathing feafon are uncertain, but are eftimated at 700 annually, who are the principal fupport of the inhabitants. Several fhops for the manufature and fale of ornaments of fluor {parand alabafter areeftablifhedin this village. The place where the cryftals, denominated Buxton diamonds, are found, is about two miles fouth-weft from the village: it is a wafte uneven piece of land, feveral acres in extent, and called the Diamond Hill. Between one and two miles weftward of Buxton, in the vaft mafs of lime-ftone, which ranges in this part of the county, is a fifflure, or cavern, called Poore’s Hore, from an ancient tradition, that an outlaw, named Poole, once made it his refidence. This being confidered-a great natural curiofity, we fhall be rather particular in our defcription of it. Nothing grand nor picturefque marks the entrance into this cavity, neither does its interior prefent any of the magnificence which fo eminently diftinguifhes the Peak cavern at Cafticton. It opens with a crevice fo low and contrafted that the curious vifitant is obliged to proceed with caution in a ftooping pofture nearly twenty-five yards, when the paflage widens into a {pacious vacuity, from whofe roof depends a quantity of ftalaétite, produced by the droppings of water impregnated with calcareous matter. Part of this fubftance adheres to the roof, and gradually forms thofe pendant f{piral maffes called ftalaStites, or (lo- cally) qwater-icicles ; anather portion drops with the water to the ground, and attaching itfelf to the floor is there de- pofited, and becomes the flalagmite, a lumpy mafs of the fame matter. One of the former, of immenfe {fize, called the Fiitch of Bacon, occurs about the middle of the cavern, which here becomes very narrow ; but, after a fhort fpace, {preads again to a greater width, and continues large and lofty, till we reach another forprifingly large mafs of ftalac- tite, to which the name of Mary Queen of Scots’ Pillar is attached, from the tradition that queen having vifited this cavern and advanced thus far into its recefles. As this pillar cannot be paffed without fome difficulty, few people venture beyond it; and, indeed, the remaining part of the cavern offers few objets to repay the fatigue of exploring it. The money given by vifitants is divided among ten aged women who relide here, and a@ as guides by the per- miffion of the duke of Devonthire, to whom the ground. belongs. The extent of the cavern does not exceed three hundred yards, The ftone in this neighbourhood, though of feveral kinds, is moftly applied to the making of lime, many hun- dred tons of which are here burnt annually. ‘The workmen and their families, like the Tyoglodytes of old, refide in caves ; for any othername would be ill adapted to defcribe their habitations, which are fcooped out of the hillocks or {mall mounts, formed with the refufe of the lime-kilns. The cru of thefe heaps of rubbifh having been confoli- dated by time and the weather, is now impervious to the rain ; and being left of fufficient thicknefe, forms a fubfan- tial roof. Each habitation contains two or three rooms ; but few have any other light than is admitted through the chimney and door-way. About three miles from Buxton and two from Chapel-in the-Frith, in a patlure fi-ld, isa natural curiofity, called “ The Marvel Stones,” of which Mr. Bray gives a particular defeription in his Tour through Derbyfhire, and to which probably Dr. Stukely alluded, when he mentions having heard of what appeared to him a druidical work near Hope. Near the northern extremity of an eminence called Combe Mofs, three miles from Buxton, are fome ancient military worke, confifting of two deep trenches, which rua perallel to each other to an extent of About two hundred yards. Buxton is ficuated 163 miles N.W. from London. War- ner’s Northern ‘Your, vol. i. Pilkington’s View of the prefent State of Derbyfhire, 2 vole. Svo. 1789. Buxton Water. The native warm Iprings that have given fo much celebrity to this town are very numerous, and afford a great abundance of water for every purpofe both of bathmg and domeftic fupply. Boxton water is perfe&tly clear and colourlefs, entirely void of fmeli and tafte, nor has it any quality, befides its temperature, which diftinguifhes it from the pureft of the numerous fprings with which all mountainous countries ufually abound. The heat is very uniformly $2° in all feafons and circumftances, taken in the ftone refervoir which firft receives it, and hence, though to the teuch this water is pofitively cold, or rather cool, it is entitled to be confi- dered as a warm fpring, being uniformly of a much bigher temperature than common fprings. In St. Anue’s well, the original and principal refervoir, a quantity of thin fteam is con‘tantly given out from the water which hovers over its furface aud contributes to keep up the heat duying the bathing. Along with the water, which rifes up through the crevices of the floor of the well, a confiderable number of air-bubbles are conftantly feen to rife at the fame time, and pafling through the water break at its furface. Thefe may reedily be colleéted by immerfing a bortle and funnel full of water in an inverted pofition and intercepting them in their paflage upwards. Dr. Pearfon was the frlt chemilt who afcertained the nature of this gas, and he found it to confilt almoft entirely of azotic gas mixed with a {mall portion of atmofpherical ‘air, and not carbonic acid yas as had been conjectured by preceding obfervers. A {mall portion of the fame gas alfo 1s found in combination with the water, which is readily feparable by boiling. The water then yields about a fixty-fourth part of its bulk of this air, The analy fis of the water exhibits a few falive fubMances, but in very minute proportion and perfeétly infignificant ; for, in fact, itis by its purity and warmth that this natural {pring is diftinguifhed. By Dr. Pearton’s experiments a gallon BUX gallon of the water yielded on evaporation only 15 graina of refiduum, of which 13 grain was eftimated to be muriat of foda, 24 to be fulphat of lime, and 104 to be carbonat of lime held in folution by a flight excefs of carbonic acid. The water of Buxton is employed largely both for ex- ternal and internal ufe. Its uniformity of temperature and the great abundance of the fupply give to Buxton uncom- mon advantages asa tepid bath. A flight thock of cold is felt on the firft immerfion, which is immediately fucceeded by a very agreeable glow over the whole body ; and it is to be obferved that the fhock is fo flight, owing to the {mall difference between the heat of the water and that of the body, as to be borne without inconvenience by very delicate and irritable habits, in whom the rougher operation of the cold bath or immerfion in the fea often occafions per- manent head-ach, ficknefs, languor, catarrh, and other in- conveniences. There is not, however, the leaft reafon to fuppofe any thing peculiar, or any occult falutary qualities in the Buxton bath, more than in any other pure water heated to 82° and confined ina ftone refervoir fo as to retain the fame tempe- rature during the whole time of bathing. Therefore all the regulations and medical direCtions for its ufe may be entirely referred to the article Baruina. Buxton water is alfo taken internally by invalids, and many important virtues have been attributed to it, thus ufed. That it contains nothing deleterious may be fafely pronounced, both from the evidence of chemical analyfis, and (what is more tothe point) from the well-known fact that moft of the water ufed at the principal hotels for making tea and other common purpoles is derived from the fame fource. ‘Therefore, whatever ftrefs may be laid on its fuppofed inflammatory tendency in certain cafes, it cannot be doubted but that to the reft of the world it isa pure, falutary, innocent beverage. Like other warm pure waters it is highly advantageous in many painful complaints of the kidnics and bladder and uninary paflages; like them it powerfully relieves many of the molt diftrefling dy{peptic fymptoms, and hke them it fhews no decided a&tion on the bowels, its ufe being fome- times attended with diarrhea, fometimes with the oppolite ftate, which lalt generally demands the affiitance of active purgatives. The cafes for which Buxton is reforted to are moftly chronic, fuch as gout, rheumati{m, derangement of the biliary and digeftive organs, difeafea of the urinary paflages, and the like, and it ia no {mall additional recommendation to the invalid to be abundantly furnifhed with every thing that can contribute to convenience, comfort, and amufe- ment. Buxton, in Geography, a townhhip of America, in the county of York and diltri& of Maine, feated on Saco river ; 8 miles north-welterly from Pepperel borough, at the mouth ofthe river, and 118 miles N.E. from Bolton; con- taining 1938 inhabitants. BUXTORID, Joun, in Biography, an eminent Hebrew {cholar, was born at Camen in Wettphalia, in'1564. As to his religious perfuefion, he was a Calvinift; and having fettled at Bafil, he was appointed by the magiltrates pro- feflor of the Hebrew and Chaldee langaages, which he taught with great reputation till his death in 1629. In order to perfect himfelf in thefe languages, he obtained the affiit- ance of many learned Jews, and thvs acquired a predilection in favour of rabbinical learning. His works, in the depart- ment of literature to which he was devoted, were numerous, learned, and ufeful. Thefe are as follow; viz. ** Lexicon Chaldaicum, Thalmudicum, et Rabbinicum,’’ Bafil. for 5 BUX 1639; a {mall “* Hebrew and Chaldaic Di&tionary,’? come pofed of words from the Bible only, 12m0.3 * Thefaurus Lingue Hebraice,’? 2 vols. 8vo.; a {mall “ Hebrew Grammar,’ much efteemed ; the Leyden edition of which was revifed by Lenfden; a large ** Hebrew Bible, with the Rabbinical and Chaldaic Paraphrafes, the Maffora, Tibe=- rias, &c.’’ 4 vols. fol. Bafil. 1618 and 1619: * Syna- goge Judaica,” a colleétion of Jewifh modes and ceremo- nies, intended to expofe the Jews, but abounding too much witb puerilities intermixed with a mafs of learning ; ** Infti- tutio Epiflolaris Hebraica,” a colleétion of Hebrew letters; ‘© Concordantiz Hebraice,”’ 8vo. 1632; “ Bibliotheca Rabbinica,” with a treatife “* De Abbreviaturis Hebra« orum.”? Nouv. Dia. Hilt. Buxtorr, Joun, fon of the preceding, was bora at Bafilin 1590, and direéting his attention to ftudies fimilar to thofe of his father, he became profcflor of the oriental languages in his native city. Belides tranflations of fome of the rabbinical writings, fuch as the Moreh Nevochim of Mai- monides, and the book called Coirt, he publifhed « A Chaldaic and Syriac Lexicon,” 4to. 316215; and having adopted his father’s fentiments with regard to the Hebrew vowel points, he defended them again{t Ludovicus Capellus in a book entitled, « TraGatus de Pun&orum Vocalium et — Accentuum in Libris Veteris Teftamenti Hebraicis Origine, Antiquitate et Authoritate,’’ Bafil, 1648; and afterwardain a more confiderable work, entitled, Anti-critica, feu Vindiciz Veritatis Hebraice adverfus Ludovici Capelli Criticam, quam vocat Sacram,”’ Bafil, 1653. He publithed likewife ** Dif. fertations on the Old and New Teftament ;” “* Exercita~ tiones Philologico-critice ,’? ‘* Florilegium Hebraicum ; and other works. He died at Balil in 1664. There are two other Buxtorfs, Fohn-Fames and Fohn, fucceflively profeffors in the fame chair at Bafil, and both writers on fubjeéts of literature. In general, the fchool of the Buxtorfs has been reproached, notwith{tanding its ac- knowledged learning, with too great predilc€tion for the rabbinical doctrines ; and their decifions with regard to the auchority of the Hebrew points have been gradually lofing ground, and have now comparatively few advocates, after having been very prevalent through Germany and other Pro« teftant countries. Nouv. D:&. Hitt. BUXUS, in Botany, box (a corruption of mugos, the Greek name in ‘l’heophrattus for the fame plant, fo called dia ta muxvov te Eure, on account of the denfity of its wood). Linn. gen. 1053. Schreb. 1420. Juff. 388. Vent. 3. 4o1. Gert. 630. Clals and order, monacia tetrandria. Nat. ord. Tricocce, Linn. Euphorbia, Jufl. and Vent. * Maie flowers prominent from the buds. Gen. Ch. Cal. perianth three-leaved; leaves roundifh, obtule, concave, {preading. Cor. petals two, roundifh, concave, fimilar te thofe of the calyx but larger. Stam. Hlaments four, awl- fhaped, ere&, expanding, rather longer than the calyx ; ans thers ereGt, twin. iff, rudiment of a germ without ftyle or ftigma. * Female flowers from the fame bud generally fingle, fure rounded by eight or ten males. Ca/. perianth four-leaved, fimilar to thofe of the male. Cor. petals three, fimilar to thofe of the male. i. germ roundifh, obtufely three-cor- nered ; flyles three, fhort, permanent ; ftigmas obtufe, hife pid. Linn. eric. capfule globular, very fmooth, glofly, coriaceous, three-grained, before it opens three-beaked, three valved ; vaives two-horned ; grains of a paper-like fub- ftance, two-valved, opening elaftically. Seeds two in each cell, ovate, attenuated upwards, triangularly comprefled, obliquely truncate at the {ummit, fomewhat {pongy, fmooth. Gert. Eff. Ch, Male, Ca/. three-leaved ; petals two, rudiment or BUX ef a germ. Female. Cal. four-leaved. Pet. three; fiyles three; capfule three-beaked, three-celled ; feeds two in each cell. Species, 1. B. balearica, La Marck. “ A tree; leaves oblong-orate, an inch and half long: ftamens very long.” Branches itraight, four-cornered. Leaves oppofite, on fhort decurrent petioles, entire, f{mooth, fhining, coriaceous. Flowers in large bunches; anthers linear. A native of Majorca, &c. Cultivated in the royal garden at Paris, but is tender, and does not endure fevere frofis. 2. B. arbore/cens (Sempervirens, Linn.). Leaves ovate-oblong, attenuated towards the fummit ; anthers ovate ; {tem arborefcent.’? La Marck. A fhrubby tree, from twelve to fixteen feet high. Stem twifted, branched. Leaves oppofite, permanent, very entire, emarginate, fhining, often reddifhin winter. Flowers in {mall or moderate bunches; filaments not more than the fixth of an inch long. There isa variety with narrow leaves which, as well as the next {pecies, is faid by Miller to be fpecifically diftinét. Its wood is of a clofe grain, very hard and heavy, and on that account is much ufed by the turner, engraver, carver, mathematical inftrument maker, comb, and pipe, or flute maker, and a variety of other artizans. A na- tive of moit parts of Europe, fromi Britain fouthward. It is found abundantly in the fouth of France, Savoy, and Italy, and in the temperate parts of Afia and America. In England it has given name to Box-hill in Surrey, Boxwell in Cloucefterfhire, and Boxley in Kent, all which are men- tioned by Ray as producing it ; but on account of the value of the wood, the quantity is now much diminifhed. Mr. Woodward has more recently obferved it on the chalk hills near Dunftable. 3. B. /uffruticofa, dwarf box. ‘ Leaves f{mall, obovate; ftem a low under fhrub.” La Marck agrees with Miller in treating this as a diftiné {pecies, though nearly related to the preceding. When fuffered to grow freely, it never rifes to a greater height than about three feet, and grows in thick, much branched tufts. Its leaves alfo are {mall, and rather ovate or roundifh oval, with a white line on their back, more flrongly marked than in the preceding fpecies, It grows wild in many parts of France, by the road fides, about villages, and in ftony wafte places. It is fingular that it does not fower when cultivated in Eng- land, and was never feen in that ftate by Mr. Miller, though encouraged to grow many years in the greateft luxuriance. La Marck does not mention this circumftance, nor, indeed can it be fuppofed to be thus barren in France, where it is faid to be truly indigenous. 4. B. myrtifolia, myrtle-leaved box. ‘ Leaves {mall, oblong, rather narrow; ftem a low tnder fhrub.” La Marck. It refembles the preceding in its fize, but differs both in habit and foliage, not forming a thick tuft or bufh, but having an elongated ftem likea tree, with open branches; its leaves are rather narrow, with fcarcely any appearance of a white line on their furface. A {mall branch in flower, communicated to La Marck, had no female flowers. Native place not known. Encyc. Me- thedique. Box was formerly employed as a medicine in various difeafes, but in aoe time was grown into difufe on account of its offenfive {mell; and before his time even its medical virtues began tobe called in queftion. Dr. Withering, however, has recently recommended it ; obferving, that an empyreumatic oil diftilled from its fhavings is often ufed asa topical application for the piles; that it frequently relieves the tooth-ach, and has been given internal y in epilepfies, and that the powdered leaves deftroy worms. Propagation and Culture. The arborefcent box was much admired by ovr anceftors on account of its being eafily clipped into the fhape of animals, and other fantaftic appear- ances. It was in equal requeft with the Romans for the a i The younger Pliny, in particular, gives a ~ Vou. V. EU. Y florid defcription of the pleafure grounds at one of his country feats, in which, among other curious devices, the letters of his own name, and of other words, were orderly ex- preffed in rows of fhorn box. Thefe extravagancies have now given way to a jufter tafte in ornamental gardening; but box is {till cultivated in our nurferies as a beautiful evergreen 5 and, left to its natural growth, is a pleafing addition to the fhrubbery. It has the additional recommendation of thriving under the thickeift fhade, and is able to withitand the fevereit weather of our climate. The dwarf box is ufed to divide the beds from the walks of flower-gardens ; and though it has been condemned as affording fhelter for noxious infects, the fame objection will lie, in fome degree, again{t every other kind of vegetable bordering ; but fuppofing it to be peculiarly liable to this inconvenience, the evil is confiderably counterbalanced by its clofenefs and durability. It may be propagated by cuttings, layers, and feed. The cuttings fhould be planted, about the time of the autumnal rains, at the diftance of four inches from each other; they fhould be a foot long, and rather more than half of the length fhould be covered by the foil. A flip of the laft year’s growth, {tripped from the wood, is an excellent fet. The cuttings or flips may ftand three years, and fhould then be tranfplanted into the nurfery in moift weather, any time between Auguft and April. The layers fhould be earthed between Michael- mas and March. This, as profeflor Martyn obferves, is one of its natural methods of propagation, for when it breaks down by its own weight, or by a fall of fnow, it fends out fibres foon after it has come into conta@ with the ground. The feed fhould be fown, as foon as it is ripe, on a light loam or fand in a fhady border, and regularly watered. Some will come up the next fpring, but fome will lie in’ the ground till the next feafon. They fliould then have the fame treatment as the cuttings. This is faid to be the only method in which large trees can be raifed. The beft time for removing the tree is Otober. Martyn’s Miller. ; BUKXY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Sadne and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Chalons-fur-Saone, and $ miles S.W. of it. The place contains 1602, and the canton 14,085, inhabit- ants ; the territory includes 2774 kiliometres and 31 com- munes. BUY De Mornas, Cravupe, in Biography, was born at Lyons and died at Paris in 1783. He is principally known as the author of an inftru@tive and ufeful Atlas of Geo- raphy and Hiftory, Paris, 1762 and 1770, 4 vols. gto. fie alfo publifhed a Cofmography, on the fame plan, in 1770. Buy, in Geography. See Buis. BUYING, the aét of making a purchafe, or of acquiring the property of a thing for a certain price. Buying itands oppofed to felling, and differs from bor- rowing or hiring, as in the former the property of the thing 18 alienated for perpetuity, which in the latter is not. By the civil law, perfons are allowed to buy hope, Jpem pretio emere, that is, to purchafe the event or expectation of any thing: e. gr. the fifh or birds a perfon fhall catch, or the money he fhall win in antes There are divers fpecies of buying in ufe among traders ; as buying on one’s own account, oppofed to buying on com- miffion ; buying for ready money, which is when the pur- chafer pays in actual f{pecie on the {pot ; buying on credit, or for a time certain, is when the payment is not to be pre- fently made, but, in lieu thereof, an obligation given by the buyer for payment at a time future ; Shan on delivery, is when the goods purchafed are only to be delivered at a cere tain future time. 41 Buvyine Bs U7e Buvine the refufal, is giving money for the right or liberty of purchaling a thing at a fixed price, in a certain time to come; chiefly ufed in dealing for fhares in ftock. This is fometimes alfo called by a cant name, duying the bear. Buvine of zitles. See MAINTENANCE. Buyine the Small-pox. See Smatu-Pox, Inoculation of. BUYTRAGO, in Geography, a {mall town of Spain, m New Caftile, on the confines of Old Cattile, in front of which the mountain-fream Lozoya winds along a deep rocky bed : while, on the other fide, the town, with its towers and iteeples, leans romantically againtt a fteep afcent in a recefs among the mountains, that feparates the two Cattiles. zm. hefe mountains are rich in minerals ; and the environs of this citys which ig epifcopal, are famous for the wood which they furnifh, It is 36 miles N. of Madrid, and 18 E. of Se- ‘ovia. . BUYTRON, a town of Spain, in Andalufia; 27 miles N. W. of Seville. BUZANCAIS, a town of France, in the department of the Indre, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Chateauroux, 11 miles W.N.W. of it. N. lat. 46° 38’. E. long. 1° 29'. The town contains 3199, and the canton 11,130, inhabitants ; the territory includes 4224 kiliometres and 13 communes. BUZANCY, a town of France, in the department of Ardennes, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of Vou- ziers, 2 leagues N. of Grandpré. The town contains 774, and the canton 8275, inhabitants ; the territory includes 265 kiliometres and 24 communes. Ply BUZARA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain in the eaftern part of the interior of Africa. Ptolemy. ; BUZARAS, atown of Africa, in Mauritania Cefarienfis. BUZAW. See Butzo. ; BUZERI, a people of Afia, in Cappadocia, on the weft of the Euxine. ‘ 7 BUZES, a people of Africa, in Marmarica. ; BUZET, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne, 44 leagues N.E. of Touloufe. N. lat. 43° 47'. E. long. 1° 45’. : BUZIKINA, a town of Siberia, 220 miles E. of Enifeifk. ; . BUZIM, a town of Siberia, on the Tchulim, 80 miles N.N.E. of Tomkk. BUZULEITSK. See Busurutsk. BUZWARAH. See Bezoara. BUZY, a town of France, in the department of the Meufe, and diftrié&t of Verdun, 13 miles E. of it. BUZZARD, in Ornithology, the trivial name of feveral fpecies of the falcon tribe, as, for inftance, the common puzzard, falco buteo, greater buzzard, falco gallinarius, American buzzard, falco borealis, honey buzzard, falco apivorus, Java buzzard, falco Javanicus, Kc. ; Buzzarp, American, of Latham,red-tatled | falconof Ar&tic Zoology, is the Farco borealis; the cere and legs are pale yellow; the body is brown above and white below, the tail is of a pale ruft colour, having a tranfverfe dufky or black narrow bar near the end. It inhabits North America, particularly Carolina. Its fize is about that of the common buzzard. Buzzarp, Honey. See Apivorus. Buzzarn, Moor, falco eruginofus, the milvuseruginofusof Aldrovand and Ray, and the bu/ard of Buffon, has the cere greenifh, the body brownifh-grey, the crown of the head, chin, axille, arm-pits, or fpace below the root of the wings, and legs, yellow. it inhabits Europe, building its neft in marfhy -places, ‘and fubfifting on aquatic birds, fith, and sabbits. ne ie ge 2 Buzzaxrn's Bay, in Geography, a bay of America, in the flate of Maffachuietts, lying between 41° 25’ and 41° 42’ N. lat. and between 70° 38’ and 71° ro! W, is This and Barnftaple bay on the north-eait form the peninfula, whofe extremity is called cape Cod. It runs into the land about 30 miles N.E, by N, and its mean breadth is about 7 miles. BUZZARDET, in Ornithology, the whitith falcon, Fualce albidus. BYAREM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of the Nizam, 89 miles N.E. of Hydrabad, and 60 E/ of Warangole. BYBASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of Afia Minor, in Caria, probably fituated in the country called by Pliny Bulaffus. BYBE, a country of Thrace.—Alfo, a town of Italy, on the confines of Peucetia. Steph. Byz. BYBERRY, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in the county of Philadelphia, and ftate of Pennfylvania 5 containing 579 inhabitants. BYBLIS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afia Minor, before the town of Miletus. BYBLOS, er Bysius, a maritime town of Pheenicia, fituate between Berytus and Botrys, 18 miles S. from Tripoli according to the Itinerary of Antonine. The ancient inhabitants of this town ferved in all the maritime expedi- tions of Tyre, and as they excelled in all arts relating te wood, they were employed in building Solomon’s temple at Jerufalem, 1 Kings chap. v. At this time they were fubje& to the Tyrians; but when Pheenicia was reduced under the dominion of the Perfians, they had their own kings. According to Arrian (de Exped. Alex.) their fhips formed a part of the fleet of Darius: but when Alexander had entered Pheenicia and made himfelf mafter of Byblus, they deferted Darius and united their naval force with that of Alexander. Under the fucceffors of Alexander, Byblus fometimes belonged to Egypt and fometimes to Syria. Strabo informs us (1. 6. vol. i. p. 755.), that Pompey refcued them from the oppreffive tyranny of one of their fovereigns by cutting off his head. From him we learn, that it was feated on an eminence at a {mall diftance from the fea, and that it was the royal refidence of Cinyras, and that it was the feat of the famous fuperftition practifed in its temples in memory of Adonis. See Aponis. The river Adonis flowed from the adjacent mountains, and pafling by Byblus, difcharged itfelf into the fea about two leagues S. of the town. This river, called Ibrahim and Obrahim Bafla, has the only bridge to be feen, that of Tripoli excepted, from thence to Antioch. It confilts of a fingle arch, 50 feet wide and upwards of 30 high, of a very light architecture, and appears to have been a work of the Arabs. Byblus is now known by the name of Djebail or Gibyle, and is the moft confiderable town in that diftri@ of the- pachalic of Tripoli, denominated Kefrouan, and extending: from Nahr-el-kelb, by Lebanon, as far as Tripoli. It has. not, however, above 6000 inhabitants. Its ancient port: refembles that of Latakia or Laodicea, but is in a worfe ftate, fearcely any traces of it remaining. Volney’s Travels in Egypt and Syria, vol. ii. p. 176. Bysios, a fortified place of Egypt, feated on the Nile. Steph. Byz. BYCE, Buees, or Sacra Patus, in Geography, a lake: of Cherfonefus Taurica, in European Sarmatia, to the weft: of the Palus Maotis, from which it is feparated by an ifthmus. It is mentioned by Ptolemy, Pliny, and. Strabo, who affigns to it a circuit of 4000 ftadia. BYDEAS.KIRCHE, a town of Sweden, in Weft Both nia, near Umea. BYEFIELD, a parith of Newbury, in Effex speed ate BY L ftate of Maffachufetts, North America, having a quarry of limeftone, in which is found afbeftos, and, in its vicinity, beau- tifully variegated marble. A flourifhing woollen manufaftory is alfo eftablifhed in this place, together with machinery for cutting nails. Dummer academy is in this parifh. BYGLAND, a lake of Norway, in the diocefe of Chrif- ‘tianfand, and diftri& of Raabygdelagat, formed by the river Otterae, on the weft jide of Byglefield, and precipitating it- felf at the waterfall of Fennie, in the parifh of Esje. BYHORS, an ifland of the Eait Indies, lying wel of Borneo. ’ BYK, a river of European Turkey, which runs into the Dniefter, 6 miles N.W. of Bender. BY-LAWS, thofe private ordinances of f{ubardinate communities, by which their affairs are governed and regu- lated ; the rights of the individuals compofing them defined ; and wrongs relative to their joint concerns, prohibited and punifhed. ; The word is formed from the Saxon Jy, habitation, vill, and /axa, q.d. lex ville, or town-law.—They are alfo called birlaws, byriaws, and burlaws, bilager, or bellagines. Such is the cuftom in Kent of deciding controverfies among neigh- bours about boundaries, by tne fenefchals, or bailiffs. In Scotland, thofe are called Jaws of burlaw, or byrlaw, which are made and determined by neighbours, elected by common confent in burlaw-courts; wherein cognizance is taken of complaints betwixt neighbour and neighbour,—The men thus chofen as judges or arbitrators are called burlaw- men, or byrlaw-men. ; ‘ Every body of men united by common interefts, and having affairs of common concern, muft neceffarily have fome gene- ral rules for the regulation of their condué with refpeé to them. Without thefe nothing like unity or concurrence of action could poffibly exift, whatever were the objects of the affociation. Thefe regulations may be divided into. two claffes, with regard to the nature of the body to which they relate. Societies which are formed merely by the volun- tary affociation of their members muit have their rules or by-laws, as well as thofe communities which have a known defeription, and are recognized as forming part of the gene- ral conititution of the country: the former, however, receive no aid from the general law of the land in the enforcement of obedience to their rules, and have no ultimate remedy for their infraction but the expulfion of the difobedient member ; whereas, the general law will enforce obedience to the by- laws of the latter, when in themfelves legal and reafonable, and duly made on a fubjeét within the jurifdiction of the - legiflatiug body. Thus, the inhabitants of a parifh or town Bot incorporated may make a by-law for the repair of the church or of a highway, or concerning any thing within their diftri& of which the public weal requires the regulation, and in fuch cafe the majonty fhall bind the whole. 5 Co. 63, a. Hob. 212. 3 Salk. 76. The refiants iu a leet, or the tenants of a manor, may make a by-law relative to any thing which concerns the common intereft ; as, in the latter cafe, to regulate the exercife of their rights of common, Mo. 75. 579. 584. 1 Rol. Abr, 366. Hob. 212. From what has been already faid, it will naturally be in- ferred, that this power, which is, under fome circumftances, conceded even to fuch bodies as are not incorporated, mutt, 4 fortiori, belong to fuch as are ; the very exiftence of whofe rights depends on that of the body itfelf, and docs not arife, as in the former cafe, from thofe of the members confidered as individuals. This right of legiflation belongs originally, unlefs it be otherwife fpecified in the charter of incorpora- tion, to the body at large; but they may afterwards delegate it to a fele&t body, who then become the reprefentatives of the whole, and may exercife this authority as extenfively as Boy iL the community itfelf might have done. Rex v. Spence, Burr. 1837. In many imitances, however, this power of making by-laws has been originally velted in a felect body by the fame charter by which the corporation itfelf was ereated, and in this cafe it feems that the body at large does not poffefs it. Rex v. Head, Burr. 2521. The king may, if he pleafes, at the time of creating a new corporation ay- gregate, enact a code of by-laws by which it fhall be govern- ed, as may alfo the founder of an eleemofynary corporation, each le 2 a right to ftipulate on what terms alone the creature of his bounty fhall be endued with exiftence; but neither the one nor the other can afterwards, without exprefs refervation of fuch right or the confent of the body, change or alter fuch code ; nor will fuch by-laws, as to their general legality or operation, have any other force or effeét than they would have had if enaéted by the corporation itfelf, Skin. 513. Hob. 210. With regard to the /ubflance of a by-law, it is not only neceflary that it fhould not militate againft the exprefs pro- vifions of the law of the realm ; but it muft alfo be reafonable and confiftent with its general principles, which reafonable~ ne{s and legality are to be determined by the judges of the fuperior courts, whenever its validity fhall come in quettion before them. ‘T’o ftate the various poffible cafes in which a by-law would be void, would be therefore to enumerate all thofe provifions, and the principles and maxims pn which they are founded. We fhall, however; mention a ae of the mott general eafes in which ordinances of this kind have been holden to be invalid. A by-law cannot dire& the for- feiture of goods, 8 Co. 125, a; or the levying of money on any fubject, except in thofe cafes in which a burthen is to be borne by a particular fociety of which he is a member ; asin that already mentioned, of aflefling parifhioners or townf- men, for the repair of a church or highway. Jeffrey’s Cafe, 5 Co. 66, a. Nor can it operate ex poff fatto. 1 Keb. 733. Or alter a conftitution given by the crown, Rex v. Breton & an. Burr. 2260), It mutt not operate in rgftraint of trade. Harrifon v. Godman, Burr. 12. Hefketh v. Braddock, Burr. 1847. 1 Roll. Abr. 363; though it may regulate it and prohibit fraud. 5 Co. 52, b. Nor can it dire&t a penalty to be fued for in a court in which the jurors mutt neceflarily be interefted as members of the corporation, Burr. 1855. As to the power of a by-law to bind thofe who are not members of the legiflating body, there feems to be a diftince tion between thoi corporations which are invefted with a local jurifdiction, and thofe which, being eftablifhect for pure pofes with which locality has no conneétion, have only a jurifdiétion over their own internal concerns. When the corporate body has a jurifdition over a certain territory, a by-law made by them for the public good, and whofe object is general, ithant being limited to people of any particular defcription, binds every body coming within the limits of the jurifdiction, whether {trangers or members of the corporate body ; for every man, fays Holt, wha comes within the local jurifdiction of a corporation mut take notice of their by-laws at his peril, Skin, 35. This right of making by-laws for their own government, not contrary to the law of the land, was allowed by the law of the twelve tables at Rome. But uo trading company is, with us, allowed to make by-laws, which may afleé& the angie prerogative, or the common profit of the people, under penalty of gol, unlefs they be approved by the chan. cellor, treafurer, and chief juitices, or the judges of aflife in their circuits ; and even though they be { approved, ftill, if contrary to law, they are void. Stat. 9 Hen. VII. c. 7, 11 Rep. 54. BYLAZORA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Europe, ala ig BYWN in Ponia, advantageoufly fituated on the confines of Mace- donia and Dardania. It was taken by Philip, and is men- tioned by Livy. Polybius. BYLOT’s Bay, in Geography. See Barrin’s Jay. BYLT A, in Ancient Geography, a Scythian nation border- ing on the welt of Imaus, according to Ptolemy, and corre- fpording to Battista or Lirree Txiset, which fee. BYMASUS, a town of Greece, in Poconia. Steph. Byz. ‘BYNG, Georce, in Biography, lord vifcount Torring- ton, an eminent naval officer, defcended from an ancient fa- mily in Kent, was born in 1663. At the age of 15 he en- tered into the fea-fervice ; but quitted it in three years, for the purpofe of ferving under general Kirk, governor of Tangier, who advanced him from the {tation of a cadet, firft to that of an enfign, and then to a lieutenancy. In 1684, he returned to the naval department; and in the following year, he was in great danger of lofing his life by engaging and boarding a Zinganian pirate ; which funk with him, fo that he was taken out of the fea in a wounded ftate, and almoft expiring. In 1688, being on board the fleet that oppofed the landing of the prince of Orange, he was con- fidentially employed in negociating its furrender to the prince’s party. Soon after he was raifed to the polt of captain, and ferved under admirals Rooke and Ruffell in the Channel and Mediterranean. In 1702, he had the com- mand of a third rate at the taking and burning of the French fleet at Vigo; and in the following year he was made a rear-admiral, and ferved with fir Cloudefly Shovel in the Mediterranean, by whom he was deputed to negociate a peace with the Algerines. In 1704, he commanded the fquadron that attacked and cannonaded the garrifon of Gibraltar, and induced a capitulation ; and he fo much dif- tinguifhed himfelf in the battle of Malaga, that, as a recom- - pence of his fervices, he was knighted by queen Anne. In 1706, he was difpatched with a {quadron of 20 fhips of war for the relief of Barcelona, and he performed various im- portant fervices on the coafts of Spain and Portugal during that and the following year. On his return home he was fignally preferved from fhipwreck, when fir Cloudefly Shovel, under whom he ferved, was loft on the rocks, called the *‘ Bifhop and his Clerks.’ In 1708, he was advanced to the rank of admiral of the blue, and commanded a {quadron that was employed to prevent an invafion of Scotland by the pretender, by means of a French army from Dunkirk. He purfued the French fleet to the Scots coaft, and obliged it to return without landing its troops. Soon after his ar- rival in London, he was appointed to the command of a fleet deftined for a defcent on the coaft of France, and in the fame year he had the honour of conduéting the queen of Portugal to Lifbon, where he received a commiffion appoint- ing him admiral of the white, and a very valuable prefent from her majefty of her pi€ture fet in diamonds. In 1709, he commanded a fquadron in the Mediterranean ; and on his return he was made a lord of the admiralty. But difap- proving the meafures of adminiftretion towards the clofe of the queen’s reign, he was removed. However, on the ac- ceffion of George I. he was rein{tated in his office, and created a baronet. In 1717, when an invafion of Great Britain was projected by Charles XII. of Sweden, fir George was fent to the Baltic with a fleet, which a&ted in concert with the Danes, and remained there till the Swedes had abandoned their defign. In the following year, the Spa- niards landed an army in Sicily, and fir George Byng was deputed with a fleet to counteract their operations. This was conducted in a manner that redounded very highly to his reputation and to the honour of the Britifh fag. Upon his arrival in the bay of Naples, he found that the Spaniards 6 BY & had made themfelves mailers of the town of Meffina, and were engaged in the fiege of the citadel. The Englifh were obliged, by their treaties with the emperor, to defend the Sicilians ; but as England and Spain were not at war, the admiral attempted to negociate with the Spauifh commander a cefflation of hoftilities ; his efforts, however, were ineffec« tual, and he proceeded, according to his inftructions, to make ufe of force. Having defcried the Spanifh fleet, con- fitting of 27 fail of fhips of the line and frigates, he com- menced the attack ; and in the running fight which enfued, took feven Spanifh fhips, the admiral’s being one of them; and feveral more were afterwards captured and deftroyed by a detachment under captain Walton, who, in the laconie ftyle of an officer, who valued himfelf more in performing than in defcribing a gallant ation, informs the admiral, ‘“‘ We have taken and deftroyed all the Spanifh thips and veflels which were upon the coaft, the number as per mar- gin.” The damage fultained by the Englifh fleet, which, indeed, was of fomewhat fuperior force, was very inton- fiderable. The Spaniards complained of being taken by furprife, and when they had no apprehenfion of hottilities. The condué of fir George Byng, however, who executed the orders with which he had been entrufted, was not cen- furable ; and the aétion- was very important to the flate of political affairs at the period in which it occurred. The admiral remained in the Mediterranean, aflifting the Ger- man troops to recover Sicily, and preventing the efcape of the Spanifh troops, till all affairs were fettled, and the court of Spain had acceded to the quadruple alliance. The talents difplayed by the admiral on this occafion, both as a negociator and as a commander, were fuch as to enfure the confidence of all parties. Upon his return, his fervices were rewarded with the office of treafurer of the navy, and the rank of rear-admiral of Great Britain; and in 1721, he was raifed to an Englifh peerage by the title of vifcount Tor- rington and baron Byng of Southil, Bedfordfhire. He was alfo created a knight of the bath in 1725. On the accef- fion of George IT. he was placed at the head of the admi- ralty, in which ftation he died of an afthma, in January, 1733, inthe 7oth year of hisage. He had feveral children, one of whom was the unfortunate admiral John Byng, executed upon a rigorous fentence, for defect of duty, in 1757. Biog. Brit. BYNNI, in Jchthyology, a {pecies of Cyprinus, diftin- guifhed by having thirteen rays in the dorfal fin, the third of which is thick and horny ; tail linear, bifid; beards or cirri, four. Forfk. A fifh of a filvery colour, and oblong oval form, that is very common in the Nile. The lengthis about one cubit: the flefh excellent. BYRAM. See Barram. BYRAN, in Geography, a river of North America, form- ing part of the weftern boundary of Connecticut, and falling into Long Ifland found, oppofite to Captain’s Iflands. Byran, a town in America, in Charles county, Mary- land, about 9 miles N.E, from Port Tobacco, and 24. 5.E. from the Federal city. BYRD FORD, lies on the eaftern bank of Monongahela river, on the fouth fide of the mouth of Red-ftone Creek ; 35 miles S. from Pittfburg, and about 39 N.W. from Ohiopyle Falls. Near this {pot ftands the compa part of the town of Brownfville. N. lat. 39° 58’. W. long. 81° 12’. BYROM, Joun, in Biography, a poetical writer, and in- ventor of a new fhort hand, was born at Kerfal near Man- chefter, in 1691 ; and having finifhed his courfe of grammar ~ learning at Merchant Taylors’ fchool in London, was ad- mitted a penfioner of Trinity college in the univerfity of Cambridge, in 1708. To logic and philofophy he direéted only that degree of attention which was neceflary to qualify hin BYR him for his degrees ; but his predominant inclination was to poetry ; and of his talents in this be the firft public fpe- cimen appeared ia his beautiful paftoral, “ Colin to Pheebe,” printed in the Sth volume of the Spectator, No. 603; the two letters on dreams in the fame volume, 586 and 593, are alfo afcribed to him. Mr. Byrom, having taken both his degrees in arts, was chofen fellow of his college in 1714, and by the fweetnefs of his temper and the fobriety of his man- ners, recommended himfelf to the particular notice of Dr. Bentley, the mailer. His fellowfhip however terminated in 1716, on account of his not having entered into holy orders ; and leaving college, he went abroad and refided for fome time at Montpelier for the recovery of his health. In France he became acquainted with Father Malebranche’s Search after Truth, and fome pieces of Mad. Antoinette Bourignon; and hereturned home prepoffeffed in favourof the vifionary philofophy of the former, and the enthufiaitic ex- travagance of the latter: indeed, towards the clofe of his life he feems, by fome of his poems, to have been attached to the myfticifm of Jacob Boehmen. Whilft he was deliberating what courfe of life to purfue, his mind became more unfet- tled in confequence of his paflion for an amiable coufin, who encouraged his addreffes, and whom at length he married againft the confent of her parents. This conneétion involved him in difficulties ; and as he cbtained no affiftance from her father, who was ia affluent circumftances, he was reduced to the neceflity of feeking fupport by teaching fhort hand, ac- cording to a new method which he had invented at Cam- bridge. He began at Manchefter, and leaving his wife with her relations at that place, he removed to London, where he profecnted his inftructions in that art, deriving from them for ieveral years a competent fubfiftence. In this art he wasa competitor with Weiton, who challenged him'to a trial of fxill. In this conteft he gained a decifive victory ; and in confequence of it, he was encouraged by a great number of pupils, feveral of whom were perfons of rank and quality ; ee | he occafionally read a lecture upon the hiftory and utility of fhort hand, which, being interfperfed with various ftrokes of wit that were natural to him, was very entertain- ing. His winter months were devoted to this employment in London, and he fpent the fummer feafon with his family at Manchefter. In March 1724, he was chofen a fellow of the Royal Society. At length the family eftate at Kerfal devolved upon him by the death of his elder brother, with- cut iffue. By this acceffion of fortune he was enabled to enjoy, without thofe interruptions which his former emply- ment had occafioned, the conjugal felicity to which his own difpofition was adapted, and to which the faithful and af- fectionate attachment of his wife very eminently contributed. During the latter part of his life, he almoft wholly devoted himfelf to the compofition of various pieces in verfe, fome of which are witty and humorous ; and others, the moft nume- rous, are on ferious fubjeéts. He was fo accuftomed to the language of poetry, that his differtations on learned and critical queftions were written in verfe. Thefe were colle&- ed in September, 173) and printed at Manchefter in two volumes, 12mo. r. Byrom clofed an innocent and in- offenfive life with refignation and cheerfulnefs at Manchefter in September, 1763, in the 72d year of his age. Some time before his death, he is faid to have committed feveral of his lighter pieces to the flames ; and thefe were of fuch a nature cher they deferve the character exprefled in a diftich of Ovid, adopted as the motto of Mr. Waller’s works : “ Non ego mordaci diftrinxi carmine quemquam ; Nulla venenato eft litera mixta joco.” ~ By the great traths of Chriftianity his mind had been fo much impreffed in his early years, that ke:derived his chief pleafure lems employing his pen on religious fubjeéts, Mr, ERY Ss Pegge, (Archeol. vol. v. p. 12,—32.) has thus delineated his character: “* My late worthy friend, Mr. Byrom, whofe memory I fhall always revere, was undoubtedly a man of parts and learning, but rather too fond fometimesof a paradox, Amongtt his other qualifications, he had a particular knack at verfification, and has accordingly delivered his fentiments on this fubjec&t (viz. the Hiftory of St. George) as well as on all others, in a metrical garb ; for, 1 prefume, we can fcarcely call it a poetical one.” Biog. Brit. BYRON’s Bay, in Geography, lies on the north-eaft coaft of Labrador. Byron’s i/land, a low flat ifland in the Pacific ocean, about 21 miles in length. S. lat. 1° 18’. E. long. 171°. Byron’s frraity a narrow fea which feparates New Ire- land from New Hanover. BYRRHUS, in Entomology, a genus of coleopterous in- fects having the antenne clavated and the club perfoliated : palpi, or feelers, equal and fomewhat clavated; and both the jaw and lip bifid. The fpecies of this genus are gigas, pilula, ater, dorfalis,. varius, eneus, nitidus, fafciatus, and virefcens. BYSCHIZ, in Geography, a town in Bohemia in the circle of Boleflaw; 6 miles E. of Melnik. BYSSUS, in Botany, (@ucco:, Gr. faid by Julius Pollux to be a fpecies of flax, brought from India into Egypt: but Paufanias and Philoflratus defcribe it as the produce of a tree, fuppofed by Dillenius to be the now well knowa woolly fubftance in which the feeds of goffypium, or the cotton tree, are enveloped. Dillenius feems to he the firft amoag the moderns who revived the name and applied it to a tribe of plants till then either negle&ed or confounded with the fungi and lichens It appeared in his edition of Ray’s Synopfis, 1724, and afterwards more fully in his Hiftoria Mufcorum, 1741 ; but had in the mean time been adopted by Micheli in his Nova Genera, 1729.) Linn. gen. 1208. Schreb. 1673. Jufl 6. Clafsand order, cryptogamia alge. Nat. ord. Alge, Joffieu. Gen. Ch. “ Fibres fimple, uniform, like fine down. Fruétification unknown.”? The genus as it was formed by Dillenius included f{pecies, fome of which have the appearance of very minute duit, others of fine wool ; it is accordingly divided by Linnzus into two diftiné feétions. Haller was of opinion that the powdery Byfli are properly lichens: Dr. Withering, in the third edition of his Botani- cal Arrangements, has a¢tually placed them in that genus ; and Dr. Smith was once inelikeato entertain the fame idea, (fee Englifh Botany, p. 192.) but on further confideration he has adopted Acharius’s new genus lepraria for all the fpecies that have no fhields, and appear to be propagated by their powdery part. (See Eng. Bot. p. 1349.) Sup- ported by fuch Me ae authority we have made the ne- ceffary alteration in the generic charaéter, and ‘hall infert in the prefent article only fuch as confift of real filaments. Species 1. B. feptica, Linn. Syft. Nat. vol. 3. p. 235. “ Hair-like, very loft, parallel, very eafily broken, pale.’ Flaky Snow Byflus; Dill. Mafc, tab. 1. fig. 9. It confilts of unbranched threads fo tender and light that the breath will difperfe it, and when handled feems to diffolve into water from the moifture attached to it. Found in damp cellars and vaults, moft luxuriantly on bins or wooden fhelves where wine has been fpilt, hanging down in form of a jelly bag, to the length of a foot or more. Withering. 2. B.flos aquey Linn. Sp. Pl.“ Threads feathered, fwimming ov water.’? Naturalifts are divided in opinion concerning this fubftance, Linnaeus feems to have founded his {pecific character on the obfervations of Bergius. Dillenius, by whom it was firlt mentioned in a botanical point of view, in his edition of Ray’s Synopfis, compares it to paper, and fays, that in {pring it covers ftagnant waters with a very thin and even crult, big Ine BYSSUS. Hke a conferva, confifting of threads, nor of any perceptible downy matter, but merely of a thin green lamina. Linnzus in his Flora Lapponica, publified thirteen years afterwards, notices a green farinaceous Byffus intermingled with water, which Dillenius,inhis Hiftoria Mufcorum, quotes as afynonym of his green paper Byffus, obferving that this plant alfo at firft confifts of a powdery matterwhich afterwards unitesitfelf intoa smembranaceous fubftance, and when dry becomes white; it is the aquatic membranaceous Byflus of the Flora Lapponica, which Linnzus himfelf in the Species Plantarum makes a variety of B. flos aque. Weir, in his Cryptogamia, aflerts that it is not a real plant, but only unorganifed vegetable matter, produced by the diffolution of putrefied plants. Dr. Withering, onthe other hand, -believed that it will prove a conferva; for obferving a pond in the ftate of flowering, as the country peopleterm it, he examined fome of the water, but the particles floating in it were fo minute, that even with the af- diflance of a véry good microfcope he could not fatisfy him- felf as to Yad firure or ftruéture. ‘Two or three weeks later in the fpring, he found threads not jointed nor branched, either ftraight or coiled up like a cork-fcrew. Some of this water kept ina glafs jar, after two or three weeks more, let its contents fubfide, and then it began to appear like a con- ferva, The threads foon became much larger and affumed a jointed appearance. La Marck defcribes it from a¢tual -obfervation as confifting of fhort, feathered, extremely fine sthreads, forming a foft green cruft on the furface of the water. 3. B. cancellata, Linn. ‘¢'Threads exa@tly and uni- verfally latticed. Ledern. Micro. tab. 72. Found in frefh ftill waters, {wimming like a kind of mucor or mould of a yellowifh green colour. 4. B. pho/phorea, Linn. “ Downy, of a violet colour, and growing on rotten wood.”’ Dill. tab. r. fig. 6. Confifting at tirft of very fine fhort upright down ; afterwards prefled clofe to the wood, cloathing it like a thin membrane or cruit, taking a deeper violet colour. 5. B. velutina, Linn. “ Filamentous; green; filaments branched.” Dill. tab. 1. fig. 14. Found on trees, rocks, and the fur- face of the gro.ni in fhady places, which it covers with a wery fine fhort filky down, like velvet, of a beautiful green colour. 6. B. aurea, Linn. “ Filaments fimple or branched, clofely matted together, powdery, orange-coloured.”” Dr. Smith, Dill..tab. 1. fig. 16. Eng. Bot. 212. Fibres very fine, thick-fet, ere&. Found on calcareous rocks and banks, particularly in Derbyfhire, and fometimes.on damp limeftone ‘buildings. It often uniformly covers a {pace of many inches in diameter, and looks like a fine piece of orange-coloured -cloth or velvet, but the furface is fometimes more tufted and broken, and it frequently grows in a ftraggling manner, f{cat- tered oyer moffes. It Joie its beautiful golden colour in five or fix weeks after it is gathered, and then becomes of a permanent greenifh grey. Dr. Smith. 7. B. nigra, Hud. « Filaments branched, matted, powdery, black.’”? Dr. Smith. Dill. 1. 18. Eng. Bot. 702. Firft fent to Dillenius by Dr. Richardfon from the weft-riding of Yorkfhire. It has fince been often found.on fhady overhanging rocks in the alpine parts of England, Scotland, and Wales. It forms patches of various fizes, perfectly black, and may eafily be fcraped from the ftone. When gathered, it ftrongly refembles a piece of felt {craped from a hat, both in texture and colour. It confilts of a mat of fine, foft, but elaftic, branched filaments, often covered with an equally black, footy powder, which is probably the feed, though it has not been obferved to be pro- duced at any particular feafon exclufively. Dr, Smith. 8. B. purpurea, Lightfoot; (Rubra Hudf. 2ded.) Filaments erect, dimple or branched, purplifh.”? Dr. Smith. Eng. Bot. 192. Filaments fcarcely longer than the breadth of a hair, thick-fet, in broad uniform patches, When much moittened i thefe filaments become clotted together in clufters, and in that moift ftate exhale a kind of {weet fcent, agreeing in this refpect with the Byffus Iolithus of Linnezus, which is how- ever really a cruftaceous lichen, Dr. Smith. Found by the Rev. Hugh Davies on the micaceous rocks of Anglefea, and by Mr, Lightfoot on the bafe of Abbot Mackinnon’s tomb in Y-comb-hill. 9. B. fu/va, Hudfon. « Filaments branched, tawny,” Dill. tab 1. fig. 17. Filaments longer, more rigid and more loofely difpofed than thofe of B. aurea. It retains its colour when dry. On putrid wood. 10. B. barbata, Hud. (B. aurantiaca, La Marck, fulva, With.) ‘¢ Filaments upright, branched, bundled, with annual inter- ruptions, tawny, with fmooth, f{welled, deeper-coloured tips.” Dr. Smith. Dill. tab. 1, fig. 19. With. Bot. Ar. tab. 18. fig. 5. Eng. Bot. 701. It forms perennial, thick, tawny-coloured tufts, from one to two inches high. The growth of each year is marked by a {welling and a darker colour in each principal filament or ftem. Young plants confift of a fimple filament, regularly and beautifully fea- thered at the {ummit. In fine fpecimens fent by the right honourably lady Elizabeth Noel to Dr. Withering and Dr. Smith, the {welled tips were remarkably confpicuous, and as her ladyfhip with great probability fuppofed, contained the frnétification. Thefe tips are fmooth, femi-tran{parent, and of a rich faffron colour. In Dr. Withering’s {pecimens, when examined in the microfcope, they were obferved to be filled with granules, and to be hifpid with briitle-fhaped tubes, pointing upwards, In Dr. Smith’s fpecimens, which he conjectures were in a lefs advanced ftate, they had not the fame appearance. On moift rotten wood. 11, B. candida, Hudf. ‘ Filaments much branched ; branches fafciculated, white.”? Dill. in Ray’s Syn. tab. 23. as it grew on an old beam inaeellar. Dill. Hitt. tab. 1. A. onanoak leaf; B. on the half-rotten fole of an old fhue. From a broadifh, muci- laginous, villous bafe, {pring various flender branches, {pread- ing more in breadth than in height, elegantly divided and fubdivided, and ending fometimes in numerous capillary fibres, but generally in furfaces a little expanded without any de-, terminate number or figure. Subitance pure white, livid, or yellowith, preffed clofe to the fubftance on which it grows, Dill. 12. B. cryptarum, Linn,“ Capillary, perennial, ath- coloured, adhering {trong to the rock on which it grows.’* Dill. 1. 20. Filaments very tender, foft, greenifh afh- coloured, an inch long, loofely difpofed, fo firmly attached as to be f{carcely pulled off by the fingers, Linn. Filaments fimple, dull white, brittle, diverging in a crowded manner from a centre, an inch and half long, and the thicknefs of a human hair, Dill. Byssus, or Byffum, a fine fort of thready matter, pro- duced in India, Egypt, and about Elis in Achaia, of which the richeft apparel was anciently made, efpecially that worn by the priefts both Jewifh and Egyptian. In reality, the ancients feem to have applied the name indifferently to any kind of matter that was fpun and wove finer than wool; fo that it is probable there were divers forts of byffus. It is certain, that Ariftotle gave the name byffus to the hair or filken threads of the pinna marina; whether it were on account of its refemblance to the byflus of which cloths were made, or whether it were that this was the true byflus itfelf. What countenances this latter opinion is, that the byffus of the pinna marina may be fpun, and confequently there is little doubt but that in ages when filk was fcarce, it might be ufed in the cloaths of great men. Add, that this byflus, though grofsly {pun, appears much finer and more beautiful than wool, and comes not much fhort.of filk, Stockings and other fuch manufaétures are ftill made of it, which would be more valuable if filk vas els BYS lefs commor. To fpin this byffus, they Icave it fome days in a cellar to moiften and grow foft: after this they comb it to get out the impurities, and, laftly, fpin it as they do filk. Gefner, Hift. Anim. 1. 4. c. 6. Acad. des Sc, Ann. 1712, M. p. 204: Others think that the byffus figni- fies a kind of very fine flax, which grew in Egypt or Judea. Bochart. Phaleg. 1.iii..c. 4. Others again are of opinion that it is cotton, or a mixture of linen and cotton. The probability of its being cotton is ftrengthrned by the de- {cription given of the byffus by Pollux, which cannot be applied to any thing but cotton. This writer fays (1. vii. c. 17), that this material came from a kind of nut which grew in Egypt, and alfo in India; that they opened the nut, _extraGted he fubltance, fpun it, and wove it for garments, Philoftratus (de Vit. Apollon. |. ii. c. 13.) deferibes it much in the fame manner. Thefe charaéteriftics agree very well with cotton. Arian, Tertullian, and Mela, concur in re- prefenting the garments worn by the Indians as confiiting of flax or wool, which was produced by the trees. It is found ina kind of brown nut, which grows ona fmall fhrub. Befides it feems evident from the analogy of languages, that the word ufed by Mofes in deferibing Jo- feph’s garment (Gen. xli. 42.) muft mean cotton. This is the opinion of fome of the moft learned interpreters and commentators. We learn farther from profane authors, that robes of cotton were very ancient in Egypt, and that they were worn only by perfons of the greateft diftinction. Plin. H. N. 1. xix. § 2. It is no lefs certain that robes of linen were alfo ufed in very ancient times; and it appears from the teftimony of Mofes, that flax was cultivated in Egypt from time immemorial. Exod. xi. 31. Deut. xxii. 11. Hence fome have fuppofed that the ancient byffus- was eithera very fine fort of cotton, or a mixture of linen and cotton. Fofter “de Byffo Antiquorum.” Lond. 1776, 8vo. This ingenious wmiter, in an claborate differtation on the fubje&t, cites a variety of paffages from ancient authors, from which he concludes that the byflus was a kind of flax, if it may be fo called, which was obtained from plants and trees in India, Arabia, and Egypt, denominated by the barbarians ‘ Goffipion,’’? and correfponding to the modern cotton. He adds, that the ancients were acquainted with two fpecies of cotton trees, the ‘ bom- bax”? and “ goffypium,” both belonging to the Linnzan found ftate. When em- ployed in this, way, without any combination of other forts ef food, as hay or ftraw, an acre has been found fufficient for four or five cows; and, with ftraw and a little hay, for feven or eight. In Mr. Young’s experiments, detailed in the 16th. volume of the * Annals of Agriculture,” in feeding the {maller forts of cows, fuch as would fatten to about forty-five ftones, of fourteen pounds each ; in O&o- ber three milch ones ate 96 pounds each of cabbages, and 1otlbs. of hay in the day; and in another experiment 39 pounds of cabbages, with 10%Ibs. of hay each, in the day 5 or in the proportion of two tons 18 cwt. of cabbages and 15 ewt. of hay in fix months. / It has been well remarked that, in this way of confum- ing cabbage crops, the cows fhould always be confined to the farm yard, and not fuffered to eat them after being fcattered on the ground; as in the latter way the farmer muft fuftain injury both in the treading of his land, and in the lofs of alarge portion of valuable manure. Befides, it is fufpeéted that fuch fort of food will go farther, when care- fully applied in the yard, than when confumed on the land, as much wafte muft be unavoidable in the latter method.’” And it is farther added that, “ in the fattening of neat cattle, an acre of good cabbages may be fufficient for three beafts of from forty to fifty flones each, which have been grazed in the paftures in the fummer. A middle fized bul- Jock confumes, in general, of this fort of food in the propor- tion of about one hundred pounds in twelve hours; but much in this bufinefs muft conftantly depend on the ftate of the itomach, and the methods of feeding the animals. It would, however, feem probable, that cabbages poffefs the property of fattening cattle ; not only more expeditioufly, but in lefs proportion than turnips; an acre of the former having been found to fatten one in four more than the fame extent of the latter crop.” It is likewife ftated in the fame work, that “ in feeding this crop off with fheep, it has been remarked, that fuch as ' weigh about twenty pounds the quarter confume in the proportion of from eight to ten pounds in twelve hours, half an acre being nearly {ufficient for one hundred fheep, when the crop is good. The cabbages, when run to feed in the {pring months, are alfo confumed with avidity by thefe animals ; but this practice fhould never be attempted, as much injury mult always be fuftained by the land. The refufe of cabbage crops may, however, fometimes be ufefully applied in the more early {pring months, before they begin to ran, to the feeding of lambing ewes, as by fuch means the quantity of milk is much increafed, aid the lambs af courfe better fupported. ‘ Store hogs are likewife faid ta be kept upon this vegetable with advan- tage, and to prefer it to turnips; but on trial with the finer breeds of this fort of animals, it has not been founda beneficial mode of applying fuch crops, as they conftantly rejected both the cabbage and turnips for moft other forts of food, and unlefs prepared by heat feldom ate them up clean.’? It has been remarked, that, “‘ though few experiments have been made in the feeding of horfes with this fort of food, it is. probable, that, after being chopped, cut, or haved down by means of a ftock,or other knife, and blend- ed with fome other fort of dry, cut fodder, it might be em- ployed with great advantage both in the faving of other more yaluable kinds of food, andin promoting the condition of the animals; as from its containing much faccharine matter, there can be little doubt of its poffeffing a highty nutritious quality, Inthis ufe the more {weet and delicate forts of cabbage ought probably to be preferred, That the application of this fort of cabbage inthis way has been fearcely attended to, is fully fhewn by the obfervar tions of Mr. Marthall, in his account of the midland diftr:@, who regifters it as extraordinary, that neither in that, nor any other di{tri€, an initance had been met with of cabbages being made ufe of in the way of food for horfes.”? Itis fuggefted that, “ where eabbages are employed for winter and fpring confamption, it has been the praétice with fome cultivators to have them cut or drawn while in full perfeétion, and piled up in houfes for the purpofe, or ftacked in the open air, being clofely covered over by means of ftraw, broom, or rufhes, orany other cheap material ; as in this way they are always ready and at hand, when they cannot be procured from the field on account of the wetnefs of the land, or the effects of froft orfnow. The praétice is faid to be made ufe of in Germany, with fuch fuccefs, as to keep them in a good ftate of prefervation during the whole of the winter feafon. From the fweet juicy nature of the vegetable, itis fuppofed, in this method, liable to be injured, not only by taking on too much heat, but by becoming mouldy. Befides, by keeping in fuch ftacks they, like the turnip, fhrink confiderably, and are probably much impaired in their quality.” CaspaceE-/orub, Anjou or Colewort, in Botany. Brassica. ; CasnaceE, Dog’s. See THEL1GONUM CYNOCRAMBE,. CansaGeE, Zurnip. See Brassica. CanBaGe, turnip, in Agriculture, isa plant of the cab- bage kind, in which the bulb or apple is of a roundifh flat form, appearing principally above the furface of the ground, and as it were an enlargement of the ftem of the plant, the leaves that furround it having much refemblance to thofe of broccoli. It has been occafionally cultivated under the title of cape cabbage, and often confounded with the turnip-rooted cabbage, by thofe who have not fufficiently attended to the circumftances by which they are diftinguifhed. It would feem to be the plant cultivated in different parts of Ger- many under the title of Aah/rabi. The refult of the trials made with it in field culture would feem to fhew it an ufeful hardy plant. The foils moft adapted to the growth of this plant are thofe of the more light and dry kinds, that have fome degree of elevation, with refpeé& to fituation, and which are in a good ftate of fertility from previous tillage. The land fhould be prepared, by ploughing three or four times, in nearly the fame manner as forthe common turnip; being laid up in the autumn, in order to be rendered fine and mel- low. When thus prepared, at the time of planting, it fhould be ploughed into {mall two-bout ridges, and a fuit- able proportion of manure turned in, On the ridges, when flattened by alight roller, the plants are to be put in. The fame method fhould be purfued in providing the feed as has been advifed for cabbages. In this culture it is. fometimes fown in beds in the fields, whence the plants are afterwards to be drawn and fet out; and in others, in drills. or broad-caft, where the plants are to remain, being only thinned out to proper diftances by the hoe. Dr. Dickfon remarks, in his Pra&tical Agriculture,” that, ‘ the firft method is prebably, in general, to be preferred, though fome cultivators contend that the plants fucceed better, when not removed from the places in which they were de- pofited when fown, and which later experience in cultivating the common cabbage feems to fhow 'to be the cafe. Where the tranfplanting method is practifed, the feed ce? be fown See CABBAGE. fown fufficiently early to have the plants of a proper fize, as about fix or feven weeks growth at the time of tranfplanting. About the middle of March, or beginning of April, may be the moft proper periods. The feed, in thefe cafes, fhould be fown very thin, and the weak plants-afterwards thinned out, till they are left at not lefs than three inches diftance from each other. Five or fix ounces of feed will, in general, be a proportion fufficient for affording plants for fetting out an acre of ground. In the drill method, the fame propor- tion of feed may alfo in common be fufficient, which fhould be put in the foil about the beginning or middle of April ; but if fown later, as in May or June, it frequently fucceeds. In the broadcaft mode, from the plants not coming quickly to the hoe, the latter end of March may probably be the moft proper period of fowing ; the proportion of feed being fomewhat increafed. The planting in thefe crops may be performed either up- on the plain furface of the prepared ground, or after it has been thrown up into ridges in the manner firft defcribed’; but the latter is by much the beft method, efpecially where the land is inclined to moifture. The moft dlicible time for executing the bufinefs is, as in the common cabbage, when the land has had a good fhower of rain, the operations of ploughing and fetting out the plants proceeding together ; but Dr. Dickfon obferves, that ‘neither operation fhould be attempted when the ground is much foaked with rain, as much injury is not only done to the land, but the plants fel- dom thrive well.” : In planting out, different diftances are practifed ;. fome preferring the diftance of two feet from row. to row, and eighteen inches apart in the rows, where the foils are good ; but in thofe of; inferior quality not more than twelve ; while others advife their-being planted two anda half or three feet afunder, on two-bout ridges, the plants being placed as nearly as poffible in the middle,. immediately upon the dung, az recommended in the culture of the common cabbage. The after culture in the crops mult be performed in dif- ferent ways, according to the methods of fowing or plant- ing that have been practifed. When the feed is put in by the hand, the crop can only be kept clean by means of the band-hoe, which fhould be applied as frequently as is necef- fary for the purpofe. But in the drill method, as well as where the crops are planted out with broad intervals and narrow diftances in rows, it may be co ient to make ufe of both the plough or horfe-hoe, and t nd-hoe, employ- ing the former in ftirring and clearing the intervals, and the latter in keeping the ground between the plants clean. When planted on ridges, it is recommended, that as foon as the plants have become firmly eftablifhed in the foil, and weeds begin to appear, to throw a furrow from each fide of them by means of a {mall plough that is narrow behind, ttir- ring the parts not thus moved by the hand-hoe, and after the decay of the weeds thefe turned down, but before the plants get too large to return them to their former fituation, care being taken, not to cover the hearts of the plants with theearth. Thefe operations may be repeated as frequently asthe ftate of the crop may require. But as this plant forms its bulb above the furface of the ground, the earth or mould fbould never be laid up fo much to the roots of the plants as in the common cabbage, as it may not only prevent the {welling of the bulbs, but caufe their deftruétion. It has heen fuggefted in the work juft noticed, that in dry feafons this. plant may probably be cultivated with greater advantage than that of the turnip, as nat being fubject to the deftruc- tive attacks of the fly, and being lefs expofed to danger from: other animals that are liable to deftroy crops of thst fort, When, fituated clofe to turnips that have been wholly de- voured by the fly, it has never been perceived that plants of: this kind were in the leaft touched by it. The bulbs or roots of thefe plants frequently attain a confiderable fize where the foils are good, the largeft fometimes weighing eight or ten pounds, and are feid to be much more hardy than the common turnip, though not fo much fo as the- turnip-rooted cabbage. ‘The quantity of produce on an acre is not probably in general equal to that of the common tur- nip, though it is very confiderable. The application of this fort of cabbage is chiefly in the feeding of neat cattle and fheep during the autumn or {pring months, according as it may be fown more early or late; but the moft profitable appropriation of it is probably in the latter feafon, as from the middle of March, till it is re- moved from the ground. In this way it may become an ufeful affiftant to crops of the turnip kind. In which ufe, it poflefles a particular advantage, in being formed, as it were, upon a footftalk above the furface of the earth, as it can on that account be more conveniently got at and re- moved during the time of froft, or when fnow is upon the ground, than the common turnip. The proportion of nu- tritious matter contained in crops of this fort is confiderable, and of arich quality. Cows thrive extremely well on it when given in a proper manner. When fed off by fheep, the Beliimethod is that of hurdling, in the manner praétifed for common turnips. In this ‘acta of application they are faid to require little or no hay, even where the intention is to fatten the animals, as they make a greater progrefs on them than on any other forts of food, except that of oats. Both cows and fheep have been found to feed upon the fpronts with avidity, after their having bloflom- ed, and been cut and left to wither. But this practice fhould be cautioufly praétifed, as much injury mut conftant- ly be done to the land, by the plants being fuffered to run to feed. When the bulbs are fhrunk and withered from be- ing cut and packed up in houfes, they are faid to form a nutritious food for horfes, but farther trials are. wanting to. fully eftablifh the faét. I[t is obferved, in the « pas of Agriculture,’’ that inftead of cutting off the bulbs below the- parts where they are formed, in order to preferye them in houfes for the above purpofe, it isthe practice of fome cul- tivators to plough them up wholly, ufing a common plough, without any coulter, having only around fhare with a blunt edge for the purpofe. This is paffed along under the rows, sa performs the work with much eafe, and in avery expe~ ditious manner. CasBaGE, turnip-rooted, in Botany. See Brassica. CaBBAGE, priya in 4; oe Ss ate of the cab- bage kind, which differs oe from the former, in form- ing its buib, or protuberance, below the furface of the ground, in having it oi au obbong » and in the leaves bearing a confiderable refemblance to thofe of the common turnip. It has been introduced into field culture with advantage. The foils beft fuited to the growth of this fort of crops are thofe of the more friable loamy kinds, or fuch as have been formed by the gradual depofition of earthy matters from the overflowings of large rivers, or the fea, But of whatever kind, the parts of them fhould have been well broken down and reduced by means of tillage, and not be too retentive of moilture., In preparing the ground, it fhould be brought into a confiderable ftate of pulverization, or finenefs, by repeated ploughings and harrowings; and enriched by the application of manure, in the proportion of cight or ten waggons’ load to the flatute acre, ms re fhould be turned in with the laft ploughing, in forming the one-bout ridges for receiving the plants. This is fometimes performed by the common, plough ; but it probably may be executed with more oe hele CABBAGE. nels’ by one with a double mould-board contrived for the purpofe. The feed muft be procured from the beft and mof perfe& -plants of the kind, in the manner that has been already di- rected for common cabbage, and be employed while it is perfe@ily freth; as fuch feed as has been kept for fome length of time feldom vegetates well, or with much regularity. But where it is neceflary to make ufe of it, the beit method is to fteep it in water for a few hours before it is put into the ground. The time of fowing muft be fooner or later, ac- cording to the intention of the cultivator, in refpec to the confumption of the crop; but for the fummer planting, the beft time is generally about the latter end of March or the beginning of April; for which purpofe a piece of ground fhould be prepared, by repeated turning over in the winter, fo as to become perfectly fine and free from weeds. This muft now be covered by fome well reduced farm-yard manure, adding a little frefh horfe-dung from the ftable. This is then to be turned lightly in, by means of the plouch, and a fuitable proportion of feed fown over the whole ; being covered in by means of a ftrong rake or light harrow. But -where this fort of preparation has not been made, a piece of old grafs land, reduced by paring and burning, may, accord- ing to Mr. Tugwell, an experienced cultivator, be dreffed in a fimilar manner ; or the fulfoil of a winter fheep-fold, the ftraw, dung, and thin turfy materials having been previouily removed. As the plants rife, attention fhould be paid to the fly, guarding againft its attacks by the application of wood-afhes or foot, when it firft appears, over the crops. When the plants are found to grow too faft, or advance too high in the ftems, before the period of fetting them out in the field, fo as to attain an improper fhape not eafily after- wards removed, it may be neceffary to draw up the whole of the plants clean on one fide of the bed, digging or turning the foil over in the place where they ftood, to the depth of four or five inches, with the fpade, putting the plants in the trenches in the proportion of forty or fifty in each yard, the rocts being covered by the earth taken out of the fucceeding trench, and flightly trodden down upon them, In this manner all the plants that require-it are to be in- trenched ; by which their improper growth may not only be checked, but the plants be rendered more fit to be fet -out in the field. But where the land for the feed-bed has ‘been properly prepared, and is perfectly free from weeds, this procefs will feldom be found neceflary to be em- ployed. . The planting out of this fort of plants may be executed in the fame manner as the turnip-cabbage, either upon the plain ploughed furface, or after the land has been raifed into ridges. ‘The latter is however to be preferred, elpecially where the foil is inclined to moifture. ‘They are planted at different diftances, according to the goodnefs of the land: but the moft general praétice is from two to two and a half or three fect. In the ridge method, it is ufual to fet them on the middle of the ridges, at the diftance of two feet in the rows. ‘Theplants fhould be carefully drawn from the feed- bed towards the latter end of June, for the fummer planting, when of the fize of good large cabbage plants ; and in order that as little injury as poflible may be done to the roots, this work fhould be performed immediately after rain, or after the beds have been well watered. They are then to be made up into {mall bundles, and diftributed by women and chil- dren fingly along the ridges, or on the plain furface of the Jand, at proper diftances, to be direétly put into the foil by the dibblers: in doing which they fhould be plunged up to the place of the branching out of the leaf ftems, the mould or foil being firmly clofed about them in the manner advifed in the culture of the commen cabbage: It is particularly neceflary to attend to this laft operation in dry feafons, as the fuccefs of the crop ina great meafure dependsupon it: and at the fame time care fhould be taken that a greater number of plants be not drawn from the feed bed than can be planted out in the fame day, and that they be as little as poffible ex- pofed to the a&tion of the fun and wind. It is alfo neceflary for a few days to guard againit their being pulled up and deftroyed by rooks, or other birds, which are apt to attack them. The after culture of the crops muft be carefully attended to in thefe, as well as in other crops of a fimilar kind. In about ten days, or a fortnight, when the plants grow well, they will ia general require the afliftance of the hand-hoe, to clear the ridges and give the plants a flight drefling. And as foon afterwards as may be convenient, the intervals fhould be cleared either by the common plough, or any other more fuitable implement, by pafling them twice along each, turning the furrows, where the land is clear, and not too clofe or compact, up towards the rows, being careful not te earth up the plants to too great a height; but where the contrary is the cafe, be turned from them, fo as to form a ridge in the middle of the iaterval, the implement being paffed within a few inches of the plants in performing the operation. This ridge in dry feafons fhould be fplit down, and returaed to the row again, inthe courle of a few days; another hand- hoeing being given asfoon afterwards as may be found con- venient. This laft operation may frequently be unneceflary on the more light and clean defcriptions of land; but on the ftreng and more compact foils it may be had recourfe to with advantage, both inrefpeét to the prefent andfuture crop. The quantity of produce in crops of this kind, is fre- quently found, on good land, to be from 25 to 30 tons on the acre. It is ftated, in the ninth volume of the Bath papers, that, in a practice of 20 years, the produce of an acre of this crop was, on anaverage, invariably found to be equal to the fupport of 70 fheep for a month, in the moft hungry, trying, and difficult part of the year; and’this on land then not worth more than 13s. the acre, but which contained between feven and eight thoufand plants, averag- ing above four poundseach inweight. In the TranfaGtiong of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. various accounts are given of the great ufe of the produce in thele crops, as well as of their vait utility as a late {pring fheep feed. They have likewife been found beneficial in feeding milch cows, and hogs are very fond of them, fows giving abundance of milk while feeding on them. From this plant being a native of a more cold and northern climate, it of courfe retains, in fome meafure, the late habits of the fituation from which it was originally brought, and becomes proper for the purpofe of feeding live ftock, ata later period in the {pring, than many other plants to which it has a refemblance. It is feldom before the middle of April that the juice begins to rife, and the plant becomes proper for being fed upon, About this time, however, as is fhewn by the bufhy appear- ance of its top, it begins to puth forward, and be in a con- dition to be made ufe of. When employed befcre this period, it is faid, in the work juft noticed, to be compara- tively of little advantage ; and, in fome cafes, even injurious to the animals that feed on and confume it. The principal application of crops of this fort is in the feeding of fheep, which are confined upon portions of them by hurdles, in the manner praétifed for the common turnip. The roots are, however, to be pulled up and prepared by being cut in two by means of an implement of the mattock kind, having a claw on one fide nine inches long, with a tranfverfe edge at its end, two inches in width, and on the other a fort of cleaver ; CAB cleaver : with this tool, acting as a lever by means of the handle, the roots are readily taken up, after which any dirt that may adhere to them is fhaken off by a blow or two, and the roots fplit by the cleaver. This enables the fheep to begin in the ceutre of the roots, and proceed outwards, eat- ing them with more eafe, and much more completely, thaa in any other method. When they are not cut, the hard fub- ftance of the rind renders them difficult of being eaten by the animals. One year old fheep, or what are frequently denominated tegs, wethers, and all dry fheep, may in pre- ference be fed on this root ; but when ewes and lambs are to be kept upon it, the hurdles muft be fo contrived as to admit the lambs to pafs through them to feed at large, as by this contrivance much benefit will be derived. Crops of this nature may be fourzd, on the whole, from the hardy and other properties of the plants, to cenititute an excellent nutritious food for fheep at thofe periods in the Spring when few other forts of green food can be procured or depended upon. The culture of it, in proportion to the quantity of fheep that may be kept on the farm, fhould therefore be carefully attended to by the fheep farmer. Dr. Dickfon remarks, that this vegetable has been afferted to be capable of being preferved for fome time out of the ground, without its properties being in the leaft injured ; but, as in mot other bulbous roots, the beft and moft econo- mical pra€tice is probably that of employing it in its frefh flate. When thus made ufe of, there can be little doubt of its proving a valuable affiftant to the turnip crop, as a late ipring feed for fheep or other animals. Cassace-bark iree,in Botany. See Grorrrcya inermis. CapsaGe-iree. See Areca oleraceaand Cacaria &leinia. Cassace buticrfly, in Entomology, the common Englith name of Papilio braffice. CABBAGING, among Gardeners, is fometimes ufed to denote the knitting or gathering of certain pot-herbs into round bunched heads. fn which fenfe the word amounts to the fame with what Evelyn calls poming, pommer; q. d. appling, or growing applewife. Others call it fimply head- ing or bunching. To make lettuce cabbage, they tran{plant it, taking care, during the great heats, to water it; otherwife initead of poming, it runsto feed. ‘To promote the cabbaging of cabbage, thofe who live on the fea-coaft, put fea weed, with a little nitre, under their roots. Cabbage-plants of the early kind! begin to turn in their leaves for cabbaging in May. The Batterfea fort cabbage apace when they ovce begin, and as foon grow hard and burit open; but the fugar-loaf kind is longer before it comes, and is as flow in its cabbaging. CABBALA, a myfterious kind of {cience, delivered b revelation to the ancient Jews as they pretend, and che J mitted by oral tradition to thofe of our times; ferving for inte 7 ciency of the books beth of nature and {cripture. The word isaifowritten Cabala, Caballa, Kablala, Kabala, Cobalifiica, Ars Cabala, avd Gabaila. It is originally Hebrew, mSap. habbalah; and properly fignifies reception ; formed from the verb ap» hibel, to receive by tradition, or from father to fon, pecially in the Chaldee and Rabbinical ebrew. Cabbala, then, primarily denotes any fentiment, opinion, ufage, or explication of Scripture tranfmitted from father to fon. In this fenfe, the word cabbala is not only applied to the whole art, but alfo to each operation performed accord- ing to the rules of that art. Thus it is, R. Jac. Ben Afcher, furnamed Baal-Hatturim, is faid to have compiled moft of the cabbalas invented on the books of Mofes before his time, By . CAB As to the origin of the cabbala, the Jews relate many marvellous tales. ‘They derive the mylteries contained in it from Adam; and affert, that whilit the firft man was‘in Paradife, the angel Rafiel brought hima book from heaven, which contained the doGrines of heavenly wifdom ; and that when Adam received this book, angels came down from heaven to learn its contents, but that he refufed to admit them to the knowledge of facred things, extrefted to him- felf alone ; that, after the fall, this book was taken back into heaven ; that, after many prayers and tears, God res ftored it to Adam ; and that it pafled from Adam to Seth. The Jewith fables further relate, that the book being loft, and the myfteries contained in it almoft forgotten, in the de- generate age preceding the flood, they were reftored, by {pecial revelation, to Abraham, who tranfmitted them to writing in the book * Jezirah ;”? and that the revelation was renewed to Mofes, who received a traditionary and myttical, as well as a written and preceptive, law from God. Accordingly, the Jews believe, that God gave to Mofes on mount Sinai, not only the law, but alfo the explication of that law; and that Mofes, after his coming down, retiring to his tent, rehearfed to Aaron both the one and the other. When he had done, Aaron ftanding on the right hand, his fons, Eleazar and Ithamar, were introduced to a fecond re- hearfal: this being over, the feventy elders that compofed the fanhedrim were admitted ; and laftly, the people, as many as pleafed: to all of whom Mofes again repeated both the law and explanation, as he renee them from God. So that Aaron heard it four times, his fons thrice, the elders twice, and the people once. Now, of the two things which Mofes taught them, the laws and the explanation, only the firft were committed to writing ; which is what we have in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers: as to the fecond, or the explication of thofe laws, they were contented to imprefs it well in their memory, to teach it their chil- dren; they to theirs, &c. Hence, the firft part they call fimply the law, or the written law ; the fecond, the oral’ law, or cabbala. Such is the original notion of the cabbala. The cabbala being again loft amidft the calamities of the Babylonifh captivity, was once more revealed to Efdras; and it is faid to have been preferved in Egypt, and tranfmitted to potterity through the hands of Simeon ben Setach, Elkanah, Akibha, Simeon ben Jochai, and others. The only warrant able inference from thefe accounts, which bear the obvious marks of fiction, is, that the cabbaliftic doGrine obtained early credit among the Jews asa part of their facred tradition, and was tranfmitted, under this notion, by the Jews in Egypt to their brethren in Paleftine. Under the fan@ion of ancient names, many fictitious writings were produced, which greatly contributed to the {fpreading of this myftical fyftem. Airy thefe were Sepher Happeliah,’’ or the book of wonders ; “ Sepher Hakkanebi,” or the book of the pen; and “ Sepher Habbahir,” or the book of light. The firft unfolds many- doétrines faid to have been delivered by Elias to the rabbi El- kanah ; the fecond contains myftical commentaries on the di- vine commands; and the third illuitrates the moft fublime mylteries. Among the profound doétors, who, befides the {tudy of tradition, cultivated with great induftry the cabba- liftic phielophy> the moft celebrated perfons are the rabbis Akibha, who lived foon after the deftruGion of Jerufalem (See Axipua ;) and Simeon ben Jochai, who flourifhed in the fecond century (See Simeon BEN Jocuat). To the former is afecribed the book, entitled “ Jezirah,’ concerning the creation; and to the latter, the book * Sohar,’? or brightnefs; and thefe are the principal fources from which we derive our knowledge of the cabbala. From the third: ‘eentury to thegenth, few traces of the cdbbaliflic philofophy occur CABBALA. eccur in the writings of the Jews, ‘The probable reafon is that thefe myiftertes, which differ materially trom the ancient doétrine of the Jewifh church, were entrufted only to the initiated under a folemn oath of fecrecy ; and therefore few perfons would venture to commit them to writing. Books that were written would be ftudioufly concealed from pub- lic infpeGtion, and their enigmatical language would be a feal upon their meaning which could not be broken by the vul- gar hand of an uninitiated Jew. Befides, the Jews were for many centuries deeply involved in controverfies concerning their traditionary laws, and if they were pofleffed of Tal- mudical erudition, they thought themfelves fufficiently learn- ed: not to add that the whole nation was opprefled and hharaffed by perfecution. That this fyftem of the cabbaliftic philofophy, which we may confider as the acroamatic, efoteric, or concealed doc- trine of the Jews, by way of contradiftinAtion from the ex- oteric or popular doétrine, was not of Hebrew origin, we may conclude with a very great degree of probability, from the total diffimilarity of its abitrufe and myiterious doétrines, to the fimple principles of religion taught in the Mofaic law ; and that it was borrowed from the Egyptian {chools will fufficiently appear from a comparifon of its tenets with thofe of the oriental and Alexandrian philofophy. (See Avrx- anprian.) Many writers have, indeed, imagined that they have found in the cabbaliftic dogmas, a near refemblance of the doétrines of Chnitianity, and they have thought, that the fundamental principles of this myttical fyftem were de- rived from divine revelation. ‘This opinion, however, may -be traced up to a prejudice which originated with the Jews, and paffed from them to the Chrittian fathers, by which they were led to afcribe all pagan wifdom to an Hebrew origin ; -a notion which very probably took its nfe in Egypt, when Pagan tenets firft crept in among the Jews. Philo, Jofephus, and other learned Jews, in order to flatter their own vanity, -and that of their countrymen, induftrioufly propagated this opinion ; and the more learned fathers of the Chriftian church who entertamed a high opinion of the Platonic philofophy, -haftily adopted it, from an imagination that if they could trace back the moft valuable doétrines of Paganifm to a Hebrew origin, this could not fail to recommend the Jewifh and Chriftian religions to the attention of the Gentile phi- lofophers. Many learned moderns, relying implicitly upon .thefe authorities, have maintained the fame opinion, and have _thence been inclined to credit the report of the divine origi- nal of the Jewifh cabbala. But the opinion is unfounded ; and the cabbaliftic fyftem is effentially inconfiftent with the _pure doétrine of divine revelation. ‘The true ftate of the cafe feems to be that the Jews, like other oriental nations, from the moft remote period, had fecret doctrines or mytfte- ries. During the prophetic ages, thefe, probably, confifted ina fimple explanation of thofe divine truths, which the pro- phets delivered under the veil of emblems. After this period, when the fe&ts of the Effenes and Therapeute were formed in Egypt, foreign tenets and inftitutions were borrowed from the Egyptians and Greeks, and in the form of allegorical interpretations of the law, were admitted into the Jewish mytfteries. Thefe innovations chiefly confifted in certain dogmas: concerning God and divine things, at this time re- ceived in:the Egyptian fchools, particularly at Alexandria, where the Platonic and Pythagorean dodtrines on thefe fub- jeéts had been.blended with the oriental philofophy. The Jewith myfteries, thus enlarged by the acceffion of Pagan dogmas, were conveyed from Egypt to Paleitine, at the time when the Pharifees, who -had been driven into Egypt under Hyrcanus, returned, with many other Jews, into their own country. From this time the cabbaliftic.mySeries continued to be taught in the Jewifh {chools, but, at length, they were adulterated by a mixture of Peripatetic dotrines, and other tenets, which fprang up in the middle age. Thefe mytte- ries were not, probably, reduced to any fyitematic forms in writing, till after the difperfion of the Jews, when, in com- fequence of their national calamities, they became apprehen- five that thofe facred treafures would be corrupted, or lott. In preceding periods, the cabbaliftic doétrines underwent various corruptions, particularly from the prevalence of the Ariftotelian philofophy. The fimilarity, or rather the coin- cidence, of the cabbaliflic, Alexandrian, and oriental philo- fophy, will be fufficiently evinced by briefly ftating the com- mon‘tenets in which thefe different fy temsagreed ; they are as follow: *¢ All things are derived by emanation from one principle; and this principle is God. From him adubftan- tial power immediately proceeds, which is the image of God, — and the fource of all fubfequent emanations. This fecond principle fends forth, by the energy of emanation, other na~ tures, which are more or lefs pertect, according to their dif+ ferent degrees of diftance, in the {cale of emanation, from the firlt fource of exiftence, and which conftitute different worlds or orders of being, all united to the eternal power from which they proceed. Matter is‘nothing more thar the moft remote effect of the emanative energy of the Deity. The material world receives its form from the immediate agency of powers far beneath the firft fource of being. Evil is the neceflary effeét of the imperfection of matter. Human fouls are diftant emanations from Deity, and after they are libe- rated from their fnaterial vehicles, will return, through vae rious {tages of purification, to the fountaia whence they firft proceeded.”’? From this brief view it appears, that the cab- baliftic fyftem, which is the offspring of the other two, is a fanatical kind of philofophy, originating in defe@t of judg- ment and eccentricity of imagination, and tending to pro- duce a wild and pernicious enthufiafm. Fora fuller accout of the tenets of the Juwith cabbala, we refer to Brucker’s Hift. of Philof. by Enfield. vol. ii. chap. ii. Dr. Burnet examines into the merits of the feveral parts of the cabbala, which he finds to be without rational foun- dation, and not conducing to any real knowledge. But he conjectures, that the moft ancient cabbala, before it was confounded and defiled with fables, might contain fome- thing of the original of things, and their gradations; par- ticularly, that, before the creation, all things had their being in God; that from him they flowed as emanations ; that they will all flow back again into him, when they are deftroyed ; and that there will fucceed other emanations and regenerations, and other deftructions and abforptions to all eternity, as they had been from all eternity ; that nothing is produced out of nothing ; and that the things produced ne- ver return to nothing, but always have their fubfiftence in God. Burn. Archezol. lib. i. cap. 7. Phil. Tranf. N° 201. p. 800. Among the explications of the law, which are furnifhed by the cabbala, and which, in reality, are little elfe but the feveral interpretations and decifions of the Rabbins on the laws of Moles, fome are myftical ; confifting of odd abitrufe fignifications given to a word, or even to the letters whereof it is compofed: whence, by different combinations, they draw meanings from Scripture, very different from thofe it feems naturally to impoit. ‘The art of interpreting Scrip- ture after this manner is called more particularly cabbalaz and it is in this laft fenfe the word.is more ordinarily ufed among us. This cabbala, called alfo artificial cabbala (to diftinguifh it from the firft kind, or fimple tradition,) is di- vided into ‘three forts. The firft, called gematria, confifts in taking letters ae figures, or arithmetical numbers, and 3 explaining CAB explaining each word by the arithmetical value of the letters whereof it is compofed; which is done various ways. ‘The fecoud is called zotaricon; and coniilts either in taking cach letter of a word for an entire diction, or in making one en- tire diction out of the initial letters of many. The third kind, called shemurah, q.d. changing, confifts in changing and tranipofing the leiters of a word; which is done various ways. The generality of Jews prefer the cabbala to the Scrip- ture ; comparing the former to the {parkling luftre of a pre- cious itone, and the latter to the fainter glimmering of a candle. _ 2 The cabbala only differs fram maforah, as the latter de- notes the {ctence of reading the Scripture, the foriner of in- terpreting it. Both are fuppofed to have been handed down ee generation to generation by oral tradition only, till at ength the readings were fixed by the vowels and accents, as the interpretations were by the ma/forah and gemara. Prideaux Conn. p. i. lib. v. p. 506. The cabbala hitherto fpoken of may be called fpeculative cabbala; in oppofition to the following, which may be called praétical cabbala. Cansaca is alfo applied to the ufe, or rather abufe, which vifionaries and enthufialts make of Scripture, for dif- covering futurity, by the ftudy and coniideration of the combination of certain words, letters, and numbers, in the Sacred Writings. All the words, terms, magic figures, numbers, letters, charms, &c. ufed in the Jewifh magic, as alfo in the hermetical feience, are comprifed under this fpecies of cabbala, which profeffes to teach the art of curing difeafes, aud performing other wonders, by means of cer- tain arrangements of facred letters and words. But it is only the Chriftians that call it by this name, on account of the refemblance this art bears to the explications of the Jewith cabbala: for the Jews never ufed the word cabbala in any fuch fenfe, but ever with the utmoft refpeét and venera- tion. It is not,~however, the magic of the Jews alone which we call cabbala, but the word is alfo ufed for any kind of magic. CABBALIC art, Ars cabbalica, is ufed by fome writers for ars palefirica, or the art of wreftliog. CABBALISTIC art. See Caspazra, and Casza- LIsTs. CABBALISTS, a fe& among the Jews, who follow and practife the cabbala, or interpret Scripture according to the rules of the literal cabbala, above iaid down. The Jews are divided into two general feéts ; the Cara- ites, who refufe to receive either tradition, or the Talmud, or any thing but the pure text of Scripture: and the Rab- binifts or Talmudifts, who, befide this, receive the traditions of the ancients, and follow the talmud. Thefe latter are again divided into two other feéts; pure Rabbinifts, who explain the Scripture in its natural fenfe, tA aaa hiftory, and tradition; and Cabbalifts, who, to difcover hidden myftical fenfes, which they fuppofe God to have couched therein, make ufe of the pat by and the myltical rules aud methods above mentioned. There are vifionaries among the Jews, who believe that Jefus Chrift wrought his miracles by virtue of the mytteries of the cabbala. Some learued men are of upinion, that Pythagoras and Plato learned the cabbaliftic art of the Jews in Egypt; and fancy they fee evident footheps thereof in ad gets eb others, on the contrary, fay, it was the hilofophy of Pythagoras and Plato that firft furnifhed the ews with their cabbala. Be this as it will, it is certain, that in the firft ages of the church, moft of the heretics gave into the vain notions of the cabbala: particulacly the Vou. V. -_ ; CAS Guaftics, Valentinians, and Bafilidians: Hence arofe the aepatec, and the multitude of talifmans, wherewith the ca- binets of the virtuofi were ftocked. : See a particular account of the cabbaliftic art, aspradtifed not only by Jews, but by Heathens and Chriltians, in Bafnage’s Hitt. of the Jews, book iii. chap. ro— 28. CABBIN. See Canin. CABBY jfland, in Geography, lies N. of Holyhead ifland on the coaft of Wales, about two miles from the north point of that ifland. CABE, a river of Spain, which uniting with the Velezar, runs into the Minho, alitde to the weft of Orenfe in Galicia. - CABECA, or Casess&, in Commerce ; the Portuguele who carry on the trade of filks in the Eait Indies, diftinguifh them by the names of cadeca, and barillo; that is to fay, head and belly. The cadeca {ilks are the fineft ; the darillo being from fiftcen to twenty per cent. inferior to them. The Tadian workmen endeavour to mix them together ; for which reafon the more experienced European merchants, who carry on that trade, take care to open the bales, and to examine the fkins. The Dutch diftinguith two forts, viz. the ordi- nary cabeffe, and the “ cabefle de mora.” Canega de Vide, in Geography, afmall town of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo, with a ftrong caftle. N, lat, 39° W. long. 60° 43'. Casega, La, in Zoology, afnake of South America in Panama, there called the double-headed fnake, from an imagination that it has a head at each extremity, and that from the bite of each it conveys a poifon equal in aétivity te that of the coral or rattle-fnake. Its ufual length is faid to be about half a yard, refembling in figure an earth-worm, Its diameter is about fix or eight lines, and its head different from the heads of other fnakes, being of the fame dimentfions with its body. The creature, however, has only one head, which, as it refembles a tail, has occafioned the notion that it has two heads. [ts motion is very flow, and its colour variegated with {pots of a paler tint. CABECAS, Las, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of Andalufia, containing feveral ruins that indicate its having been formerly a large place ; 4 leagues S. of Seville. Canecas Rubias, a town of Spain, in the country of Seville, on the confines of Portugal; 4o miles N.W. of Seville. Canecas, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 130 miles S.W. of Havanna. CABEC ON, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon, feated on a mountain, with a fort on the river Piluerga; 3 leagues N.N.E. from Valladolid.—aA Ifo, a town of Spain, in the province of Alturia; 18 miles W.S.W. of St. Andre. CABEGO, a river of Portugal, which runs into the Lima, 7 miles above Ponte de Lima. CABEL, or Kaser, Aprian Vanner, in Biography, a painter of landfcape, fea-ports, and cattle, was born at Ryfwick, in 1631, and became a difciple of John Van Goyen, under whofe inftruction and example he made a rapid progrefs in his profeffion, and by whom his name was changed from Vander Touw to Vander Cabel. He copied nature and defigned every objeét before he inferted any in his compofitions. His tafte in defigning animals and figures was formed after that of Caltiglione; and in landfeape his model was the ftyle of Salvator Rofa, His manner is great, and much after the gout of the Italian fchool. The touchings of his trees are excellent; his figures and animals are very correét, and marked wiin rpine. 4M Although . CAB Although his different pi€tures have unequal merit, they are all diftinguifhed by the freedom of his hand, and the fine touch uf his pencil. In his colouring he {was folicitous to imitate the Caracci and Mola; but the beauty of his defign and compofition is often injured by too dark and deep tone of colouring. His etchings, of which fome few re- main, are performed ina flight, free ftyle. He died in 1695. Pilkington and Strutt. CABELLIO Cavarum, Cavaillon, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia Narbonnenfis. This was a Roman colony in the time of the triumvir Lepidus, 42 years before the Chriftian zra. With regard to the conitruétion of the triumphal arch of Cavaillon it is conjeCtured, that as Pompey had granted the two banks of the Rhone to the inhabitants of Marfeilles, the town of Cavaillon, upon the Durance and near the Rhone, belonged to them. This monument was accordingly erected to commemorate the exploits of Pompey and the Roman armies. The medals of this city were bronze, gold, and filver. CABELLO fort, in Geography, lies on the north coaft of the Spanifh main, in N. lat. 10° 31'. W. long. 67° ee E CABELON, lies on the coaft of Coromandel in India, 7 miles from Conimore N. by E. and 5 leagues from Madras or fort St. George. To the fouth of Cabelon are the 7 Pagodas, by which the coait is known. P CABENDA, or Casinpa, a fea-port town of Africa in the kingdom of Augoy or Goy on the coaft of Loango, is fituate on the mouth of the river of the fame name, about 5 leagues N. of Cape Palmerino. ‘The bay lies very com- modious for trade, wooding, and watering, on the fea-fhore. Some parts of the adjacent ground are flat and marfny; but it gradually afcends about 3 miles within land and forms a ridge of hills, on the afcent of which is a town, where a ftock of wuod is always kept for the fupply of foreign fhips. The town of Cabenda is feated on the round point of the bay, looking towards the welt, and the Englith factory on the fouth-weft of the road, at fome diltance, N.E. from the town. The Portuguefe, Dutch, and other Europeans come to this port for water and provifions. The houfes, or rather huts, are built of dirt and reeds. The country round the bay is moftly barren, and the people very lazy. They breed no cattle except fome hogs, but they have plenty of poultry. The wild beafts are fo nu- merous in the woods that they deftroy all of the tame kind. Civet-cats and parrots are numerous. The coaft abounds with oyiters; and the natives fith both on the beach and in the bay with drag-nets, having long canes that are fixed at equal diftances, inftead of corks, to fhew when any fith is caught. 'Thefe nets are made of a peculiar root, which, being beaten, becomes, flexible like hemp. S. lat. 6° E. long. 12° 5/. CABERASA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Media. Ptolemy. CABES, or Gases, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Tunis, fituate on a river near a gulf of the famename. N. lat. 33° 40! E. long. to° 55’. CABESA, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 55 miles N. of St. Jago. CABESTA Gatta. See Cat’s Head. CABESTAN, or Casestainc, Wittiam De, in Biography, a famous Provenca! poet of the 13th century, mentioned by Petrarch, who paffed the firit years of his life in the caftle of the lord of Cabeftan; and being ena- moured of a lady belonging to the houfe of Baux, wrote verfes in her praife, which were popular. The lady, in order to fecure his inviolable attachment, adminiftered to CAB him an herb by way of philtre, which deranged his under- ftanding. He was recovered by an antidote, which con- verted his love into hatred. In his attendance on Tricline Carbonal, the wife of Raimon de Seillans, he ingratiated himfelf with her to fuch a degree as to excite the jealouly of her hufband, who privately killed him and barbaroufly tore out his heart. This he caufed to be dreffed, and ferved up to his wife in-a difh. After fhe had partaken of it, fhe was told what fhe had eaten, and died of grief. This event occurred about the year 1213. Moreri. : CABESTERRE, ia Geography. a name given in the An- tilles iflands, to that part of the ifland which looks towards the eaft, and which is always refrefhed by the trade-winds, blowing from the north to the eaft-fouth-eaft. The oppofite part is called ‘¢ Baffe-terre,”’ being lower and lefs expofed to the wind, and of courfe hotter: here the fea is lefs agitated than in the Cabefterres, and it is confequently better adapted to the anchorage and loading of veffels. CazesTerRre, or Le Marigot, a town of the ifland of Guadaloupe on the eaft coaft. N. lat. 16° 10’. W. long 61° 44!. CABESTES, lies near La Vera Cruz, on the S.W. coaft of Campeachy bay in the gulf of Mexico. CABEZZO, a province of the kingdom of Angola in Africa, joining to Oacco on the north, and to Lubalo on the fouth, and having the Coanza on the north-eait, and Rimba on the fouth-welt. It is populous, and well ftored with cattle and other provifions; and it has a mine of iron on a mountain, called the ‘ Iron mountain,?? which fup- plies the Portuguefe with great quantities of that metal, forged by the natives into a great variety of warlike and other ufeful implements. The inhabitants are plentifully furnifhed with water by the Rio Longo, and other fmaller rivulets and lakes. Their trees are of a large fize, and the bark being flafhed with a knife, yields an odoriferous refin, refembling wax in colour and confiftency, and reckoned very medicinal. The avenue to the royal palace is decorated by a number of palm-trees that are very large and beautiful. CABIAL, of Buffon, in Zoology, the thick-nofed Tapir of Pennant, the Sus Hydrocheris of Linnzus, and Cavia Capysara of Pallas, &c. which fee. epee arc: Commerce. See Cavinos. A BIGIAK, or Capenak, in Modern Hiffor i of Oriental Turks. Their origin is thus eae A feuale belonging to the army of Oghuz-Khan was delivered in the hollow of a tree to which fhe entered; and the infant was adopted by Oghuz, and called “ Cabigiak”’ or the bark of wood, from the manner of his birth. In procefs of time his pofterity became numerous and extended themfelves to the north of the Cafpian fea. They have retained the appella- tion of their anceftor, and their country is denominated in Perfia and in Turkifh “ Defcht Kiptchiak.”? From this country proceeded the armies which firft ravaged the domi- nions poflefled in Perfia by the Moguls; and they were the firft troops which Bajazet the firft {ultan of the Turks oppofed to Tamerlan: but inftead of fighting againft Ta- merlan, they took a part with him and united with the Tartars, whom they regarded as their brethren of one and the fame origin. D’Herbelot, Bib. Or. CABILAH, a tribe of independent and vagabond Arabs under the condué& of a chief. Some Arabian Tats: reckon 80 of thefe tribes. D’Herbelot. CABILIAU, in Jchthyology, a name by which fome au- thors have called the common cod-fifh, the morhua and a/éllus major of other writers. CABILLEN, in Geography, a town of the duch Courland; 10 miles E. of Goldingen. - uo 6 CABIN, ie CAB CABIN, or Cassin, is fometmes ufed for the huts or cottages of favages, and other poor people. The habitations of the Indians in Virginia are cabins, about nine or ten feet high, which are made after this manner: they fix poles into the ground, and bring the tops of them one within another, and fo tie them together ; the outfide of thefe poles they line with bark, to defend them from the injuries of the weather, but they leave a hole in the top, right in the middle of the cabin, for the fmoke to go out ; round the infide of their cabins they have banks of earth caft up, which ferve inftead of flools and beds. Phil. Tranf. N° 126. Casin, a room or apartment in a fhip, where any of the officers ufually refide. There are many of thefe in a large fhip; the principal of which is defigned for the captain, orcommander. In fhips of the line, this chamber is furnifhed with an open gallery in the fhip’s ftern; as alfo a little gallery on each quarter. The apartments in which the inferior officers and common failors fleep and mefs, are ufually called Jirths, which fee. The bed-places built up for the failors at the fhip’s fide in merchantmen, are alfo called cabins. The word comes from the French cabane, Spanith cabana, or Italian capanaa, a Jitile fraw hut; and that from the Greek xawarr, a_flall or manger. Casin point, in Geography, a {mall polt-town of America, in Surry county, Virginia, fituate on Upper Chipoak creek, 26 miles E.S.E. of Peterfourg, 87 miles from Portf- mouth, and 329 S.S.W. of Philadelphia. CABINET, or Cxssinet, the moft retired place in the fineft apartment of a building; fet apart for writing, ftudying, or preferving any thing ges precious. A complete apartment confilts of a hail, anti-chamber, chamber, and cabinet ; with a gallery on one fide. Castner is fometimes particularly ufed for a place at the end ofa gallery, wherein are preferved the paintings of the beft maiters, conveniently ranged, and accompanied with bufts, and figures of marble and bronze, with other curio- fities. In this fenfe, cabinet amounts to the fame with what is called by Vitruvius, pinecotheca. Sometimes there are feveral rooms defined for this ufe, which are all together called cabinet, or gallery. Castner alfo denotes a kind of buffet or cheft of drawers, partly for the prefervation of things of value, and partly as a decoration of a chamber, gallery, or other apartment. Thefe cabinets are made of oak or of chefnut, of inlaid work orjapan, of ebony and of other fearce wood. In the repofitory of the Royal Society is a Chinefe cabi- net, filled with the inftruments and fimples ufed by the fur- geons of that country. The moft remarkable are thofe which are contrived for f{cratching, picking, and ticklin the ears, in which the Chinefe take great pleafure. Phil. Tranf. N° 246. p. 390, feq. Casinet, in Gardening, isa little infulated building in manner of afummer-houfe, built in fome agreeable form, and open on all fides; ferving asa place of retirement, and to take the frefh air under cover. ; According to Miller, a cabinet is a kind of faloon, placed at the end or in the middle of along arbour. It differs from an arbour, which 1s long, in form of a gal- lery, and arched over head; whereas the cabinet is either {guare, circular, or in cants, making a kind of faloon. Caninet, in Natural Hiflory. Pris term is applied with fome latitude to any {mall or f{eleét collection of natural cu- riofities, without regarding whether the articles it comprifes be contained within a cabinet ornot. Thus, for in{tance, it is not unfrequent with us to fpeak of cabincts of animals, * CAB cabinets of birds, of fithes, reptiles, and other fimilar articles, as a mode of expreffing fuch an affemblage of natural hiftory as may not be of fufficient importance to deferve the epithet ofamufeum. The word cabinet in its ufual acceptation with the naturaliftis not, therefore, confined folely to the boxes, prefs, or cheft of drawers, in which articles of curio- fity are contained, but implies at once both the repofitory it- felf, and the articles arranged in it. Somuch depends upon the fancy, tafte, or judgment of the collector in the formation, or, as it is fometimes deno- minated, building, cabinets for the reception of articles of this defeription, that no explicit direGtions can be given for this purpofe with propriety. The moft material object to be confidered is the compaétnefs of the drawers and cheft, ac- cording to the fize of the articles to be depofited in them, in order to comprife as much as convenient within the fmalleft compafs in which they can lie without injury to each other, and at the fame time be feen and examined with eafe. Cabinets of foffils, fhells, and corals have the drawers fometimes divided for this purpofe into {mall compartments, by means of an inner frame work, that lets into the bottom of the drawer; but trays of various fizes made either of card or palteboard have a much neater appearence, and are referred by many as being more commodious, and more eafily fhifted from one part of the drawer to another, as the addition of new acquifitions in any particular tribe or genus may require. Nothing can be more defirable than to have the cabinets well made, that the drawers may flide with per- fe& eafe in their proper receffes inthe prefs. The drawers fhould fit fo clofe, when fhut up, as to preclude the entrance of duft of any kind. ‘The cabinet itfelf fhould bt allo placed in a dry fituation, as there are few articles of natural hiftory that are not affected in a greater or lefs degree by an excefs of damp, or even heat. The conftruction of an entomological cabinet depends lefs on the tafte of the colleétor, in the prefent day, than the preceding, except fo far as relates to the elegance or exter« nal embellifhment of the cabinet, or the excellence of the workmanfhip. The drawers are uniformly made fhallow, the bottom of each is lined with cork, and the top is covered with glafs, through which the infeé& may be feen without being expofed to the air, or accidents that would arife from their being touched by the incautious {peCator. Cabinets for infeéts are built of various fizes, from thofe which contain ten ora dozen drawers to others that include above anhundred. They are ufually of mahogany, but it is immaterial whether they be made of mahogany or wainfcot; fome have them of cedar, but feldom of deal, or any other wood of a foft texture. The drawers may be from fifteen to thirty inchesin length, the fame, or nearly the fame in breadth, and about two or three inches in depth. The cork with which the bottoms are lined muft be chofen as free from cracks and holes as poflible ; it fhould be alfo glued into the drawers to prevent its warping, and be filed or cut very level; and after this the irregularities on the furface of the cork fhou!d be rubbed down with pumice-ftone, till the whole is rendered perteétly {mooth, before the paper is pafted over it. The paper fhould be of a fine fmooth and even grain, butneither very flout, nor highly ftiffened with fize, left it fhould turn the points of the pins, when placing the infeéts in the drawers. The top of every drawer mutt be covered with a plate of glafs, to prevent the admiffion of duft orair. This plate is sinalty fitted into a frame of the fame fize as the drawer, and is made either to flide ina groove, or let in ona rabbet; the latter contrivance is much the beft, becaufe in fliding the glafs along the groove, if any of the pins happen to ftand fo high as to touch the frame-work, 4Mz2 the CAB the infeéts will be injured by the jerk, or, as more frequent- ly happens inthis cafe, be broken to pieces. On the con- trary, whenthe frame falls in upon a rabbet, it is of no ‘confequence whether the edge of the frame finks into the drawer below the level of the heads of the pins on which the infeéts are placed or not; it is only neceflary to obferve, that the glafs does not prefs upon the pins, fince it is the glafs only that can come in contact with them. \ Inftead of cork forthe purpofe of lining the bottom of the drawers for infeéts, it was cuftomary among old coileétors to coverthe bottom of them with a thin coat or layer of pitch, or green wax, over which the paper was fometimes laid, and upon this the infeéts were fluck. The difadvan- tage of this method, although recommended by recent au- thority, is evident, when we confider how liable both the pitch and wax are to be affected by the ftate of the weather. ‘An eminent colleftor, the late Mr. Tunftal, had the whole of his infe&ts difpofed on green wax, each infeé&t being placed on a fmall tablet of it, and the tablets afterwards affixed with a fmall portion of melted wax to the bottom of the drawers. This cabinet was once removed toa fhort diftance inthe country, during the winter feafon, when, notwithftanding the precaution of faitening the tablets in this manner to the bottom of the drawers, fome of them fnapped afunder with the cold, and rolling about among the refit oc- cafioned the lofs of many valuable infefis. In another in- ftance a celebrated colleGtion of infe@s, ftuck on wax ina Similar manner, that had been prefented to a great public mufeum, was indifcreetly expofed to the heat of a brifk fire, witha defign of warming the wax, that the pins might be more eafily withdrawn, for the purpofe of removing the in+ fe&ts to another cabinet ; but, fad mifchance ! the wax melt- ing in a much fhorter time than was expected, almoft every infe&t in the cabinet funk into the fluid mais, and was de- flroyed. Accidents of this kind may operate asa caution to others, and prove, at lealt, the fuperior advantage of lining the bottoms. of the drawers with cork inftead of wax. Every crevice in the drawers for infe¢ts fhould be care- fully clofedup. Indeed the entomologilt, duly attentive to the prefervation of his infeéts, will conceive no pains nor expence ill beftowedin having his cabinet fo well conftruGted 2s to render it impoffible for the air or duft to penetrate. A fall recefs fhould be alfo made along the inner edge, or fide of the drawer, for the admiffion of a quantity of cam- phor, about one fourth part of an ounce of which in each drawer will preferve the infe€ts contained in the drawer from the depredations of mites, or any other {mall iufeéts, for years. It is an erroncoys fuppofition, which many people entertain, that infeéts cannot be preferved; for it may be fafely affirmed from experience, that if they are placed in a clofe cabinet, as hefore direGted, and the drawers eccafional- ly replenifhed with frefl: camphor every fecond or third year, or at moft every year, infe€ts are not more perifhable than almoft any other defcription of natural objects. They may be preferved in this manner without injury or diminution of beauty for ten, twenty, or thirty years; we have feen in- feéts that have been callegted at a period more remote ftill, and which fearcely manifetted any fymptom of decay. Some naturalifts prefer cajeput oi! for feenting the drawers to deftroy the mites, and other deftruGive vermin, with whichthe infe&ts would otherwife, in time, become infefted. Mufk is another powerful antidote and preferva- tive: and again the wle of bitter aloes is ftrongly recom- mended; but upon the whole, we are, for our own part, fo fully fatisfied of the efficacy of camphor, that we flould always confider it preferable for this purpofe to any other prefervative. It has been thought neceflary by fome, that CAB the cork, with which the drawers are lined, fhould be well impregnated with a folution of corrofiye fublimate mercury, in afaturated folution of crude fal-ammoniaec in water, (an ounce of which will be fafficient to diffolve twenty feruples of the fublimate). This may be tried, fince it has been ftrongly advifed, although we believe the precaution need- lefs. Mr. Drury adopted another plan: he pounded a quan- tity of crude verdegreafe with common bees-wax, and {pread a thin layer of it between the bottom and the cork, in thofe drawers which were defigned for the reception of his more delicate infects. We are, however, of opinion, that a folution of alum in water, wafhed either over the cork or paper of the drawer, would anfwer the fame purpofe, and be attend- ed with lefs trouble. See article Exromotocy. Casinet of Medals. See Mepats. Cazinet isalfo ufed in {peaking of the more fele& and fecret councils of a prince or adminiftration: thus we fay, the fecrets, the intrigues ofa cabinet. To avoid the incon- veniencies of anumerous council, the policy of Italy and practice of France have introduced cabinet councils 3 a re- medy worfe than the difeafe. King Charles I. is charged with firft eftablifhing this ufage in England. Befides his privy council, that prince ere€ted a kind of cabinet council, or junto, under the denomination of a council of ftate; compofed of archbifhop Laud, the earl of Strafford, and lord Collington, with the feeretaries of ftate. Yet fome pretend to find the fubftance of a cabinet council of much greater antiquity, and even allowed by parliament, who an- ciently fettled a quorum of perfons mol confided in, without whofe prefence no arduous matter was to be determined ; giving them power to a@ without confulting the reft of the council, Aslong fingeas the 28th of Heary IIT. a char- ter pafled in affirmauce of the ancient rights of the king- dom; which provided that four great men, chofen by com- mon confent, who were to be confervators of the kmgdom, among other things, fhould fee to the difpofing of monies given by parliament, and appropriated to particular ufes ; and parliaments were to be fummoned as they fhould advife, But even of thefe four, any twomadea quorum ; aud ge- nerally the chief jultice of England and chancellor were of the number of the confervators. Math, Par. 28 Henry III. In the firlt of Hen. VI. the parliament provides, that the quorum for the privy council be fix or four at leaft ; and that in all weighty confiderations, the dukes of Bedford and Gloucefter, the king’s uncles, fhould be prefent ; which feems to be erecting a cabinet by law. CABIRA, afterwards called Dio/polis, and fince Seba/to- polis, in Ancient Geography, a town of Pontus, fouth-eait of Amafia, upon the river [ris. | Mithridates built'a palace in this city, where he had alfoa fifh-pond, and in its vicinity parks for chace, and, according to Strabo, mines. This city became memorable for the defeat of Mithridates by Lue cullus. When Pompey took pofleffion of it, he gave it the name of “ Diofpolis,’? and the queen Pythodoris, widow of Polemon, named king of Pontus by Anthony, called it «< Sebalte,”’ or “ Sebaltopolis,” i. e. the city of Augultus, in honour of that prince. CABIRI, in Antiquity, certain deities worfhipped more efpecially by the Samothracians, and in the ifle of _Imbros, and fome other parts of Greece, Thefe Cabiri were originally Syrians or Pheenicians ; and we are chiefly indebted to the fra,ment of Sanchoniathony recorded by Eufebius in.his Praparatio Evangelica,” for the information, fcanty and dubious as it is, which has been tranfmitted concerning them. From him we leara, that they were the fons of Sydye, and the fame with the Diof- curl, Corybantes, and Samothraces; that they firft difco- vered * CABIRI. vered the art of building fhips; that from the time of Cronus _ (Saturn) their defcendants navigated the fea on rafts or veffels of their own coultruction ; and that they landed on mount Cafius, where they confecrated atemple. It is alfo related, that Croous gave the city of Berytus to Neptane and the Cabiri. Sanchoniathon further fays, that thefe fons of Sydyc were eight in number; but he mentions only one of them by name, viz. Afclepius, who was furnamed Effmu- nus, from **5y, Seman, fignifying the eighth. He was the god of health, and reftorer of life. Bochart fuppofes, that this Sydyc was Jupiter: Cumberland ia his “Sanconiatho’s Phe- nician Hiftory,”” (p. 173, &c.) maintains, that he was Shem, the fon of Noah; Shuckford fuppofes, (Conneétion, &c. vol. i. p. 213.)- that he was Mizraim, the fon of Ham, (Gen. x. 6.) or Menes, who fettled in Egypt about the 15th r of Nimrod, A.M. 1772, according to him, or 2188 .C. according to Blair’s Tables. According to Pau- fanias (I. ix. p. 751.) the original Cabiritic divinity was “Prometheus. The learned Bryant (Analyfis of Anc. Myth. vol. ii. p. 460.) coucurs with thofe who are of opinion, that Sydyc, or Sadic, was the patriarch Noah, and that the name by which he is called, or Sadic,'correfponds to the cha- racter given of him in the book of Genefis, ch. vi. 9. He was DIT, Sadic, a juit man and perfe& ia his generation. Alllcience, and every ufeful art were attributed to him; and through his fous they were tranfmitted to poiterity. He fup- pofes that the Cabiri were the fame with the Cnretes, Cory- bantes, Telchines, and the Idzi Da&tyli of Crete. How- ever, in treating of them, great confufion has arifen from not coofidering that both the deity and prieft were com- prehended’ under the fame title. Hence it has happened, that the appellation of Cabiri has been ufed by the ancients indifferently, to fignify the gods in whofe honour certain myfteries were inflituted, the inftitutors of thefe myfteries, and the principal hicrophants who officiated in them. From the account that has been already given from Sanchoni- athon of the origin of the Cabirian deities, it is reafon- able to imagine, that they were perfons eminently diftin- uifhed for their exploits, and for the invention of arts ufe- Fil to mankind; and that on this account they were dei- fied by the Phaicians; and we may eafily conceive, that the mavigators who firft paffed from Phernicia in- to Greece introduced there the worfhip which they had rendered to the Cabiri, as the inventors of navigation. To this purpofe Diodorus Siculus very juftly obferves, (lib.i. p- 14.) that the Greeks worlhipped for their gods fome heroes and great men, that had formerly been famous in Egypt, whofe lives, or at leaft fhort memoirs of them, had been written at firit io a plain and fimple manner ; but fuc- ceeding writers embellifhed the accounts given of them, by jatermixiag with them various fictions. Diodorus afcribes to the Cabiri the invention of fire, and the art of maaufac- turing iron. Hence it is, that ou a medal of Gordian, and another of Furia Sabina Tranquillina, both ftruck at Carrhae, where the Cabiri were worfhipped, we find the fi- gure of a Cabirus on a column, holding a hammer in his right hand. For the fame reafon, Herodotus (1. iii.) ob- ferves, they were reprefented like Vulcan. We nced not wonder, if we confider the ‘Various ufeful arts that were af- cribed to thefe deified perfons, that they fhould be fo gene- rally honoured. ‘The Pheenicians, Syrians, Egyptians, Greeks, Cypriots, Phrygians, Etrufcans, Latins, Carthagi- niaas, and almoft all the ancient Pagans, manifefted the moit found veneration for the Cabiric mytteries. The name by which they are called denotes the high eftimation in which they were held; for, inftead of deriving it, as fome have done, from the nymph Cabira, or from mount Cabirus in Phrygia, its etymology may more probably be fought in the Hebrew, or Phienician language,in which, the word **Ca- bir” denotes great and powerful; and accordingly, they are defcribed by Caffius Hermina (fee Macrob, Sat. 1. iii. c. 4. p- 376.) as “the great, beneficent, ‘and powerful gods.” We have already obferved, that the honours they re- ceived feem to have originated with the Phoenicians, and’ by their navigators the worfhip of thefe deities was intro- duced into the ifland of Samothrace, where they landed before they paffed over to the coftinent. At Memphis, ia Egypt, they had a’ famous temple, which was held fo fa- ered, according to Herodotus (1. iii. c. 37.), that no per- fon, excepting the prietts, was fuffered to enter within its: walls. In feveral cities of Syria the worfhip.of thefe dei- ties prevailed. At Cabira in Pontus, they had one of the molt magnificent temples in the world. In Phrygia alfo, and Cilicia, there are evident traces of the fame kind of worfhip. The Cabiritic rites were alfo praGtifed at Imbros and Lem- nos; and they prevailed likewife in Greece, and particu- larly at Theba, in Beotia: and as their chief province re- Jated to the fea and fhipping, they were more efpecially implored by mariners for fuccefs in their voyages. When - the worfhip of the Cabiri was introduced from Pheenicia, or Egypt, into Greece, it underwent various modifications and changes, as the Greeks were too proud to acknow- ledge themfelves indebted, even for their fuperttition, to» ftrangers. Accordingly, they altefed the names of their gods, and difguiled their origin. By fome of the Greek writers, they are reprefented asthe fons of Jupiter and Cal- liope; by others, as the fons of Jupiter and Eleétra, or of Jupiter and Leda. Some refer Jupiter himfelf, and Bac- chus, to the clafs of Cabiri; and others fay they were the fons of the Sun and Minerva: others pretend that their mother was the nymph Cabira, the daughter of Proteus, and their father, Vulcan; and‘it is thought, that one of their fons is reprefented on the medals of ‘Vheffalonica, un- der the name of CABETPOC, holding in one hand a ham-- mer, fuch as Vulcan is reprefevted with on the ancient monuments, and drefled, like him, with a cap on the head. The worfhip of Vulcan aad his fons was eftablifhed in Eyypt, in the ifles of Lemnos, and in other places, where they were honoured under the name of Cabiri, for having invented corn and the manufaQture of it. As for particular names which the Greeks gave to the Cabiri, thofe which molt frequently occur are Caftor and Pollux, the fons of” Jupiter aud Leda. Thefe Grecian gods were reprefented as Cabirian deities on fome of the Greek medals of Myrcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Thefe were alfo known by the names of Jafion and Dardanus, the fons of Jupiter aad Eleétra ; and alfo by thofe of Alcon and Eurimedon, the fons of Vulcan and Cabira, to whom is afcribed a fon called , Camillus, or Cadmillus, 7. ¢. Mercury. According to Ci- cero, three others, called Tritopacrens, Eubuleus, and Dio- nylius, were the fons of Jupiter and Proferpine. Mnafeas, a Phoenician author, has, according to Jofephus, mentioned three others; viz: Axicros, faid by fome to be Ceres, and by others Jupiter; Axiocherfa, or Proferpine ;, and. Axiae cherfos, or Pluto. The nature of the myfteries of the Cabiri,. and the rites: of which they confifted, are not afcertained. ‘They were difclofed only to the initiated, and penalties were annexed to: the crime of divulging them.. ‘The mylteries of Ceres Ca- biria in Bocotia were the fame with thofe. of the Cabiri in Samothrace: and it has been faid by Clemens Alexandrinus, in {peaking of the worthip of thefe deities among the Etruf- cans, that they were kept fecret under a penalty, on ac- count of the infamy that attended them, ‘The Pelafgi, Sa- mothracians,, Cc A.B mothracians, and others, celebrated them in the night, aud, as it isrelated, with great indecency ; and to this cir- cumftanee it is owing, that they have tran{fmitted no written account of them to polterity. The « phallus’? is faid to have been one of their fymbols in the Cabirian myfteries of Samothrace. M. de St. Croix in his «Memoirs concern- ing the facred Religion of ancient Nations,” (Paris, 1784), fuggefts, that the origin of the ufe of this fymbol was as follows. Cadmillus, the youngelt of the Cabiri, having been killed by two of his brothers, who cut off his privities and fled to mount Olympus, where they buried them ; this Cabiri’s death was commemorated by that fymbol, and by many various expreffions of grief on the part of the initiated. This author, combining the above relation of Herodotus with a paffage in Paufanias, where the myfteries of the Ca- biri are faid to have been founded ona “ prefent that was made to them by Ceres’? concludes, that this * prefent,”’ which Paufanias did not dare to fpecify, was no more than the obfcure reprefentatiou of the mutilated parts of Cadmil- lus; and this, he adds, was the venerable object that was committed to the cuftody of the Veftals in after-times, asa facred pledge of the fafety of Rome, whither the Samothra- cian pricits, who took refuge in Italy, carried the religions rites and myfteries of the Cabini. Whether this account be true or not, it is certain that the “ phallus”? was introduced under one form or name or another into the religious myfte- ries of ancient nations, and that the celebration of thefe myfteries was accompanied with many indecorous rites. Under the appellation of Cabiri, the ancients comprehended divinities of each fex, of all ages, of every rank and condi- tion, celeftial, terreftrial, maritime, and infernal, to which they appropriated various attributes. T'o fome of the Ca- birl, who were the inventors of navigation, they afcribed the difcovery of iron; to others, the origin of laws, letters, and writing ; and to others again the difcovery of various modes of incantation and magic, the medical ufe of plants, &c. ke. The worfhip that was paid to them in different places referred more direétly or indireétly to thofe feveral attributes. Such was the eltimation in which thefe deities were held in the remote ages of antiquity, and afterwards by the Greeks under various appellations, by which they were diftinguifhed, that princes and perfons of rank reforted to Samothrace in order to be initiated into their mytteries. Accordingly, we find that Cadmus, Orpheus, Hercules, Caftor and Pollux, Ulyffes, and other heroes of the Tro- jan war, Philip the father of Alexander, and many others, made a voyage to this ifland, probably, under a notion that they might derive fuccour from the Cabirian deities in tempefts and perilous voyages. Such was the veneration in which the Cabiri were held in the ifland of Samothrace, that it was thought an act of irreverence even to pronounce their names. Thofe who were admitted to the facred ceremonies performed in honour of thefe deities ufed to affemble in a wood, which became a place of refuge for offenders, and was more re{pected than even the temple of Delphi or the ifland of Delos. To this ifland, Perfes, king of Macedon, fled for refuge, and took up his iabitation in a temple of Caftor and Pollux, hoping that tse Romans would not pro- fane a fanétuary revered by all the nations of the world; and, indeed, the Romans did not make any attempt upon his life or perfon fo long as he continued there. Of all the oaths that were in ufe among the ancients, that by the gods of Samothrace was deemed the mo‘ facred and invio- lable. Thofe who were found to have falfified this oath, were looked upon as the curfe of mankind, and perfons de- voted to deftrution. Of courfe, thefe myfteries were highly refpected, and care was taken that they fhould not CAB be revealed. With this view, the priefts hada language pe- culiar to themfelves, which was not underftood by the people. The Corybantes were the minifters of thefe myf- teries, not only at Lemnos and Imbros, but through the whole of Phrygia. For a more ample account of the va- ricus opinions of the fabulous ages, with regard to the names, origin, number, attributes, mytfteries, and worfhip of the Cabiri, the reader, who ts defirous of further informa- tion, may confult the writings of Clemens Alexandrinus, and Bochart. See Ceres, Evtusis, and Mysterizs. See alfo CoryBANTES, CureTes, and Droscurt. Casrat is alfo ufed to denote the Gabri, ov Perfian fire- worfbippers. Hyde de Rel. Perfarum, cap. 29. See Ga- BRES. Casirt, in Ancient Geography, a people who inhabited the vicinity of mount Ida. Strabo fays, that in his time, many fuppofed them to be the fame with the Curetes. See Caziri, fupra. CABIRIA, in Mythology, a furname of Ceres, who was the principal Cabirian deity: fhe had a facred grove under this name in Beeotia. Casiria, KeGseso, religious feafts inftituted in honour of the gods Cabiri. They were celebrated at firft at Lem- nos, afterwards adopted by the inhabitants of the iflands of Samothrace and Imbros, and from thence pafled into Greece to Athens, and particularly to Thebes, where they became famous. Thefe feafts were very ancient, and prior even to the time of Jupiter; who is faid to have reftored them: they were held by night. Children above a certain age were here confecrated ; which confecration was fuppofed to be a pre- fervative againit al] dangers of the fea, &c. The ceremony of confecration called Yeowers, or Seowirp0s, q. d. enthronizing, confifted in placing the initiated youth on a throne, the priefts dancing round him: the badges of the initiated were a purple girdle or fcarf, and a crown of olive, When a perfon had committed any murder, the cabiria gave him an afylum.—Meurfius is very particular in the proof of each of thefe points. CABIRIDES, nymphs, who were the daughters of Vulcan and Cabira. CABIRUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afia Minor, in Phrygia.—Alfo, a river of Afia, in the territory of the Suerii, at the mouth of which was good anchorage. Pliny. CABISTRA, a town of Cappadocia, mentioned by Ci. cero in his Letters, lib, xv. Epift. 11. ad Senat. & ad Attic. lib. v. Epift. 18. CABLE, in Navig- tion, a thick, long, three-ftrand rope, ordinarily of hemp, ferving to hold fhips firm at anchor, and to tow veffels in large rivers. In Europe, the cables are com- monly made of hemp; in Africa, of long ftraw, or rufhes called 4a/s ; and in Afia, of a peculiar kind of Indian grafs. The word cable comes from the Hebrew word chebe/, cord. Dn-Cange derives it fromthe Arabic, sad/, cord, or habala, vincire: Menage, from capulum, or cabulum ; and that from the Greek xzxAo:, or the Latin camelus. The termcable is fometimes alfoapplied tothe cordage ufed to raife mafly loads, by means of cranes, wheels, and other like engines; though in itrictnefs, cable is not to be applied to ropes of lefs than three inches in circumference. Every cable, of whatever thicknefs it be, is compofed of three ftrands ; each ftrand of three twilts; and each twift of a certain number of caburns, or threads of rope yarn, more or lefs, as the cable is to be thicker or {maller. Every merchant-veflel, how {mall foever, has three cables ; viz. the main or mafter-cable, which is that of the chief anchor, e CAB anchor, called the fheet-cable : and the two bowers, beft and {mall. The ordinary length of the great cable is 120 fathoms or braces. To make a cable; after forming the ftrands, they ufe ftaves : which they firlt pafs between the ftrands that they may turn the better, and be intertwifted the more regularly together. And to prevent any entangling, a weight is hung at the end of each ftrand. The cable, being properly twifted, neither too much, fo as to become {fliff, nor.too little, fo as to be weakened, is untwilted again three or four turns, that the reft may the better retain its ftate. The ufual allow- ance for the diminution of length by twifting, is one-third of the whole; fo that fora cable of 120 fathoms, the rope- yarn muit be 180 fathoms long. The number of threads which each kind of cable is to be compofed of, is always proportioned to its length and thick- nefs ; and it is by this number of threads that its weight and value are afcertained. Suppofing, then, the lengths to be equal the number of threads and the weights will be as the areas of their bafes, or, which comes to the fame, as the fquares of their circumferences. Having then the weight and number of threads of any one cable, we may eafily calculate the following table. See Aubin’s Marine Diionary.) Circumference. Threads. Weight. 3 Inches . 48- - 142 Pounds “ : > Ve F 308 5 - ~ TZ - 484 6 - = 174 - 695 7 = - 238 . 952 8 - eo SY t - 1244 9 : a as = 1572 10 - - 485 - 1940 ir - - 593 - 2392 12 - - 699 - 2796 13 - - 821 - 3284 14 - - 952 - 3808 15 a aE 2OgS = 4372 16 - - 1244 . 4976 17 = - 1404 - 5616 18 - ELEY fey - 6296 19 - - 1754 - 7016 20 = EEA OSS FE 7772 Several falutary laws refpe¢ting the manufacture of cables have been made in the reign of his prefent majefty, Geo. III. See z5 Geo. Hil. c. 56. It has alfo been enaéted, that commanders of vefiels belonging to Britith fubjeéts, having on board foreign made cordage, fhall make entry thereof at their arrival into any Britifh port ; and the malter making default herein, all fuch foreign cordage as fhall be on board fhall be forfeited to his majefty ; and fhall for every fuch offence forfeit the fum ot 20s. for every hundred weight thereof. Inthe French marine, the circumference of the largeft cable is one twenty-fourth part of the extreme breadth of the thip; or half the breadth in feet will be the circum- ference in inches. Thus, the circumference of the largett cable of a thip, whofe extreme breadth is 22 feet, will be 16 joches. The length of a cable is 120 fathoms, each § French feet. The weight of one fathom of cable in Frenc pounds is nearly equal to one-tenth of twice the fquare of the circumference ; and, coufequently, the weight of a whole cable will be nearly equa! to twenty-four times the fquare of the circumference. The weight of an anchor is half the * weight of the cable to which it belongs, Caste, bit the. See Bits. CAB Casres, Bower, thofe belonging to the beft and {mall bower anchors, and are named accordingly. Casts, clinch a, is to run it through the hawfe-hole and the ring of the anchor, three or four fathoms in length ; then haul the bight up in the head, and pafs the end of the cable over the bight, and through the ring betweea it and its own part ; then pafs the cable bends, and crofs them with ftrands, well greafed, one at the end, and the other about one foot from the end; and be careful not to form the clinch larger than the ring of the anchor. Caste, coil the, to make it up in a circular or elliptical form, for the convenience of {towing it; each complete round or tura of the cable is called a fake, and one range of fakes along-fide of each other is called a tier. There are generally aes five to feven fakes ina tier, and three or four tiers in the whole length ofacable ; but this depends on the length of a fake, and the number contained ina tier. Seve- ral authors, and particularly Mefirs. Hutchinfon and Gower, have recommended that all cables fhould be coiled the fame way they bit, or the way they run round the windlafs, and their tiers fhould be on the fide oppofite to that on which they lead. The beft bower, which is in general the working cable, fhould lead foremoft up the hatchway, then the {mall bower, and, abaft all, the fheet, which, being the leaft wanted, caa be made up fnug round the fore part of the hatchway, out of the way. Should new cables come immediately from the rope-walk, let them be coiled down into the craft that is to bring them on board the fame way they are to be coiled on board. A cable generally kinks from more turns being forced into it by the coiling than it naturally had ; the kinks may, however, be avoided, either by coiling the cable againft the fun, or with the fun, and the end taken through the coil, and the cable coiled down in the tier the way required. It fhould be a rule, in coiling cables, never to lay out near the hatchway, but to keep that part of the tier as low as poffible, that the bends may have fufficient room to upfet. Were all cables firft coiled down from the rope-walk againft the fun, they would be better adapted to coil on either fide of a fhip, for a cable coiled againit the fun, will more eafily reverfe, and have lefs kinks in it than a cable coiled with the fun. Casce, cut the. When a hhip is riding at anchor in an open bay or road-ftead in a gale of wind, it many times be- comes neceflary, for the aidlenaabs of the fhip and crew, to cut the cable witha hatchet at the hawfe-holes or at the bits, when it cannot be purchafed, and ftand out to fea, under any convenient fail that it may be poffible to fet. This may be alfo neceflary when compelled to fly from or purfue an enemy. Ifa fhip parted her cable, the infurance would be loft. See Slip the Cance. CaBLe, rim See Corr. Cante-/aid, any rope laid in the fame manner as a cable. Casre’s length, is 120 fathoms, each 6 feet. The diftance between two adjacent fhips of war, when formed into the line of battle, is appointed to be one or more cables’ length, according to circumttances. The,method of keeping the fhip in its proper pofition with refpeé to the one next a head, is to calculate the angle which the whole or any parti- cular portion of the main-maft of that fhip would fubtend at a propofed diftance. Then if the avvzle obferved by a quadrant is the fame as that by calculation, the fhip is in her proper ftation ; if greater, the is too far a-head, and theres fore fome fail muft be raken in; betif lefs, the fhip is too far aftern, and more {» | muft he fet in order to regain her ftation. If the main top gallant truck be brought to coin- cide with a mak, the fime height above the water as the obferver, this angle is found as follows; from the saa 0 CABLE. *of the given height, its index being increafed by ro, fubtrad the logarithm of the aflizned diflance, the remainder will be the log. tangent of the required angle. But if there is no fixed mark, and in that cafe the angle fubtended by the .diitance between the truck and the water is to be obferved, the meafure of this angle may be found by calculation as follows: from the height of the truck above the water ' fabtra& the height of the obferver; from the log. of the re- mainder, its index being increafed by 10, fubtraé the log. of the diftance, the remainder will be the log. taigent of anarch; and from the log. of the height of the obferver, its index increafed by to, fubtraét that of the diftance, the re- mainder will be the log. tangent of an arch ; the fum of thefe two arches will be the angle required. Example. Let the affigned diftance between two adjacent fbips be one cable’s length or 720 feet, the height of the mai-top-gallant truck of the thip a-head above the water 190 feet, and the height of the obferver’s eye 24 feet; requir- ed the angle fubtended by the mait ? Height truck 190 Height obferver 24 log. 1.38021 Difference 166 log. 2.22 Diltance 720 5 Arch tangent 9.36278 1 Angle required 14 54. See alfo. Dr. Mackay’s Navigation, p. 224. Carte, link worming of a, is an operation performed for preferving it in rocky and ftony ground, or defending it againft ice. Yor this purpofe chains are twilted round cables in the following manner. Take three chains, each about 15 fathoms in length, and all of an equal fize, and in thicknefs proportioned to the purpofe to which they are adapted. Jet thefe be wound round the cable, fo that they may pro- je&t fufficiently to fufiain the greatelt part of the friction, one end of them being faftened to the ring of the anchor, and each chain being from thence wormed round its refpec- tive hollow cr channel of the cable, fo as not to prevent its {tretchmg. Faiten the other ends of the chain to the cable. The chains need not be very heavy : but the links fhould be fhort, becaufe they will thus be more pliant, and worm more eafily. Thefe chains will effeQually guard the cable againit the chafing of the rocks, and they may be put on ina few minutes, fo thac it is not neceflary to have them fitted on but when they are likely to be ferviceable. As the weight of the three chains, even for a large cable, will not exceed 500 pounds, the only remaining dificulty is that which arifes tram the {mallnefs of the hawfe-holes; in order to obviate this, the holes may be enlarged ; and with the additional aid of a boy or {pare maa at the head of the veffel, to caft off the chains as they come up, and hand them in above, every inconventence will be removed. But if it fhould require a few minutes more to weigh an anchor fo fecured than a common one, this can be no argument againft a meafure that tends to preierve and enfure the fafety of the veffel and of the fhip’s company. In high latitudes, where ice may cut er damage the cables, while riding at anchor, the ufe of three other chains fuch as the preceding, but not more than five er fix fathoms in length may be recommended. Thefe may be wormed round the cables in the fame manner at the furface of the water, and will be an excellent means of guarding them from the preffure of the ice fo as to prevent its either wounding them or chafing them quite afunder. . Casce, heave in the, the order to draw itiato the fhip by means of the windlafs or capitan. CaBLs, pay away, veer, or give oul mare, that is to flacke® the cable that it may run out of the fhip. Caste, ferve the, is to pind it round with ropes, old canvas, leather, or other mat rials, to prevent it from being galled or fretted in the hawfe by friction. A piece of tanned horfe-hide, big enough to be wrapped two or three times round the cable, has been recommended as the belt kind of fervice to prevent it from chafing or fretting in a ftorm: this fervice is alfo eafily put on aud taken off. The method of putting it on the cable is firft to wrap two or three folds of old canvas, the length of the leather-lervice, which if too_ ftiff to put on dry, requires only to be dipped in water, and beat agaiatt-any wood, which will make 1t {-ft and pliable. Then wrap it as tight as poffible npon the old canvas round the cable, tying it tight and fmooth on with fennit, or three- yarn nittles, made for that purpode, grealing them and the fervice very well before veering it into the hawle-hole, It may be obferved that all cables fhould be ferved againit the lay. Cane, fheet-anchor, the largefk cable belonging to a fhip. Case, /hot of the. See Suor. Cazce, /plice a, isto join or conncé two pieces of cable, or two cables together, by interweaving their itrands. The fnuggeft and beft method of fplicing a cable, is to put the ends in twice each way; then to pick out the ftrands, aud worm part of them round the cable, and taper away the ret, which let be fnuggly marled down. After this, let there be clapped ona good throat, and two end feizings of fix thread ratline. The ftrands of the fmall bower and ftream cables had better be pointed, that thefe cables may be more brifisly fpliced in cafe of neceflity. Caste, flip the, is to let it run quite out, when there is not time to weigh the anchor. Slipping the cable, if time will permit, is preferable to cutting it, as the ancnor and cable are thus preferved. Befure it is eituer cut or flipped, a {pare buoy-rope fhould be pafled through the hawte-hole, and faftened near the ead with a roiling-hitch; the end fhould be wormed in the cunt-line and ttopped, that it may be eafily regained. Caste, flowing the. See Srowinc. Cance, fream, a hawfer or rope a little fmaller than the bower cables, ufed to moor a {hip ma river or haven, which is fheltered from the wind and fea. Case fier, the hollow fpace in the middle of a cable when it is coiled. Case Jfland, in Geography, a {mall rocky ifland, the refort of fea-fowl, on the fouthern coalt of Ireland, form- ing the fouth-weftern point of Youghal bay. On the north fide of it is good anchorage. . W. lonp.17°) 50's 4 Nevlat. Ea Sak CABLED, in Heraldry, is applied to a crofs formed of the two ends of a fhip’s cable ; fometimes alfo to a crofs covered over with rounds of rope; more properly called a crofs corded. CABLET, in Sea Language, denotes any cable-laid rope under nine inches in circumference. Cablets ufed for tow lines or hawfers, require the ftrands to be laid fhorter than cable ftrands, but not fo fhort-laid in clofing; for, being ufed in water, they would become ftiff, hard, un- handy to coil away, and lable to break in cold weather. Yarn for ropes of this fort fhould be finer than for cables, and fpun to run from 18 to 20 threads to three inches in circumference. It fhould not be much tarred, as the tar would ooze owt and the ftrands kink, I CABLIAU, CAB CABLIAU of Strém. sindm, in Ichthyology, the com- mon cod-fihh, Gapus Moruvaof modern naturalilts. In the Linn. Fn. Suec. it is called Causitra, CABLING, in Archite@ure, the figure of a ftaff, or reed, either plain or carved, in refemblance of a rope, ora ruth, wherewith a third part of the flutings of a column are fometimes filled up; hence called cabled flutings. There are alfo cad/ings in relievo without fluting, e{peci- ally on certain pilafters, as in the church of Sapienza at Rome. See Frures. CABLISH, Cabdjicia, in the Fore? Law, denotes bruh, or browfe-wood ; though Spelman takes it more properly to fignify trees or branches, thrown down by the wind; from- the French chablis, or bois chablis, which denotes the fame. CABO, in Geography, akingdom of Africa, in Nigri- tia, fituate tothe fouth of the Rio Grande, and near the fource of the Cafamavka, about 150 leagues from its mouth. Little is known concerning it; but fome voyagers affert that the king is rich and powerful, and that in time of peace he keeps 7000 men well armed, in order to command due ref- pect from his neighSours. Caso Corfo, or on -Coaft, acape and fa&tory of Africa, on the Gold coaft. N, lat. 5° 16’. W. Jong. 2° 8. Cazo de Cruz, a bold point of land on the fouth fide of the ifland of Cuba. N. lat. 19° 37’. W. long. 78° 28’. Caso de St. Juan, the north-eaiternmoft point of the ifland of Porto Rico. N. lat. 18° 30'. CABOCHED, Casosuep, or Casossep, formed from the obfolete French caboche, from caput, head, in Heraldry, is where the head of a beaft is cut off behind the ears, by a fe€tion parallel to the face ; or by a perpendicular feétion: in contradiftinétion to couped, which is done by a horizontal line; befides that it is farther from the ears than cabo/fing. The head in this cafe is placed full-faced, or affrontée, {fo that no part of the neck is vifible. This bearing is by fome called Trunked. CABOCHON, in Conchology, the name given by Ar- ville to the Linnzan Paretta equestris; which fee. CABOCLES, in Modern Hiflory, aname given in the Welt Indies by the Portuguefe to thofe produced between Americans and Negroes. CABOLIT 2, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia placed by Ptolemy in Paropamifus. CABOMBA, in Botany. See Necrris. CABOT, Sesastian, in Biography, an eminent navi- tor, the fon of a Venetian pilot diikinguithed by his fkill in the fame art, and often refident in England, was born at Briftol about the year 1477, and inftruéted by his father in thofe branches of mathematical fcience which were ne- ceffary for forming a fkilful feaman. Before he had attained the age of 17 years, he made many trips to fea; thus adding an acquaintance with the pra¢tical part of navigation to the knowledge of its theory. In his firft voyage of any im- portance, he accompanied his father for the difcovery of unknown lands, and particularly for exploring a north-weft paflageto the Eaft Indies. John Cabot, encouraged in this attempt by the difcoveries of Columbus, who returned from his firft expedition in 1493, obtained, in 1495, letters patent from king Henry VII, empowering him and his three fons to difcover, conquer, and fettle Jands then unkiown, inrecompence of which they were to be invefted with many ae The king, however, referved to himfelf one- fth part of the neat profits, and reftricted them to return from their voyage into the port of Briflol. Accordingly in the following year he prepared for his expedition, and obtained the king’s permiffion to take up fix fhips of 200 or aie and under, in any harbour of the realm, and to or. V. CAB engage a fufficient number of mariners. — His majefty was at the expence of fitting one fhip at Briftol, and the mer- chants of that city and of London added three or four {mall veflels, freighted with fuitable commodities, With this fleet John Cabot and his fon Sebaitian fet fail in the Spring of 1497, and purfued their courfe till the 24th of June, when they ditcovered the ifland of ‘ Baccalaos,” fo called from the fifh which they found in great abundance on its coaft, but now known by the name of Newfoundland. Another adjoining ifland they called St. John, probably from the Saint’s day on which it was difcovered. On this ifland, as they fuppofed it to be, which was the fouth-weft part of Newfoundland, they found inhabitants who were cloathed with the fkins of beafts, and who ufed bows, ar- rows, pikes, darts, wooden clubs, and flings. Three of thefe natives were brought with them to England... It is fuppofed, however, that Sebaftian had made tome voyages of difcovery in the reign of Henry VII. without his father; and that in fome of thefe he failed as far northas 67 anda half, but was prevented from proceeding farther by the mu- tiny of his failors. After the difcovery of Newfoundland, Cabot and his fon failed down to Cape Florida; and on their return to England they were well received, as they were the firft navigators who had atually feen the continent of America; Columbus not having obieryed it till the fol- lowing year. During the fueceeding period of 2. years,there is a chafm in the hiltory of Sebattian’s tranfactions ; nor is it certain when or where his father died, though he proba- bly terminated his life in England, to which he appears to have been much attached. In the 8th year of the reign of king Henry VEIT. we find that Sebaftian Cabot had formed an intimate connection with fir Thomas Pert, then vice-ad- miral of England ; and that he had obtained by his intereft with the king, a good fhip for the purpofe of profecuting his difeoveries. It feemsto have been at this time his inten- tion to have failed by the fouth to the Eaft Indies, and with this view he failed firft to Brazil; but difappointed in his purpofe through the timidity of his coadjutor, fir Thomas Pert, as Hakluyt afferts, he direéted his courfe to the iflands of Hifpaniola and Porto Rico, and having trafficked here for fome time, he returned to England. Thus difap- pointed in his views, he left England and removed to Spain, where he was very re{pectfully received and appointed pilot- major, for the purpofe of reviewing all projects of difcovery, which were, at that period, numerous ai important. In the year 1524, many opulent merchants entered into a treaty with him, and engaged to defray the charges of an expe- dition to the Moluceas, or Spice iflands, by the new-found paflage of Magellan. Accordingly he fet fail from Cadiz with four fhips, in April 1525; and proceeded firft to the Canaries, then to the Cape Verd iflands, and afterwards to Cape St. Augufltine, and to the ifland of Patos, or Geefe. At the bay of Au. Saints he was liberally fupplied with provifions, for which he made avery ungrate- ful return by forcibly carrying away four fons of the prin- cipal perfons of the ifland. He then proceeded to the river La Pista, and landed on a defert ifland Martin Men- dez, his vice-admiral, captain Francis de Rojas, and Mi+ chael de Rojas, where he left them becaufe sha had cen- fured his conduét. Being prevented by a mutiny among his men and by fearcity of provifions from profeeuting his voyage to the Spice Iflands, he failed about 30 leagues up the river La Plata, and found an ifland which he called St. Gabriel, about a learne in compafs and half a league from the continent towards Brazil; and having difcovered about three leagues higher a river which he named St. Salvador, and which, being very deep, afforded a good harbour, he brought 4 N up CAB up his veflels and unloaded them. Here he built a fort; and advancing with boats 30 leagues higher, he found ano- ther river, called Zarcarana, and conftru€ted onthe banks of it, as the inhabitants were intelligent and not unfriendly, another fort, called by himfelf Santi Spiritus, or of the Holy Ghoft, and by his followers Cabot’s fort. He afterwards difcovered the fhores of the river Parana, with Several iflands and rivers, and at length arrived at the river Paraguay, where he found people tilling the ground; a circumf{tance which had not before occurred to him in that part of the world. Jn a confli& with the Indians, by whom he was oppofed, he killed many of them, but 25 of his own men were fiain, and three taken prifoners. During this winter he fell in with James Garcia, who had been dif- patched from Galicia forthe purpofe of making difcoveries, and having returned together to tne fort of the Holy Ghoft, they fent meffengers to Spain. The two perfons that were deputed by Cabot gave a very favourable account of the countries adjoining to the river La Plata which he had fub- dued, and produced gold, filver, and other valuable com- modities, as teftimonies to their commander’s good condu. At the fame time they demanded a fupply of provifions and ammunition, as well as other articles adapted to the pur- pofes of commerce, together with a recruit of feamen and foldiers, The merchants, however, who had fitted out Cabot’s fquadron, were unwilling to comply with thefe requifitions, and chofe to furrender their rights to the crown of Caftile. But the king delayed the neceffary preparations fo long, that Cabot, who had been five years employed in this expedition, and who was tired with waiting for ne- neffary fupplies, determined to return home. Accordingly he embarked his men and effeéts on board the largeft of his fhips, leaving the reft behind him; and arrived at the Spanifh court in the fpring of the year 1531. Inthe mean while prejudices had been excited againft him, on account of the rigour with which he had treated the Spanifh muti- neers, and becaufe he had not proceeded to the Moluccas; fo that his reception was not favourable. However, he re- tained his place, and continuedin the fervice of Spain for many years: till at length, for reafons with which we are not acquainted, he refolved to return to England. This took place towards the latter end of the reign of Henry VIII. at which time he refided at Briftol. In the com- mencement ofthe following reign he was introduced firft to the proteétor, lord Somerfet, and by him to king Edward VI. who took great pleafure in his conyerfation, and granted him, in 1549, a penfion of 166]. 13s. 4d. a year; an an- nuity which was allowed him, according to Hakluyt, as grand pilot of England. From this timehe was highly favoured by the king, and confulted upon all commercial matters. In May 1552, the king granted a licence, together with letters of fafe condu@, to {uch perfons as were willing to embark on board three fhips, deftined for exploring a patlage by the north to the Faft Indies. The enterprife was undertaken by the advice and recommendation of Cabot, then governor of the company of merchant-adventurers ; andhe furnifhed neceflary dire€tions, which evinced both his wifdom and integrity. Tor his trouble and charge in this bufinefs, his majefty prefented him with a gratuity of 200]. ‘This expedition was entrufted to the command of fir Hugh Willoughby, and it produced the difcovery of the important trade to Archangel, which fee. Cabot was alfo appointed by royal charter governor for life of the Ruffia company, in whofe concerns he took a very ative part ; and in 1555 letters patent were iffued, by which their majelties Philip and Mary, granted him an annuity of 1661. 13s. 4d. during his life. In April 1556, he appears to have res CAB tained the habitual ardour of his mind for the profecution of difcoveries; for he vifited Mr. Burroughs at Gravefend on board his {mall veffel deftined for Ruffia, and gave a liberal entertainment to the {ailors on this occafion. This is the laft circumftance that is recorded concerning him; and he is fup- pofed to have died in the following year, when he had pro- bably attained the age of nearly So years. He wasa fkilful navigator, and poffefied in histime avery high reputation, To his capacity, integrity, and zeal, fociety was very much indebted. The variation of the compafs was firft obferved by him. See Variation. Cabot publifhed a large map, which was engraved by Clement Adams, and hung up in the privy gallery at Whitehall ; and on this map was infcribed a Latin account of the difcovery of Newfoundland. He alfo publith- eda work entitled ‘* Navigatione nelle Parte Settentrionali,”’ printed at Venice in 1583, fol. ; and his inftruétions above referred to were printed in Hakluyt’s voyages. Biog. Brit. Cazort, in Geography, atownfhip of America, in the county of Caledonia and ftate of Vermont, fituate on the height of land between lake Champlain and Conneéticut river, about 17 miles from the 15 mile falls in this river, and containing 349 inhabitants, Canort’s Head, a promontory extending far into lake Huron, W. of Gloceiter, and embaying a great part of the lake at its eaftern extremity. CABOTE, in Jchthyology. See Corax. CABOURG, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of Calvados, and diftriét of Caen, 10 miles N. of it. CABBA,a town of Spain in Andalufia, fituate at the foot of a mountain, near the fource ofa river of the fame name, containing, befides a church and fix convents, a college for the fludy of philofophy and divinity ; 25 miles S.E. of Cordova, Cabra, an inconfiderable town of Portugal, in the pro- vince of Beira; zo miles E.S.E. of Vifeu. Casra, or Kasra, a town of Africa in the kingdom of Tombuéioo, fituate on the river Guin, or Neel Abeed, weft of the ifland Iinbala or Guinbala, and about 12 miles S. of Tombuétoo, of which it is the port. It is a large town without walls anda place of great trade. The inhabitants are faid to be fubjeé to difeafes that are attributed to the heterogeneous qualities of their food, which is ufually a far- rago of milk, fifh, flefh, butter, oil, and wine. Here refides a judge, whois appointed by the king for deciding all con- troverfies. N. lat. 16°24!. E. long. 1° 30. CABRAL, or Casrera, Pepro Atvarez, in Biogra- phy, a Portuguefe navigator, who commanded the fecond fleet fitted out in 1500 for the Eaft [ndies by Emanuel king of Portugal. Anxious to avoid the coaft of Africa in the courfe of his voyage, he ftood out far to fea, and after a month’s failing, was driven by a tempetft on the fhore of an unknown country, which proved to be that part of South America, now called Brafil. Having landed at Santa Cruz on the 24th of April, 1500, he took poffeflion of the whole country for the crown of Portugal. (See Brasiz.) From this new coaft he proceeded to Sofala in Africa, whither he arrived after having loft fix of his thirteen fhips; and from thence he failed to Calicut where he obtained leave of the fovereign, or zamorin, to form a commercial eftablifh- ment. Some time after there occurred a jealoufy between him and the inhabitants, which produced hoftilities, in the couife of which Cabral burnt feveral fhips inthe port, and battered the town, fo that the zamorin was at length obliged to acquiefce in the terms that were propofed. He afterwards went to Cananor, where he made a treaty with the prince ; and in 1501 he returned to Portugal witha rich cargo. He publifhed an account of this voyage, printed in an Italian tranflation by Ramufio at Venice. Having gained reputa- 2 tion CAB tion by his difcoveries and exploits, he died in his own coun try. oa Dit. Hits. Cazrat, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the territory of Cordova; 3 miles N.W. of Lucena, CABRE, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 30 miles S. of Spiritu Santo. CABRELLA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Eftremadura ; 74 leagues E.S.E. of Setuval. CABRERA, Lat. Caprarias a fmallifland in the Mediter- ranean, deriving its uame from the number of goats upon it. It is mountainous and defert ; no part being inhabited ex- cept its port, which is large and fafe, and the entrance of which, oppolite to Majorca, is defended by a caitle and a {mall fon. Under the weft end of the ifland there is ie Criminals aye banifhed into this ifland; 24 agus 8 om Majorca.—Alfo, a {mall ifland near the nD coaft of the ifland of Sardinia, N. lat. 41° 15’. E. long. 9° 27'.—Alfo, another ifland, named likewife Capraa, lying about E.N.E. from Cape Corfe, on the north point of Carica, nearly N. from the weft end of the Elbe Ifland.— Alfo, another ifland E. of the ifland Sapienza, at the S.W. point of the Morea.—Alfo, another ifland in the gulf of Venice, not far from the coaft of Italy, and nearly north from mount St. Angelo, or the gulf of Varennes. CABRERA j/land, lies on the fouth coaft of Candia ifland, S. of the Archipelago iflands, about twelve leagues E.N.E. from the ifland of Goza. On the eaft of it is a fair bay, in which is a good road; and another to the welt. CABRERES, a town of France, in the department of the Lot, and diffi of Cahors; 13 miles E.N.E. of it. CABRES, //ha del, or Goat ifland, a {mall ifland belong- ing to Africa, near the coa{t of Guinea, at a {mall diftance from the ifland of St. Thomas. It is mountainous and co- vered with lemcn-trees. CABRETA, cape, lies on the coaft of Spain, 5 leagues E. from the ifland Tariffa, and the wefternmoft point of the great bay of Gibraltar. CABRIEL, a river of Spain which runs into the Xucar, foon after it enters Valencia. CABRIERES, a town of France, in the county of Ve- naiffin, the inhabitants of which were ordered to be mafla- cred by an arret of parliament in 1545, under the pretext of religion ; 3 leagues N. of Cavaillon. ABRILLA, in Jchthyology, a {pecies of Perca, found in the Mediterranean fea, the body of which is marked with four longitudinal fanguineous bands. Linn. Muf. Ad. Fr. CABRITA ifland, in Geography, See Carrea. CABROL, Bazrruotomew, im Biography, a native of Languedoc, received his education in anatomy and furgery, at Montpellier. Returning to his own country, in 1555, he was appointed furgeon to the hofpital of St. Andrew, in that city In 1570 he was invited by the Univerfity of Montpellier to take the office of demonftrator in anato- my ; an office he filled with credit feveral years. In 1594 he _ publifhed an anatomical treatife, underthetitle of “ Alphabet Anatomique,” at Tournon, 4to. reprinted at Geneva in 1602, and afterwards tranflated into Latin, with the title of ** Alphabeton Anatomicum,” id eft, «* Anatomes Elenchus accuratiffimus, omnes humani corporis partes, ea qua fecari folent methodo delineans, acceflere ofteologia, obfervationef- ue medicis ac chirurgis perutiles, 1604, Geneva.” In this orm it has been frequently reprinted ; and is valuable, Hal- ler fays, for the number of curious and ufeful obfervations contained in it. It is inferted in a colleétion of treatifes, enti- tled, “ Collegium Anatomicum clariffimorum trium viro- rum, Jaffolini, Severini et Cabrolii, Douglas Bibliog. Haller, Bib. Chir. Eloy. Di&, Hit, CAB CABRON, cape, in Geography, the north-eaft point of Prefque ifle de Samana, in the ifland of St. Domingo, 22 leagues S.E. by E. from old cape Frangois. N. lat. 19° 33! W. long. 68° 40!. CABRUSI, in the Writings of the Ancients, a word fre- quently ufed to exprefs Cyprian, or coming from the ifland of Cyprus. The ancient Greeks had almoft all their vitri- ols and vitriolic minerals from this ifland; they therefore fometimes called thefe cabrufi, without any addition. It is very probable that our word copperas, the common name of green vitriol, is a falfe pronunciation of this word cabrufi. CABUIA, a Weft Indian f{pecies of hemp, produced in the province of Panama, from a plant fomewhat like the chardon or iris; when ripe, they lay it to fleep in water, and after drying it again, beat it with wooden mallets till nothing but the hemp remains, which they afterwards {pin, and make thread and ropes of it ; the former of which is fo hard and tough, that with it they faw iron, by fitting it on a box, and laying a little fine fand over the metal as the work proceeds. CABUL, Casuttsran, or ZaBuristTan, in Geography, acountry of Afia, on the limitsof Hindooftan, and wett of the Indus, which was formerly a province of Perfia, afterwards annexed to the Mogul empire, and comprehended again under the Perfian monarchy in 1739, by Nadir Shah. It is bounded on the north by Kuttore or Caferiftan, and the Hindoo-Kho mountains, which latter feparate Cabul from Balk and Badakfham ; on the weft by the fame mountains and Candahar, on the fouth by Moultan and Lahore, and on the eaft by Cafhmere. This Soubah, under the Mogul em- perors, comprehended the whole fpace between the Indus and the mountains of Hindoo-Kho, being in dimenfions 150 cofles (each cofs being about 1% ftatute mile, (according to the Ayin Acbaree; andthisisits greateftextent; for 10ocofles are given for its breadth between Kurrabagh, fituate 11 royal cofles S.W. of Ghizni, and Chuganferaiat the wefternextremi- ty of Caferiftan. Cabulis confined on the north by thecontinu- ation of Hindoo-Kho; andonthenorth-eait by Caferiftan. To- wards the fouth, or the quarter of Bunguhh, its extent is not afcertained: but as its greateft breadth is included within the fpace between Kurrabagh and Chuganferai, we may con- clude that it cannot extend far beyond the river of Nughz. We have an ample defcription of Cabul in the Ayin Acba- ree; from which, as well as from every other account, it ap- pears to be a country much diverfified by mountains covers ed with eternal fuow, hills of a moderate height and eafy afcent, rich plains and ftately forefts ; and thefe enlivened by innumerable ftreams of water. It produces every article neceflary to human life, together with the molt delicate fruits and flowers. Inthe Ayin Acbaree Cabul is reckoned a part of the foubah of Cafhmere ; but it has been fince, with great propriety, regarded as a foubah of itfelf. Cabul, with re- {pect to its natural geography, is divided into two parts, fe- parated by a ridge of very high mountains, ufually covered with fnow, which runs from weft to eaft from the neighbour- hood of Ghizni to that of Deenkyte on the Indus, below Attock. The traé lying to the north of this ridge is named Lumghan, or the Lumghanat; and that on the fouth Bun- ufh, or the Bungufhat ; each having one or more confidera- Ble rivers interfecting their whole length, and difcharging themfelvesintothe Indus. Each tract has alfo its proper roads, anditspaflesoverthe Indus, fromthe diltricts of Cabul, Canda- har, and Ghizni, refpectively : butthenorthern, or Lumghanat road, is that in common ufe, either to Perlia or to Samarcand, notwith{tanding its circuitous nature, as it refpeéts the former of thefe countries ; for it is both the eafielt and the fafeft. Cabul, as well as Candahar, together with fome diltriéts 4N2 on € AB on the eaft of the Indus, are comprifed within the exten- five dominions of Timur Shah Abdalla, (ufually ftyled king of Candahar,) which extend weftward to the neighbour- hood of the city of Terfhifh ; including generally Cabul, Candahar, Paifhawur, Ghizni, Gaur, Seiftan or Sigiftan, and Korafan. This traét is at leaft 800 Britifh miles in length, from eaft to weft, and its breadth, though unafcertaied, does not bear any proportion to its length. It does not differ much from the traét comprifed within the ancient kingdom of Ghizni. Timur Shah’s Indian fubje&ts are chiefly Afghans; the reft, Perfians and Tartars of almoft every denomination. His government is faic to be mild and equitable, with fome degree of relaxation as to military difcipline; which, ina go- vernment purely military, forebodes diffolution. Rennell’s Memoir. ' Casut, a city of Afia in the above province, is the pre- fent capital of the fucceffor of Timur Shah, and fituated on a river of the fame name, near the foot of the Indian Cau- cafus, or Hindoo Kho ; and the proximity of this ridge oc- cafions the moft rapid changes in the temperature of the at- mofphere. Its fituation is fpoken of in terms of rapture by the Indian hiftorians; it being no lefs romantic than pleafant; enjoying a wholefome air, and having within its reach the fruits and other products both of the temperate and the torrid zones. In a political light, it is confidered as the gate of India towards ‘T'artary ; as Candahar holds the fame place with refpect to Perfia. Mr. Forfter, in his ** Journey from Bengal to England,”? defcribes Cabul as a walled city, abont 13 mile in circumference, and feated on the eaftern fide of a range of two united hills, generally the figure of afemicircle. The fortification, which is of a fimple conftruc- tion, with fearcely a ditch, and the houfes built of rough ftones, clay, and unburned bricks, exhibit a mean appearance, and are ill fuited to the grandeur that might have been fup- pofed to fubfift in the capital of a great empire. But the Afghans, he fays, are a rude and unlettered people, and their chiefs have little propenfity to the refinements of life, which indeed their country is ill adapted to gratify. From the Indus to thé weftern limit of this extenfive territory, there is an invariable deficiency of wood; infomuch, that the lower clafs of people in the northern quarter fuffer as much, perhaps, from the want of fuel in the winter feafon, as thofe of other countries would do from a fearcity of provifions. This quarter of Afganiftan, pofleffing but few Indian pro- dutions, receives fugars and cotton cloths chiefly from Pefh- awur, whither it fends iron, leather, and tobacco. To Can- dahar it exports iron, leather, and lamp-oil, whence the re- turas are made in fundry manufactures of Perfia and Europe, with a large fupply of excellent melons. The Tartars of Bucharia bring to Cabul the horfes of Turkeftan, furs, and hides; the latter refembling thofe in Europe called Bulgar ; the amount of which is applied to the purchafe of indigo, and other commodities of India, ‘The adjacent parts of Ufbeck Tartary, of which Balk is the capital, hold a kind of dependency on Timur Shah. The Afghans are the indigenous poffeffors of a tract of country, which ftretches from the mountains of Tartary to certain parts of the gulf of Cambay and Perfia; and from the Indus to the confines of Perfia. The inhabitants of this wide domain have no written charaéter, and {peak a lan- guage peculiar to themfelves. They are a robuft, hardy race of men, and being generally addicted to a {tate of predatory warfare, their mannerslargely partake of abarbarousinfolence, and they avow a fixed contempt for the occupations of civil life. See AFGHANS. Ahmed Abdalla, firft king of Candahar, was originally the chief of an Afghan tribe, conquered by Nadir Shah, on CVA 'B whofe death he fuddenly appeared among his tormer fubjects, and foon ereéted a confiderable kingdom in the eaftern part of Perfia, including moft of the Indian provinces ceded by the Mogul to Nadir. He eftablifhed his capital at Cabul. Ahmed died about the year 1773, and was fucceeded by Timur, who continued to refide at Cabul; but the monar- chy has been ftyled that of Candahar froma central province. The fucceflor of Timur was Zemaun, who probably {till rules this extenfive country. Cabul is fituated in N. lat. 34° 32’. E. long. 68° 34/, Canut, ariver of the above-mentioned province, has alfo the proper name of Kameh or Kamah from the vicinity of Jalalabad, 60 or 70 miles below the city of Cabul down to Paifhawur. At Jalalabad it is navigable for jalehs, or.rafts of a particular con{truétion ; and as no embarkations in hollow veffels arein ufe, we may inferthat the navigation is interrupted by rapids, for the water of the Kamah is fufficient to carry boats. The Cabul, after receiving the rivers of Bijore, Pen- jekoreh, Chendoul, and Sewad, joins the Indus at Attock. CABURE, in Ornithology, the Brafilian name of the great eaved owl of that country, Strix Brasiviana of recent authors. The Casourrof Willughby is the fame bird. CABURNS, in Sea-language, denote fmall lines made of {pun yara, wherewith to bind cables, feize tackles, and the like. CABUSEIBA, in Botany. See Myroxyton, Peru- VIANUM. CABYBARA, in Zoology, an animal of the Cavra genus, diftinguifhed fpecifically by having no tail; fore feet three toed, and palmated. Schreber. H This animal grows to the length of about two feet andan half; the head is oblong ; {nout narrow ; noftrils black and roundifh ; upper lip cleft ;~ whifkers black ; eyes large ; ears fhort, ereét, naked, and black. It inhabits the eaftern parts of South America, whcre it frequents feany woods near large rivers; {wims and dives well; feeds on fifh and vegetables, the former of which it catches in the night 5 brings forth one young at atime. This is the thick nofed tapir of Pennant. : CABYLA, or Caryse, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of Thrace. CABYLES, in Modern Hiflory, the Moorifhmountaineers of Algiers (See ALcreRs), are partly the immediate def- cendants of the moft ancient inhabitants of the country, and in this refpeét frequently denominated Brebers or Ber- bers (See Breses) ; and partly the mixed progeny of the aborigines, and of the nations who in former times invaded the country and fettled in it ; but all of them have always been and {lill are diftinguifhed from the other inhabitants of the country by their language, love of freedom, and rude unpolifhed manners. The Cabyles are divided into diftiné tribes, many of which are free and independent, and do not acknowledge the fuperiority of Algiers; efpecially thofe who inhabit the inacceflible ridges of mountains. The neighbouring tribes are often united by friendly alliance, without fubjeting themfelves to a common head. Others live in a continual ftate of contention and feud with their neighbours, the chief caufes of which are the infidelity and elopement of their wives. They are, in general, well- grown, robuft, meagre, and of a {un-burnt red, and often blackifh-yellow complexion, and have black or dark-brown hair. ‘Their external appearance is rendered {till more uncouth by dirt and tattered clothes. THey commonly dwell in ftraw-huts ; though ftone-houfes occafionally occur in their “ dafkras,”’ or villages. Their number decreafes, and their love of liberty gradually declines. The inhabi- . tants CAC tants of the higheft parts of the mountains, however, ftill affert their independence, and defend their liberty with undaunted valour againft every hoftile attack. Theircourage, concurring with a perfect knowledge of the country, faves them from the fuperior force of their enemies, as the Alge- rines have, within a late period, frequently experienced. The government, therefore, endeavours to maintain a good ik eh aud friendthip, where force is ineffectual, and often yields even to unreafonable demands. Thus the Cabyles of Couco are treated with great lenity; for the fituation of their country is favourable, and they can affemble a ftrong army; and they carry great quantities _ of oil and foap E fale to Algiers. The cafe is the fame with refpect to the Cabyles who inhabit the fea-coaft about Bugia, Bona, and Tabarca. Among the Cabyles, who acknowledge no common chief, thofe of the greateit age are erase h honoured ; and only their prielts, or « Mara- uts,”’ enjoy the general confidence of the tribes, and have under the cloak oF idiion acquired great power and autho- rity, which in fome inftances have become hereditary. Thefe then 2& in the capacity of heads of the tribes, form treaties of peace, fend ambafladors, and are by others, and even by the Turks, confidered as the chiefs of the nation. In the vicinity of the fepulchre of a deceafed Marabut, or faint, is generally the habitation of the Marabut of the tribe, who, by means of a flag hoifted on a pole ereéted upon the edifice, gives the ufual fignal when thetimeof prayer arrives. From the fame place fignals are made, on the approach of the enemy, to the Cabyles, to afflemble them at the appointed place of rendezvous. The language of the Cabyles, like that of the Moors, is a diale& of the Arabic. It deviates, however, fo much from the latter, that in many places Moors and Cabyles are not able to underftand one another. CABYNE, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Indian ocean, fouth of Bruton; and near the ifland called Hage- diffen or Lizard-ifland. CACABELOS, a {mall town of Spain in Leon, feated 4 a valley between high mountains ; 40 miles N. W. of eon. CACABOGA, in Zoology, the name of an American ferpent, by fome accounted the fame with the Tareiboia, or black water fnake of that part of the world; but by others defcribed as being of a sallow’ colour, living about houfes, and doing great mifchief among poultry, although its bite is not fatal to mankind. This is an ambiguous {pecies. CACACA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez, taken by the Moors from the Spaniards in 15345 is defended by a {trong fort ona rock ; 16 miles S. of Melilla. CACAGUALES, a town of North America, in the country of Mexico, and province of Tlafcala. CACALIA, in Botany, (xaxarsa, Diofcorides.) Cluf. C. Bauh. 197. Tournef. Cl. 12. gen. 10. Tab. 258. Ray Method. Plant. 34. Hift. 291. Linn. gen. 933, who in his earlier works called the genus Kleinia, but afterwards adopted the name taken up by Clufius, &c. though dubious of its identity with the plant of Diofcorides and Pliny. Reich. 1013. Schreb. 1269. Gert. 963. Tab. 166. Juff. 178. Vent. 2. 510. La Mark Pl. 673. Clafs and order, /ynge- ncfia polygamia equalis. Nat. Ord. Compofite difcoidee. Toms Corymbifera. Jufl. n. Ch. Cal. common, fimple, oblong, fomewhat caly- cled at the bafe, cylindric; {cales five to ten, or more, equal, lanceolate, linear, forming a tube, with a few fhort ones incumbent on the bafe. Cor. compound, tubular ; florets hermaphrodite, uniform ; border four or five-cleft, CAC ere&t, gradually leffening into the tube. Stam. filamente five, very fhort, capillary ; anthers cylindric, tubular. Pi/?. germ. oblong; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens; igmas two, oblong, revolute. Peric. the permanent calyx. Seeds folitary, narrow-ovate ; down capillary. Recep. naked, flat, dotted. Eff. Ch. Cal. cylindric, oblong, fomewhat calycled at the bale. Obf. Linnzus in his Species Plant. and Syfl. Nat. ad- mitted fome plants into this genus, which in oppofition to his own generic character are without the fhort tcales at the bafe of the calyx. Thefe are now placed under a diftin& genus, for which Linnzus’s original name Kleinia has been revived. La Marck in Encye. and profeflor Martyn in his edition of Miller, fill, however, adhere to the arrangement of Linnzus. The latter has inconfiftently retained the original generic character, which the former has altered {fo as to adapt it to all his f{pecies. Species. * Stems fbrubby. 1. C. pendula, Willd. Forfk. defcript. 145. * Stem and branches flefhy, leaflefs, fcaly ; peduncles one-flowered,”’ Vahl. Symb. 3. p. go. Perennial. Siem about three feet high, branched, trifid towards the fummit. Sca/es {cattered, {piral-wife, rather crowded, about half an inch long, lanceo- late-awl-fhaped, yellowith, rigid, pungent, preffed clofe to the branches. Peduncles from the fummits of the branches, folitary, ftraight, about feven inches long, with a few linear, fmall, remote fcales. Calyx many-leaved, containing many florets. Corolla purple. 2. C. cylindrica, La Marck. s¢ Stem weak ; leaves flender, cylindric, flefhy, with a few hairs at their axils.’? Perennial. Stem a foot anda half high. Branches flender, cylindric, fmooth, leafy. Leaves fcattered, cylindric, two inches long, pale green. A native of Africa, cultivated in the royal garden at Paris. 3. C. carnofa, Willd. ‘ Leaves roundifh, flefhy incurved; pedun- cles terminal, one-flowered, naked.” Ait. Hort. Kew. 3. p. 156. Perennial. Native of the Cape of Good Hope. 4. C. ficoides, Linn. Sp. Pl. ( Kleinia Hort. Clif.) « Leaves compreffed, flefhy.”? Perennial. Stems feven or eight feet high, Miller ; (about two feet; La Marck), woody at bottom, foft and fucculent upwards, irregularly .branched. Leaves {cattered, thick, tapering, fucculent, a little curved, a little compreffed in a direction perpendicular to the hori- zon; the upper ones covered with a very glaucous meal refembling that on fome kinds of plum. F/owers yellowifh white, at the extremities of the branches; in a loofe, branched corymb. Stigma dark purple. Miller and La Marck. A native of Africa, 5. C. repens, Linn. Mant. 110. ‘ Leaves depreffed, flefhy.”” Perennial. It differs from the laft in having a creeping root; and leaves not comprefied but concave on their upper fur- face. Native of the Capeof Good Hope. The leaves and upper part of the branches of thefe two are pickled by the French with their meal on, and efteemed not inferior to rock famphire. 6. C. cuneifolia. Linn. Mant. 110. ‘ Leaves wedge-fhaped, flefhy.”’ Perennial. Smaller than the two preceding. Leaves {cattered, glaucous, veinlefs, flat above, and fomewhat convex underneath. A native of the Cape. Cultivated in the Upfal garden. Linneus, though he could not make it flower, judged it to be a Cacalia, not a Cotyledon, on account of its leaves not Being oppofite. 7. C. articulata, Linn. Sup. 354. ‘Chunberg prod. 142. Vl Herit. ftirp. tab. 83. ate Jacq. ic. rar. tab, 168. runcinata La Marck ) “Stem decumbent, jointed ; lower leaves haf- tate, upper lyrate.”? Linn. jun. ‘* Leaves flefhy, flat ; leaf- lets three-lobed :”? Willd. “ Leaves petioled, flat, haltate- runcinate, flefhy, glaucous ;”? La Marck. Perennial. pe three CACALIA. - three feet high, upright but weak, round, flefhy, marked with lines of a deeper green, branching; young branches jointed. Leaves {cattered, generally pinnate; pinnules ob- long, tooth-gafhed or entire, the end one largeft. Jacquin. Pinnatifid or haftate, but more frequently ternate-pinnatifid ; the fegments lanceolate, fpreading very much, the two low- eft diftinét ; the finufes rounded. L’Herit. Runcinate, or fometimes fimply haflate, fituated towards the fummit of the branches and item. Flowers white or flightly tinged with red, in a loofe corymb; peduncles long. La Marck. Obf. According to Jacquin, as quoted by profeffor Martyn, the calyx is without incumbent fcales at the bafe, which would make it a Kleinia; but Willdenow, who had accefs toa living plant, continues it under cacalia. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 8. C. papillaris, Linn. Sp. Pl. (Kleinia Hort. Clif. Cacalianthemum Dill. elth.) “ Stem befet with trun- cated, petiolary {pines ; leaves lanceolate, plain.”” Perennial. Stem about three feet high cylindric, befet on all fides with apparently truncated tubercles, which are the permanent pe- tioles of fallen leaves. Leaves three or four inches long, nearly cylindric, witha longitudinal furrow, glaucous-green, {cattered about the fummits of the branches. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 9. C. Kieinia, Linn. Spec. Plant. ( Kleinia, Hift. Cliff. 595. Calcalianthemum Dill, elth. ) «Stem compound ; fears of the petioles obfolete, leaves lanceolate, flat ; flowers corymbofe.” Stem thick, flefhy, cylindric, branched, fmooth; the fears of the fallen leaves a little pro- tuberant ; branches fmaller at their infertion and feemingly jointed. Leaves four or five inches long, flefhy, pointed, flightly furrowed on their upper furface, growing in tufts at the fummits of the branches. Peduncles feveral in the cen- tre of the tuft of leaves, each fupporting a corymb of oblong, pale-carnation-coloured flowers. La Marck. Receptaclenarrow, {prinkled with obfolete papillz, naked, fmooth. Seeds ob- long, nearly cylindric, fmooth, rufefcent ; down longer than the calyx, of a filky whitenefs ; rays capillary, very minutely denticulated. A native of the Canary Iflands. By fome gardeners it has been called cabbage tree, from the refem- blance of its ftalks to thofe of cabbage ; by others carna- tion tree from the fhape of the leaves and colour of the flowers. Miller. 10. C. edora, Willd. “ leaves lanceolate, flat ; flowers umbellate.’”? Vahl. Symb. 3. p. go. Perennial. Stem ere&t, branched, fearred with three white, elevated lines proceeding from each fear upwards and downwards. Leaves at the fummits of the younger branches, feffile, fcattered, thick, fmooth. Peduncles fix or feven, ereét, forming an umbel from the fummitsof the branches, and furnifhed at their bafe with a few lanceolate feales. Calyx cylindric, five- leaved, fmooth, with two linear leaves at its bafe. Vahl. Found by Forfkal on the mountains of Arabia Felix. 11.C. Anteuphorbium, Linn. Spec. Plant. 1168. (Kleinia, Hort. Clif. Anteuphorbium, Bauh. Pin. 387. Dod. pempt. 378. Lob. ic. 2. p. 26. Moris. Hift. 3. p. 345. tab. 37. fir. 10. Dill. elth. 63. tab. 55. f. 2, 3.) ‘ Leaves ovate- oblong, flat, with a triple line at the bafe of the petioles.” Perennial. Stems feveral, three or four feet high, cylindric, as large as a man’s finger, irregularly branched. Leaves fuc- culent, pale green. It was formerly elteemed a {pecitic againft the poifonous effect of euphorbium. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. it has been cultivated in Euro- pean gardens fince 1570, but it very rarely flowers. The flower figured by Dillenius was produced in the garden of Mr. Blaithwait at Dirham in Gloucetterftire. 12 C. rigida, Willd. « Leaves ovate, obtufe, flat.’? Thunb. Prod. 142. Perennial. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 13.C. arbufcula, Willd. ‘ Leaves lanceolate, flat, {mooth.’’ Thunb. Prod. 142. Anative of the Cape of Good Hope, 14.C. tomentofa, Linn. Sup. 353. ‘ Leaves feffile, lanceolate: toothed, tomentous beneath.”? Perennial. Found by Thun- berg at the Cape of Good Hope. 15.C. a/clepiadea, Linn. Sup. 352. ‘* Stem tomentofe; leaves petioled, ovate-lan- ceolate, entire, very fmooth above, tomentofe beneath, re- volute at the edge, panicles terminal.” Perennial. Stems upright, ftraight. Leaves oppofite, fpreading at the bafe, and gradually drawn to a point, veined, the confiflence of a bay leaf; petioles roundifh, tomentofe. Panicles {mall, crowded. Calyx with few flowers; the fcales at its bafe rather large. It has the habit of an afclepias. Found by Mutis in South America. 16. C. appendiculata, Linn. Sup. «¢ Stem tomentofe; leaves ovate-heart-fhaped, acute, angular, tomentofe beneath; petioles with leafy appendages.”? Peren- nial. Stem angular, hoary. Leaves higher than the ftem, on long petioles, a little angular, nerved, veined ; appen- dages three pair of very imall, oppofite, entire, petioled leaf- lets; the largeft pair fituated the farther from the leaf. Pedicles furnifhed with a bra@te. Flowers yellow. Found by Maffon in watery places of the ifland of Teneriff. Ano- ther plant was found by him on the mountains of the fame ifland which he judgedto beadiftin& {pecies, but the younger Linnzus thought it only a variety with a very {mooth ftem, and leaves cordate-obleng, a little toothed, and not angular. 17. C. reticulata, Willd. ‘ Leaves heart-fhaped, roundifh, embracing the ftem, toothed ; flowers corymbofe.”” Vahl Symb. iii. g1. Perennial. Stem branched; branches from the nerves of the decurrent leaves, angular, {mooth, thicken- ed at the joints under the leaves. Leaves refembling thofe of borbonia crenata, alternate, about an inch long, {mooth, reticulated with veins; teeth, as well as the edges of the reflexed leaves, thickened; nerves of a blood colour at the bafe. Corymb fomewhat faftigiate; peduncles and pedi- cels {mooth with a {mall leaf at the bafe of the pedicles. Calyx fimple, fmooth ; leaflets twelve, linear, lanceolate, equal. Down fimple, the length of the calyx, Vahl. 18. C, procumbens. Martyn’s Miller, (Rumph. Amb. t. 103. f. 2.) *¢ Stem fomewhat fhrubby, procumbent ; leaves ovate-lan- ceolate, flightly ferrated, flefhy ; racemes elongated, inter- rupted.”? Lour. Cochiach. 485. Perennial. Stems nine feet high, procumbent, round, equal, fmooth, fucculent, branched. Leaves bright green, fmooth, alternate, petioled. Calyx cylindric, even. /orets gold-coloured, few, long, with the fegments of the border ere&t. A native of China and Co- chinchina, where it is ufed as a pot-herb. ** Stems herbaceous. 19. C. acaulis, Linn. Sup. 353. “ Leaves femicolumnar; feapes one-flowered.”” Thunb. Prod. 142. Perennial. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 20. C. /utea, Miller. « Leaves five-parted, acute, glaucous beneath: flowers terminal, on very long peduncles.” Scape about eight inches high, terminated by fix or eight yellow flowers, form- ing almoft an umbel. Leaves cut into five or fix long, acute fegments almoit to the midrib ; fegments acutely cut in two or three places. A native of St. Helena, whence it was fent to Mr. Miller. 21. C. radicans, Linn. Sup. 354. «< Stem creeping, taking root ; leaves round-ovate, flefhy.’” Thunb. Prod. 142. Perennial. Cape of Good Hope. 22. C. fempervirens, Willd. (Semperviva, Forik. and La Marck.) « Stem ereét; leaves flefhy, lanceolate, obtufe ; peduncles generally two, terminal, one-flowered.”? Perennial. Stem fcarcely a foot high. Leaves crowded together at the bafe of the ftem, feflile, two inches long, fmooth, fhining, flat, keeled beneath. Peduncles ftraight, fmooth, fprinkled with white dots, befet with linear feattered {cales. Calyx red, or nearly violet with thirteen teeth and thirteen furrows. Florets near fixty. A native of Arabia Felix, on mountains. = 23> CACALIA. 23. C. fonchifalia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1169. (Kleinia, Flor. Zeyl. Muel Schari, Rheed. Senecio madera/patanus, Pluk. Amalth. 192. t. 444. f. 1. Chondrilla xeylandica. Burm. Zeyl. 61. Sonchus amboinenfis, Rumph. Amb. 5. p. 257.t. 103. Tago- lina, Pet. Gaz. t. 80. £13.) “ Leaves embracing the ftem. toothed ; lower ones lyre-fhaped ; upper lanceolate, arrow- fhaped.’’ Willd. Root annual. Stem flender, a litile branched, about a foot and a half high, round, and {prinkled with a few hairs. Leaves alternate, with a few hairs efpecially on the rib. Flowers terminal, about the fize of thofe of common groundfel, cylindric. Peduncles briftle-fhaped. _ Calyx per- feGly fimple. The whole plant has the appearance of the common fow-thiftle, but it 1s eafily diftinguifhed from it by the fimple calyx and tubular florets. A native of Ceylon, Malabar, Amboina, China, &c. A decoion of it is efteemed a febrifuge und antiafthmatic ; its juice is given in diarrheas. 24. C. /agitiata, Willd. ‘“ Leaves toothed ; the lower ones petioled, obovate ; the upper oblong-lancev- late, arrow-fhaped, embracing the ftem.””. Vahl. Symb. iii. p- 91. excluding the fynonyms. Annual. Refembling the preceding, but three times ra ois in allits parts. Lower- feaves petioled, obovate, not lyre-fhaped. Flowers of an elegant orange-purple colour. A native of Java. 25. C. hieracioider, Willd. «* Stem fimple; leaves petioled, obovate, toothed.” Annual. Stem a foot high, erect, fometimes with one or two very {mall branches from the axils of the lower leaves. Leaves alternate, obtufe, remotely toothed, fmooth on both fides; the uppermoft lanceolate, feffile. J /owers fomewhat corymbofe, Peduncles alternate, pubefcent, fup- ted by a lanceolate brate. Calyx with twelve lanceo- Lite leaves, and many flowers. A native of the Eaft Indies. 26. C. bicolor, Willd. Stem branched; leaves lanceolate, fmooth toothed ; thofe of the ftem embracing it; thofe of the branches petioled,”’? Willd. Roxburg. Stem two feet high or more, ere, {mooth, ftriated. Peduncles very long, terminal, fcaly, one-flowered. Calyxes twelve leaved, many- flowered, the fize of thofe of C. /agittata. Florets purple. A native of the Eaft Indies. 27. C. incana, Linn. Sp. Pl. st Leaves lanceolate, toothed.”? Stem ereé, tall. Leaves {carcely petioled, rather thick, Peduncles terminal, branched, long, naked or with one or two very {mall leaves. A native, of the Eaft Indies. 28. C. rotundifolia, Willd. « Stem branched ; leaves roundifh, petioled, repand, pubefcent ; flowers corymbofe.” Stem two feet high or more, ereét, round, ftriated, flightly pubefcent. Leaves alternate, {mall, f{cabrous on both fides, fprinkled with very fhort hairs. Corymbs terminal, many-flowered, divaricated. Calyxes of twelve lanceolate leaves. A native of the Eaft Indies. 29. C. feabra, Willd. “ Radical leaves petioled, oblong, tooth- ed; ttem-leaves lanceolate, feffile.”” Vahl. Symb. iil. p. 92. Stem ere&t, a foot high, fimple, round, {triated, hairy, efpecially atthe bafe. Root-leaves, two inches long, with unequal teeth, terminating in a harp point, rather {cabrous above, veined, narrowed at the bafe, and decurrent into the petiole. Stem- leaves few ; the three loweft near together, an inch and half long, with four or five teeth on each fide; the three upper ones remote, half an inch long, linear-lanceolate, very entire, ere€t. Petioles of the radical leaves long, hirfute, flat. Flowers five, peduncled, alternate, fituated near the fummit of the ftem ; pedicles round, hirfute, with a linear-lanccolate braéte at the bafe of each pedicle, and another in the middle. Calyx perfely fimple, of twelve linear-oblong leaflets the length of the florets. Down feffile, feathered with very minute hairs, vifible only under a lens. Vahl. A native of Brazil. 30. C. indica, La Marck. ““ Stem downy; leaves nearly deltoid, irregularly toothed, on long petioles ; bra¢tes briftle-thaped, invefting the peduncles.” Stem about a foot ’ ‘¢é high, clothed with a white cottony down, branched near the bottom, leafy. owers nearly folitary at the fummit of each branch ; feales of the calyx ftraight ; peduncles cot- tony. A native of the Eait Indies, communicated to La Marck by Sonnerat. 31. C. /aracenica, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1169. ( So/idago Lemonier, Ob. 163. Sauv. Monfp. 84. Gouan Monfp. 144. Senecio perennis, Vaill. AG. 366. Virga aurea, Morif. Hitt. ui. p. 23. Bauh. Hitt. ii. p. 1063. Co- nyza Chem. Act. Par. 1705. p. 394.) Leaves lanceo- late, ferrated, decurrent.”? Perennial. Svem two or three fect high, ftriated, almoft entirely {mooth, leafy, ftraight, a little branched at its fummit. Leaves alternate, pointed, feffile, or even embracing the ftem, fmooth above, and flightly pubefcent beneath. FYowers pale yellow, in a ter- minal corymb. Calyx nearly fimple. Peduncles furnifhed with briftle-fhaped leaflets. La Marck. A native of the fouth of France. This plant has fo {trong a refemblance to Senecio Saracenicus, that La Marck has feparated it from that genus chiefly in deference to the authority of Linneus. 32. C. haflata, Linn. Spec. Pl. (Senecio, Gmel. Sib. ii. p. 136. t. 66.) ‘ Leaves three-lobed, acuminate, ferrated ; flowers nodding.”” Perenmal. Stem covered with a glau- cousmeal. eaves haftate-deltoid. Flowers of about five white florets, without the fetaceous braétes, except at the fubdivifions. - Anthers black. Peduncles hoary, fomewhat tomentofe, Linn. Calyx cylindric, confifting of many leaves in a fimple or nearly double feries, calycled at the bafe with acute feales. Receptacle rather flat, naked, with pentagon areas, inclofing a deprefled little nipple. Seeds roundifh, ftriated, of a pale bay colour. Dozan capillary, foft, white, minutely toothed, a little longer than the feed. Gert. A native of Siberia. La Bce judges it only a variety of the preceding. 33. C. /uavolens, Linn. Sp. Pl. “ Leaves haftate-arrow-fhaped, toothed; petioles: dilated upwards, Perennial. Svems four or five feet high, ftriated, leafy. Leaves alternate, pointed, fmooth. F/owers whitith, in a terminal compound corymb; calyx and peduncle fmooth, with fetaceous braétes under the calyx, and under the divifions of the peduncles. A native of Vir- ginia and Canada. 34. C. afriplicifolia, Linn. Sp. Pl. (Porophyllum, Gron virg. rp. 94. Nardus, Pluk. alm. t. 101. t. 2.) Leaves fomewhat heart-fhaped, toothed, finuate ; calyxes with five florets,’”? Root perennial, com- pofed of many flefhy, {preading tubes. Stems three or four feet high, round, flightly ftriated, leafy, a little branched. Leaves alternate, petioled, {mooth, of a glaucous colour beneath, lower ones heart-fhaped, rounded, as large as the human hand, with large unequal indentures ; thofe on the {tem heart-fhaped, pointed, angular. Flowers {mall, ob- long, pale, or reddifh, in a terminal, loofe corymbus. Ca- /yx fimple, confifting of five or fix linear leaflets, feariofe at their edges. La Marck. A native of Virginia and Canada. 35. C.reniformis, Willd. ‘* Leaves petioled ; radical ones between kidney and heart-fhaped, toothed in a repand man- ner; ftem ones oblong, toothed, wedge-fhaped at the bafe, very entire ; corymbs faftigiate.’”? Perennial. Radical leaves large, {mooth, hairy underneath on the nerves ; flem-leaves very entire, remotely toothed from the middle to the end. Corymbs many-flowered. Calyx of five, lanceolate obtufe leaflets. Florets numerous, white. It refembles C. atri- plicifolia, but is clearly diftinguifhed from it by the form of its leaves and its faftigiate corymbs. A native of Pennfyl- vania. 36, C. petafites, La Marck. (Alpina, Linn. Sp. Plant. Willden. 33, but not all the fynonyms, hirfuta, Villars Dauph. 3. 170, 173. C. incano folio, Cluf. hift. 2. p. 115. C. foliis craffis hirfutis, Bauh. Pin, 198.) « Lower leaves large, roundifh-heart-thaped, angular, toothed, {tems leaves CACALIA. Jeaves fomewhat haftate, auricled at the bafe; corymb Joofe”’ Perennial. Stem three or four feet high, round, reddifh, alittle pubefcent. Radical leaves near a foot in di- ameter, toothed between the angles, green and fmooth above, whitifh and cottony underneath, refembling thofe of the common butterbur ; petioles long ; ftem-leaves {maller, alternate, furnifhed at their bafe with two roundifh auricles which embrace the ftem ; upper ones lanceolate, feffile and embracing the ftem. #/owers purple, ina terminal, loofe, and branched corymb: florets two or three: calyx fimple, of four leaflets. La Marck. rade linear at the bafe of each peduncle. Calyx calycled, with three linear, open leaflets. Villars. Obferved by La Marck on Mont d’Or, in Auvergne, in fheltered, morft fituations, and efpecially in the ravines where it grows inabundance. There is a {maller variety with cluftered flowers. 37. C. /eucophyllus. Willden. (alpina Tournef. inft. 452. tomentofa, Jacquin and Villars. ) « Leaves petioled, cottony on both fides, toothed : lower ones heart-fhaped, acuminate; upper ones lanceolate ; pe- tioles naked ; flowers corymbofe ; calyxes many-flowered.”’ Willd. This {pecies is remarkable for the whitenefs of all its parts. Stem from twelve to fifteen inches high, ftraight, fimple, cottony. Leaves alternate, frequently with two {mall auricles at the bafe of the petiole. #/owers terminal. in feveral fafcicles, or fmall, clofe corymbs ; calyx of more than fix leaflets ; florets from eight to fifteen. It varies in fometimes having the upper furface of the leaves green. A native of the Alps. This variety feems to be the albifrons of the younger Linneus and Willdenow, excluding all the fynonyms quoted by the latter. 38. C. alliariefolia, La Marck, (alpina @ Linn. pyrenaica, Tourn. 452.) ‘* Leaves between kidney and heart-fhaped, ferrated, {mooth on both fides, witnout auricles: calyx with about five florets.” La Marck. Perennial. Stem about a foot high, almoft {mooth. Leaves, e{pecially the lower ones, rounded like thofe of eryfimum alliaria, or rather thofe of caltha paluftris, green on both fides, with branched nerves. Foqwers purple, ina fmall compound terminal corymb. Ca/yx {mooth, of five or fix oblong, obtufe leaves. A native of the Pyrenees and the mountains of Dauphiny. Obf. Gowan’s defeription of his C. alliariz, (Illuft..p. 65.) does not correfpond with this plant, though he quotes fome of its fynonyms, 39. C. echinata, Linn. Sup. 353. ‘* Leaves between kidney and heart-fhaped, angular, toothed, downy beneath ; leaflets of the calyx tubercled.”? Found by Maflon on precipices in the ifland of Teneriff. 40. C. candicans, Willd. “ Downy ; radical and lower leaves ovate, petioled, crenate; upper ones feffile, elliptic, very entire”? Wahl. Symb. 3. p. gi. t. 71. Stem a foot high, erect, fimple, leafy, about the fize of a fwan’s quill, and, as well as the ret of the plant, the calyxes excepted, cloathed with a very white wool. Radical leaves two inches long ; lower frem-leaves three inches ; petioles of the radical and lower flem-leaves three inches long, flat, embracing the ftem, dilated upwards into the leaf. Corymd terminal many- flowered. Pedicles one-flowered, with an acuminate leaflet at the bafe of each. Scales of the cafyx lanceolate, fnrooth. Florcts the length of the calyx. Wahl. A native of the ftraits of Magellan. 41. C. fcandens, Willd. “ Stem climbing ; leaves triangular, finuate-toothed.”? Thunb. Prod. 142. A native of the Cape of Good Hope.’ Obf. The C. Scandens of |’ Heritier is the Eupatorium Scandens of Linneus removed to Mikania by Willdenow. 42. C. quingueloba, Willd. ‘Stem climbing ; leaves five-lobed.”’ Thunb. Prod. 142. Cape of Good Hope. 43. C. bipinnata, Linn. Sup. (pinnatifida, Berg. cap. 230.) ‘* Leaves twice pinnate, linear.”? S¥em erect, ftriated, fmooth. Leaves rather crowded, toothed, fmooth three inches long. Pani- cle terminal, fomewhat faftigiate. Flowers yellow. Ca- lyces cylindric, five-leaved, five flowered, acute. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 44. C. bulbofa, Mart. Mil. «© Leaves radical, lyrate; flem almoft naked; pani- cle few-flowered.”? Lour. Cochinch. 485. Root a roundifh knotted, perennial bulb. Root-leaves toothed, fomewhat flefhy, petioled, few. Stem a foot and a half high, upright, round. FVowers gold-coloured, on a terminating peduncle, feveral together. Calyx cylindric, with a calycle of five thread-fhape loofe leaflets. Tube of the florets longer than the border, inflated, reflexed, with a fhort converging border. Stigmas two, long, erect. A native of China and Cochinchina. 44. C.' pinnatifida, Mart. Mil. * Leaves pinnatifid ; fegments lanceolate, ferrated: item twifted. Lour. Cochin. 486, Stem two feet high, upright, thick. Leaves {mooth, not flefhy. /Yowers yellow, in a termina- ting panicle, few together. Calyx cblong, round.”? A na- tive of China near Canton, among rice. Propagation and Culture. Al the forts which are natives of the Cape of Good Hope may be propagated during the {ummer months, by cuttings, which fhould be laid to dry a fortnight, that the wound may be healed over before they are planted; but if they have been kept fix months they will take root. The pots in which they are planted may be plunged in a moderate hot-hed; but if they are planted in June or July they will root as well in the openair. They fhould have a light fandy earth, and in winter be placed in an airy glafs-cafe, where they may enjoy the fun and air in mild weather, but mult be proteCted from the froft. Like other fucculent plants from the fame country, they mutt have little water in winter, and only a moderate quantity in fummer. The carnofa increafes faft by its roots, which may be parted either in the beginning of September or at the end of March. They fhould be planted in pots filled with light earth, and conftantly kept in the tan-bed in the ftove. The papillaris and anteuphorbium require a fandy poor foil, and muft be kept very dry both fummer and winter; but they require the open air infummer. The &/einia, if kept in a dry warm glafs cafe in winter, and in a warm fheltered fituation in fummer, will flower annually, and grow to the height of eight or ten feet. The /onchifolia is propagated by feeds, which fucceed beft when fown in autumn foon after they are ripe, and the pot plunged in the tan-bed4n a ftove. In {pring they may be fown ina hot-.bed, and at a proper time tran{planted into another hot-bed, fhading them till they have taken root. When the plants have acquired ftrength they fhould be planted in pots, and either plunged into a moderate hot- bed under a deep frame, or placed in a glafs-cafe, where they will flower and perfect their feeds. seal pains and atriplic:folia multiply greatly by their {preading roots, and _ alfo by their feeds, which are wafted to a great diftance by the wind. The roots fhould be tranfplanted m autumn. They require a loamy foil, and a fhady fituation. See Martyn’s Miller. Cacaria Porophyllum and Suffruticofa, Linn. ruderalis. Swartz ; and angulata, Vahl. See Kueinia. Cacaria Sonchifolia, Forfkal. See Kurinia angulata. Cacauia Linaria, Cavanilles. See Kueria fuffruticofa. Cacarta Cordifolia and Laurifolia. Lin. Sup. See Mixania. Cacavia foliis auriculatis, &c. Burman. Zeyl. 52, t. 21. See Eurarorium Zeylanicum. Cacauia foliis rotundioribus, Morif. 3,94. See Evpa- trorium Rotundi/olium. 7 CACALLE, cAC CACALLA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Curysomera that inhabits Aultria: the colour is greenifh, with a longi- Gd ftreak on the wing-cafes and future blue: wings red. erbit. ‘CACALIANTHEMUM, in Botany, Dill. Elth. See Cacaria Papillaris and C. Kleinia. CACAI.LA, or Cazatra, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the country of Seville, famous for its wine; 40 miles N. of Seville. CACALOTL, in Ornithology, the Brafilian name of ‘the Corvus varius of Briffon, a variety of our common raven, according to Fernand’s Hiltory of New Spain, &c. CACALOTOTL. Ray defcribes the leffer ani of mo- dern writers, CroropHaca ant of Ginelin, under this name. CACAMO. See Acamanrtis. CACAO, in Betany. See Tueosroma and Cuoco. wate. The cacao nuts are ufed by the Indians as money; 150 of the nuts being eftimated at much the fame value with a Spanifh ryal. Cacao affnis. Sloane. See Ranpra mitis. Cacao, in £ntomolozy, a {pecies of Brucuus, found among the feeds of the Theobroma, The body is fufcous, with grifeous {pots. Fabricius, &c. CACAOTETE, in Natural Hiflory, the name by which the Brafilians call the BeLemnites, which is very common with them as well as with us. CACAPOHON, in Geography, a river of Virginia, which runs about 70 miles north-cafterly along the weftern fide of north-ridge, and difcharges itfelf into Potowmack river, 30 miles N. from Frederick{town. CACARA, in Botany, Rumph. See Doricuos un- guiculatus and yt CACASTOL, in Ornithology, the name given by Buf- fon to the Mexican ftare, Srurnus Mexicanus, a bird of a blue colouv raried with black. Ray calls it Caxcaxtototl, and Briflon Cotinga Mexicana. CACATOCHA of Valent, in Ichthyology. See Cory- PHANA PENTADACTYLA. The fifh called by the fame writerCacatocua Basintanc isthe Cuztopon Arcus of Brunniche, a fpecies diftinguifhed by having eleven dorfal fpines, the body marked with many black dots, and the tail entire. - CACATORY fever, a denomination given by Sylvius to an intermittent fever, accompanied with a fevere loofenefs, and fometimes gripes. CACATUA, in Ornithology, fynonymous with Kakatoé, and Cockatoo. Briffon calls the leffer white Cockatoo, Psirracus sutruurevs of Gmel. Cacatua luteo-criflata. His cacatua minor is the red vented cockatoo of Brown; and the cacatua rubro-criftata, the greater red-crefted cockatoo of Latham, &c. CACAVATE, in Botany, a name given to the cacao (Theobroma Linn.) in the general hiffary of plants pub- lifhed at Lyons, 1557. CACCARL, in Geography, a town of Naples, and pro- vince of Calabria Citra; 10 miles W. of Umbriatico. CACCAVONE, a town of Naples, in the country of Molife; 9 miles N. of Molife. CACCIA, a {mall diflri& of the ifland of Corfica. Atcenrt. Caccta, Ital. Cuassz, Fr. a mufical term for a Hunting- piece. Cornoda caccia, a hunting horn, commonly called a French horn, Alla caccia, in the hunting ftyle. See Cuace. CACCINI, Givrio Romano, in Biography, one of the ye scttgeary recitative during the latter end of the 16th OL. . See CAC century at Florence. He is faid, by Gio Battifta Doni, to have been a young, elegant, and {pirited finger, accuf. tomed to attend the meetings of a fociety of learned noble- men and gentlemen at Florence ; the members of which fo- ciety were much difpleafed with the little refpeét that was paid to lyric poetry by the compofers of that time, who thought of nothing but fugues, canons, and crowded har- mony, which beiug totally devoid of melody, rendered the words that were fet in this manner wholly unintelligible; as the mutic was all in chorufes, fugato, where every part was finging different words at the fame time. Thefe gentlemen wilhed to difeover fome kind of fimple melodythat would tune declamation, admit of harmony occafionally, and approach as nearly as poflible to the declamation of the ancients; which they were fure was in mufical intervals, as it was accompa- nied by inftruments. Tibie pares et impares. “Caccini being feized with a paflion for this kind of muiic, ftudied it with great diligence, compofing and fing- ing to a fingle inftrument, which was generally the Theorbo lute, played by Bardillo, who happened then to be at Florence. In imitation therefore of Galilei, but in a more beautiful and pleafing ftyle, Caccini fet many canzonets and fonnets, written by excellent poets, and not by fuch wretched feribblers (rimatori a dozzina) as were ufually em- ployed before, and are {till frequently the favourites of mu- ficians ; fo that he may be faid to have been the firft to fee this error, and to difcover that the art of counterpoint will not alone complete the education of a mulician, as is gene- rally imagined. And he afterwards confeffed, ina difcourfe prefixed to his works, that the converfations held at Count del Vernio’s were of more ufe to him, than thirty years’ ftudy and exercife of his art. Here he likewife claims the merit of having firft publifhed fongs fora fingle voice, which, indeed, had the greateft fuccefs. And it muft be confefled, that we owe to him, ina great meafure, the new and graceful manner of finging, which at that time fpread itfelf al over Italy; for he compofed a great number of airs which he taught to innumerable fcholars, and among the reft to his daughter, who became a famous finger, and ftill continues very excellent in that faculty. “In the recitative ftyle, however, Caccini had a formi- dable rival in Jacopo Peri, a Florentine, who was not only a good compofer, but a-famous finger, and performer on keyed inftruments, having been taught by Chriftopher Malvezzi; and applying with great diligence and enthufiafm to this kind of finging, faceeeded wonderfully, and met with — univerfal applaule. “The firlt poem fet in this new manner was Dafne, a paftoral written by Rinuccini, and fet by Jacopo Pen and Caccini, in a manner which Charmed the whole city.”? See Recitative and Opera. Various experiments in dramatic mufic were made at the houfes of the nobility of Florence previous to the exhibi- tion of the firft ferious opera, which was the uridices written by Rinuccini, and chiefly fet by Jacopo Peri, for the royal nuptials of Mary of Medicis with Henry IV. of France, in 1600, Though the mufic of this drama went under the name of Peri, who performed a part in it himfelf, yet he confeffes in his preface that Giulio Caccini, “ whofe great merit was known to the whole world,” com- ofed fome parts of it, and tanght the fingers. Caccini Kimtelf afterwards fet the entire drama of Euridice to mufic in flilo Rapprefentativo, and publifhed it at Florence. Speci- mens of his mufcal recitation are given in Burney’s General Hiftory of Mufic, vol. IV. fo that there can be no doubt but that Caccini was one of the firft founders of the mufical drama or Orewa, whence all the improvements in fetting 40 words, CAC words, in finging, and in producing inftrumental effets by a well regulated orcheftra for thefe laft 200 years, may be deduced. CACCO, in Ornithology, one of the fynonymous names by which Buffon diftinguifhes the long-billed rain euckow, Cucutus veTua of Gmelin, &c. CACELLA, in Geography, a {ea-port town of Portugal, jn the province of Algarva, on the fouth coaft, about 8 miles W. from the mouth of the Guadiana. N. lat. 37° 9’. W. long. 6° 40’. CACERA pexv’ Pacani, a town of Naples, in the rovince of Capitanata; 13 miles S. of Troia. CACERES, a town of Afia, in the ifland of Lucon, or Manilla, founded by the fecond governor and proprietor of thefe iflands, D. Francis de Sande, and confifting of In- dian huts and fome convents, well built. It is the refidence of a bifhop, under whom are the provinces of Colilaya, Ca- marines, and Ifalon. N. lat. 14°15’. E. long. 124° 4o!. Caceres, a town of Spain, in the province of Eftrema- dura, feated on the Sabor, and well known for its fine wool; 20 miles W. of Truxillo. Caceres, a town of North America, in Mexico, and dif- triG of Tlafcala; 70 miles N.W. of Vera Cruz. CACHACHRON Heap, the fouth point of Dominica ifland in the Welt Indies, and nearly N. from the north end of Martinico. CACHALES, in Ancient Geography, a river of Greece in the Phocide, which wafhed the walls of Tithoreus, ac- cording to Paufanias. CACHALOT, or Cacustort, in Zoology. sETER MACROCEPHALUS. CACHAN, or Kasuan, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak, which carries on an extenfive trade in filk, ftuffs, brocades, and fine earthen ware, inhabited by Chriftians and Guebres ; 50 miles N. of Ifpahan. N. lat. 34°10'. E.long. 50° 2’. CACHAO, Cuaco, Cueco, or Kesno, one of the eight provinces of Tonquin, feated in the central part of the kingdom, and encompaffed by the other feven. Its foil is fertile, and fome parts of the country are mountainous; it abounds with a variety of trees, and particularly that which yields the varnifh. ‘The filk manufacture is carried on in this province more than in any of the others. It takes its name from its capital, which is the metropolis of the whole king- tlom ; though Dampier reckons it as, in other refpecis, hardly comparable to a Chinefe city of the third rank, hav- ing, however, a confiderable population, which principally depends on the crowds of neighbouring villagers who refort to it at particular times, and efpecially on market-days, with their various commodities. "Thefe perfons are allowed to have their halls in different parts of the city, for the con- venience of the difpofal of their wares. The town itfelf, though it is the conftant refidence of the Tonquinefe mo- narchs, has neither walls nor fortifications ; and if we except the royal palace and the arfenal, has little elfe worthy of no- tice. The ftreets are neither regular nor handfome; fome of them, indeed, are airy and wide, but the reft are narrow, and all of them are paved: the houfes are low and mean, con- ftru&ted of wood and clay, and not above one ftory high, ‘The magazines and warehoufes belonging to foreigners are the only edifices built of brick. In various parts of the city there are, even in dry weather, ditches of ftagnated water and ftinking mud, whichare very offenfive to ftrangers ; and yet, upon the whole, its airy fituation, and ferene air, ren- a it healthy and pleafant to the natives; fo that it is fel- om, if ever, vifited with thofe peftilential difeafes that are See Puy- -CAC common in large cities of thofe eaftern climes. On aecount, however, of the materials with which its edifices are con- ftruéted, it is fubje& to frequent and dreadful conflagrations. Asa preventative of the defolating effets of thefe calamities, every houfe is furnifhed with a low building of brick, in form of an oven, in which the inhabitants depofit, on occa- fions of any alarm, their moft valuable property. The go- vernment likewife obliges every family to keep a ciftern, always full of water, on the top of the houfe, together with along pole and bucket for throwing water upon the houfe. The chief palace of the chowa, or king, is fituated in the centre of the city, and furrounded with a flrong wall, ens clofing within its circuit a great number of apartments, two ftories high; thofe of the chowa and his wives are embellifh- ed with a variety of carving and gilding after the Indian man- ner, and are finely varnifhed.- In the outward court are a great number of fumptuous ftables for the king’s elephants and horfes; the inner ‘courts are inacceffible, not only to ftrangers, but even to the king’s fubje€ts, the members of the privy council and the minifters of ftate excepted. This enclofure, which is of a vaft circumference, is faced with brick within and without, and the whole ftructure is termi- nated by fpacious gardens. The king isa kind of prifoner in this palace, and his authority is exercifed by an officer, whofe family have long tranfmitted the executive power in hereditary fucceffion. The arfenal is a large building, well ftored with warlike ammunition and artillery. It ftands on the banks of the river Song-koy, and on that branch of it which Dampier calls Dombea, reprefented by him as the deepeft and wideft of the two. The Englifh factory-houfe is fituated on the north fide of the city, fronting the river. It isa low edifice, with a {pacious dining-room in the centrey. and on each fide are the apartments of the merchants, fac- tors, and fervants. At each end of the building are {mall houfes for other ufes, which form two wings, with the fquare in the middle, and parallel with the river, near the bank of which ftands a flag-ftaff, on which they commonly: difplay the Englifh colours on Sundays, and all other re- markable days. Adjoining to this houfe, on the fouth fide, is the Danifh factory, which is neither fo large nor fo con- venient. On the fame fide of the river runs a long dike, with its timber and ftones ftrongly cemented together, which prevents the river, during the time of their heavy rains, from overflowing the city. This river difembognes itfelfinto the gulf of Tonquin. Dr. Halley, in the Philofophical Tranf- actions, has given an account of the furprifing tides in this bay; each flux being of 12 hours duration, and its reflux the fame, fo that there occurs but one high-water in 24 hours. Cachao, or Kefho, is the only city in the whole kingdom, and is faid to confift of about 20,000 houfés. N, lat. 22° 10'. E.long 105° 31. See Tonquis. CACHAR, arich but mountainous territory of the king- dom of Ava, lying north-weft of Munnipoora, fubjeé&t to the independent fovereignty of a rajah. Its capital is Cof- ore, ; CACHASS&, in Ancient Geography, a people of Sey- thia, placed by Ptolemy on this fide of imaus, between the Noroffi and the Afpafii. CACHE, or, as it is called in China, Cayas, and in many parts of India, Cas, Ca/ee, Cafie, and Caffe, in Commerce, a {mall copper coin, equa! in valne to a little more than a French denier. } CACHEF, or Cacuter, in the Turkifh Affairs, the go- vernor of a city, town, or even a province of Egypt. The title cachef is alfo given to the captains or command- ers of little flying armies, intended to keep the Arabs in obedience. Egypt cAC Egypt is divided by the Turks into thirty-nine eache/- tecks, or governments. CACHEMIRE, in Geography. See CASHMERE. CACHEDO, a town of Negroland in Africa, feated on the river St. Domingo, or Cacheo, and belonging to the Por- tuguefe, who have three forts, and carryona great trade there in flaves and wax. N, lat. 12° 5’. W. long. 16° 20’. The river divides into feveral large branches before it falls into the ocean. CACHET, Cuarstopxen, in Biography, born at Neuf- chateau in Lorraine, the 26th of November 1572, received the rudiments of his education among the Jefuits. To im- prove himfelf further, he vifited the principal {tates of Italy, but purpofing to praétife medicine, he fixed his refidence at Padua, and after finifhing his ftudies there, he fettled at Nancy, where he arrived at the higheft honours in his pro- feffion, being phyfician and aulic counfellor to four of his fovereigns, as appears by his epitaph, under his portrait, im the houfe of the Cordeliers at Nancy, where he was buried Sept. 30, 1624. Ut erat bono publico natus, Lucem literis, nomen libris, laudem fuis, Patrie gloriam, famam fibi, Principibus fepe falutem peperit. Sereniflimis ducibus Carolo 3tio. Henrico 2do, Francifco 2do. Carolo gto. Archiater et confiliarius. He was author of feveral works: ‘ Controverfie Theorice PraGticz, in primam Aphorifmorum Hippocratis Seétio- nem, Opus in duas partes divifum, Philofophis ac Medi- cis ratte et perjucundum. In quo quecumque ad Ve- nzfeCtionem, Purgationem, et Victus Rationem perti- nent, enodantur, &c.’? Tulli Leucorum, 1612, 8vo. * Pan- dora Bacchica furens, Medicis Armis oppugnata ;’”? Tulli, 1614, 1zmo. “ Apologia dogmatica in Hermetici cujufdam anonymi fcriptum de curatione Calculi, in qua Chymi- carum Ineptiarum vanitas exploditur ;”’ Tull. 1613, 8vo. *« Vraiet affuré Prefervatif de la Petite Verole et Rougeole ;”” 1617, 8vo. The only art here taught is to keep children carefully from all infeéted places. Haller. Bib. Med. Eloy. Di&. Hitt. CACHETUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia, in the kingdom of Pontus, near the town of Heraclea, accord- ing to Diodorus Siculus. CACHEXLA, aterm applied by the older writers in Medicine, to denote thofe conditions of the body, from what- ever caufes they may arife, in which the fun4tions are im- perfeéily performed, and the complexion unhealthy. It is derived from xaxo:, bad, and it/;, habit. The cacheétic ftate of the conftitution was fuppofed to depend upon an acrimo- ny, or fome other morbid change in the fluids of the body ; and this feems to have been chiefly inferred from the change of complexion. Hence Van Swieten obferves, that “ expert phyficians always examine carefully into the appearance of the fkin, in thoke parts where the integuments are thin, and the veffels lie expofed, when they with to know the condi- tion of the blood and humours.” § 1170. Thefe hypo- thefes, however, are now confidered as unfounded. But upon whatever circumftances the cacheétic flate depends, it is obvious, that it occurs in all inftances of flow convalef- cence from acute and chrenic difeafes in general, and ac- companies all lingering affections of the vifcera and other parts; and therefore that it is effentially different in its na- ture in different inftances. Hence it is impoflible to give a general hiftory of it, as of a {pecific difeafe ; or to enumerate the remedies which may be fuccefsfully employed for its gare, Where it is merely a debility, confequcat on fome CAC fevere difeafe, moderate exercife, a light nutritious diet, and tonic medicines are indicated. But where it is a con- comitant of fome organic affeftion, the nature of that muft determine the nature of the remedy to be adopted. In the more accurate language of the prefent day, this vague and indefinite term is feldom employed. But it has been ufed with great propriety by Sauvages and Cullen to denote a particular clafs of difeafes, in their refpettive fyf- tems of nofology ; including thofe complaints in which the general habit is affeéted, and a change of complexion, with emaciation or morbid enlargement, are chara¢teriftic fymp- toms. Such are dropfy, jaundice, rickets, &c. CACHIBONA, or Ciyvpg, in Geography, a river of the ifland of Dominica, which runs into the fea on the eat coait, a little to the north of Halifax bay. CACHICAME, in Zoology, Buffon’s name of the Pig- headed Armadillo; Dafypus novemcin@us of Linnezus, CACHIMAYO, in Geography, a large river of South America, in Peru, which falls into the ocean within 2 leagues of La Plata. CACHIQUE Tower and Bay, are fituated on the coaft of Barbary, in the Mediterranean, nearly W. from Algiers 6 or 7 leagues. CACHOLONG, in Mineralogy. See Cuaucepony. CACHOPS Sands, in Geography, are two remarkable banks, which contraé& the channel of the mouth of the Tagus, at its influx into the fea, below Lifbon. CACHORRODOMATO, in Zoology, the name by which the Portuguefe in America call the T'aiis1 3 a crea- ture faid to refemble the Opoffum in many refpeéts, and by fome fufpeéted to be the male of that creature. CACHRUS, in Entomology, afpeciesof Pariuio, ( Plebe- jus) with entire yellowifh wings, and acommon fufcousborder {potted with white. Fabr. &c. This inhabits South America. CACHRYS, in Botany, xaxu:s, Gr. The word is ufed in various fenfes by different authors, and has been the oc- cafion of great perplexity to the grammarians and commens tators. In Theophraftus (lib. iii. cap. 7.) it feems to de- note the catkins of the oak, walnut, pine, &c. by other writers it is ufed, fometimes for the root, fometimes for the feed of the plant to which modern botanifts haye given the fame name, and fometimes for the plant itfelf. It alfo figni- fied the feeds of roafted barley ; and fome have fuppofed that the plant derived its name from the refemblance of its feeds to thofeof barley. (See the notes on Theophraftus by Con« ftantine and Bodeus a Stapel, p. 139, 140.) Tournef. Inft, p- 325: Plate 127. Raii Meth. Plant. 47. Linn. gen. 342, Schreb. 474. Willd. 538. Gert. 808. P/. 140. Jui. p- 223. Vent. vol. iii. p. 26, Libanotis Cachryophorus, Raii Hift. Plant. p. 424. Clafs and order, pentandria digye nia. Nat. Ord. Umbellate, Linn. Unmbellifera, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Cal. univerfal and partial umbels manifold: univerfal and partial involucres, many-leaved, linear-lanceo- late : perianth proper, f{carcely difcernible. Cor. flowers all uniform : petals five, lanceolate, almoft upright, equal, flats tifh. Stam. filaments five, fimple, the length of the corolla ; anthers fimple. /%i/. germ top-fhaped, inferior : ftyles two, inferior, the length of the corolla, Peric. fruit fomewhat egg-fhaped, obtufe, very large, pea intwo. Seeds two, very large, very convex on one fide, flat on the other; of a fungous or {pungy fubftance, each enclofing a folitary ovates oblong kernel. Eff. Ch, fruit fomewhat egg-fhaped, with a thick integu. ment of a fpungy fubftance. Sp.1.C. odontalgica, Linn. Sup. 181. Pallas It. vol. iii. p. 270. t.g. f. 1, 2,3. Vol. v. p, 106. Pi. 4. French tranfation. Gart. vol. ii. p.274. Pl, 140. f. 3, ‘ Rae 402 dical cAC dical leaves twice pinnate, white with down; ftem naked : feeds perfeGly plain.”” Root perennial, very long, acrid and aromatic, producing when chewed an abundance of faliva in the mouth, and on that account employed as a cure for the tooth-ache. Pinnules of the radical leaves ternate, the leaf- lets elegantly indurved upwards. Stem fimple, ftreaked, from nine to twenty-one inches high, panicled at top with umbelled branches forming a kind of thyrfe; naked, with the exception of a ftipule-like leaf at the origin of each branch, cut nearly half way down into three or four feg- ments, and a pair of fhort lanceolate leaves a little above the middle of each branch. Flowers yellow. Gertner obferves, that the ftru€ture and pofition of the cotyledon of the feed is very fingular, being leafy, elliptic, divaricated downward and collateral, nearly as in meni{permum, except that both are in- cluded in one cell of the albumen, Found abundantly by Pal- las in the arid deferts, between the Volga and the Jaick. 2. C. Morifoni, Willd. Allion. Au&. p.23. Mori. Umb. 63. P/. 3. f.1. C. levigata. Ia Marck Encye. 1. p-256. ‘* Leaves fuper-decompound, briftle-fhaped, cut into many fegments: feeds plain, fmooth.’’ Vahl. Symb. 3. p.49- Root perennial, long, thick as a man’s arm, white. Stem two or three fect high, ftriated, fmooth. Root-leaves large, finely cut ; the laft feoments briftle-fhaped and fhort : upper leaves of the ftem oppofite. £Yowers yel- low. Seeds white, fmooth, not furrowed. La Marck quotes the libanotis of Gouan as a fynonym of this [pecies ; but Gouan defcribes the feeds of his plant as furrowed. Pro- feffor Martyn obferves, that the libanotis of Gouan feems to be a different fpecies from that of Linneus. A native of Spain, Italy, and the fouth of France. 3. C. Lilanotis, Linn. Sp. Pl. Morif. Hilt. 3. p. 267. S. 9. Pl. 1. fig. 6. Umb. Pl. 3. f. 3. Libanotis ferule folio, femine angulofo. Bauh. Pin. 158. ‘ Leaves twice pinnate ; leaflets acute, much divided ; feeds furrowed, fmooth.’” Root perennial, large, white, branched, aromatic. Stem thick, round, {mooth, finely ftriated, leafy, branched, about two feet high: Leaves large, green, almoit as finely cut as the preceding. F/owers yellow. The whole plant has an aromatic, fweet fmell, and 3s efteemed carminative, aftringent, and anti-icteric. A na- tive of Italy, the fouth of France, and the coatt of Barbary. 4. C. ficula, Linn. Sp. Pl. Morifon. Hilt. 2. p. 267. S. 9. Pl. 1. f.3. Umb. Pl. 3. f.2. ‘ Leaves many times di- vided; leaffets linear, acute : feeds furrowed, hifpid.’? Root perennial, large, long, branched. Svem two or three feet high, thick, round, itriated, fmooth, branched. Radical- deaves a little refembling thofe of Peucedanum, large, a little rough to the touch: their common petiole imperfectly cy- lindric, ftriated. Flowers yellow. Seeds deeply channelled, angular, remarkably rough. 5. C. taurica, Willd. « Leaves twice pinnate; leaflets linear, acute; feeds furrowed, tu- bercled.”” Leaves as in the preceding, but narrower. In- volucre univerfal, none ; partial of eight or ten linear leaflets. Flowers dioicous. Seeds three times lefs than thofe of the pre- eeding, furrowed, thickly fet with large, globular, often red- difh tubercles. Willdenow, from a dried {pecimen. A native of Tauris and Siberia. 6.C. cretica, Willd. La Marck En- cyc. I p.257- “ Leaves twice pinnate ; leaflets lanceo- late, ferrated; feeds furrowed, rough.”? Root perennial. Stem two feet and a half high, channelled ; leaflets relembling - thofe of Angelica Sylveftris. Seeds ovate-pointed, blackith, channelled, rough with ftiff hairs, and furnifked with a re- markably fungous integument. A nativeof Candia. 7.C. panacifolia, Willd. Vahl. Symb. 1.25. Martyn’s Miller. (C. paftinacea, La Marck Encyc. C. ficula, Morif, Hitt. 3. p- 267. Sec. 9. Pl. 1. f. 4. Panax ficulum, Boccone Sec. 1. Pl.1.) Radical-leaves pinnate, ovate-obtufe, fomewhat CAC lobed ; feeds hirfute.’? Root perennial. Stem four or five feet high, almoft naked ; branches alternate. Radical-leaves large, unequally winged with five or three leaflets, elliptic obtufe ; crenulated, and fometimes lobed, pubefcent, a little harfh to the touch, of a greyifh green colour; leaflets at the fummit of each leaf, decurrent on the petiole. Flowers white. - Involucres ef from fix to nine leaves. Germs covers ed with white hairs. La Marck. Seeds a little fpungy, Vahl. A native of Sicily, Spain, and Barbary. Cacurys Orientalis, Tournef. Cor. 23, Travels, 2, p-121. Pi. See Laserpirium frulatum. Cacurys, in Lntomology, a {pecies of Papriro (Hefperia Fabr.) that inhabits Cayenne. The wings areentire, yel- lowifh, with a common brown border {petted with white. Fabr. &c. CACHU, Cacuovu, or Catecuu. See Careceu. CACHUNDE, the name of a medicine highly celebrated’ among the Chinefe and Indians, and made of feveral aro- matic ingredients, the perfumes, medicinal earth, and pre- cious ftones: they make the whole into a ftiff paite, and form out of it feveral figures according to their fancy, which are dried for ufe; thefe are principally ufed in the Fait Indies, but are fometimes brought over to Portugal. In China, the principal perfons ufually carry a {mall piece in their mouths, which is a continued cordial, and gives their breath a very fweet fmell. It is a highly valuable medicine alfo, in all nervous complaints, and is efteemed a prolonger of life, and a provocative to venery, the two great intentions of moft of the medicines in ufe in the Eat. CACHYMIA, in Metallurgy, a term ufed by Paracelfus for an imperfeét metalline ore, as he expreffes it, an immature metalline body, which is neither a faline fubftance nor a metal. The cachymiz may be divided into fulpbureous, as mar- cafite ; mercurial, as arfenic or orpiment ; and faline, as alk tales. CACIDARY, in Ancient Geography, a people of Scythia, on this fide of Imaus, according to Pliny. CACIQUES, in Hifory, a denomination anciently given in America to governors of provinces and generals of armies. It was alfo appropriated to the fovereigns of the five great kingdoms into which the ifland of Hitpaniola was divided when the Spaniards firft vifited it, and alfo to the fovereigns of the principalities or kingdoms in the other iflands. Their! power over the fubje&t, which was hereditary, was abfolute, and they were regarded with almoft idolatrous veneration. Betides thefe, there were alfo fubordinate chieftains, or princes, who were tributaries to the fovereign of each diftni€t. They feem to have fomewhat refembled the ancient barons. or feudatories of Europe ; holding their poffeffions by the tenure of fervice. Oviedo (lib. iti. c. 4.) relates, that they were under the obligation of perfonally attending the fove- reign, both in peace and war, whenever they were fo com- manded. We have already obferved, that the dignity of the Cacique was hereditary : but if Martyr is to be credited, the law of fucceffion among them was different from that of all other people ; fér he obferves (P. Martyr, decad. iii. lib. 9. ). that the Caciques bequeathed the fupreme authority to the children of their fifters, according to femority, and difin- herited their own offspring; being certain, as he further ob- ferves, that, by this policy, they preferved the blood-royal, which might not happen to be the cafe in advancing any of the children of their numerous wives. ‘I'he account of Oviedo, however, is more probable; he remarks (lib vy. c. 3.} that one of the wives of each Cacique was particularly diftinguifhed above the reft, and appears to have been con- fidered. cACc y fdered by the le as the reigning queen, and that her tents snot to the priority of birth, fucceeded to the father’s honours ; but in default of iffue by the favourite princefs, the fifters of the Cacique, if no brothers furvived, took place of the Cacique’s own children by‘his other wives, The principal Cacique was diftinguifhed by regal ornaments, and numerous attendants. When he travelled through his dominions, he was commonly borne on men’s fhoulders ; and he was held in fuch veneration, that if he ordered any of his fubjeés to caft themfelves headlong from a high rock, to drown themfelves in the fea, merely at his own fovereign pleafure, he was obeyed without a murmur; oppofition to the fupreme authority being confidered not only as unavail- ing, butasimpious. Their veneration extended even be- yond death ; forwhen a Cacique died, his body was em- bowelled, and dried in an oven, moderately heated, fo that the bones and even the fkin were preferved entire. The corpfe was then placed in a cave with his anceftors ; and thus they intended to render, not the name alone, but the rfons alfo, of their worthiesimmortal. If a Cacique died in battle, and the body could not be recovered, they com- pofed fongs in his praife, which they taught to their chil- dren, and thefe fongs formed a branch of thofe tolemnities which were called Arietoes,” confifting of hymns aud public dances, accompanied with mufical inftruments made of fhells, anda fort of drum, the found of which was heard at a great diftance. Martyrrelates (Decad iii. lib. 9.) that on the death of a Cacique, the moft beloved of his wives was immolated at his funeral. But Oviedo (lib. v. c. 3.) denies that this cuftom-was general among them. CACOB, in Ancient Geography, a people placed by Ptelemy in India, on this fide of the Ganges. CACOCHYMIA, from xzxo:, bad,and yupo:, juice, or humour, a word formerly employed by medical writers to denote a fuppofed morbid condition of the fluids of the living body. CACODES, in the Ancient Writers of Medicine, a name iven to feveral kinds of matter difcharged from the human fae, which had an ill fmell. ‘The offenfive matter voided fometimes by vomit has this name, as alfo that evacuated by Stool, and the difcharge of foul ulcers. CACOETHES, or Cacoetuia. See Maricnanr. CACONGO, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, on the coait of Loango, fituate between three confiderable ports, much frequented by foreigners ; viz. Loango, Cabinda, and Cacongo. ‘The territory isin general flat, the air is more falubrious than that of Congo or Angola, and the foil alfo more fertile, on account of its frequent fhowers, and its black mould, which, in the other adjacent kingdoms, is cither chalky or fandy. ‘The inhabitants are likewife more civi- lized, though not lefs fuperititioufly addiéted to the fame heathenifh rites, than their neighbours. They bear the cha- raGter of a treacherous, fraudulent, turbulent, and cowardly race; but they are much employed in traffic with the Euro- peans, and efpecially the Dutch, from whom they purchafe a great variety of European goods, as coarfe cloths, knit caps, hatchets, and otheriron tools, linen, and other com- modities, which they exchange for flaves at Congo, Angola, and other African flates. This country is governed by its own hereditary princes, but under the protection of the kings of Loango, to whom they were formerly vaffals, though they have fince fhaken off the yoke. The chief town is of the fame name, and it is fituatedin S. lat. 4° 45’. E, long. 13°. Caconco, one of the chief rivers of the above kingdom, the others being the Kaja and the Cabinda. It runs 4 leagues S. of the Kaja, and 7 to the N, of the Cabinda, and CAC is faid to be navigable by boats of 1o tons burden. ‘This. riverruns through almoit the whole length of the king- dom from eaft to weft, and aftera courfe of about 80 or go miles, falls into the fea, near the town of Cacongo. About 4 miles from its mouth isthe town, or rather village of Me- lemba, where the fea makes a kind of femicircular bay, which affordsa convenient road for the veffels that traffic thither, the whole coaft between the Cacongo and Zaire being extremely dangerous and full of rocky and thelves. The lands on each fide are fertile and delightful, and abound with elephants’ teeth, which the Membates, who are fituated on the other fide of the Zaire fetch and carry to the port of Pinda, where the Portuguefe, or any other Europeans, buy and export them. 5 CACOORS, in Botany, a fpecies of Mimosa, which fee. The feeds of this plant are mentioned by fir Hans Sloane as being thrown afhore on the Hebrides and Orkneys. See Motucca Bean. CACOPHONIA, compounded of xxx«:, evil, and x», voice, in Grammar and Rhetoric, the meeting of two letters, or fyllables, or even of two words, which yield an uncouth and difagreeable found. CacorHontia, in Medicine, denotes a vice or depravation ofthe voice, or f{peech; of which there are two fpecies, aphonia and dyfphonia. CACOPHONY, Gr. in Mufic, the combination of many founds ill chofen or out of tune, noife. CACORLA, in Geography, a little town in Spain, in the country of Jaen, belonging to the archbifhop of Toledo, 4 leagues E. of Ubeda. CACOSIN, a town of the ifland of Cuba, 50 miles N.N.W. of Bayamo. CACOUCIA, in Botany. La Marck Encyc. Iluft. Pl. 359. Aublet. Guian. p. 450. t. 179. Jufl. 320. (Schouf- bea, Willdenow 857.) Clafs and order, decandria monogynia. Nat. ord. Onagre Jufl. Myrti Lam. Gen. Ch. Ca/. fuperior, bell-fhaped, coloured, five-pointed, deciduous. Cor. petals five, fharply egg-fhaped, mferted at the divifions of the calyx. Stam. filaments very long, in- ferted on the calyx below the infertion of the petals; anthers ovate. Pi/}. germ inferior, angular ; ftyle fimple, as long as the ftamens; ftigmaacute. Peric. a kind of berry, tive- angled, fomewhat fpindle-fhaped, almoit woody, pulpy within, covered with a white {kin or aril. Eff. Ch. Ca/yx bell-fhaped, five parted, bearing the corolla; petals five ; berry five-angled, one-feeded; {eed arilled. Obf. Nearly allied to Combretum and Fuchfia, but differ- ing in the fruit. Species, C. coccinea. A perennial fhrub, with a ftem about fix or feven inches in diameter, branched, climbing to the top of the higheft trees, from which its branches hang down clothed with leaves and flowers. caves alternate, ovate, acuminate, very entire, veined, green, firm, with an even furface, on very fhort pet oles. F/oqwers fearlet, feflile, feattered in long terminal fpikes, with a long itraight pointed braéte to each flower. La Marck. A native of Cayenne. CACTI, the third natural order in the fourteenth clafs of Jiffieu, with the following charaéter. Calyx fuperior, di- vided at the apex. Peta/s definite or indefinite, inferted at . the top of the calyx. Stamens definite or ifdefinite, with the fame infertion as the petals. Germ inferior, fimple ; ftyle fingle; ftigma divided. Berry inferior, one-celled, many-feeded ; the feeds attached to its inner furface. Stem fhrubby or arborefcent; /eaves alternate or none. It contains only two genera, Ribes, with definite petals and ftamens, and Cad@us, with petals and ftamens indefinite. Juffieu wee “CACTUS. that thefe two genera, notwithftanding the difference in the number of their ftamens and petals, are clofely conne&ted by their inferior germen, fingle ftyle, and one-celled fruit, with the feeds attached to its inner {urfaee, and that the affinity is’ ftrengthened by the fimilar ftru¢ture of the {pines in feveral of their fpecies. La Marck adds to this natural order Tetragonia and Mefembryanthemum, which Juflieu arranges under Ficoidez, his fifth order of the fame clafs. Cacti, in Entomology, a {pecies of CoccineLia, withthe wing-fheaths black, and two red fpots. Fabricius. Found on the ca@ti of America.—Alfo, a {pecies of Coccus. CACTOIDEA, in Botany, the fifth natural order of Ventenat’s fourteenth clafs, who places under it only the Linnzan genus Caétus, confidering Ribes as more properly belonging to the Saxifragex, but forming the connecting link between that order and Caétus. This able botanift has fallen into a flight abfurdity in calling an order which con- tains only the genus Caétus, Cattoidez ; which in faé& is only faying that Cactus is like itfelf. CACTUS, (xaxz0:, Gr. the name of a plant defcribed firft by Theophraftus, and afterwards by Diofcorides, Athe- neus, and Pliny. Theophraftus, whom the fucceeding writers have nearly copied, fpeaks of it as a plant not in- digenous in Greece, and peculiar to Sicily, producing from the root feveral creeping ftems, with a broad and prickly leaf, which, when {tripped of their bark, are eaten either frefh or pickled; with an upright ftem befides, which he fays is called pternix, and is eaten frefh but not pickled ; and having a prickly pericarp, called afculia, which 1s like- wife eatable when feparated from the down of the feeds, and refembles the head ofa palm. Moft of the earlier modern botanifts, fupported by the authority of Atheneus, fuppofe it to be the fame plant which the Greeks called xwapx, and the Romans Carduus, the Cynara fcolymus of Linnzus, or common artichoke; but Bodzusa Stapel ftrongly infifts, that it muft be another plant not afcertained by madern botanifts. See his Notes on Theophraitus, p. 627.—629, where he has correéted the corrupt texts of Theophraftus and Athenzus, by comparing them with each other, and withthe Latin of Pliny. What are called by Theophraftus creeping ftems, are probably nothing more than the ftrong midrib of the broad prickly leaves.) Linn. gen. 613. Schreb. 838. Willden. 966. Gert. 799. Juff. p. 311. Vent. vol. 3. 291. Clafs and order, icofandria monogynia. Nat. ord. Suc- oulente Linn. Cadi Jufl. Ca&oidee Vent. Gen. Ch. Ca/. fuperior, imbricated, tubular, deciduous. Cor. petals numerous, difpofed in feveral ranks; the outer ones fhorter, the inner rather larger. Svam. filaments nume- rous, inferted into the calyx ; anthers oblong. Pi/?. germ inferior; ftyle cylindric; ftigma headed, multifid. Peric. berry oblong, umbilicated at its fummit, one-celled. Seeds numerous, bedded in pulp. Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, imbricated. Corolla of many petals. Berry one-celled. Seeds numerous. Obf. Linnzus, on account of the conformity in the parts of fru@tification, has united in one genusa numerous tribe of fucculent plants, differing greatly from each other, and many of them from all other plants, in their general ftruGiure and habit, which former botanifts had diftributed into feparate genera, under the names of Melocaétus, Cereus, Opuntia, and Perefkia. He obferves, that Meloca&us is monocotyle- dinous, and Opuntia dicotyledinous ; but that neverthelefs they are of the fame natural genus. Juflieu mentions the circumftance on the authority of Linneus, but gives no farther information on the fubje@, referring the germination of Melocaétus, as well as the exiftence and nature of the perifpermum in all the Ca&ti, to future inquiry. glomeratus, Cluftered melon-thiftle. * Echinomeloca@i, turks'-cap, or melon-thiflles; of s roundifh form, in fome degree refembling a melon. Species 1. C. mammilaris, {maller melon thiftle. Linn. Sp. Plant. | (Echino-meloca&tus minor, Herm. Par. 136. tab.136. Ficoides, Pluk. Alm. 184. tab. 29. f. 1. Comm. hort. 1. p. r05. t. 55. Brad. fuccul. 3. p. 11. tab. 19.) «* Roundifh, covered with ovate, bearded tubercles.”?> The body of the plant confifts of a roundifh fiefhy fubftance, feffile, about the fize of a man’s filt, without remarkable angles, but befet on all fides with numerous conic tubercles, which are cottony at their f{ummit, and terminated by {mall diverging fpines. There is alfo a flight cottony down be- tween the tubercles. The flowers are {mall, whitifh, feattered about the plant between the tubercles. The berries are of a purplifh blue colour, according to La Marck, but are faid by Miller to be of a fine {carlet, and continue frefh upen the plant through the winter. They have anagreeable flavour, and-are very good toeat, efpecially when properly dreffed. Bofc. A native of South America, among rocks. 2. C. La Marck. Plum. Sp. 1g. tab. 201. f. 1. ‘¢ Ovate, downy, compound, growing clofe together, covered with papillary tubercles.” In feyeral re{pe&ts it refembles the preceding, but differs from it in growing feveral together ina clofe group, in its glaucous colour, and very white abundant down, in its fize, which does not exceed that of a pullet’s egg, and in the red colour of its flowers. Obferved by Plumier at St. Domingo, and defcribed by La Marck from his MSS. It appears to be the childing of Miller, though that is faid by him to be rather largerthan the mamillofa. 3. C. melocadus, great melon-thiitle. Linn. Sp. Pl. (Melocaétus, Bauh. Pin. 384. Tourn. 653. Echinomelocadtus, Cluf. Exot. tab. 92. Lob. ic. 2. p. 24. Bradl. Succ. 4. p. 9. tab. 32.) ‘¢ Roundifh, with fourteen angles.”” A roundifh mais, fometimes more than a yard in circumference, and in its native country almoft twice as large ; confiiting internally of a foft, green, flefhy fubftance, full of moifture ; deeply divided into four- teen or fifteen regular, {mooth, flat-fided parts; the ridge of the ribs furnifhed with a row of cluttered, {tiff, ftraight, di- verging {pines, about an inch long, and red at their Re Flowers red, fituated.at the top of the plant. A native of South America. 4. C. corenatus, crowned melon-thiftle. La Marck. ‘ Ovate with twenty angles; crowned with a cottony pileusor cap.’’? About a foot high, flefhy; rids oblique ora little fpiral ; their ridges befet with a row of cluftered diverging f{pines, about fix or feven lines long, and generally a little curved; cap three inches and a half in dia meter, compofed of a white, very clofe cottony down, in- terfperfed with clufters of red {pines, which are ftiff as the briftlesof a brufh, but not prickly. A native of South America. 5. C. nobilis, noble melon-thiftle. Linn. Mant. “ Roundifh, with fifteen angles ; fpines broad, recurved.’? This {pecies feems to hold a middle fpace between the laft two; but its external furface is entirely red. It varies in its form, being fometimes oval or conic, and fometimes more globular. Its ribs are oblique or fpiral, and its {pines long, white asivory, ard a little curved. A native of St. Da- mingo, among rocks on the coaft. Obf. Mr. Miller makes four diftinG& {pecies of the great melon-thiitle, and thinks that if the iflands in the Weit Indies were examined, many more would be found. Profeffor Martyn confiders them as only varieties. La Marck has made three fpecies which we have adopted: though from the defcription in different authors, it is not eafy to determine which are fpecies and which varieties. ‘They grow from apertures in the fteep fides of rocks in the hotteft part of America, and feldom live long when tranfplanted into abetter foil. In times of 3 great CACTUS. drought, the eattle rip them up with their horns, tear off the outfide fkin, and greedily devour the flefhy moiit The fruit is an agreeable acid, and is frequently eaten in the Weit Indies.’ Miller. , ** Ere& cereufes, fupporting themfelves. Torch-thiftles, or torch-wood. 6. C. eylindricus, cylindric torch-thiftle. La Marck, Juffien. “Ered, weak, cylindric, not angular, but reticu- lated on their furface, with decuflated furrows.’? La Marck, Teffelated with regular, rhomb-fhaped, little areas, bearing fpines on their elevated centre.” Juff. Spines cluftered, whitith, very fharp. A native of Peru. 7. C. trigonus, three-fided torch-thiftle. La Marck. (C. petaiaya. Linn. Syft. Nat. Jacq. Americ. 151.) ‘* Stem ere&, triangular, with fcarlet, leafy fruit.” Nearly allied to C. triangularis of the next divifion; but differs from it in having a /em, which fupports itfelf to the height of eight or ten feet ; and, though it rifes ftill higher when it obtains the fup- port of a neighbouring tree, does not attach itfelf by any radicle. Flower whitith, fix inches in diameter, with fcarcely any {mell, openingin the night. Fruit of a fhining fcarlet po es on the outfide, furnifhed with obtufe leaflets, which are irregularly notched at the fummit ; pulp white, flefhy, {weet : Feds {mall, black, fhining. A native of Cartha- gena, and other parts of South America, There isa va- riety which has a itraight trilateral fem, almoft as thick as a man’s body, furnifhed with blackith, very fharp, cluftered fpines, about two inches 100g dividing at the top into triangular, flefhy branches, of a delicate green colour, un- dulated, or fcolloped at their angles, and difpofed in a {preading panicle. From the upper branches rife large beautiful white fowers, a little odorous, itanding ona rm, furnifhed with fome fcaly leaves. The fruit is yel- with, fmooth, of the form and fize of a large apple, with a white fweet pulp, filled with {mall blackith feeds. Ob- ferved by Plumier at St. Domingo. La Marck obferves, that it may perhaps be diftin& from Jacquin’s plant ; but as they agree in fo many chara¢ters, he has placed them toge- ther, that he may not multiply fpecies without neceffity. 8. C. paniculatus, La Marck. (Melocaétus arborefcens. Plum. Sp. 19. ‘Tournef. 653. Caétus brachiatus, Burm. Amer. tab. 192.) “Trunk ere&, panicled at the fummit with quadrangular, jointed branches; petals round, white, marked with red lines ; fruit tubercled, yellowifh.”? This plant, in its habit and fize, exactly refembles the variety of the preceding f{pecies; but the interior petals are fearcely larger than a finger nail, crenulated, very white, pencilled ah {mall red lines. Stamens entirely white: fruit ovate, a little larger than a goofe’s egg, with reddifh {pinous tu- bercles, and fall of {mall feeds of a dark chefnut colour. A native of St. Domingo, defcribed by La Marck from the MSS. of Plumier. 9. C. tetragonus, four-fided torch-thif- tle. Linn. Sp. Pl. “ Quadrangular, long, ere& ; a 0 compreffed.”” Stem feldom more than four or five feet high, branched, deeply and widely cut in a longitudinal dire€tion, fo as to’ give it the appearance of having four thin wings. A native of South America. 10. C. peniagonus. Linn. Sp. Pl. “ Ereét, long, jointed, with about five angles.” Stem flender, feeble, but upright; internodes about a foot long: clufters of {pines without any fenfible down at their bale. A native of America. 11. C. hexa- gonus, Linn. Sp. Pl. (Cereus Surinamenfis, Ephem. n.c. 3. p- 349. tab. 7 and 8. Herm. Par. 116. Raj. Dendr. 23. C. maximus Americanus, Bradl. Succ. 1. p. 1. tab. 1. Meélocaétus, Plum. Sp.’ 19. Burm. Amer. tab. 191.) “Ere, long, with fix angles; angles diftant.”’ Stem thirty or forty feet high, not brasched if the top be not .- — injured, and it have room to grow; but whenever the ftem is cut or injured, it puts out fhoots from the angles, imme- diately under the wounded part, and frequently one or two lower down; thefe, if they are not cut off, form dif- tin ftems, and grow upright, but are feldom fo large as the principal ftem. FYowers from the angles on the fide of the ftem, as large as thofe of hollyhock, on a thick, flefhy, fealy, round, channelled, and hairy peduncle ; calyx prickly, clofely furrounding the corolla, green, with purple ftripes ; inner petals white, and crenated at their extremity. Mil ler. A native of Surinam, whence it was introduced into Holland, and bore flowers in 1681. It was cultivated in England in 1690, and has been the moft common fort in the Englifh ftoves, but has not borne fruit, nor often pro- duced flowers. 12. C. Aeptagonus, Linn. Sp. Pl. * Ereét, oblong, with feven angles.’ Stem perennial, one or two feet high. A native of America. 13. C. be be Linn. Sp. Pl. Brown. Jam. 238. (Cereus altiflimus gracilior, Sloan. Jam. 197. Hift. 2. p. 158. Raj. Dend. 22. Trew. Ehret. t. 14.) Ere&t, long, o€tangular; angles com- prefled, waved; fpines longer thanthe wool.” Stem rather flender. Fruit yellow without, with fcattered afperities ; fnow-white within, containing many black feeds. A native of South America. 14. C. Januginofus, Linn. Sp. Pl. (Cereus curaflavicus, Herm. Parad. tab. Tiss) cobrect, long, with about nine angles; angles obfolete; {pines fhorter than the wool.’? Svem rather glaucous; fpines in- termixed with a yellowifh wool. FYowers greenifh. Fruit about the fize of a walnut, red externally, and without fpines. A native of Curaffou. 15. C. royeni, Linn. Sp. Pl. (Cereus, Boer. Lug. 1. p. 293. Herm. 48. Par. 115.) “« Erect, jointed, with nine angles; divifions between the joints fomewhat egg-fhaped ; {pines the length of the wool.” Perhaps only a variety of the preceding. Stem long ; chan- nels between the angles fhallow, woolly, and very Tonos {pines long, and yellowifh; down pale white. Fruit red, and without fpines. A native of America. 16. C. peru- vianus, Linn. Spec. Pl. (Cereus peruvianus, Bauh. Pin. 458. Lob. ic. 2. p. 25. Cierge epineux,. AG. Acad. 1516. p- 146.) Erect, long, with about eight angles; angles obtute.”” Stem branched in its upper part ; aiiglck furnifhed with fmall clufters of brown, very flender, diverging [pines, proceeding from a cottony tuft. J’/owers lateral, almoft feffile, folitary, whitifh, five or fix inches in diameter ; fcales of the calyx flethy, green, purplifh at their extremity ; petals about thirty, lanceolate, white, with a tint of bright pur- ple at their fummit; ftamens very numerous, fhorter than the petals; anthers yellowith; ftyle the length of the ftamens; ifligma with ten ftraight divifions. There is now, or at leaft in 1803, there was growing at the Mu- feum of Natural Hiftory in Paris, a fuperb plant of this {pecies near forty feet high. It was prefented more than a hundred years ago, by Hotton profeflor of botany at Leyden to Fagon firft phyfician to Lewis X1V., and fuperintendant of the royal garden, when it was only four or five inches high. The growth of each year is diftinguithed by a con- traction of the flem ; each of thefe contractions is at firft very deep, and remains nearly the fame for fome years, when it gradually diminifhes, and at length is entirely obliterated, This plant grew at firit about a foot and a half ina year, and when it was fourteen years old was twenty-three feet high and feven inches im diameter. At the age of elevenit produced its-firtt two branches, about three fect from the ground. A year after it produced its firlt flowers, and has continued to flower ever fince. See Di&. Agric. Nouv, Encyclopedie.. A native of Peru. 17. C. fimbriatus, La Marck. Burm. Amer. tab. 195. f. 1. “ Ereét, long, with CACTUS. with about eight angles; petals fringed, fruit fpinous, fearlet.”? Stems growing many together, about the thicknefs of a man’s thigh, and from eighteen to twenty feet igh ; conic and very f{pinous at their fummit, befet at their angles with clufters of white, long, very fharp{pines. /Yowers at the fummit of the ftem, rather large; ftyle much longer than the ftamens. Fruit globular, flethy, nearly the fize of an orange, of a bright fhining red colour, rough with tubercles and armed with whitifh, fharp fpines; flefh of a flame colour, very tender, of an agreeable, acidulous flavour, and filled with numerous black feeds. La Marck from the MSS. of Plumier. , cadara, power. Ben Aun calls the Cadarians, the Magi, or Mani- chees of the Muffulmen. This name is given by fome to the Motazalites, though they difclaim it, and give it to the Jabarians, who likewife reject it as an infamous appellation, becaufe Mahomet is fald to have declared the Kadarians to be the Magians of his followers, CADAVAL, in Geography, atown of Portugal, inthe province of Traz-os-Montes; 13 miles S.S.W. of Mirandella. —Alfo, a town of Portugal, in the province of Eftrema- dara, including a diftri&t of eight parifhes, and about 350 inhabitants; 13 miles S.E. of Peniche. CADAVAYLLO River, is about 3 leagues N.N.E. from the fand off the mouth of Lima river, on the coalt of Peru in South America. CADAVERUM, in Entomology, a fpecies of Acanus, cAD haying the body fomewhat bilobate, and the pofterior part furnifhed with four briftles, which are longer than the body. Schranck. Found in the carcafes of infects. CADAUM Castra, in Ancient Geography, a place of Africa, in Mauritania Cefarienfis, on the coaft from Cala to Rufucurrum. Antonin. Itin. CA-DE’, or Cutapa, in Geography. Gop’s houfe. Cape, a cag, cafk, or barrel; ufed in the book of rates for adeterminate number of fome forts of fifh—Thus a cade of herrings is a veflel containing the quantity of five hundred herrings, and of {prats one thoufand. Anciently the cade of herrings appears to have contained fix hundred fith, reckoning fix {core to the hundred. Cape bay, in Geography, lies on the fouth-weft fide of the ifland.of Antigua, in the Welt Indies, and a little to the north-weft from Carlifle bay on the fouth of the ifland. Cape?’s Infurre@ion, in Englifh Hifiory, a formidable in- furrection, which took place in Kent in 1450, and which was fo called from the artful and bold adventurer, John Cade, by whom it was headed. Cade having colleGed a confiderable number of the common people, by fpecious promifes of reforming all abufes, whence he obtained the name of John Amendall, marched towards London, and encamped on Blackheath. | From hence two addrefles were fent by the infurgents to the king and council, art- fully profefling the greateft attachment to the perfon and government of the king, and reaneae the redrefs of griev- ances, together with the punifhment of eyil counfellors, who had opprefied the people at home, and occafioned the lofs of the king’s dominions abroad, and that the king would overn by the advice of the dukes of York, Exeter, Buck- ingham, and Norfolk, and the well-affeéted barons of the kingdom. Thefe addrefles, which had marked out for de- ftruction certain members of the council, were rejected, and it was refolved to fubdue the infurgents by force. Fer this purpofe, an army of 15,000 men was ordered to march againft the infurgents; and a detachment overtook and en- aged them near Seven-oaks, but was defeated. Cade and fe followers, elated by this victory, returned to their for- mer ftation on Blackheath ; and as the afpect of affairs was now become ferious and alarming, lenient meafures were adopted, and the archbifhop of Canterbury and the duke of Buckingham were deputed to treat with the rebels. In the conference that enfued, Cade behaved with decency and firmnefs, but refufed to lay down his arms, till the re- quilitions in his addrefs were granted. After the return of the meffengers, the court retired to Kenilworth caftle, and the tower of London was garvifoned, Cade advanced to Southwark, and was at length admitted into London. Having feized and beheaded lord Say and Seale, late high treafurer of England, and his fon-in-law fir James Cromer, theriff of Kent, they proceeded to pillage the city; but they were foon driven out of it, and failing m their attempts to repoffefs it, they agreed to a fhort truce. A proclama- tion was iflued from the tower, which announced a pardon under the great feal to all who immediately departed to their own homes; and this proclamation produced fuch an ef-' fe&t, that ina few hours the army, lately fo formidable, dif- appeared. Cade, finding that he was thus fuddenly aban- doned, put his booty on boarda barge, and fent it to Ro- chefter, and proceeded by land with a few attendants; but being denied admittance into Queenborough caflle, he dif- miffed all his followers, and put ona difguife. A procla- mation was immediately publifhed, offering a reward of 1000 marks to any who brought him in, dead or alive. He was difcoyered forking ina garden at Hothfield, in Suffex, * by See League of CAD “by “Alexander “Eden, a @entleman of Kent, and, making fome refiftance, was killed, and his bocy was brought to London, Thus ended an infurre€&tion, which, under a leader of higher rank and greater honour, might have pro- duced.a revolution, Cape Lamb, in Rural Economy, a young lamb brought up in the houfe wholly by the hand. Where the ewe dies foon after lambing, the young lamb may be preferved and brought up in this way. Cane, oil of, (huile de Cade, Fr. ) is an empyreumatic oil of turpentine, thinner than tar, and obtained along with it in the diftillation of pine wood. It appears to be very fimilar to what is called in this country /pirit of tar. See TURPENTINE. Cape’s point, in Geography, lies at the north-weft end of the ifland of Nevis, in the Weft Indies, and is the neareft .cape to Major’s bay, at the fouth-eaft end of the ifland of St. Chriftopher’s, or St. Kitt’s. Cane-worm, in Entomology, a name given by fome au- thors to the larve of the phryganee, which are found in ditches, and ufed as bait for fifh. See PHRYGANEA. CADEL-AUANACU, in Botany, Rheed. mal. 2. p. 61. t. 75. Rai. hilt. 167. 1855. Sup. 112. 666. See Croton tiglium. CADELI, Rheed. mal. See AcnHyrantTHEs afpera. CADELIUM, Rumph. Amb. See Puastotus Max. CADEMOSTO, or Capamusti, Lewis, or properly Atvise pa ca De Mosto, in Biography, a eelebrated Venetian navigator, was born about the year 1432; and having made feveral voyages in the Mediterranean, he left Venice in 1454, and being accidentally driven by a ftorm on the coaft of Portugal, he was employed by the infant don Henry ina voyage of difcovery. A caravel was fitted out and laden, chiefly at the expence of De Mofto, who em- barked in March 1455 with Vincenzo Diaz, to whom the command of the vetlel was entrufted, and proceeded to the coafl of Africa, Being joined at fea by two other veffels, they failed to fome diftance beyond Cape Verd; but the crews, through fear of the negroes, refufing to proceed further, they were under the neceflity of returning to Portu- gal. Inthe following year, Cademofto, accompanied by Ufomare, a Genoefe, undertook a fecond voyage with three fhips towards the fame parts; and having pafled cape Blanco, they were driven by a ftorm on Cape Verd iflands, which had not yet been difcovered. From hence, they proceeded as faras the mouth of the river St. Domingo. Cademotto, after his return to Portugal, publifhed, in 1464, an account of his voyage, which is valuable, as it contains the earlieft relation extant of the Portuguefe navigations on the African coaft, and of the gold trade of Tombut, and its principal branches. ‘This work was firft publifhed at Vicenza in 1507; it was afterwards tranflated into Latin and French, and infertgdl by Grinzus in his colleétion enti- tled “ Novus Orbis,”? and by Ramutio in his colleétion of voyages, and fince in feveral others. The author refided fome years ago at Lagos in general efteem. He returned to Venice in 1464, and after this period we have no further accountof him. Nouv. Did. Hit. CADENA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia Mi- nor, in Bithynia. CADENAGC, in Geography, an ancient town of France, in the department of the Lot, by which river it is furround- ed, feated ona fteep rock, which, having never fubmitted to the Englifh in their various invafions and conquefts, was in- vefted with peculiar privileges ; 23 miles E.N.E. of Cahors. CADENCE, in Mufic, denotes a kind of clofe, or reft, either at the end of afong, or fome of its parts, into which it is divided as into members, or a cAD The word feems a metaphor drawn from the dancing- {chool, where it properly fignifies a paufe, or fall, from motion to reft. A cadence 1s properly when the parts fall, and terminate on a chord, or note, the ear feeming naturally to expe€tit. Regularly itis to be made on the final or dominant, though fometimes alfo on the mediant or middle chord of a note. Cadences in finging anfwer nearly to points or ftops in difcourfe, They are refts contrived to favour the weak- nefs of the performers, as well as the hearers, of a mufical compofition. Men are not able to fuilain their attention, or their voice, beyond the fpace of two meafures; even in this fhort interval we perceive the fong to fall, and tend rapidly to a paufe, or reit: the notes which introduce thefe paufes, arecalled cadences, on the proper conduéting and expreffing of which a great part of the mufician’s {kill depends. The chief cadence or clofe is the key itfelf, in which the bafs muft always conclude; the next in dignity is the fifth above; then, ifthe key-note is made fharp, a cadence may be made on the fecond of the key ; after which (by means ofa fharp fifth) on the fixth ; and by a fharp fecond on the third of a key ; after which, returning to the original key and fubje&t, when the hearer is cane: ie of both, by means of a flat feventh, there may be aclofe in the fourth of the key ; after which, with a fharp feventh, the piece may terminate by a final cadence or clofe in the original key. See CLost, MopuLarion. Inall thefe cadences, a major key is underftood. For cadences in a minor key, fee CouNTERPOINT. Dr. Pepufch’s definition of cadences in mufie is, perhaps, the moft fhort, clear, and comprehenfive, to be found in any elementary book. “* Cadences in mufic are the fame as {tops in fpeaking or writing ; that is to fay, they are endings or terminations either of a part or of the whole piece of mufic, as ftops are of a part or of the whole fpeech. or which reafon they are diftinguifhed into full cadences and middle cadences ; thefe laft are like commasand femicolons, after which more is expected to follow, they not making fo full a ftop as the others; whereas after a full cadence we are fenfible that we are come to a conclufion.”? T'reatife on Harmony, Pp: 4. This author’s arrangement of the modulation in the key of Cas the reprefentative of all major keys, differs fomewhat from the prefent pra€tice. It is however that of the greateft mafters of the early part of the laft century. 1 = 3 4 GhiGweb AS F, c, which include all the concords to the key nate. In a long piece of mufic, however, he allows a tranfient modulation into D minor, as a fixth cadence. But Dr. Pepufch’s modulation into E differs totally from that of the f{ecular compofers of more modern times, It is, in faét, no more than a femi-cadence on the fifth of the key of A minor, with a fharp third; noris the feale any thing more than that {pecies of o¢tave affigned by mott writers on ancient mufic to the Dorian made, See Mone, and Anciext Music. Itbegins and ends in E without flat or tharp 3 EFGABCDe. Dr. Pepufch fays, that ‘“ from the peculiarity of its modulation, whatever is compofed in this mode or key is fo folemn, and it feems fo much appropriated to church mufic, that it is called by the Italians tuono di chiefa. From the contemplation of this fcale, the fieur Blainville, in 1751, fancied, or wifhed others to fancy, that he had difcovered a new cadence, or key, different from the major and minor, the fecond being minor, and the feventh major. See Did. de Roufleau, art. Mede. ; The refolution of a difcord, according to Rouffeau, is a king CADENCE, kind of cadence. And, as all harmonic phrafes are necef- farily conneéted by difcords, expreffed or underitood, it follows, that all mufic may be faid to confift of a fucceffion ofcadences.’”? The regle de Po@ave feems to favour this idea; as every other found carries a difcord. See ReGre de/odave. According to Rameau, there are four kinds of cadences ; the perfect, imperfea, interrupted, and difappointed. 7 Setave 4 aes ORAS BO a cee ae Padre Martiui’s cadeaces, in his Saggio di Contrappunto, being fuch as are peculiar to the ecclefiaftical modes, will be of little ufe in fecular mufic. The clofes of Haydn, Mozart, and Paefiello, however new, elegant, and ingenious the treble may be, are all built on the bafes and harmony of the old clofes of 100 years ago; for in a full clofe, as the bafe mutt fall a fifth or rife a fourth, the treble muft either fall from the ninth to the eighth, or rife from the feventh to the eighth. In early days of counterpoint, the great fludy of com- pofers was cadences. A Studio of Paleftrina being found at Rome in the year 1770, it was chiefly filled with cadences and chants, in his own hand-writing. In melody, the preparation for clofes in the principal part are infinite; in harmony they are numerous, but may be numbered. Neither Rameau’s cadences, nor thofe of Padre Martini, quite fatisfy us. In Gafparini there is an ample colleG@tion, chap. vi. per far le cadenze d’ogni forte. From thefe Walther has cited many, but more correctly; for Gafparini’s book, in the edition which we have feen, is miferably printed. The cadences in Walther are good, as far as harmony is concerned, which is not fo changeable as melody ; and to thefe, chiefly from Gafparini, we have all the Italian names: as cadenza maggiore, minvre, maygiore fminuita, cadenza sfuggita, finta, fiorita, perfetta, imperfetta, irregulare, d’inganno, Kc. In ancient mufic, cadence is nearly fynonymous with rhythm. The French make ufe of the term cadence for a trille or fhake. Capence, in the Modern Dancing, is when the feveral fteps and motions follow, or correfpond to, the notes or mea- fures of the mufic. Capence, inthe Manege, denotes an equal meafure, or portion obferved by a ie in all his motions, when he 35 thoroughly managed, and works juftly, either at the gallop, terra a terra, or the airs. A horfe’s working in cadence imports, that his times or motions are uniform, and that one does not take in more ground than another. Capence, in Oratory, and Poetry, denotes the harmo- nious movement of verfe or profe; otherwife called the numbers, and by the ancients ju3uor. See Ruytum. As to profe, Ariftotle fuggefts that though it be not meafured like verfe, it fhould neverthelefs be numerous or harmonious (fee Numer); and Cicero enjoins the orator to take care to gratify the ear, ‘ fuperbiflimum aurium jadicium.”” Indeed, the fineft si will be deftitute of power to pleafe, if they are expreffed in terms that are harth and ill arranged. Ass the ear is agreeably foothed by a foft and flowing difcourfe, it is offended by want of har- smcing-in the Sivettane and flow of the periods; whether it be occafioned by the exceffive brevity and abruptnefs of termination, on the one hand, or by excefs of length, a Kind of crawling, languid, movement on the other, which are both alike difgufting to a delicate car. By obferving a due mean between thole two extremes, a difcourfe acquires that harmony which is adapted both to pleafe and even to perfuade. See Styce. As to the cadence of verfe, it depends, in Greek and Latin poetry, on the number and proper intermixture of thofe feet or periodic meafures which enter into the com- polition of verfe, and which vary in the differeat kinds of it ; and, in living languages, the cadence refults from the number of fyllables which each verfe admits, and from the richnefs, variety, and difpofition of the rhymes. Iu the an- cient poetry, fays M. Rollin (Method of Teaching and Stu- dying the Belles Lettres, vol. i. p. 249.) ‘¢ there is a plain, common, and ordinary harmony of cadence, which fupports itfelf alike univerfally, renders the verfe fimooth and flowing, carefully throws out whatever may offend the ear by a rough and difagreeable found ; and, by the mixture of diffe- rent numbers and meafures, forms that pleafing harmory, diffufed throughout the whole body of the poem.” « Be- fides this,”’ he fays, ‘* there are certain particular cadences, of greater figniticancy, which make a more fenfible im- preflion. Thefe forts of cadences are very beautiful in ver- fification, and add a confiderable grace, provided they are ufed with prudence and addrefs, and do not return too often. They prevent the tedioutnefs, which uniform cadences, and regular returns, in one and the fame meafure, cannot fail of producing.” In the Latin poetry,’? he adds, “we have entire liberty to divide our verfes as we pleafe, to vary the paufes (caluras, or cadences) at will, and art- fully to {pare delicate ears the uniform returos of the daétyle and {pondee, which clofe an heroic verfe.” Accordingly he produces a variety of examples from Virgil, which feem to evince and illuitrate the value of this kind of liberty, and the ufe that may be made of it.’ Thus, long words, pro- perly placed, form a full and harmonious cadence, efpe~ cially if there are feveral fpondees in the verfe; e.g. ‘« Luctantes ventos tempettatefque fonoras Imperio premit.”” /&n. I. 57. Again, the fpondaic verfe has fometimes a great degree: of gravity. Virgil has ufed it very advantageoufly in the defcription of Sinon’s furprife and aitonifhment. «« Namque ut conf{peétu in medio turbatus, inenmis Conttitit, atque oculis Phrygia agmina circum{pexit.’”” En. II. 67 It is alfo very proper for exprefling any fentiment that is fad and doleful; e. ¢. ** Que quondam in buitis aut culminibus defertis Noéte fedens, feriém canit importuna per umbyras.’” fin. XIL. 863, A monofyllable at the end of a yerfe ferves.fometimes to. give it great force; e. g. “ Heret pede pes, denfufque viro vir.’ Bn. X. 361. There are alfo feveral forts of fufpended cadences, which. have their peculiar graces; e. g. © Et fruftra retinacula tendens Fertur equis auriga, neque audit currus-habenas.’’ Georg. I. 5:1 3.. Broken cadences likewife produce a good effect; e. g. “ Tali remigio navis fe tarda movebat : Vela facit tamen.”” J/En. V. 280. Elifions contribute very much to the beauty ofiverfe, by making the numbers. fmooth, flowing, rough, or majettic,. according to the difference of. the objects to be exprefled.. Spondees and long words, which give a flownefs and heavi« nefs to verfe, are proper for exprefling forrow; e. y. * 6 Extinctum. ‘ < CAD 6 Extin€tum nymphe crudeli funere Daphoim Flebant.”” Eclog. V. 20. Joy, on the other hand, demands the rapiditv of dac- tyles; e. g. *¢ Saltantes fatyros imitabitur Alphefibeeus.” Eclog. V. 73. To exprefs foftnefs, we mutt felect words confifting of many vowels, with {mooth and flowing confonants; and avoid fuch fyliables as are compofed of feveral confonants, harfh elifions, and rough letters or afpirates ; e. g- * Devenére locos lxtos, et amcena vireta Fortunatorum nemorum, fedefque beatas.”’ . én. VI. 638. Tn exprefling roughnefs, we mutt chufe words which be- gin and end with an 7, or which double the 7; rough con- fonants, as the x, or the afpirate 4; words formed of double confonants ; and elifions; e. g. « Ergo egre raftris terram rimantur.””. Georg. IIT. 534. Lightnefs and {wiftnefs are exprefled by daétyles; e. g. « Mox aére lapfa quieto Radit iter liquidum, celeres neque commovet alas.”” fen. V. 216. Heavinefs, on the other hand, requires fpondees ; e. g. «¢ Sli inter fefe magna vi brachia tollunt In numerum, verfantque tenaci forcipe ferrum.”” Georg. IV. 174. In other cadences, words placed at the end have a pecu- liar force or grace; e. g. s¢ Vox quoque per lucos vulgo exaudita filentes Ingens.”? Georg. I. 476. See Orver, Juncrure, and Numser. Capence, in Reading, denctes the falling or lowering of the voice below the key note at the clofe of every period. The key-note, in fpeaking, is that tone or found with which the modulation commences, and it is generally continued through every complete fentence or period; and to this the occafional inflexions of the voice, either above or below it, may be fuppoied to refer. Of courfe the tones that fall a little lower tan the key at the clofe of a fentence or period, are called cadences ; and they are fometimes diftinguifhed into two kinds, under the ap- propriate epithets of /ignificant and ornamental; the former ferve to mark the fenfe, and the latter to decorate the mo- dulation. In many extenfive and long periods, the full fenfe of which is long fufpended, and where the final words are not very important, the cadence is a kind of notice of their termination, diftinét from the paufe, which, befides the ornamental variety it affords, is a very neceflary and ufeful article in perfpicuous clocution. As this cadence naturally accompanies the termination of every entire fenfe, it may fometimes fall before the femicolon, but more gencrally before the colon, as wellas the period ; for thefe marks are often found to terminate a complete fenfe ; and in fuch cafes the relation of that which follows to that which preceded, is fignified to the mind by the relative fhortnefs of the ftop, and the mode of introducing the additional matter. See Mopvutation, Pause, and Puncruation. CADENCED. An air or melody in mujic is faid to be well cadenced, when the rhythm is good, the accents well placed, and the paflages well phrafed. See Ruyrum, Ac- cenr, and PHraseE, CADENCY, in Heraldry, the ftate or quality of a cadet. Nifbet has an effay on the additional figures and marks of cadency. See Diminution. CADENE, in Commerce, one of the forts of carpets which the Europeans import from the Levant, by way of Smyrna. They are the worft fort, and are commonly fold by the piece from one to two piaftres per carpet. CADENET, in Geography, a town of France, in the CAD department of Vauelufe, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of Apt, near the Durance, three leagues S. of Apt. The town contains 2051, and the canton 8$11 inhabitauts ; the territory comprehends 260 kiliometres and 9 communes. N. lat. 43° go’. E. long. 53° 30’. & CADENSO, or Capenro, one of the Laccadive iflands in the Indian fea. N. lat. 11° 59/.. E. long. 72° 32!. CADENZA Sfuggita, inthe Stalian Mufic, is uled whena part inftead of afcending or defcending the proper interval, to form a cadence, proceeds by fome cther interval, For in- ftance, when the bafs, inftead of rifing a fourth or falling a fifth, afcends only by a tone, or femitone-major. Thus, in Ex. 1, where the bafs, inflead of proceeding te C, the key-note, afterG, goesto A. Thus alfo, in Ex. 2, after E, the ear would naturally expe@ to hear A the key- note; but this is avoided, and F put in its place. The interrupted and difappointed cadences in recitative are innumerable: being governed by the dialogue; in which a full and formal clofe from the chord of the fifth to the key- note feldom occurs, except in the laft bar of the recitation preceding an air. CADEQUIA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Spain in Catalonia; 5 miles N.E. of Rofas. CADER, a.town of Afia, in the Arabian Irak, on the Tigris; 100 miles S. of Bagdad. CADER-IDRIS, the Cuarr oF Ipris, a lofty moun- tain near Dolgellau in Merionethfhire, North Wales, in height the fecond of the principality, is fo called from a tradition of its having been a fortrefs belonging to Idris, who is fuppofed to have been a prince of thefe parts in ancient times. It is alfo faid that Idris was a famous poet, aflronomer, and philofopher, and that the fummit of Cader-Idris was his fa- voutite feat and obfervatory. Mr. Rowland in his ** Mona Antiqua,’”’ (p. 84.) fays, that the ancients decyphered af- tronomy by the name of Edris; aname attributed to Enoch, whom they took to be the founder of aftronomy; whence he derives Cader-Idris ; and he adds that not far off there is another place, called ‘* Cerrig-Brudyn,” i. e. the altrono- mer’s {tones or circle. Accordingly the former of thefe places may have been the refidence, and the latter the obfer- yatory of thofe druids in the Tfle of Anglefey, who applied particularly to the fludy of aftronomy. This mountain rifes on the fea fhore, clofe upon the north- ern fide of the eftuary of the fmall river Dilynwy, about a mile from Towyn. It proceeds with almolt a continual afcent, firft northwards for about 3 miles, then for ro miles further it runs E.N.E. giving out for its fummit a branch nearly 3 miles long, in a fouth-wefterly direCtion, pa- rallel to the main ridge. It is very ftcep and craggy on every fide, ‘but the fouthern defcent, efpecially to the border of Talyllyn lake, is the mott precipitous, being nearly per- pendicular. The breadth bears but a {mall proportion to its length ; a line paflingalong its bafeand interfeCtingthefummit, would fcarcely equal 44 miles; and in the other parts it issa mere ridge, whofe bafe hardly ever exceeds 1 mile in breadth, Its peak, called ‘* Pen-y Gader,’? is faid by Pennant (Snow- donia, p. 98.) to be 2850 feet above Dolghellau. Cader Idris is the commencement of a chain of primitive moun- tains, extending in the N.N, eafterly. direCtion, and includ- ing the Arrans andthe Arennigs. It is much more lofty and eraggy than the flates and fecondary. mountains, which oe] roun e cAD round it, and confifts of filiceous porphyry, and filiceous {chiftofe porphyry, both in mafs and interfe€ed by veins of quartz, os a porphyry in mafs, and granitill of Kir- wan in ma mpofed of quartz and fchorl. Here are found alfo feveral rocks, containing the component a of uartz and hyry, with fo at a proportion of white i ie pes aii Sane as almoft to coa- ceal the other ingredients. In feveral {pecimens the felfpar, having been decompofed, has fallen out and given the quartz a porous appearance, which accounts for the porous lava faid by fome traveilers to have been found here. ‘There are no mines in Cader-Idris, or the neighbourhood. At the foot of this mountain is a {mall lake, called “ Llyn-y-Gader;” above the exterior ridge is another deep and clear lake, kept conftantly full by the numerous tributary torrents that fall down the furrounding rocks: and at a ftill higher elevation is a fecond lake, clear as glafs, and overlooked by {leep cliffs fo as to refemble the crater of a volcano, accurately repre- fented in Wilfon’s excellent view of Cader-Idris. Some tra- vellers have mentioned their having found lava and other vol- canic productions here: but Mr. Aikin and his companions, who afcended this mountain, could difcover nothing of this kind; nor did the water of the lake appear to differ in any refpeé&t from the pureft rock-water, though it was fepeatedly tried with the moft delicate chemical tetts. A clear, loud, and diltin@ echo repeats every fhout that is made near this lake. On the fummit of the mountain is a {mall plain, with two rocky heads of nearly equal height, one looking to the north, the other to the fouth. In the former direction Snowdon and its dependen- cies fhut up the fcene ; on the weft was feen the whole curve of the bay of Cardigan, bounded at a vat diftance by the Caernarvon miountains, and nearer, dafhing its white Lreak- ers againft the rocky coaft of Merioneth. The fouthera horizon was bounded by Plinlimmon, and on the eaft the eye glariced over the lake of Bala, che two Arennig moun- tains, the two Arrans, the long chain of the Berwyn moun- tain, to the Breiddyn hills on the confines of Shrophhire ; and dimly in the diftant horizon, was beheld the Wrekin, rifing alone from the plain of Salop. On the oppofite fide of the mountain, by which thefe travellers defcended, they found another beautiful mountain lake, whofe cold clear waters difcharge their fuperabundance in a full ftream down the fide of the mountain. All thefe waters abound with trout, and in fome is found the Gwyniad, a fifh peculiar to rocky alpine lakes. Following the courfe of the ftream, they came on the edge of the craggy cliffs that overlook Talyllyn lake; and after a long and difficult defcent they arrived on the borders of Talyllyn, where they entered the Dolghellau road. The plants which they found were lobelia dortmanna, in all the lakes, efpecially in Llyn-y-Gader; fax- raga hypnoides; S. nivalis ; lycopodium felago; L. clava- tum ; feltuca vivipara ; vaccinium vitis-idea; gnaphalium di- oicum; pteris crifpa; narthecium offifragum: pinguicula vulgaris; fedum rupeftre; S. telephium, &c. Beneath Tyrrau Mawr, one of the points of Cader-Idris, and on the right are fome remains of circles of upright ftones, with many carnz, and feveral maeni-hirion, of rude, upright columns. At a {mall diftance “beyond thefe, near the river Krogennan, are the remains of Lys Bradwen,” or the pa- lace of Ednawain, chief of one of the fifteen tribes of North Wales, about the reign of Gruffydd ap Cynan, meafuring nearly 30 yards fquare: having an entrance 7 feet wide, with a large ht ftone on each fide as a door-cafe: the walls are rude and uncemented. Aikin’s Tour. 8vo. Evan’s Cambrian Itinerary. 8vo. 1801. CADEROUSSE, a town of France, in the country of — s 1 league W. of Orange. ox. V. 1797* CAD CADES, in Ancient Geography,. See Kanes. CADESIA, atown of Perfia, in the province of the Babylonian or Chaldean Trak, on the verge of the Defert, 61 leagues from Bagdad, and 2 ftations, or 15 parafangs, from Cufa. It became famous among the Arabs for the de- feat of the Perfians, in the battle fought in the 15th year of the Hegira, (A.D. 636.) under the caliphate of Omar, by Saad, fon of Abuvacaz, general of the Arabs, again{t Ruf- tam} furnamed Ferokhzad, general of Jezdegerd, the latt king of Perfia, of the dynaity of Chofroes, or of the Safani- des. The army of the Moiflems confifted of 30,000 men 5 but that of the Perfians was much more numerous. The combat laited three days, and the feveral periods of it were diitinguifhed by their peculiar appellations : the firit, from the feafonable appearance of 6000 of the Syrian breth was denominated the day of fuccour. The day of concuffion exprefled the diforder of one, or, perhaps, of both, of the contending armies. The third, a no¢turnal tumult, re- ceived the whimfical name of the night of darking, from the difcordant clamours which were compared to the inarticulate founds of the fierceft animals. The morning of the fucceed- ing day determiued the fate of Perfia ; anda feafonable whirl- wind drove a cloud of duit againtt the faces of the unbelievers. The clangor of arms was re-echoed to the tent of Rultam, who was gently reclining in a cool and tranquil fhade, amidft the baggage of his camp, and the train of mules, that were laden with gold and filver. On the found of danger he ftarted from his couch; but he was overtaken in his fl ght by a valiant Arab, who caught him by the foot, flruck off his head, hoifted it ona lance, and intlautly returning to the field of battle, carried flaughter and dilmay amoug the thickeft ranks of the Perfans. Tis battle has been jullly defcribed by the epithets of obftinate and atrocious; aud the Saracens acknowledge a lofs of 75co men. The ftandard of the Perfian monarchy was overthrown and captured in the field ; which ftandard was a leathern apron of a blackfmith, who, in ancient times, had arifen the deliverer of Perlia ; but this badge of heroic poverty was difguifed, and almoft con- cealed bya profufion of precious gems. After this viory, the wealthy province of Irak, or Affyria, fubmitted to the ca- liph ; and his conquetts were firmly eitablifhed by the {peedy foundation of Baflora, a place which ever commands the trade and navigation of the Perfians. D’Herbelot. Bib. Orient. Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. ix. p. 367, &c. CADET, the younger brother of a family: a term na- turalized in our language from the French. In Paris, among the citizens, the cadets haye an equal portion with the eldeft ; in other places the eldef& has all. According tothe cuftom of Spain, one of the cadets, in great families, takes the mother’s name. Caper alfo denotes a young gentleman-foldier, who, to attain to fome knowledge in the art of war, and in expecta- tion of preferment, choofes to carry arms as a private man in a company of foot. Cadet differs from volunteer, as the former takes pays though only that of a private man, whereas the latter ferves without pay. In 1682, the king of France eftaljiflied companies of ca- dets, wherein the young gentry were trained up to war, and taught the arts and exercifes belonging thereto, as riding, fencing, mathematics, &c. Capvet, CLavupe, in Biography, one of the phyficians to Lewis XIV. was born at a village near ‘Troyes, in 1695. Applying diligently to the fludy of medicine and furgery, at the age of 21, he was fent to Paris, and admitted among the attending furgeons at the Hotel Dieu, where, he pro- fited fo well by the opportunities which offered for informa- tion, that, in 1724, he wae admitted of St. Come, and at. 4Q2 tained GAD tained to:confiderable eminence in his profeffion, He died at Paris, Feb. 10, 1745. His only work is “ Obferva- tions fur les Maladies fcorbutiques,’? Paris, 1742, 12mo. which was republifhed, two years after, with additions. His two fons, Lewis Claude, and. Anthony Alexis, who were both brought up to the practice of medicine, diftinguifhed themfelves by their publications on the fubje&s of chemiftry and pharmacy, of which the following are moft known: s¢ Analyfe Caymique d’une Eau Minerale nouvellement. de- couyerte a Pafly,” 1757, 1zmo.; ‘* Refponfe a plufieurs Obfervations de M. Baumé fur |’A&ther Vitriolique, fur le Mercure precipité per fe, fur la Redu€tion de Chaux, de Cuivre, et d’Etain a travers les Charbons,’’ Paris, 1775, 4to.; befides numerous communications to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and Curiof. Nat.; cF both which Lewis Claude was member. Eloy. Dict. Hitt. CADETES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul, towards the maritime partsofArmorica. Czfar. CADEUMA, atown of Ethiopia, near Egypt. Pliny. CADGE, a round frame of wood on which falconers carry their hawks when they expofe them to fale. CADGOLLS, in Geograpdy, a mountain of Scotland, in the county of Rofs ; 6 miles S.E. of Lain. CADI, among the Turks and Saracens, denotes aa ordi- nary jadge, who decides in all civil controveriies within the diltrict of a town or city, though fubjeé to appeals to fu- perior judges. The word is Arabic #1) or 3p, q- d. judge, formed of ID, to judge. DHerbelot writes ‘it cadbi. The term cadi, ufed abfolutely, denotes the judge of a fmaller town or village who judges, without appeal, all litigious affairs, not only of the muffulmans, but even thofe of the Jews and Chriftians; thofe of cities being called mo/- Jas, or moulas, fometimes mouli-cadies, or great cadies. The place of a cadi, or of a molla, is frequently occupied by a lieutenant, called aid, who judges, like them, without ap- peal; he isa muderis, who runs the career of magiltracy, and is generally appointed cadi the following year, and fent to another poft. The cadis remain in this rank, and obtain no other advancement befides that of a tribunal, more extenfive, and, confequently, more lucrative. They, neverthelefs, be- come mollas of an inferior rank ; fuch are thofe of Bagdad, Philopopolis, &c.; but they cannot become cadilefchers, muftis, &c. unlefs they enter the grand mofque of Soliman I. and continue their ftudies. ‘The tribunal of juftice is deno- minated makkama, or mekimé. We find numerous compiaiats of the avarice, extortion, and iniquity of the Turkith cadis; all juttice is here venal ; the people bribe the cadis; the cadis bribe the moulas; the moulas the cadilefchers ; and the cadilefchers the mufti. It is ufually vain to appeal, even if an appeal were al- lowed, from the fentence of the cadi; fince the affair is never heard anew, but judgment is pafied on the cafe, as flated by the cadi. The tribunal, whence thefe cadis iffue their decifions, is fometimes at their own houles; but never at any place which correfponds with the idea annexed to fo folemn anemployment. In an empty mean apartment, the eadiis feated on a mat or wretched carpet; and on each fide of him are his clerks and fome domeftics. The door is open to every body ; the parties appear; and there, without in- terpreters, advocates, or attorsies, each pleads his own caufe. Squatted on the ground, they itate the facts, difpute, and reply again in their turns, fometimes the debates are violent; but the cries of the clerks, and the ftaff of the cadi, foon reltore order and filence. Gravely fmoking his pipe, and twilting the end of his beard round his finger, this judze liftens, interrogates, and concludes by pronouncing a fen- ience without appeal, which at moftallows but two months cA D > delay, TThe'parties are never very well fatisfied ; they retire, however, with refpet, and pay a fee, eftimated at one- tenth of the litigated property, without murmuring at the decifion, as it is invariably directed by the “ infallible Ko- ran.” Venality, indeed, is fo barefaced, and fo impudent, - that the parties may bargain for their caufe with the cadi, as they would for any common commodity. Corruption is habitual and general ; nor is it likely to be otherwife in cir- cumitances, where integrity may be ruinous, and injuftice lucrative ; where each cadi, deciding without appeal, fears neither a revifion of his fentence, nor punishment for his par- tiality ; and where, in fhort, the want of clear and precife laws affords a thoufand ways of avoiding the fhame of an evident injuftice, by opening the crooked paths of commmmen- taries and interpretations. The cadis, neverthelefs, are often cafhiered, and punifhed for notorious injuftice with the baf- tonade and mulcts; but the law forbids them to be put to death. Conitantinople has had cadis ever fince the year 1390, when Bajazet I. obliged Joha Paleologus, emperor of the Greeks, to receive cadis into the city, to judge all controverfies happening between the Greeks and the Turks fettled there. In fome countries of Africa, the cadis are alfo judges of religious matters. Among the Moors, cadi is the denomiaation of their higher order of prielts, or doc- tors, anfwering to the rabbins among the Jews. Capt, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mytia, according to Steph. Byz; but Strabo places it in Phrygia. CADIA, in Botany, (the Arabic name of the plant,) Forfk. Arab. go. Vitman Summa Plant. tom. iti. p. 141. L’Heret. Mag. Encyc. tom. v. p. 20. Vent. vol. ii. 374. (Panciatica, Hort. Pan. 1793. p. 9. Spaendoncea, Def- font. Dec. Philof. v. 56. p. 260.) Clafs and order, decan- dria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Leguminofe, Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. bell-fhaped, five-cleft. Cor. petals five, rarely fix or feven, inverfely heart-fhaped, equal. Stam. filaments ten, rarely more, awl-fhaped, a little curved, gib- bous at their bafe, the length of the corolla, ranged ina circle near the petals; anthers oblong, incumbent. Pifi. germ pedicelled ; ityle fimple. Peric. legume linear, compreffed, bent at the end, membranous, many-feeded. Seeds cblong, fhining. i Ef Ch. Calyx five-cleft; petals equal, inverfely heart- fhaped ; lezume many-feeded. Sp.C. purpurea, Ait. Hort. Kew. 3. 492.Picc. Hort. Pan. 9, with a coloured figure. A fhrub. Sem about three feet high; branches and petioles pubefcent. Leaves alternate, unequally pinnate; leaflets numerous, fometimes oppoiite, fometimes al- ternate, linear, retufe, the nerve commonly ending ina little point; ftipules briftle-fhaped, caducous. #/owers the co- lour of a peach-biofiom, without feent ; racemes few-flower- ed, axillary, pendant, fhorter than the leaves. Legume lefs than afpan in length. Seeds eight or ten. A native of Arabia. CADIANG, a kind of lentiles in Batavia, and the ad- jacent country, which makes a confiderable part of the food of the common people. Dr. Hawk{worth’s Account of the Voyage to the South Seas, vol. iii. p. 733. ADIAPATAM Pornr, in Geography, lies on the coaft cf Malabar, in the Kaft Indies, near the extremity of the peninfula of India, to the wett of Cape Comorin. Poolytopn village is fituated on the fea-coalt, E.N.E. 4 geographical miles from this point. N., lat. 8° 9/18". KE. long. 77° 26' 35". P CADIAR, a town of Spain in Grenada ; 28 miles S.E,. of Grenada. CADIERE, La, a town of France, in the department of the Var, ard diftrict of Toulon; 3 leagues N.W. of it. CADILESCHER, Cani-Lesxer, or Kapinesker,a capital ° cAD capital officer of juftice among the Turks, anfwering to a chief-juftice among us. The word comes from the Arabic fadi, judge, the particle a/, and a/char, army; as being at their firft inftitution chiefly judges of the foldiery ; of whofe caufes they. have {till the fole cognizance. D?Herbelot writes the name cadi- lefkar, or cadhi after. It is faid that this authority was originaliy confined to the foldiery; but that at prefent it extends itfelf to the deter- mination of all kinds of law-fuits ; yet, neverthelefs, fubjeét to appeals. At Conftantinople there are two cadilefchers, who fuper- intend the concerns of the Ottoman empire ; one of Roma- nia, or of Turkey in Europe, and the éther of Natolia, or of Turkeyin Afia. They were formerly the judges of mili- tary men, the former for European Turkey, and the latter for the Affatic countries, when the Sultan commanded them in perfon. The cadilefcher of Romania was then charged to decide on the affairs of the Muffulmans, and the other on thofe of the tributary fubjeéts. For fome time paft, the former has the pre-eminence over the latter, and determines alone all the caufes carried to his tribunal, by the fele will and at the requeft of the plaintiffs. The tribunal of the cadilefcher of Natelia has been a long time fuppreffed as ufelefs. They both affift at the divan of tue grand vifir, hear and difcufs the bufinefs brought before them; after which the cadilefcher of Romania alone pronounces the fen- tence. The mufti prefents annually a lift to the fultan for the nomination of two cadilefchers, of the ftambol effendi, of the mollas of Mecca and Medina, of thofe of Burfa, Adrianople, Cairo, and Damafcus, as well as of thofe of Je- rufalem, Aleppo, Smyrna, Lariffa, Salonica, Scutari, Ga- lata, and Aijup, which is one of the fuburbs of Conftanti- nople. It is commonly according to the rank of feniority that the choice is made, when favour does not advance fome pro- teéted perfon, orthe fon of fome great man. When chofen, the cadilefchers remain in place only a year; but the cadilef- cher of Natolia generally Ig that of Romania, and the former has before pafled through the fame rank. To them it belongs to appoint all the fimple cadis of the empire ; and this circumftance renders their place, in a country where every thing is venal, very lucrative, independently of the appanages which they poffefs. The cadilefcherof Romania appoints the cadis of Turkey in Europe, and that of Nato- lia appoints thofe of Afiaand Egypt. Subordinate to them is the flambol-effendi, molla, or judge of the capital. See Srampou-errexpi. The caditetehing are fometimes ad- vanced to the rank of mufti (which fee) ; but according to the eftablifhed order, he muft be chofen from among the cadilefchers of Romania, and thofe who have occupied that employment. Thofe who afpire to the office of cadilefcher muft pafs through a previous courfe of education. Tor this purpofe there are attached to the imperial mofques of Con- ftantinople, Burfa, and Adrianople, madreffis, or colleges, to which young people are fent, from all parts of the em- pire, to be inftructed in the law of the prophet, in religious, civil, and criminal jurifprudence, and to learn all the opinions and all the fubtleties of the commentators on the acs They then undergo various examinations, and when they are thought to be well informed, the rank of muderis or pro- feflor is affigned to them. Thefe colleges were founded by different fultans. The firft was eftablifhed at Nicea, in the year 1330, by Orkhan. They enjoy a confiderable revenue, and provide for the fupport of 2 or 3 thoufand f{cholars. The muderiz, who are not willing to Blow the career of profeffor and obtain the eminent rank of molla, folicit of the cadilefchers the place of cadi, which is eafily granted them cAD fof a pecuniary confideration. The muderis, who are am- bitious of obtaining the moft important places, fuch as thofe of mollay cadilefcher, and mufti, pafs, after frefh examina- tions, to the mofque of Soliman I. and wait till their turn, their merit, or their intereft procures for them an appoint- ment. Eight of them, under the appellation of makhredjé, are appointed every year mollas, or judges, of the towns of Tabla, Aleppo, Smyrna, Lariifa, Salonica, Scutari, Galata, and Aijup. Four among the latter, are afterwards named to the cities of Burfa, Adrianople, Cairo, and Da- mafcus, and the following year two of thefe become mollas of Mecca and of Medina; pon among thefe lait is taken the ftambol-effendi. Thus, fuccefiively in their turn, they ar- rive at the place of cadilefcher, and even of mufti. But the muderis, before they can attain to,this diftinétion, mutt either be prote&ed, or manifelt ardent zeal for religion, diftinguifh- ed talents, great application to ftudy, and very auftere manners. ‘The mollas, cadilefchers, and others who are not employed, and who are waiting for offices, have appanages or benefices, called * Arpaliks.”? Several obtain inferior tribunals, where they place naibs, who difcharge their func- tions, and to whom they grant only a part of the income. Tournefort (Voyage Lev. tom ii. lett. 14.) erroneoufly afferts, that at Conftantinople, a perfon could appeal from the fentence of a cadi ; whereas Europeans only enjoy that privilege, when the fum in litigation exceeds 4000 afpres, or nearly the value of 66 livres, {uppofing the piaftre at two livres. In all the towns of Turkey, the molla, the cadi, and the naib, judge without appeal ; they condemn to fines, to corporal punishment, or to death, without allowing to the delinquent, or perfon accufed, the power of having recourfe to another tribunal. Pocoke, Egypt, p. 170. Volney’s Travels in Egypt and Syria, vol. i. p. 389, &c. Olivier’s Travels in the Ottoman Empire, &c. p. 172, &c. - CADILLAC, or Canpitnac, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Gironde, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Bourdeaux, feated on the banks of the Garonne, and containing a fine caftle, with a collegiate church; 54 leagues S. S. E. of Bourdeaux. The place contains 1326, and the canton 11,200, inhabitants ; and the territory includes 97% kiliometres and 16 communes. N, lat, 4°37! W. long. 0° 15! CADITES, an appellation given by Plott to a kind of figured ftone, refembling a cadus or barrel. The cadites {wells in the middle, and goes tapering to both ends, being divided lengthwife, with fuch equidiftant lineaments, as are ufually made by the flaves of a barrel, but without hoops, nor yet hollow. CADIZ, in Geography, called Gades by the Romans, by the Pheenicians Gadir or Gaddir, i. e. a hedge or fenced place, and by fome of the ancients 7artefus 5 a fea-port city of Spain, feated on a promontory in the extremity of a pe- ninfula, and joined to the ifle of Leon by a caufeway. Towards the eaft it is wafhed by the gentle waves of a well- protected road ; but towards the weit it is open and expofed to the fury of the ocean. Both the harbour and bay of Cadiz are fecure and {pacious ; the entrance being defended by fort Matargordo, and by fort Puntal {tanding oppolite to it ona point of that neck of land on which Cadiz is built. The entrance into the harbour betwixt thefe forts and the points on which they ftand, is reckoned to be about 500 fathoms wide. During the time of ebb, a coniiderable part of the harbour is dry. The outer aud furthermolt bay, which begins between La Rota and San Sebaftian, both of which are fortified, and extends to Puerto de Santa Maria, is divided into two parts by the rocks of Los Pueros and Diamante. On the fouth fide Cadiz is inacceflible on ac. 4Q2 court count of the high and fteep fhore; on the north fide alfo the accefs is dangerous, by reafon of many fand-bauks and rocks which lie under the water; and though the fouth-weft fide admits of landing, it is defended by fort Santa Catalina, or St. Catharine, Onthe S.S. W. point is a ridge of rocks, part of which, at full fea, is covered with water; the outer- moft of thefe is a fmall ifland, on which are a guard and light-houfe, with two chapels, andalfo fort San Sebaftian. ‘The city, therefore, is fufceptible of attack only at the nharrowelt part of the neck of land lying betwixt it and the Ss. E. part of the ifland of Leon; and on this fide it is alfo fortified, The beft view of Cadiz and its environs is that which may be had from the fignal tower ; and hence you look immedi- ately down upon the houfes, whofe flat roofs, covered with a white cement, exhibit a fingular but very pleafing appearance. owards the weft, you command the ocean, with numerous veflels, leaving or entering the harbour; and on the land fide, you difcover the four interefting fea-port towns of Rota, Santa Maria, Puerto Real, aud Caraca, with the ifle of Leon and the connecting cauleway ; whil{t a rich country, verging towards the fetting fun, bounds the diftant profpect. The ftreets of Cadiz are narrow, and yet well-paved and clean. The moft beautiful part of the city looks towards the Puerto de Santa Maria, where the houfes are lofty, built of white free-ftone, brought from thence acrofs the bay, and ornamented with painted balconies. In front they have a wide parade, well gravelled, planted with trees, and commu- micating with the fea-road, where the merchantmen and fhips of war find fhelter. ‘I'wo confiderable {quares, one for the market, the other called Plaza de San Antonio, with the Calle-ancha, or Broad-ftreet, joining to it by way of mall, contribute both to ornament and health; and as the whole city is nearly encompafled by a rampart, this forms an ele- vated, airy, and delightful promenade, much frequented in the evenings. A {mall part towards the welt is bordered by five rows of elms, forming four avenues, adorned with elegant feats, and conftituting the Alameda. Along the ramparts is alfo a row of houfes ; and the fhaded parts towards the fouth ferve for the lower claffes to take their fielta, and enjoy the luxury of the fea-breeze. The inhabitants of Cadiz Supply the want of other promenades by parties of pleafure in the environs of the city. With this view they go out in carriages either to Puerto de Santa Maria, where are fine avenues and gardens, or to Chielana, near the ifle de Leon, which is almoft entirely covered with country-houfes, and commands a very fine view of the bay, the town, and the fea. Although the extent of Cadiz is very limited, yet its houfes are crowded together and are very lofty, fo that the population is eftimated at between 75 and 80,000. ( Fifcher’s Travels in Spain.) Townfend (Journey through Spain, in 1786 and 1787), reckons them at no more than 65,987; but he fays, that about 10 years fince, they were computed at 85,000, befides about 20,002 people who entered daily from the fea and from the adjacent country. The moft diftin- guifhed buildings are the two cathedrals, the ancient and the new; the former is chiefly remarkable for fome good pictures, and for its treafure, confilting of gems, filver candlefticks, and lamps, numerous and bulky ; three cuftodias, one of which, conftruéted of the fineft filver, weighs 51 arobas, or more than half a ton; and another confifts moftly of folid gold. The new cathedral is a huge pile, with large and lofty domes, and many well-proportioned pillars ; but upon the whole heavy and difgufting. Near the cathedral 1s the Plaza de Toros, appropriated to the bull-featts, built entirely of wood. Ata {mall diftance are the obfervatory, ill pro- vided with inftruments, and the academy for painting, fculp- ture, and architeéture, In the contents are fome few good pictures. Of the three hofpitals, one called the Royal or Military Hofpital, is defigned for foldiers, and accommodates 80 ftudents, who are maintained and educated at the king’s expence. It has a good botanical garden, and a theatre for diffections, furnifhed with fubjeéts from among the patients. The other two, one fet apart for women, and the other for men, are diftinguithed for their neatnefs. Befides thefe hofpitals for the fick, Cadiz has a retreat for 47 widows, founded by a Turkey merchant, who died in 1756. But the moft interefting eftablifhment in this city, and the beft conducted of its kind in Spain, is the hofpicio, or general workhoufe. It accommodates (at an average of the year 1787) 855 paupers of every nation, age and fex; who are either palt labour, or inftru€ted and employed in ufeful arts ; and encouraged in proportion to the amount. of their labour. : : The heat of the climate at Cadiz is moderated by the fea~ breeze ; fo that even in fummer it enjoys a happy tempera- ture, and few places are more healthy ; but it becomes more intenfe whenever the folano or fouth-eaft wind prevails This paffes to them over the fcorching plains of Africa; and fuch is its effeét, that all the paffions are inflamed, and during its prevalence, the inhabitants, who are motft irritable, commit every fpecies of excefs. This city abounds withalmoftallthe neceffariesand luxuries of life. Its fruits are cheap, and its moft remarkable wines are fherry and pacaretti, both of which are procured from Xeres and its vicinity. But they are much diftreffed for want of freth water, which they are obliged to fetch from Puerto de Santa Maria ; and their ice, which is ufed for cooling it, is brought from Sierra, at the diftance of 13 leagues. For domettic pur~ pofes, fuch as wafhing, &c. they colleét their waterin fubterra- neous cifterns, but being fubject to wafte by evaporation, it is procured with difficulty, and confumed with great economy, For preventing a fearcity of corn, and in order to enfure a profit by the fale of it, the city has eftablifhed a public granary, from which the bakers are fupplied at a given price; and according to that the magiltrates regulate the aflize of bread. he theatre at Cadiz is large, elegant, and commo- dious ; the principal ators are Italians; and the inhabitants are chiefly attraéted to it by the comedies called Saynetes, and the whimfical dances denominated Voleros. In Lent, whilft the moft polifhed orators confine themfelves to churches, other preachers harangue the multitude in the market-place, with a vehemence of voice and gefture fuited to their congregations. Among the Francifcans, when the penitential fermon is finifhed, the lights are extinguifhed, and inftantly fcourges are applied. When the market- place is not occupied by orators, the feribes take poffeffion of it with their benches, at which they fit with pen, ink, and paper, to write and read letters of all forts, and to execute every kind of deed. In the year 1720, the commerce, which for two centuries had proved a fource of wealth to Seville, was tranflated to Cadiz ; and from that period its merchants have carried on a very confiderable trade, which, however, has ebbed and flowed, according to incidental circumftances. Indeed, this port has been the emporium of commerce to the Weft Indies and America. Townfend informs us, that its whole trade employs about one thoufand veffels, of which nearly one-tenth is Spanifh. In 1784 the value of exports to America amounted, in Spanifh and. foreign produce, to 3,621,443 pounds fterling ; and the value of imports in money and jewels was $,297,1641. and in merchandife 2,990,757 1. The articles of merchandife are cochineal, indigo, cacao, fugar, hides, Vicuna wool, cotton, copper, tin, tobacco, different kinds of wood, &c, which are 4 diftributed CAD diffributed into different countries. Among the foreign merchants of all nations are many Germans, from Hamburg, Bohemia, and Augfburg., The former conititute the clats called Hanfeatics, and according to ancient convention enjoy ‘eonfiderable privileges. To foreigners indeed Cadiz is much indebted for various means of literary intercourfe and im- provement, 2s well as for the wealth refultin from an ex- tended commerce. ‘The manufactures of Cadiz are princi- pally reftriGted to ribbons and linen ; and feveral perfons are employed in knotting filk, and marking ftockings received from Nifmes, and intended to be fhipped for the American fettlements. The moft interefting branch of induftry in the environs of Cadiz is the manufacture of falt ; produced by the numerous falt-pools of the ifle of Leon, with little labour or expence, becaufe the fun and air quickly caufe the water to evaporate, and leave the falt cryitallized. Cadiz is the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Seville. The old Gaddir was built by the Tyrians; from them it was transferred to the Carthaginians ; and afterwards it fell under the dominion of the Romans. It was recovered from the Mocrs in 1260. In 1596 Cadiz was taken and plun- dered by the Englifh; and an unfuccefsful attempt was again made for feizing it in 1702. During the late and prefent war it has been held by the Englifh, at different periods, in a ftate of blockade. In fome of the old Spanith chronicles, this city is denominated Calis, and hence Englifh feamen ufually call it Cales. The tide runs here N.E. and S.W.; and it is high water at {pring tides at half paft four o’clock. N. lat. 36° 31/7”. W. long. 6° 11! 50”. Capiz, a town on tlie north iat of the ifland of Cuba, in a bay of the fame name, about 164 miles E. of Havannah, aod sON. of SpirituSanto. Nat. lat. 23° 2/. W. long. 79° 55’. A river of this name runs into the fea, 10 miles E. from the town of Cadiz. CADIZADELITES, a fe@ among the Muffulmen, re- fembling the ancient Stoics, who avoid all feafting and di- verfion, and affeét an uncommon gravity in’ all they do or fay. Thofe of them who inhabit the frontiers of Hungary, &e. agree in many things with the Chriftians, and drink wine even in the faft of the Ramazan. They read the Sclavonic tranflation of the Bible, as well as the Alcoran. Mahomet, according to them, is the Holy Ghoft, which defcended on the apoftles at the feaft of Pentecot. CADLOCK, in Botany. See Sinaris. CADMA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Paritio found in America. The wings are indented, fulvous; difk of the pofterior pair beneath white, with two ocellated fpots, the pupil of which is double and blue. Drury, &e. Capma, in rural Economy, a term applied to the {malleft of the pigs which a fow has at one farrowing, and which is commonly much lefs than any of the others in the fame litter. CADMEAN Letters, the ancient Greck or Ionic cha- raGters, fuch as they were firlt brought by Cadmus from Pheenicia; whence Herodotus alfo calls them Phenician letters. See Capmus. According to fome writers, Cadmus was not the inventor nor even the importer of Greek letters, but only the mo- deller and reformer thereof ; and it was hence they acquired the appellation Cadmean, or Phanician letters : whereas be- fore that time they had been called Pela/gian letters. See Letter and Waitine. CADMIA, in Chemifiry. This term is entirely obfo- lete ; as, however, it is of frequent occurrence in the writ- ings of the older chemifts, it may be proper to explain its meaning. Cadmia, according to Pliny, (Hilt, Nat. lib, CAD xxxiv, ch, xxii.) was the common name given to that earthy fubftance which was employed by the Cyprian artifts in the manufacture of brafs: hence it is plain that it contained zinc, and was probably no other than the calamine of the moderns. The fame word is alfo applied by the above- mentioned author to the metallic foot or afhes which cole lected in the chimnies of the brafs founderies It was aa article of confiderable ufe in the Roman pharmacopeeia, and three varieties of it were diftinguifhed by feparate names : that called Capnitis refembled athes, was the lighteft and beft efteemed, and was depofited at the farthefl extremity of the chimney ; the fecond kind, named Borryitis, depended in clufters from the central and lower part of the chimney, and was in high efteem for diforders of the eyes ; the third variety, called Placitis, was a metallic fcoria adhering to the fides of the furnace, and was ufed for wounds and cutaneous eruptions; its colour was either blue, or black, and, no doubt, contained a confiderable quantity of copper. Succeeding chemifts injadicioufly ranked as fo/fil cadmia not only calamine, but the arfenical and bifmuthic cobalt ore, and under the term Cadmia fornacum included all the kinds of metallic fublimates that are depofited in the eau of {melting houfes, whether of copper, brafs, lead, tin, &c. : CADMUS, q. d. a man from the ea yin fabulous Hiflory, is reported to be a native of Sidon in Pheenicia, fon of Age- nor, king of that country, and brother of Europa.. Have ing been fent by his father’s.order in queft of his fifter Eur ropa, who had been tranfported. by Jupiter to the Ifle of Crete, and being forbidden to return without her, he wan- dered for a long time to little purpofe, and at length, def- pairing of fuccefs, he fettled at Tanagra upon the river If memes in the Grecian province of Baotia. He afterwards- built Thebes, and laid the foundation of his new kingdom: The fable, however, fays, that the walls of the city were raifed by the harmony of Amphion’s lyre, and that he only erefted a citadel to which was given his own name, and merely laid the foundation of Thebes. When the city was finifhed, he married Hermione, or Harmonia, the daughter of Mars and Venus; and his nuptials were graced mith the prefence of all the gods and goddeffes, Juno excepted, each of whom conferred fome gift upon the bride. His kingdom is faid to have been very flourifhing, and in the progrefs of his reign he was much beloved and refpeted by. his fubjeéts ; though the anger of Juno, who envied his felicity, Greahoits ed many misfortunes, which haraffed and grieved him be» fore its termination. By his wife Harmonia, he hed a fon named Polydorus, who fucceeded him in the fovereiguty of Thebes, by whom it was transferred to his fon Labdacus, the father of Laius, to whom it defcended, and who was the hufband of Jocafta, the mother of Gidipus. He had alfo four daughters, viz. Ino, who threw herfelf into the fea together with her children; Agave, whofe fon Pen- theus was torn in pieces by the Bacchantes, for profaning the rites of Bacchus; Autonde, the mother of A&zon; and Semele, the mother of Bacchus by Jupiter, who after- wards flew her with his thunderbolt. After having expee rienced many diftreffing viciffitudes, Cadmus is faid pi, anc tired with his wife Harmonia to the coaft of Ulyria, where they were both changed into ferpents, or as fome interpret the fable, where they degenerated from their prifline civility into barbarians. The fable alfo reports, that he fought with a mighty dragon, whofe teeth he afterwards ftrewed on the ground, and from them was pysoduced an army of men, who fought againft one another, till they. were all killed except five : whence a dearly-bought victory obtains ed the appellation of « Victoria Cadmea.’”’ Some fay thas he CADMUS. he was driven from the throne of Thebes by his grandfon Pestheus ;. and that having commanded the Enchele who were at war with the Iilyrians, he fubdued the latter, and furrendcered the government to his fon Ilyrius, who was bom after his retreat to this country. ‘To Cadmus, Greece is fuppofed to have been indebted for the firft intreduétion of letters; which are faid to have beet of Phoenician origin, and 16 in number. Four others were afterwards added by Palamedes, and four by Simonides. He is alfo faid to have been the firft who eftablifhed fchools, and who taught the Grecians trade and navigation ; and the epithet Cadmean, given to brafs. is afcribed to him, becaufe he was the in- ventor of it, and becaufe he firfl introduced the ufe of it into thofe parts. Wherever he came he alfo introduced the religion of his country, which confifted in the worfhip of Dionufus, and im the rites denominated by the later Greeks the Dionufiaca. They feem to have been much the fame with the Cabiritic mytteries, which Cadmus is faid to have eftablifhed in Samothracia. The arrival of Cadmus in Greece is placed by Dr. Blair about 1493 years B.C. and his death, at the ege of 112 years, is {aid to have happened in the year 1432 B.C. The arrival of Cadmus, and the foundation of Thebes, are dated in the Arundelian marbles the 64th year of the Attic era, 1519 B.C. But Sir Ifaac Newton, and thofe who adopt his chrono- logy, ailow Cadmus to have flourifhed but 1045 years be- fore the Chriftian zra. Sir [faac imagines, that the emi- gration of the Pheenicians and Syrians was occafioned by the conquetts of David. ‘ Vhefe people,” fays he, (Chron. p- 13-) ‘ fleeing from Zidon and from David, came, under the condué of Cadmus, and other captains, into Afia Minor, Crete, Greece, and Lybia, and introduced letters, mufic, poetry, metals and their fabrication, and other arts, fciences, and cuftoms of the Pheenicians. This happened about 140 years before the Trojan war. It was about the 16th year of David’s reign that Cadmus fled from Zidon. At his firft coming into Greece, he failed to Rhodes, and thence to Samothrace, an ifland near Thrace, on the north fide of Lemnos, and there married Harmonia, the filter of Jafius and Dardanus, which gave occafion to the Samo- thracian myfteries.”” Bochart has, with great ingenuity and learning, attempt- ed to folve the enigmas, under which the hiftory of Cadmus is reprefented. He fuppofes, that Cadmns was a fugitive Canaanite, who fled from the face of Jofhua; and that he was fo called from being a Cadmonite, which is a family mentioned by Mofes. Gen. xv. 9. Thefe Cadmonites were the fame with the Hivites, and were called Cadmonim, or Eafterlings, becaufe they inhabited mount Hermon, the moft eaftern part of Canaan; and Bochart fuppofes, that Harmonia derived her name from that of this mountain. The fable of Cadmus and Harmonia being transformed into ferpents he afcribes to their having retained the common name of Hivites, which in the Syriac fignifies ferpents. He explains the reft of the fable, concerning the teeth of the dragon, which were fown, and the armed men which fprung from them, upon the fame principle. ‘The learned Bryant (Anal. Anc. Mythol. vol. ii, 138.) diffents from Bochart in a variety of particulars. Indeed, he controverts the exitlence of fuch a perfon as Cadmus, and fuggefts feve- ral objections againft the account given by Herodotus and others of the Cadmians having brought letters from Pheeni- cia imto Greece. See Lerrers. The rites of Bacchus, he fays, could not have been brought by Cadmus into Greece, if Bacchus was his defcendant, or the fon of his daughter Semele. It is faid, that Cadmus was a Pheeni- @ian; but Diodorus Siculus (lib. i. p. 20.) fpeaks of him as an Egyptain, and a native of Thebais. Pherecydes Syrus alfo reprefents him as an Egyptian ; and by others he is faid to have been the fon of Antiope, the daughter of Belus, and confequently of Babylonifh extraétion. It was from the fame part of the world that the mytteries, in which Cadmus was fo well fcilled, were imported ; and here it was, that he was taught hieroglyphics, and the other charatters, which are afcribed to him: Thefe arts he carried firft to the coaft of Sidon and Syria ; and from thence he is fuppofed to have - brought them into Greece. Mr. Bryant having ftated the ori+ gin and country of Cadmus, proceedstofhewthattheaccounts which are given of him by Herodotus, Diodorus, Strabo, and Paufanias, are infufficient to prove the reality of fuchan adventurer. It is not credible, he fays, that a perfon fhould: fo often rove upon the feas amid fuch a variety of nations, and refide among them at his pleafure; much lefs that he fhould build temples, found cities, and introduce his religion wherever he lifted; and that he fhould do all this in the courfe of his tranfient vifits to different places. “ Isit credi« ble, that any perfon could have penctrated into the yarious regions, whither he is fuppofed to have gone? to have founded colonies in Phoenicia, Cyprus, Rhodes, Thera, Thafus, Anaphe, Samothracia? to have twice vifited the Hellefpont? to have worked the mines in the Pangwan mountains, and in other places? to have made fettlements in Eubeea, Attica, Beotia, and Illyria? and, above all, to have had fuch territories in Afric? He is reprefented as heir to the kingdom of Egypt: this he quitted, and ob- tained a kingdom in Phesicia. He leaves this too; and after much wandering arrives in Greece; where he founds feveral cities, and reigns 62 years. After this, hard to con- ceive ! he is made king in Illyria. He muft allo have reigned in Afric ; and his dominions feem to have been confiderable, as he founded an hundred citics. He is reprefented as a king in Armenia; and had there too no fmall territory. Sure, kingdoms in thofe times muit have been very cheap, if they were fo eafily attainable. But the whole is certainly a miftake ; at leaft, in refpe& to Cadmus. No perfon could poflibly have effeéted what is attributed to him. They were not the achievements of one perfon, nor of one age. And place Cadmus at any given era, and arrange his hiftory, as may appear moft plaulible; yet there will arife numberlefs inconfiftencies from the connexions he mutt have in refpe@ to time, place, and people; fuch as no art nor difpofition can remedy.” ‘ Should it be aflced, if there were no fuch man as Cadmus, what did the ancients allude to under this character, and what is the true purport of thefe hiftories? The anfwer of Bryant is, that the travels of Cadmus, like the expedi- tions of Perfeus, Sefoftris, and Ofiris, relate to colonies, which at different times went abroad, and were diftinguifhed by this title. Cadmus, he fays, was one of the names of Ofiris, the chief deity of Egypt. Both Europa and Har- moniaare of the like nature. ‘They were titles of the deity 5 but affumed by colonies, who went out and fettled under thefe denominations. Cadmus was one of thofe deities. He was the fame as Hermes of Egypt, called alfo Toth, Athoth, and Canathoth; and was fuppoied to have been the inventor of letters. He was fometimes {tiled Cadmilus, another name for Hermes; under which he was worfhipped in Sa- mothracia and Hetruria. Lycophron (v. 219.) {peaking of the prophet Prulis in Lefbos, tells us, that he was the fon of Cadmus, and of the race of Atlas. And he was the perfon who was fuppofed to give information to the Greeks, when they were upon their expedition to Troy. Harmonia, the wife of Cadmus, who has been efteemed a mere woman, feems to have been an emblema of nature, and the pie 2 nurle CAD surfe of all things. Harmonia was fuppofed to have been a perfonage, from whom all knowledge was derived. Ac- cordingly, Hermon, or Harmonia, was a deity to whom the firft writing is afcribed; and the fame is faid of Her- mes. Cadmus is faid not only to have brought letters into Greece, but to have been the inventor of them ; from whence we may fairly conclude, that under the chara&ter of Her- mon, Hermes, Taut, Thoth, and Cadmus, one perfon is alluded to. he deity called by the Greeks Harmonia, was introduced among the Canaanites very early by people from Egypt; and was worlhipped in Sidon, and the acja- cent country by the name of Baal Hermon. Europa was likewife a deity ; the fame, according to Lucian, as Aftarte, who was worthipped at Hierapolis in Syria. Cadmus, fays Bryant, may principally be eiteemed Ham, who by his pof- terity was looked up to asthe fun, and worfhipped under his titles; a circumitance, which was common to all, who were ityled Baalim. His name favours this conjeCture ; for according to the etymological fyftem of this writer, the fun was ityled Achad, and Cadmus is a compound of Achad- Ham, rendered by the Greeks Acadamus and Academus, and contraéted Cadmus. Upon the whole, if inftead of one perfon Cacmus, traverfing fo much ground, and introducing the rites of his country at Rhodes, Samos, Thera, Thafus, Samothrace, and building fo many cities in Libya, we fup- pote thofe things to have been done by colonies, who were a Cadmians ;. all will be very right, and the credibility ot the hiftory not difputed. Many difficulties will be folved ; and great light will be thrown upon the mythology of the ancients. ‘The ftory then of Cadmus and Europa relates to people from Egypt and Syria, who went abroad at different times, and fettled in various parts. They are faid to have been determined in their place of refidence by an ox or cow ; which denotes that they were direéted by ap oracle; and this leads us to the Egyptian Apis. The Cadmeans, ac- cording to Bryant, were a two-fold colony, which came beth from Egypt and Syria; from Egypt firft, and then from Syriaand Canaan. In their progrefs weltward, they fettled in Cyprus, Rhodes, Samos, Lefbos, and Thrace ; alfo in Euboea, Attica, and Beotia. In procefs of time they formed fett!ements in other parts; particularly in Epi- rus and Illyria; and occupied fome contiderable provinces in Italy, as high up as the Padus. Wherever they paffed or Settled, they left behind them a variety of memorials; and efpecially fuch as related to their rites and worfhip. See Cutuirtes. Capauus Mivesius, in Biography, an ancient hiftorian, who, according to Moreri, lived about the time of the T'ro- jan war. Pliny, in {peaking of the invention of things, in- forms us, vii. c. 56.) that Pherecydes Syrus taught the compolition of difcourfes in profe, during the reiga of Cyrus; and Cadmus Milefius to write hiftory: and in an- other place (lib. v. c. 29.) he fays, that Cadmus Milefius was the firlt who wrote in profe. He compofed * The Antiquities of Miletus and of ail Ionia,’? in 4 books: a work on this fubjeét, mentioned by Dionyfius of Halicar- naffus, and attributed to this hiltorian, was thought by the beft judges, as he informs us, to have been fuppolititious. —Another Cadmus, alfo a Milefian, was, according to Suidas, much younger than the former; and wrote “ The Hiftory of Attica,’’ in 16 books, - Canmus, in Entomology, the name under which Cramer figures the Brafilian fpecies of Parixio, called by Fabri- cius Acherosta. The wings of this infect are indented, and . furnithed with tails; anterior pair red at the bafe, the tip black, fpoited with white. J adr. GAD CADOEPAN, in Geography, an ifland in the Indian Ocean, S.E. of Bouton, and near the iflands of St. Mate thew and Touran-Beilis, in which many cloves are pro- duced. j CADOGAN, Wir iam, in Biography, educated at Onl College, Oxford, took his degree of matter of arts in 17553 and the fame year was made bachelor and doétor in medicine. He had previoufly, viz. in 1750, publifhed a fmall treatife on the nurling and management of children, which was much efteemed, and contributed toward abolifh- ing fome improper treatment, both in feeding and drefling infants. They were firlt adopted by the managers of the Foundling Hofpital, and by degrees became general. His next publication was ‘* Differtations on the Gout, and all Chronical Difeafes,”’? 1764, 8vo.; written in a popular manner, and fo generally read, that feveral large impreflions were fold of it. The three principal caufes or fources of gout, he fays, are indolence, vexation, and intemperance. The beok was much cavilled at, and was anfwered by two or three different writers. It is, on the whole, well written, and the regulations given for the conduét of gouty pa- tieats, with the view of mitigating the fit, and preventing frequent relapfes, or returns of the complaint, are judi- cious, and well deferving attention. He was fellow of the college of phytficians, and, which is by no means ufual, {poke two Harveian Orations, the one in the year 1764, the other in 1793. They were both publifhed. He died at a very advanced age, at his houfe in George-ftreet, Han- over-{quare, April 26, 1797- CADOGNA, in Geography, a town of Naples, and pro- vince of Principato Ultra; 15 miles N.N.E. of Conza. CADOLZBURG, a town of Germany, and prefeétu- rate of the fame name, in the circle of Franconia, and Mar- graviate of Anfpach; the town is furrounded with walls, and defended by a caitle; 18 miles N.E. of Anfpach. CADORE, or Pieva pt Capore, a town of Italy in the Trevifan, and capital of the Cadore, or Cadorin, be- longing to the {tates of Venice, and famous for the birth of Titian the painter; 42 miles N.E. of Trent. N. lat. 46? 25'. E long. 13° 45. Capore, or Caporin, a finall and mountainous diftri& of the Trevifan, or Trevigiana, belonging to Venice ; bounded on the north by the bifhopric of Brixen; on the ealt by Friuli; on the fouth by the Bellunefe; and on the weit by the Bellunefe and bifhopric of Brixen; about 25 miles long, and from 10 to 15 broad. CADOUIN, a town of France, in the department of Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&t of Bergerac. The place contains 603, and the canton 5833 inhabitants; and the territory includes 1524 kiliometres,. and 12 communes. -CADOURS, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Garoune, and diltri& of Touloufe. The town contaius 826, and the canton 6962 inhabitants: the terri- torial extent comprehends 1724 kiliometres, and 17 com muues. CADRITES, a kind of religious among the Mahome- tans; whofe founder was Abdul Cadri, a great philofopher and lawyer; whence they take their name, Cadrites. They live in common, and in a kind of monafteries, which, however, they are allowed to quit, if they requeft it, and to marry, on condition of their wearing black but- tons on their garments to diftinguifh them from the reft of the people. lo their monafteries, they pafs the greateft part of He Friday night in running round, holding each other’s hand, aud, GAD and crying inceffantly, Abai, living, one of the names of God: one of the number plays all the time ona flute, to animate tkem in this extravagant dance. CADSAND, in Geography, an ifland on the coaft of Dutch Flanders, at the mouth of the Scheldt, fituated on the fouth fide of the entrance into the Weft Scheldt oppo- fite to Flufhing, fo as to command the navigation of that river. It is preferved by elevated dykes conftruéted at great expence, from the inundations of the fea; and, neverthelefs, expofed to danger, when the north-weft wind blews with violence. The land is fertile, and yields excellent corn ; the meadows are luxuriant, and the farmers make a con- fiderable quantity of good cheefe. The perfecuted French and Saltzburghers found an afylum in this ifland. The chief town is Caffandria, CADUCEATOR, in Antiquity, a denomination given to heralds or meflengers of peace. See Capuceus. CADUCEUS, or Capuceum, Mercury’s rod or fceptre; a wand entwifted with two ferpents, worn by that deity as ‘the enfign of his.quality and office; and given to him, ac- cording to the fable, by Apollo, for his feven-ftringed harp. The poets attribute wondrous virtues to the caduceus: as that of throwing people into a fleep, ralfing the dead, &e. It was alfo ufed by the aycients as a fymbol of peace and concord: the Romans fent the Carthaginians a favelin, end a caduceus, offering them their choice, whether of war “or peace. Among that people, thofe that denounced war were ealled feciales, and thofe who went to demand peace, ca- duceatores.; becaufe they bore a caduceus in their hand. The caduceus found on medals is a common fymbol fig- nifying good conduét, peace, and profperity. The rod exprefles power, the two ferpents prudence, and the two wings diligence. Wedelius has given.a diflertation exprefsly on caduceated medals. Bottiger in his ‘ Griechifche Vafencemzhlde, &c.” or “Grecian Paintings.on Vafes”’ illuftrated (vol. i. p- 2-), Weimar, 1798, has fuggefted fome new and inge- nious ideas with refpeé to the origin of the caduceus, Ac- cording to this writer, the deity called Hermes by the Greeks, and Mercury by the Romans, owed his imaginary exiflence entirely to the commercial intercourfe of the Phe- nicians with the Greeks. At fome remote period, the former had mines and factories in many places of Greece. There Hermes was worfhipped as the tutelar deity of the induftrious Phaenicians ; and all the arts, by which the arti- cles of trade are produced, were afcribed by the Greeks to his mvention. The Pheenicians, of courfe, in order to con- verfe with the rude natives, employed interpreters. Hence Hermes was confidered as the inventor of articulate founds, and of numeral figures and figns. The interpreters and he- ralds were called his fons, and the race of xvpoxe: is faid to have defcended from him. The Pheenician traders, where- ver they firft approached the rude Pelafgic inhabitants of the Grecian coafts, found it neceffary to ufe fome manifeft token of their having arrived with peaceful intentions ; not as pirates, but as merchants and barterers. In fuch in- ftances, the moft natural fign ef peace among all nations, even among the inhabitants of the Friendly Iflands in the South Seas, has ever been a green branch. The Pheni- cians, however, foon found it more convenient, as well as more ornamental, to carry with them a decorticated or even a gilt ftaff; and, as occafion required, to wind round it green leaves. Such is the wand of Mercury in Homer. (Hymn. in Mercur. 529—5 32.) CHC Capucevs is alfo a name given to a kind of ftaff co- vered with velvet, and decorated with fleurs de /ys, which the French heralds of arms bear in their hands on folemn occa- fions. That borne by the king at arms has a golden fleur dz dys at the end, and is by fome called {ceptre. CADUCOUS, in Botany, a term employed to exprefs the fhort duration of one part of a plant compared with an- other: thus, a caducous calyx fails off before the petals, as in poppy and celandine ; a caducous corolla falls off immedi- ately after its expanfion, and before the anthers have fhed their pollen, as in a€tza and thalictrum. A ftipule is ca- ducous, when it falls off before the leaf; and a bra@te, when it does not continue as long as the flower. A leaf is alfo {aid to be caducous, when it does rot remain till the end of the fummer. It always implies a fhorter duration than is intended by the term deciduous. CADUCUS Morbus, or Farting Sickness, in Medi- cine. See Epivepsy. CADURCI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul, who inhabited the town of Divona, Ptolemy. They are mentioned by Ceefar, Strabo, and Pliny. Their territory is the prefent Quercy, the capital of which is Cahors. CADUS, an ancient liquid meafure of capacity, contain- ing ten, fometimes twelve, congii ; and fixty, or according to others, feventy-two /extaries. The cadus is the fame with what is otherwife denominated metretes and cerameon. See AMPHORA. - CADUSIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia, being part of Atropatene, according to Strabo, CADUSII, or Canusians, a people who inhabited the diftri& lying to the fouth of Babylon, between the Tigris and the Euphrates. They were a powerful people, and enemies of the Affyrians; and their alliance was fought by Cyrus, in his war againft the king of Aflyria. CADYNA, or Caperia, a town of Afia Minor, in the mountains of Lycaonia, according to Strabo. : CADYTIS, a town of Afia in Syria, mentioned by He- rodotus, and fuppofed by Reland to have been Gath. As it was near the fea, it could not have been Jerufalem, as M. D’Anville conjeG@ures. Others have fuppofed it to have been the Cedaffa of Jofephus, and others refer it to Gaza. CECA, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Murzna, aptery- gious, with the fnout fomewhat acute. Found in the Me- diterranean Sea. Cxca, in Zoology, a {pecies of Nats, with lateral fetofe warts, and without eyes. Found in the bays of Iceland and Chriftianfand, in Norway. Czaca, a fpecies of Nereis, fub-convex, with two very fhort tentacula, and the lamellz of the pedunculi duplicate and ciliate. Fabr. : CJECLZE Glandule. See Guanvs. CZECIA, in Ancient Geography, the name of two ifles, which Pliny places in the vicimty of the Spirean pro- montory. CARCILIA, in Entomology, an African infect of the Pa- PILIO genus, the wings of which are white in the middle, with black dots; pofterior ones margined with black, dotted beneath with white. Fabr. Czcixia is alfo a fynonymous name of Paritio Amyn- ror of Fabricius, in the works of Cramer. Cecixia, in Schthyology, among old writers, the fith de- nominated by modern naturalifts /yngnathus acus. Czcixia, in Zoology, a genus of ferpents diftinguifhed by having wrinkles on the bedy and tail, and two tentaculz on the upper lip, There “ CzL There are only two fpecies of this genus at prefent known, namely tentaculata and glutinofa. Cecitta, the general name under which feveral creatures have been defcribed by old writers. Lacerta chalcides is called Czcilia major by them ; Anguis fragilis of the Linnzan Fa. Suec.is named by different writers Cxcilia vulgaris, Cz- cilia Gefneri, and Caciliatyphlus. d/drovandus, Ray, Kc. Cecilia maculata of Catelby is the Anguis.ventralis of Gmelin, &e. : Cecitia Castxa, in Ancient Geography, probably the Cecittana of Antonine, now Caceres, a place of Spainin Lufitania, according to Pliny and Ptolemy. CZCILIANA, in Botany, a name uled by Pliny and fome other authors for the ¢ut/an, or androfemum. Ger. Emac. Ind. 2. C/ZCILIUS Srartivs, in Biography, a Latin comic poet, the contemporary and companion of Ennius, was.a native of Infubrian Gaul, or, as fome fay, of Milan, and lived at Rome in‘a fervile condition about the year 177 B.C. Asa writer of comedy he was eminent, though Ci- cero finds fault with his Latinity. Some fragments of his works are collected by Robert Stephens, and publifhed in the “Corpus Poetarum,’? Lond.1714. Nouv. Di&. Hit. CZZCIMACULA, in-Entomology, a {pecies of Pua- Lexa (No&ua), with dentated grey wings, two black points et the bafe, and two cinereous ftreaks. Fabr. CZCINA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in Etruria. C/ZECINUM, a town of Italy in Brutium, watered by the river Cacinus. - CCUM, in Anatomy. SeeCecum. CJECUS, in Zoology, a {pecies of Corvser, dufky- red, having its {cales marked with a white f{pot. CZZCUTIENS, in Entomology, a. f{pecies of Aris, brown, with a {mooth ferruginous abdomen, {potted on both fides with black. Fabricius. Found in the gardens of Leipfic. CZDIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Sardinia, Ptolemy. CZZLATURA, or Cecarura, the art of engraving on metals, ftones, woods, or the like, with inftruments of fteel, diamond, &c. See Scutprure. CELEBS, in Entomology, a {peciesof Cimex (Rotun- —_, brownifh grey, with three points on the fcutellum, nae the apex yellowifh. Fabricius. Found in New Hol- d. , CHELESTIANS, the followers of Czleftius, a monk, who flourifhed under the empire of Arcadius, about the year 4°52 and taught much the fame doétrines as Pelagius. he native country of Czleftius is not certainly known ; fome fay it was Ireland ; others, Scotland; and others fay that he wasa native of Campania in Italy. This, however, is certain, that he was defcended of an illuftrious family, and that, after having applied for fome time to the ftudy of the law, he retired from the world and embraced the monattic life. He accompanied Pelagius into Sicily in 408 or 409, and afterwards, in 411, into Africa; from thence he went to Afia, Rhodes, and the neighbouring iflands, diffeminating the doétrines of Pelagius, fo that oki 4 who embraced them de- rived from him the appellation of Cerleftians. Having been conftrained to leave Conftantinople in the year 416, he re- turned to Rome in the following year, and ingratiated him- felf with pope Zofimts, and obtained a letter in his favour to the African bifhops. In 418, however, he was banifhed from Rome by virtue of a law enaéted by the emperor Ho- norius againft the Pelagians; but he afterwards returned, me was a ordered to depart from Italy. Accordingly ox. V. CEM he repaired to Conftantinople, where for fome time he met with a more favourable reception. At length, about the - year 431, a memorial was prefented againft him and his ac« complices, by Marius Mercator, to the emperor Theodofius, and they were ordered to depart ftom the city. Of his fub- fequent hiftery, and the termination of his life, the ancients have furnifhed no records. Cave, Hift. Lat. t. 2. p- 385. See PELAGIANS. C#ELESTINE. See Ceresrine. CHLESTINL, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, in Umbria. CZELESTINUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Curcu- L10 ; ceruleous, with the antenne and legs fanguineous. Found in Germany, CHELETA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Thrace, feparated by the Hebrus. Some of them lived near mount Hemus, and others near mount Rhodope. CELIA, an epifcopal city of Africa, in Numidia. Czuia, orCa&tium, a townof Italy in Apulia. CELINA, a town of Italy on a river of the fame name. CZELIUS Mons, a place of Vindelicia, N.E. of Lacus Brigantius, and S. W. of Augufta Vindeliciorum. Catius Mons, the name of one of the feven mountains on which the city of Rome was founded, fo called from Czlius, an Hetrurian general. Caius 4urelianus, the only remaining writer of the fe& of the Methoditls in medicine, is fuppofed to have been a native of Sicca in Africa, although, as Haller obferves, no reference is made to that country in his work. From his ftyle, which is harfh and Larbarous, Le Clerc fuppofes he lived in the 15th century. The work by which he is known is a tranflation into Latin of the writings of Soranus, an Ephefian phyfician, the head of the methodic fect, to which he has added obfervations collected from other writers and fome from his own practice. It confifts of eight books, three on acute and five on chronic difeafes. They were firtt printed, “*Celerum vel acutarum Paffionum Libri Tres,’’ Paris, 1529, and ‘ Tardarum Paffionum Libri Quinque, Bafiler, 1529, both in folio. Dalechamp, in 1567, pub- lifhed the work complete with notes, at Lyons, 8vo. It alfo enters into the “‘“Medice Artis Principes,”” by Stephens and by Haller. The work has the merit of preferving frag- ments from the writings of feveral ancient authors in medi- cine, which would otherwife have been loft, as well as of imparting a knowledge of their doétrines. The author is very free in his cenfures on the works he examines, and ap- pears to have been an intelligent and attentive practitioner. He treats of feveral difeafes not mentioned by any earlier writers, and has fome obfervations in furgery peculiar to himfelf. He mentions an inftance of hydrophobia occurring in a perfon who had not been bitten by any rabid animal, and of hydatids in fome kinds of dropfy. He had feena fit of the gout terminate in apoplexy, in confequence of the too liberal ufe of bitter and acrid fubftances. He recommends injeétions of oil for the cure of afcarides, or to deftroy thofe worms; and has numerous other obfervations equally pertinent and ingenious. Le Clerc Hittoire de Med, Haller. Bib. Med. CEMENT, in a general fenfe, any compofition of a lutinous or tenacious nature, proper to bind, unite, or bios things in cohefion, he word is alfo written cement, and even ciment. It ie formed from the Latin camentum, of cedo, I beat. Though M. Felibien obferves, what the ancient architeéts called camentum was 2 very different thing from our cement. The name cement, with them, fignified a kind of mafonry, or 4,R manner CAMENT. manner of laying the ftones, and even the quality of the ftones; as when the walls were built of rude, unequal ftones, Inreality, the ftones were cut for fuch work, but not fquared or uniform; fo that cementa ttood oppefed to guadriti lapides. Cemex is particularly ufed in Archite@ure, for a ftrong binding fort of mortar, ufed to bind or unite bricks or ftones together, for fome kind of mouldings; or to make a block of bricks, for the carving of fcrolls, capi- tals, &c. It is of two forts: the hot cement, which is the moft com- mon, is made of refin, bees wax, brick-duft, and chalk, boiled together. The bricks to be cemented are heated, and rubbed ane upon another, with cemeut between. The cold cement is lefs ufed; and is made of ‘Chefhire- cheefe, milk, quick-lime, aid whites of eggs. Mortar, folder, glue, &c. are cements. The n1ruMEN broucht from the Levant is faid to have been the cement ufed in the walls of Babylon. Equal quantities of powdered glafs, fea-falt, and iron filings, mixed with loam, made a very hard and durable cement. Mr. Boyle informs us, that the beft method to clofe and repair pipes of fubterraneous aqueduéts is with tobacco- pipe clay pulverized, and mixed with a large quantity of pulverized flocks, and carefully beat up with linfeed oil into a ftiff pafte. See Morrar and Tarras. Camenr is alfo ufed among Gold/miths, Efgravers, Jewellers, &c. for a compofition of fine brick-duit, well fifted, refin, and bees-wax; in ufe among thofe artificers to keep the metals to be engraven, or wrought on, firm to the block, &c. as alfo to fill up what is to be chif- felled. The receiver of an air pump may be faftened to a metal- line plate by means of a cement of bees-wax and turpentine, made with equal parts, for the winter ; and three parts of the former totwo of the latter, for the fummer. We have various receipts for making cements to mend broken china and glaffes: one of the fineft, and at the fame time ftrongeft exments for this purpofe, is the juice of garlick, ftamped in a ftone mortar ; this, if applied with care, will leave little orno mark. Another cement for broken glaffes, china or earthen ware, may be prepared by beating the white of an egg very clear, and mixing it with fine powdered quick- lime ; or ifinglafs ; powered chalk and a little lime may be mixed together, and diffolved in fair water ; with which the gaffes, &c, are to be cemented, and then fet in the fhade to dry. Divine oil with white lead is alfo frequently ufed for this purpofe ; but where the veffels are not expofed to heat or moifture, ifinglafs glue, with a {mall quantity of tripoli, or chalk, is better. Some have recommended a sement made by tempering quick-lime with the curd of milk, till it become of a proper confiftence for ufe ; but as cheefe has a greater degree of tenacity than milk, the following compofition will be pre- ferable.. Let the thin fhavings of {weet cheefe be flirred with boiling water ; and when the tenacious flime has been worked with other hot water, let it be mixed on a hot ftone, with a proper quantity of unflaked lime, into the eonfiftence of a patte, and it will prove a ftrong and durable cement for wood, ftone, earthen-ware, and gtafs; and it has this advantage, that when it is thoroughly dry, it will receive no injury from water. C. Pajot, of Charmes, lately tranf- mitted to the Philomathic Society and the National Inftitute of France, {mall bits of glafs, which he had jomed and foldered fo firmly that the glafs.would rather break clofe to the junétion than in the fracture ; but he concealed his procefs for this purpofe. However, it is not difficult to be afcertained. By interpofing between the broken parts a glafs ground like a pigment, but more eafily fufible than the pieces to be joined, and then expofing them to fuch a heat as will fufe the cementing ingredient, the pieces will be made to agelutinate without being themfelves fufed. A glafs fit for the purpofe of cementing broken pieces of flint glafs may be made by fufing fome Epis fame kind of glafs, previoufly reduced to a powder, along with a little red lead and borax, or with the borax only. A cement may be prepared for chemical glaffes that will bear the fire, by mixing equal quantities of wheat-flour, fine powdered Venice glafs, pulverized chalk, with half the quantity of fine brick-dult, and a little feraped lint, in the whites of eggs: this mixture is to be fpread upon alinen cloth, and applied to the cracks of the glaffes, and fhould be well dried before they are put into the fire. Old varnifh will likewife anfwer the fame purpofe. A very ufeful cement for joining alabafter, marble, porphyryy and other ftones, may be prepared ia the following manner. Melt two pounds of bees wax, and one pound of refin ; adda pound and a half of the fame kind of matter pulverized as the bedy to be cemented is compofed of, and itir them well together; let the mafs be kneaded in water, and heated when applied to the heated parts of the body to be ce- mented. ‘The colour of this mafs may be adapted to that of the body on which it is employed, by varying the pre- portion of the powdered matter added to the mais of bees- wax and refin. Jewellers, in joining pieces of precious {tone that are ac- cidentally broken in the operation of fetting, employ a {mall piece of gum-mattich applied between the fragments, previoufly heated fo as to melt the interpofed gum. They are then preffed together fo as to force out the redundant quantity of it. he Turkey cement for joining metals, glafs, &c. is prepared by diffolving five or fix pieces of maltich of the fize of peas in a fuflicient quantity of fpirits of wine, and diffolving as much ifinglafs T oreutalls foftened in water) in brandy or rum, as will make two ounces by meafure of ftrong glue; and adding two {mall bits of gum-galbanum, or ammoniacum, rubbed or ground till they are diffolved ; let the whole be mixed with {uffi- cient heat, kept in a ftopped phial, and when ufed fet in hot water. Kattellyn recommends a cement for filling up cracks and fiffures in iron veflels, which confitts of fix parts of yellow potter’s clay, one part of the filings of iron, and a quantity of linfeed oil fufficient to form the whole into a pafte of the cons filtence of putty. A durable cement for joining the flanches. of iron cylinders, and other parts of hydraulic and {team engines, may be formed by boiling linfeed oil, litharge, red or white lead, duly mixed, and applied on each fide of a flannel filling the joint, which fhould be put between the pieces before they are clofely united by {crews or other faftenings. \Another cement that will ftand the aétion of boiling water and fteam, may be prepared by rubbing in a mortar and thus mixing together two ounces of fal-ammoniacy one ounce of flowers of fulphur, and 16 ounces of cait iron, filings or borings. When this czment is wanted for ufe,. one part of the above powder, and 20 parts of clean iron borings or filings, fhould be intimately blended by grinding them in a mortar, and when ufed, moiitened with water, and applied to the joints with a wocden or blunt iron f{patula.. Copper-fmiths often apply to the rivets and: edges of fheets of copper in large boilers, and in order to fecure: cocks from leaking, &c¢. a mixture of pounded tt me CAE Time with ox’s blood. This muft be ufed when frefh made: aod it is both cheap and durable. For an account of Higgins’s water cement for building, repairing, aod plaftering wails, and for other purpofes, fee Stucco. The beft cxment for electrical purpofes is made with two parts of refin, two of bees-wax, and one of the powder of ted ochre. Thefe ingredients are melted, and mixed toge- ther in any veffel over the fire, and afte-wards kept for ule. This adheres well, is lefs brittle than ref.n, and infulates as well, A ftrong cement for fuch purpofes may be made by melting one pound of refin over a flow fire, and adding to it as much plafter of Paris, as is neceilary to fufficiently harden its and then adding a {poonful of linfeed oil, ftirring it during the mixture. A cement for glals-grinders may be aieectl by Bey fine fifted wood-afhes with boiliog pitch, and adding a little tallow, as may be found neceflary, Shell-lac is a good czment for holding metals, glafs, or pre- cious ftones, while thef are cut, turned, or ground. Flour paite is ufed as a cament by book-binders and paper hangers ; and they fometimes mix with the wheaten flour a fifth or fixth of its weight of powdered refin or alum, and if it be defired of a more tenacious confiftence, they add gum- arabic, or any kind of fize. Japanefe cement or rice glue, is made by well mixing rice-flour with cold water, and geatly boiling it. This is extremly ufeful on a variety of occafons ; particularly in the preparation of curious paper articles, as tea-trays, drefling-boxes, and other fuch things, which require layers of papers to be cemented together. With this compofition models, bufts, ftatues, and baffo re- lievos, may be formed; and they admit of a high polith. For the manner of preparing a cement to bind together the various embellifhments of grottos, fee Grorro. Sce alfo Give, Lute, Pastr, Putty, Size, and Souper. Czmenrt, for gilding fijb. See Girvinc of fi/h. Camenrt, in Chemifiry. See Cement. Cament, calcareous. See CEMENTS, calcareous. CEMENT, OF ziment copper, is copper precipitated from vitriolic waters by iron. The name is derived, it is faid, from a vitriolic water in Hungary, called ziment. CaMeENT-pots, in Affaying, are veflels made for the ce- mentation of metals, See CEMENTATION. CHMENTARIUS, in Lntomology, a f{pecies of Cax- ce, (Afacus,) with a fmooth cyliudrical thorax, obtufe front, and aculeated hand claws. This kind is frequent in the rivers of Chili. Molin. Hift. Nat. Chili. CEEMENTATION. See Cemenration. CAEN, Lat. Cadomus, in Geography, + city uf France, before the reyolution, the capital of Lower Normandy, now the capital of the department of Calvados, feated in a vale at the conflux of the rivers Orne and Odon, and, communti- cating, at the diftance of about feyen miles from the fea, with the Englifh channel. Its northern and fouthern fuburbs contain 30,900, and its two cantons 26,817 inhabitants ; its whole territorial extent comprehends 874 kiliometres, and tz communes. The four towers of its caftle were built by the Englifh; its town-houfe is a large building with four towers ; it royal {quare, or place sosile is {pacious and re- gular, having fine houfes on three fides of it, and in the middle an equeltrian ftatue of Louis XIV. in a Roman habit. The abbey of St. Stephen was ereéted by William the Conqueror, and he was buried in it. The univerfity of Caen was founded by John, duke of Bedford, regent of France, by the authority of hisnephew Henry VI. in 1431, and its eftablifhment, together with the privileges granted by him, was confirmed in 1439, by two bulls of Pope Eu- genius dV. Its academy of literature was inftituted in 1706, CEN This city has had good trade, which has principally con- hited in cloths and fine linen. Caen, as a part of Normandy, was formerly fubje& to the kings of England. In the year 1104 it was feized by Philip tne Auguft, king of France, and remained under the dominion of that crown till the year 1346, when it was cap- tured, after a long and deftructive fiege, by Edward. IIL. In 1417, it was again taken by the troops.of Henry V, an@ remained in the poffeffion of the Enghith till the year 1448, when it was taken by Charles VII, king of France. N. lat. 49° 11’ 10". W. long. o° 21’ 47. High water at {pring tides at 9 o’clock. Caen, is alfo the chief city of Cayenne in South Ame- rica. Sec CAYENNE. CAENE, orCxnorotts, in Ancient Geography, atown of Peloponnefus in Laconia, placed by Paufanias at the dif tance of 40 fladia from the promontory of Txnarus, and an- ciently denominated Tenarum. It had two temples, one dedicated to Ceres, and another to Venus. Cane, or Cznopouts, the Cene emporium of antiquity, a town of Egypt in the Panopolitan nome, mentioned both by Herodotus and Ptolemy, and fuppofed to be the pre« fent Ghenné or Kenné ; which fee. Cexe, a {mall ifland in the Mediterranean, between Si- cily and Africa. Pliny. Cane, or Coen, Senn, a town of Afia in Mefopotamia, on the bank of the Tigris, over againft the mouth of Za- bus Minor. CZAENEUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Papizio with very entire fubfafcous wings; pofterior pair beneath with a red orb confifting of nine fpots. This is a native of South America. Linn. &c. CZENT, in Ancient Geography, a people of Thrace men- tioned by Livy and Steph. Byz. and called Cenici by Pliny. They are {nppofed to have inhabited that part of Thrace, which is contiguous to the Propontis. ‘Their country was called Cenica regio, and Pliny places it in the colony Flavio~ olis. y CZENINA, a town of Italy on the confines of Latium, and the country of the Sabines, whence fome geographers make itacity of the Sabines, and otliers refer it to the ancient Latium. Cluverius places it on the banks of the Anio next.to Rome; but Holltenius thinks that it flood on the oppofite bank in the vicinity of the prefent Monticelli. Feltus fays, that it derived its name from Cenis its founder; and Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus informs us, that it was one of the firit cities which declared againft Romulus. Inthe con- teft its King was flain, and the Ceninenfes defeated. Their city was rated, and the inhabitants removed to Rome, where they enjoyed the privileges of the molt ancient citizens, It afterwards became a Roman colony. CZENIS, or Senis, a town and promontory of Italy, in Brutium, upon the flraits of Sicily, N. of Rhegium, and oppofite to Meffana or Meffina. CZENITARUM in/ula, an ifland mentioned by Arriak in his Peviplus of the Erythreaa fea, and fuppoled to be the Kavathra of Ptolemy. CJENON, a place of Afia in Armenia Minor, mentioned by Strabo and Plutarch. Canon Hydreuma, a place of Egypt, in the route from Coptos to Berenice. C/ENOPHRURIUM, a place of Thrace in the road from Conttantinople to Heraclea, according to the Itinerary of Antonine. pies the emperor Aurelian was flain, It is placed by M. d’Anville N.W. of Selympria. C/ENOPOLIS. See Canx. CAENOPTERIS, in Botany, (from xasvosy new, and reise ake a fero,) CAE a fern) Berg. AG. Petrop. 1782.-p. 248. Schreb. 1634. (Darea, Juff. 15). Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Filices. * Gen. Ch. Fruétifications in lateral, nearly marginal, lines ; covered witha membrane opening on the outfide. Sp. 1. C. rhizophylla, Smith ic. ined. 2. 50. * Frond bipinnate, rooting at the tip; pinnules inverfely egg- fhaped, fomewhat fickle-fhaped, petioled ; primordial leaves lobed.”? Stipe round, brown; common peduncle or rachis round, brown, {mooth, elongated at the tip, leaflefs, bul- biferous, rooting ; partial peduncles green, flattened, fome- times winged; pinnules alternate, on fhort petioles, in- verfely egg-fhaped, one-nerved; fructifying, flightly fickle- fhaped, often toothed at the tip, even, the upper ones ufu- ally confluent; all dufky green. Frudifications in fhort, folitary lateral lines, beginning at the nerve towards the bafe of the pinnules, and covered with an entire {carious brown membrane opening always on the outfide, at length turned back and permanent. When the capfules have emerged from the fru€tifying chink, numerous forked, brown, gloffy threads ftand out, which are the expanded rings of the cap- fules. Found by Thiery in the ifland of Dominica. 2. C. japonica, Thunb. Linnean Tranf. v. 2. p. 341. (Trichomanes japonicum, Thunb. Flor. japon.) “ Frons fuper-decompound ; pinnules cut in three divifions, acute.”? 3. C.cicutaria, Smith (Afplenium cicutarium, Swartz. ) See ASPLENIUM 39. CZZENURGIA, in Geography, a town of Thrace, placed by Procopius in the province of Rhodope. C#ENUS, a river of Gallia Narbonenfis, fuppofed to be the Orc, which fee. CAER, in Briti/h Antiquity, a term which, like the Saxon Chefter, denotes caitle, and is prefixed to the names of places fortified by the Romans. CAERDIFF, in Geography. See Carvirr. C/ERE, in Ancient Geography. See Acyia. CZERESI, a people of Germany, placed by Czfar (Bell. Gall.) between the Condrufi and Pemani, and referred by d’Anville to the vicinity of the river Chiers, which run from Luxemburg into the Meufe. : CAERFILLY, Caerruittyon, or CAERPHILLY, a fmall town of Glamorganfhire, South Wales, formerly by traditionary account much larger than it is now, is only re- markable for the ruins of its once extenfive caftle, and the hiftorical events conneéted with it. The name Caerphili fignifies caftle of hafte, and it is faid that great numbers of hands were employed to raife this fortrefs with expedition. its ground plan covered an area of two acres, and its fofs was croffed by thirteen drawbridges. At prefent the ruins, fays Mr. Tvans, “ more refemble the remains of a city, than a fingle edifice ; and when undilapidated, exceeded the enor- mous fite of Windfor caftle.”? The citadel, with circular baftions, a range of apartments round the inner court, the grand hall, fome towers, &c. are {till remaining, and whether viewed as objects of picturef{que beauty, or fpecimens of an- cient caitellated architeGture, they are highly interefting. Within two moats is the citadel, appearing like a feparate caitle, with ahigh Gothic arch, the centre {upported by two circular battions, This great gateway, the weitern entrance of the ruin, is grand and perfe&, and leads to the ftupendous ftruCture of the inner court from the weft, as the gate with the hexagonal towers does from the eaft. The inner court is furrounded by a range of noble apartments, communicating with a long gallery, to which there is an afcent from the mint, and aflording a ready intercourfe between the guards, who occupied the embattled towers. This corridor remains entire from the extent of about goto 100 feet, on the fouth fide, except in the breaks of the ftair-cafes. The great hall, CAE which is fpacioug and complete, exhibits a fine fpecimen of Gothic grandeur ; and the ornamented outline of its four windows and chimney-pieces are hardly to be paralleled, to- . gether with feveral light pillars in triplets, that go round the room, which is about 70 feet by 30, and 17 feet high. The north window of the chapel is not only perfect, but uncom- monly light and elegant. The mint is underneath, near the inclining tower, arched in a curious. manner, and furnifhed with two furnaces for melting metal. In the interior court, at the eaft end, isthe /eaning tower an object of confiderable curiofity and general admiration. It is of a circular fhape, about 70 feet high, and inclines full 11 feet out of the per- pendicular. About half way down from the fummit a ff- {ure divides it, which was probably made, when it was under- mined. A fimilar inftance of a leaning tower exiits at Bridgenorth, others at Corfe caftle, and the meft confiderable we have heard of is that at Pifain Italy, The immente pile of Caerphilly caftle appears to have been erected at different times, and the ftyle of building difpldyed in fome of the ex- terior works indicates the time of Edward II. Here that ill-fated monarch fixed his dernier refort, when purfued by his unnatural and brutal queen. . With his favourite the younger Spencer, he retreated here from the forces belonging to the queen and barons, who befieged the caftle, A. D. 1327, but the monarch, however, afterwards efcaped. The late Mr. Daines Barrington has offered, in the firlt volume of the Archzologia, fome reafons for fuppofing that Caerphilly cattle was built by Edward I. and in his authority many late modern writers have acquiefced. But Mr. Malkin (ubi infra) has fuggefted a variety of circumftances, which inva- lidate this account ; and particularly that of king Edward having no jurifdi€tion at that time in Glamorgan. From fome hiftorical documents, deduced from Welfh authors, it is inferred, that this caftle was built, or rebuilt and fortified, in 1221, by John de Brufe, who married the daughter of Lhewelin-ap-Jorwerth, prince of North Wales; and that, after it had been taken and partly ruined, in 1270, at which period it firit obtained the name of Caerphilly in the Welth hiitory, it was rebuilt by Ralph Mortimer, who married Joan of Acres in the time of Edward I. and fettled this caftle on him and his heirs ; and that, in procefs of time, it was again greatly augmented and ftrengthened by Hugh Spencer the younger, whofe wealth: appears to have been fully equal to fuck an undertaking. Many important pub- lic events are conneéted with the hiftory of this once formidable fortrefs. The trade of Caerphilly has lately im- proved in coniequence of the eftablifhment of three woollen manufactures; the effeé&t of which is obfervable in traffic on the’roads, and population in the town. . “* Evans’s Tour through South Wales,’ 8vo. 1804; and Malkin’s *¢ Scenery, Antiquities, and Biography of South Wales,” 4to. 1804. CARIANA, a town of Spain, placed by Ptolemy in Beetica, in the country of the Turdetani. CRITES, Czrirum tabulz, in Antiquity, denote the cenfors’ tables, wherein were entered the names of fuch per- fons as, for fome mifdemeanour, were to lofe their right of fuffrage in eleGtions at Rome. The original of the appellation arofe hence ; that during the captivity of Rome under the Gauls, the Czrites, or inhabitants of Czre, a city in Etruria, preferved their facred books, and other matters belonging to the worthip of the ods; in gratitude for which, the Romans dignified the rites with the appellation of Roman citizens, but without admitting them into any part of the adminiftration. See AGYLLAI. : CAERLEON, in Geography, a {mall town of Mon. mouthfhire, England, is more celebrated for its ancient, ii 6 or ————oo CAE for its modern importance. Under the Anglo-Roman dynafty, it was Ifca Silurum, the Caer Legionis Secundi DP iesectinn and the feat of government in that divifion of this ifland called Britannia Secunda. During the height of Roman fplendour and dominion, this place continued a feene of pomp and luxury, as may be fairly inferred from the following defcription, by Gyraldus Cambrenfis, who wrote in the 12th ceotury. “ Many remains of its former magnifi- cence are till vifible. Splendid palaces, which once emu- lated with their gilded roofs the grandeur of Rome, for it was originally built by the Roman princes, and adorned with ftately edifices; a gigantic tower, numerous baths, ruins of atemple, and a theatre, the walls of which are pari/y ftanding. Here we ftill fee, both within and without the walls, Ftlettancana buildings, aqueduéts and vaulted ca- verns, and ftoves fo excellently contrived, as to convey their heat through fecret and imperceptible pores,” &c. Incon- firmation of the monk’s account, various antiquities difco- vered at different periods bear ample teftimony. Earthen veilels of curious workmanhhip, teflelated pavements, phiala, brafs fibula, Roman bricks infcribed “ Leg. II. Aug. ;” an altar to the emperor Aurclius Antoninus; another to Jupiter, under the appellation of Dolichenius, as the patron of iron miues ; another, as fuppofed, to the goddefs Aftrea: and many other votive altars, monuments, {tatues, infcrip- tions, and Roman coins from Czfarto Valentinian inclufive ; with moit of the intermediate emperors. In feveral places the walls are {till vifible, but fcarcely fufficient to point out the original extent of the city. While the name of the parifh, Llangattock juxta Caerleon, feems to favour the opinion that the old city was weftward of the prefent town, perhaps moft of the buildings on that fide were extra meenia, and formed fuburbs, as appears from the direétion of the weitern wall. Several bagnios ‘and fudatories have been found, with pillars formed of circular bricks, not unlike thofe ufed by Palladio in fome of the public ftruCtures at Venice. North of the town is a high mount of earth, called the Keep, {aid to have had formerly a ftrong tower on its fummit; and a variety of {tones lying at its bafe ftrengthen the aflertion. It was probably a Roman edifice. On arifing ground about half a mile diftant, is a large fquare encampment, and feven f{maller ones are in the vicinity. Caerleon appears, on a fuperficial ~view, to occupy a flat pofition ; but in reality, that portion of the prefent town, which is inclofed by the Roman walls, is placed on a gentle rife, connected at one extremity with the lower part of the eminence on which the eucampment of the Lodge is fituated. This rife fhelves onthe weft and fouth fides to- wards the Ufk, and on the caft towards the Avon Llwyd, and feems to have formed a tongue of land, which, before the draining of the meadows, was probably a kind of penin- fula. Hence, the fortrefs, from its pofition on a rife between two rivers, and almoft furrounded with marfhy ground, was a place of confiderable ftrength, and well adapted to Lecome the primary {tation of the idea in Britannia Secunda. The zra in which this Roman fortrefs was built cannot be precifely afcertained ; but Horfley fuppofes, that the Ro- mans firft fettled here in the reign of Antoninus Pius, It is mentioned in Antonine’s Itinerary ; and the numerous coins of the early emperors, which have been difcovered here, feem to confirm this opinion. The walls, however, appear to have been conftruéted under the lower empire. According to Richard of Cirencefter, Caerleon was a Roman colony, and the primary {tation in the country of the Silures. Ina field clofe to the banks of the Ufk, and near the fouth-weit fide of the wall, is an oval concavity, meafur- ~ C; A ED ing 74 yards by 64, and 6 in depth. The natives call it “© Arthur’s round table ;’? but it is, without doubt, the fite of a Roman amphitheatre. Within the memory of many perfons now living, itone feats were difcoyered on opening the fides of the concavity ; and in 1706 a figure of Diana, with her treffes and crefcent, moulded in alabatter, was found in this place. When the Britons had fubmitted to the Roman power, Caerleon, under the aufpices of Antoninus, became the feat of learning and devotion. ‘Three Chriftian churches were quickly ereted ; one accompanied by an order of nuns, an- other by a houfe of regular Ciftercian canons, and a third was honoured with the metropolitan fee of Wales; and, according to the annals of the church, Dubricius, the great opponent of the Pelagian herefy, was the firft archbifhop. ‘The remains of the monattery may be traced in an old houfe, and the qua- drangle round which the different buildings were arranged is ftill vifible. This city was the birth-place of the great Amphibalus, tutorto the martyr St. Alban, and the burial- place of St. Julius and St. Aaron, who preached the gofpel here, and fuffered martyrdom under the perfecuting reign of the fanguinary Dioclefian. Afterthat period, Caerleon in- ~ creafed in learning, piety, and confequence. When the Saxons invaded this country, the univerfity was in fucha flourifhing condition, as to contain, among numerous other ftudents, two nundred philofophers well {killed in geography and aftronomy. (Vid. A. Elfebenfis.) Near the river are the ruins ofa caitle, probably ere&ted about the time of the Norman iavafion, on the fite of a Britifh fortrefs.. We do not, however, hear of it till 1171, when Henry took the town, difpoffefling Jorwerth-ap-Owen, lord of Gwent. In 1173, after a noble itand, it was retaken by Owen, and given up to the Welfh inexchange for the prifoners.- After feveral fieges, it was retained by Llewelyn-ap-Jorwerth, and his defcendants, till the time of Edward I, Vide Powel’s Hiftory of Wales. The prefent town confilts of two or three {mall ftreets, and many of the houfes are in a ftate of dilapidation. ‘I'he moft decent building is a charity-fchool, for maintaining and edu- cating 30 boys and 20 girls, till they attain the age of 14, when they are apprenticed with a bounty of feven pounds to the former, and four to the latter. They are clothed in a drefs of blue cloth, with a badge of white, containing the initials C. W. alluding to the founder, who, as appears from an infeription on the building, was Charles Williams, efq.a native of the town. he {pirit of the place feemsin unifon with its appearance ; being chiefly inhabited by a poor indo- lent fet of people ; alike unaflected by the greatnefs of the palt, as inattentive to the advantages of their prefent con- dition. The town confilts of 148 houfes, contains about 660 inhabitants; has a weekly market on Tuefday; and is fituated 146miles W. from London. Evans’s Tour through South Wales, 8vo. 1804. Coxe’s Hiftorical Tour in Mon- mouththire, gto. 1801. . CAERMARTHEN is the county town of Caermar- thenfhire, South Wales. It is large, populous, and toler- ably well built; the freets are {pacious, but fome of them fteep and irregular, and many of the houfes good; they are generally whitened, and the chimnies ave con{tructed of red brick, which prefent an uupleafant glare to theeye. Among the public buildings are a handfome church at the end of Prior-flreet, and anew elegant county-hall built of free-flone, with colonnades of the lonic order ; the upper part of which is for the tranfaction of public bufinels, andthe under is ufed as a covered market, Situated upon a {mall elevation, ona fine navigable river, in the mid{t of a fruitful vale, and having no town of note in its vicinity ; its markets are mae an CAE atid well fupplied ; provifions in general are cheap, and fifh exceedingly reafonable. A confiderable iron foundery and tin-plate manufactory furnifh employment to a number ef hands. The {melting houfes for lead ore, dug in the north- ern part of the county, belonging to lord Cawdor, are now fhut up. Here are a imall port and quay for coatting veffels, principally to Briftol and Londan. The tide rifes at the bridge from eight to twelve feet ; but, owing to the ‘hal- lows inthe bed of the river below, veflels of much burther finda difficulty in coming up to the quay. Since the de- cline of the trade at Kidwelly, that of Caermarthen has in- ereafed ; and with fpirit and property much more might be done. Hereis a rope-walk ; anda few veflels are built for fale. Adjoining Lammas-ftreet are the walls of a priory of ¥ratres Grifei: this was a cell in the cuftody of the abbey of St. Auguttine at Briftol. In Priory-ftreet the fhell of an- other religious houfe is itill ftanding, which was appropri- ated to Black Friars, or canons of St. Auguftine, and founded before the year 1148. Theentrance into the court is by a bold gateway, over which are the arms of the founder. The principal apartments are ftill diftinguifhable, and the tracery of fome of the windows almoft entire. Gy- taldus mentions it as being, in his time, furrounded with brick walls ; fome remains of which, towards the river, are ftill extant. This town is famous for having given birth to Merlin Ambrofe, the reputed magician, of whom many fa- bulous ftories have been related. Selden confiders Merlin or Merdhin (whence Caerfyrddin) as having derived his name from the town ; but the general opinion is, that Caer- Merdin, or Merlin’s town, was fo called from Merlin’s being found there. Not far from the town is a hill, called Mer- lin’s Hill, near the brow of which is a rock, known by the name of Merlin’s Chair, in which, it is faid, that famous prophet ufed to fit, when he uttered his prophecies. Ca- ermarthen lays claim to Roman origin. It was the Mari- dunum of Antoninus, andlong the feat of the South- ‘Wallian princes, where they held theit great national coun- cils, or occafional parliaments. Nor is it lefs confpicuous on the fubfequent page of hiftory. It was efteemed of fo mitch importance as to become an enviable objeG with every hoftile party, and repeatedly facked, pillaged, and burnt, by both friends and enemies. By whom it was fortified, and its caftle built, there are no authentic documents to fhow ; nor do we hear much of it, till the zra of difficulty aud conflict to the Welfh, occafioned by the unjuftifiable invafion and unprecedented cruelty of the Anglo-Normans. On the acceflion of Henry I. to the throne, Wales became a new theatre for the difplay of iniquity ; and the oppreflive meafures and alienations of property, which before were chiefly confized to the borders, were extended to the in- terior: in confequence of which the royal refidence was re- movedto Dinevor, and Caermarthen was rendered a {trong fortified poft. In 1116 we find it in the hands of the Eng- ith. held for the king by Owen ap Caradoc. But Gryf- fydd ap Rhys, who well knew the importance of this place, fent {pies to furvey the works and afcertain their itrength : having received a favourable account, he fuddenly marched at night, rufhed on the town, and by a coup de main took poffeffion. The governor was killed, the garrifon fled ; and ‘Gryffydd, having burnt the place, and difmantled the cattle, returned with his {poils to his refidence at Strata Tywy. It was again laid im afhes, in 1137, by Owen Gwynedd ; re- built and fortified by Gilbert earl of Clare, about the year 1143; taken by Cadell fon of Gryffydd ap Rhys; and again in poffeffion of the Englifh under William Tuberville, who, when it was befieged by Rhys, in 1158, deftroyed the ridge, at that time of wood, for its better fecurity and de- CAE fence, Though Rhys was unfuccefsful at this time, he took and defpoiled it in 1195, after quelling the unnatural rebellion of his fons. Inthe reign of John, 1215, it was taken; and the caftle was rafed in 1222 by Llewelny, who, taking advantage of the abfence of the earl of Pem- broke, the governor, took this fortrefs and Cardigan, putting the garrifons to the fwerd. We find it foon afterwards in the poffeffion of the Englith, when the fame earl of Pem- broke, having confederated with the Welfh, blockaded it ineffectually for three months. The remains of thisimport- ant fortrefs are {till vifible on a rocky eminence: additions have been lately made, and it is now ufed as the county gaol. When this territory was erected into a principality by the crown of England,’ the chancery and exchequer courts were held here. Caermarthen was created a borough town, 38 Henry VIII. with the privilege of returning one member to parliament. It contains 945 houfes, and 5548 inhabitants, hastwo weekly markets, Wednefday and Sa- turday ; confiderable trade but no internal manufa@ure ; and is fituated 226 miles W. from London. Evans’s Tour through South Wales, 8vo. 1804. CAERMARTHENSHIRE is one of the fouthern counties of Wales, bounded on the north by Cardiganfhire, on the eaft by Brecknockfhire, onthe weft by Pembroke- fhive, andon thefouth by Glamorganfhire and part of the fea. Its extent from eaft to weft is above forty-five miles, and only about twenty in the longeft diameter from north to fouth, The general furface of this tra&t of country is hilly, which in the northern‘and eaftern parts rife into mountains, As in molt hilly territories, the vallies are chiefly narrow, and well watered with mountain ftreams, which in ftormy weather rufh down in torrents. Among the vales that of the Tovy er Tawy is the principal: this croffes the whole of the county, and in fome places is above two miles in breadth, and abounds with beauties. The principal rivers are the Tovy, the Taw, the Cothy, the Dulas, and Gwilly: the former has its fource among the Cardiganfhire mountains, and after its entrance into this county, at the northern boundary, is reinforced by a con- tinual fucceflion of thofe numerous ftreais which give beauty and fertility to the landfcape. Before the Tovy reaches Caermarthen it receives the Cothy and Gwilly ; the Cowen brings with it the Towa and Carkenny; and the Taw re- ceives the Morlas and Cair. The climate and foil of this county are much celebrated, though the lands are not found favourable to wheat... Bar- ley and oats are the moft profitable crops, and great quan- tities of the latter are annually exported to Briftol. Black cattle and horfes are bread in abundance on the hills, and are the chief article of traffic in the neighbouring fairs. Wood though ftill plentiful, has fuffered great defalcation of late years, The county abounds with limeftone, and coal is ob- tained in many parts of it. Iron-works, tin-works, and Jead mines, alfo abound, which, combining with the local advantages, and with a {upply of butter, ftone-coal, bark, and oak timber, render the export trade very confiderable. Caermarthenfhire is divided into fix hundreds, and includes fix market-towns, and eighty-feven parifhes, which are within the diocefe of St. David’s and province of Canter- bury. It returnstwo members to the imperial parliament, one for the county, and one for the principal town, Some veltiges of Roman roads, and other monuments of remote antiquity, are remaining vifible in this county. Near Whit- land isa circle of upright ftones; and between the rivers Cowen and Towa is a remarkable barrow, which inclofed kiftvaen. At Whitland isan encampment fuppofed to be Roman from the Roman coins that have been found st ite WAMU. ——— CAE vallum. The ruins of feveral cattles are ftill ftanding in dif- ferent parts of the county. Malkin’s ‘Scenery, Antiqui- ties, and Biography of South Wales,’’ gto. 1804. Evaus’s ** Tour through South Wales,” Svo. 1804. Barber's Teur throughout South Wales,’ 8vo. 1803. CAERNARVON, the principal town of Caernarvon- fhire, is juftly the boalt of North Wales, for its fituation, buildings, harbour, &c.; but above all, for the grandeur ef its once magnificent caftle. It is fituated on the eaftern bank of the river Menai, the ftrait that divides the ifle of Annglefea from the other parts of Wales. This was the an- cient Segontium, mentioned by Antoninus; it was a Roman ftation in the time of Conftantine ; and Matthew Paris fays, the body of Conftantious, the father of that emperor, was found buried here, A.D. 1283. The fite of the old city is about a mile diftant, by the road to which from Pwllheli it is interfe&ted. The remains of a Roman road are ftill vifible from this place to Dinorwig. It lies on the eaftern banks of the Seiont. Some remains of the walls are ftill to be feen, the cement of which appears as hard as the {tone it- felf. A fingle ftone remains here, with thefe letters S.V.C. robably for Segontium Urbs Conttantini; Helen, or her Pufband Conftantine, having built it. It was defended by a fort, ereGted on the ftcep weitern bank of the Seivat, where it forms a curve, about four hundred yards from the prefent town. The walls are about twelve fect high, and about eighty yards fquare, with circular parallel holes run- ning the whole length. Where the facings are dilapidated, the peculiarity of Roman mafonry is eafily difcoverable. This town, after the departure of the Romans frem the ifland, was eccupied by the Britons, and by them denomi- nated Caer-ar-fon, i.e. a {trong hold oppofite Mona, which with the infertion of n for rmony, made Caernarfon. Gyraldus mentions it asa confiderable place in 1138; anda charter, dated 1221, iffued by Llewelyn the Great, proves that it did not receive this name from king Edward, Ata very early period it was the feat of the Britifh princes. Ro- deric refided here in 750; and by a poiterior Roderic the royal refidence was removed to Aberfraw in Anglefea. Out ef the ruins of the ancient town arofe the prefent, which by a charter of king Edward.I. was made a free borough, go- verned by a mayor, who is pro tempore deputy-governor of the caftle, one alderman, and two bailiffs; there are alfo a town-clerk and two ferjeants at mace. The town fends one member to parliament, who is returned by the joint fuffrage of Conway, Pwllheli, Nefyn, and Crickaeth ; and the right of voting extends to every perfou refident in thefe places. An extraordinary privilege was granted to Caernarvon, that no burgefs could be convicted of any crime, committed be- tween the Conwy and the Dovy, but by a jury of his townf- men. The town was originally contained within its prefent walls, but the fuburbs are become of greater extent than the town: the ftreets are at right angles correfponding with the four gates; the houfes are well built, and the ftreets clean, but, as in all other ancient towns, narrow and confined. It is become a place of fafhionable refort, during the fummer feafon; the soca hot and cold baths, ereGed by thie earl of Uxbridge, having added greatly to its celebrity. Onthe outfide of the walls isa broad and pleafant terrace walk along the fide of the Menai, extending from the quay to the aon end of the walls, which is a fafhionable promenade in fine evenings. Cacrnarvon is in the parifh of Llan-Beblic, and the church is fituated about half a mile from the town. It contains nothing remarkable, except a marble monument, with two recumbent figures of fir William and lady Griffith of Penrhyn, who died in the year 1587. The fervice is al- ways here in the Welfh language, here is an CAE Englith fer vice every Sunday morning and afternoon, in the chapel of eafe to this church, fituated on the north-weit corner of the town: the former is generally very well at- tended. The entrance to the port of Caernarvon is rather danger- ous, from the extenfive fand-banks near; but the harbour is capacious, and veflels of fix or feven hundred tons ride in fe- curity ; and the quay is peculiarly convenient, as large vef- fels can come clofe to it, and deliver and take in their car- goes. The trade has of late years been increafing, though at prefent it confifts more of exports than imports. Slates, &e. are fent to Liverpool, Briftol, and London; copper ore from -Llanberis and Paris Mountain to Swanfea; flan- nels, webs, ftockings, and an ochre found in Anglefea, to America and the Weft Indies. The imports confift chiefly of Irifh cloth, fine wool, hides, tallow,.and grocery goods, for the ufe of the interior. There is a weekly market on Saturday. The county affizes are occafionally held here ; and the room over the eaftern gateway, formerly ufed asa cuftom-houfe, is converted into the feffions-houfe,. where all the county bufinefs is tranfa&ted. This was done, as an in- {cription in front informs us, by the munificence of fir Wil+ liam Wynne, and his nephew Thomas Wynne, efq. A.D. 1767. Anew cultom-houfe is erected within the walls on the Menai, much more convenient for the commerce. The port is fubjet in its cuitoms to the comptroller of Beau- maris. Caernarvon is diftant from London 244 miles N.W. Cazrnaxvon is alfo a townfhip of America, in the county of Lancafter and ftate of Pennfylvania ;, containing 942 inhabitants. Carrnarvon Caflle is the moft magnificent fortrefs in: North Wales. It is well fituated for natural ftrength ; one fide bounded by the Menai, another by the zftuary of Seiont, a third by a creek of the Menai, and the fourth ifolated by art. The fite was admirably calculated for a ftrong pott, and could not fail to ftrike a prince of military talents, like Edward, as a proper place to erecta curb for his newly conquered,.and confequently diffatisfied, fubjects. As the conqueror of the country, there is great reafon for fuppofing that monarch to be the founder of the prefent edifice, (per- haps on the ruins of one more Speleneat ite check the {pirit of infurrection that might arife in Snowdonia, as he did on the Denbighfhire fide by the caltles of Conway and Rhud- dian. The obferyation of Mr. Barrington feems well founded, that the plans of the Welth caftles, ereéted by Edward I. were borrowed from the Afiatic fortrefles which that pfince had feen in the Holy Land, becaufe they appear precifely fimilar to many copied and inferted in the valuable extracts of Le Brun. After the conqueft was nearly com- pleted, in 1282, the caftle was begun ; and in a little more: than a year this immenfe building was finiftied.. For fill further to fubdue the haughty people, already mortified by a foreign yoke, he impofed on them the hateful tafk of forging chains for their country, and putting the laft fatal hand'to its independence.. The peafantry were compelled to perform the required labour, and their chieftains to defray the expence incurred. [tis built of a mixture of lime and grit-ltone: fome of the materials were furnifhed by the ruins of the old town, and fome were brought from Vaenol. It forms a beld.and ftriking objeét, and the fhell is nearly en- tire. The entrance into. the caftle is grand, between two: mafly towers; in front of which, over the gateway, is placed a ftatue of the royal founder, with a dagger in his hand; in a menacing pofture. This was defended by four porteullifes. The form of the cattle, inclofing an area of about three acres, is oblong: the towers are sfsuit. fome pentagonal, forme bexsictital, aud others o€tagonal ; two of. 5 thefe. CAE thefe are pre-eminent: and of thefe, the eagle tower, fo called from a figure of that bird placed at the top, is pe- culiarly beautiful, three {mall angular turrets iffuing fromm it. A magnificent apartment is fhewn in this tower, where, by the well known artifice of Edward I. his queen Eleanor was delivered of her fon Edward, the firft prince of Wales, April 25, 1284. The walls of the eagle tower are ten feet thick, and thofe of the fortrefs in general eight. A gallery runs all round, with frequent openings for the difcharge of arrows on the befiegers. A fhort time after the ereétion of the caftle, the ftrength and importance of it were to be tried. A general infurreGion was excited in different parts of Wales, in 1294, on occafion of a fubfidy levied on the new fubjects. Madoc, an illegitimate fon of the unfortunate Llewellyn, ftyling himfelf prince, put himfelf at the head of the infur- gents of North Wales, and preceeded to Caernarvon, which was crowded with people attending an annual fair. The unarmed multitude were barbaroufly flaughtered, the town reduced to athes, and the caftle taken. In 1404 this fort- refs was blockaded by Owen Glyndwr’s adherents, but was fo bravely defended for the king, that the befiegers, finding their efforts fruitlefs, thought proper to retire. In 1644 the town was taken by captain Swanley, a parliamentarian, who pillaged it of the ftores, arms, and ammunition, mak- ing four hundred prifoners: the royalifts afterwards difpof- feffed him. While lord Byron was governor, it was befieged by general Mytion in 1646, and furrendered on an honour- able capitulation. In 1648, general Mytton and colonel Mafon were blockaded by fir John Owen, who, hearing that colonels Carter and Twifleton were advancing to relieve the town, raifed the fiege, and marched to oppole them. The parties met at Llandegai; fir John was defeated and made prifoner, and North Wales foon after fubmitted to the par- liament. ‘This caftle, like its rival in ftrength and grandeur, Conway, is going faft to decay ; and the dilapidating hand of time promifes foon to deprive the country of one of its principal architeGtural ornaments. Evans’s ** Tour through North Wales,’ Svo. 1802. Bingley’s ‘* North Wales,” 2 vols. 8vo. 1804. CAERNARVONSHIRE, is the name of one of the counties of North Wales. It is the moft mountainous dif- tri in the whole principality, and aflumes a truly rugged and alpine appearance. The moft central part of it is occu- pied by that vaft eminence, named Snowdon, with feveral ° other fubordinate hills. This county is very irregularly fhaped, and is bounded by the fea on the weit and fouth, the ftraits of the Menai, which feparate it from Anglefea, to the north, and the counties of Merioneth and Denbigh to the eaft. This area of country meafures about forty miles from north to fouth, and twenty from eaft to weft. It is divided into feven hundreds, which are again fubdivided into feventy-one parifhes. The principal places in the county are the city of Bangor, the town of Caernarvon, and the town of Conway. According to the population re- ports, publifhed by the houfe of commons, the whole dif- tri& contains 8433 houfes, and 41521 inhabitants, of whom moft are employed in agriculture and mining. All the mountains in this county, as well as fome of the low grounds on the weftern fide, are commons; the former are chiefly depaftured by fheep, and the latter by black cat- tle. It 1s acuftom among the farmers to meet annually, and determine what number of fheep each fhall fend to the mountains; yet in {pite of any argument, the pafturage is generally overftocked. It is common with fome perfons to fell this privilege at 4d. per head for the feafon, which is commonly from May, when the fheep are driven up, until Michaelmas, when they are brought down. In moft de- 7 | SoA E {criptions of this county, it is ftated, that the families go up and wholly live on the mountains in the fummer feafon, to attend their fiocks, to make cheefe, &c. but*this is de- nied by Mr. Kay in his ** General View of the Agriculture of the County,”’ who fays, that no fuch cuftom prevails, The wethers only are fent up, and the ewes are always kept in the low grounds with their lambs. "When the latter are weaned, the ewes are milked for about two months; and the produce of thefe is mixed with the cows’ milk for making of cheefe. The exportation of flates is the principal trade from this county. hefe are fhipped in large quantities from Caer- narvon; and it is calculated by Mr. Kay, that above 35,0001. worth are annually fent from this part of the coun- try. Wool is alfo an object of confiderable importance to the farmers and peafantry, many of whom are employed in manufacturig it into cloths, flannels, &c. Of the rivers in Caernarvonthire, the Conway is the prin- cipal. This bounds the eaftern fide of the county, and is navigable for about 12 miles from the fea up into the inte- rior of the country. Increafed by various mountain tor- rents, it fometimes fwells itfelf into a vaieexpanfe, and in the early part of its courfe forms fome grand cafcades. Many of the rivers of this county either proceed from, or form in their courfe, lakes ef various fizes. Thefe are chiefly in the declivities of the mountains, and moft of them are abundantly ftocked with fifh, among which, the char, and the gwyniad, are very prevalent. The moft confiderable mountains are Snowdon and Pen- maen-Mawr. The former is eftimated to meafure 3456, or, according to other ftatements, 3568 and 3600, feet above the level of the fea at Caernarvon Quay. It is connected with a chain of other hills ranging through the county ina di- rection from N.E. to N.W., extending from Aberconway to the fea, at Aberdaron. © The rocks compofing the higher part of this chain, are principally porphyry, granite, and granitel of Kirwan; the fecondary rocks are chiefly horn- blende, fchiller-fpar, toadftone, fchiftus-mica, fchiftus-clay, mixtures of quartz, feld-{par, and mica, with argillaceous {chiftus in all its varieties. On the weftern fide are a num- ber of bafaltic columns on a bed of hornftone, or chertz ; and large coarfe cryftals, cubic pyrites, and various mineral bodies are found in the fiffures. In the fchiitofe rocks are feveral flate quarries ; and great quantities of ftones are cut, and annually fent hence to London, Dublin, &c. Many rare and curious plants are found on thefe mountains, and on the borders of the lakes. The whole of the county was formerly known by the name of Snowdon, and a great part of it is ttl diftinguifhed by the appellation of Snowdonia. The mountains between Conway and Caernarvon feem em- bofomed in one another, and from the Anglefea fhore are feen to rife, range after range, in three gradations. The lower valleys and bafes are generally very fertile and tempe- rate, and confequently are chofen as the fcenes of habitation and cultivation. The fecond range affords fome palturage and fuel, fuch as long grafs, peat, and furze. The higheft ridge is nearly divefted of vegetation, and partakes of the temperature of the frigid zone. Snow remains here nearly three quarters of the year; and is often found at the latter end of June. : The f{cenery of Caernarvonfhire is peculiarly grand, ro- mantic, and picturefque. Its narrow glens, expanded lakes, roaring cafcades, and ‘* tempeft-torn rocks,” confpire to ren- der it eminently attraGive to the painter, whilft its minera- logical and botanical produ@tions are equally enticing to the mineralogift and to the botanift. For further particulars relating to the hitory and antiquities of particular places ip . this “ > - CHR his county, fee under the h eads Bancor, Con way, CAER- warvon, &c. ‘This county returns two members to parlia- ment. It is in the diocefe of Bangor, and province of Canterbury. Kay’s “ View of the Agriculture of North Wales” A Sketch of the Hiltory of Caernervonthire. Evans’s Tour through North Wales. Aikin’s Journal of a Tour through Nerth Wales. i CAERSWS, at prefent a {mall hamlet, fituated on the Severn, above New Town, in Montgomerythire, North Wales, but formerly a town of confiderable antiquity, and probably a Roman ftation, as is inferred from the fine hewn ftones for building, and feveral bricks common in Ro- man cities or places potleiTed by the Romans when in Bri- taia. It had alfoa caftle and a church, and the form of three camps is itil difcernible in its vicinity. ‘The Roman road, or caufeway, called Sarn-Sws, runs here towards Meifod, and may be traced to the banks of the Tyrawy, near Llyfin. CZZERULATA, in Entomology, (Geometra) with obfeurely green wings, brown, and two cxruleous bands. Fabricius. CRULEA, a fpecies of CurysomELa, of a blue co- lour with violaceous thorax. Geoffroy. Inhabits France. Crrurea, a fpecies of NecypDatis, ceruleous, with the hinder thighs clavated and arcuated. Yabricius. ney Cxeurea, is a fpecies of Crcinpeta, of a fhining blue colour, with the mouth white. Inhabits the great fandy deferts of Siberia. Pallas. Cruces, a fpecies of Pimerta, ( Sepidium,) cerulef- cent, with a roundifh thorax, and f{triated elytre. Fabri- cius. Carve, in Zchthyology, a {pecies of Corvrnna, wholly czruleous. Bloch. Found in the American ocean, clothed with large {cales, comprefled, and above convex. Crrucea, in Ornithology, a{pecies of AnDeA, called by Latham the blue heron, and blue bittern of Catefby. The back of the head is crefted; colour of the body blue. Brif- fon calls it cancrophagus czruleus. It is the black and blue gaulding ot Ray and Sloane. oe There are feveral diftin& varieties of this bird, one of which is blue, with the head and collar of a rufous brown colour; and another has the blue of the body Hagee with green, with the chin and throat white. Inhabits America. Cxevucea, the fpecies of Atceno called by Latham the white-collared king’s-fifher; ifpida indica torquata of Briffon. This bird is of a blue colour, beneath rufous, with the eye-brows and collar white. Length feven inches. Inhabits India. Cravucea, a fpecies of Paocerraris, beneath white, with the beak and legs cinercous ; trel of Latham. Creve, a beautiful bird of the CERTHIA, Or creeper, genus from Cayenne. The prevailing colour of the plu- mage is blue, with the baad acrofs the eyes, chin, wings, and tail, black. Gmelin, &c. Craures, a fpecies of Cocumsa, ceruleous; the beak, and covers of the wings, red; the blue pigeon*of La- tham, and the tlacapoilotl of Ray. Found in New Spain. Canurea, the fpecies of Muscicara, called by La- tham the azure fly-catcher, czruleaus; with a black fpot on the occiput and breaft; the abdomen and vent bluith- white, and the feathers of the wings and tail bluifh-black. Found in the Philippine Ifles. Cruces, in Zoology, a fpecies of Nenets, czrulefcent. Fabricius. CHRULEOCEPHALA, in CAN THARIS; ( Malachius,) defcribed by T Wor. V. a fpecies of PHALZNA, banded with bluifh cinereous, the blue {mooth and t in Entomolo, a fpecies of Lushesg.” ‘The C AR thorax is red, emarginate; wing-cafes fufcous; anterior part of the head red; polterior blue-black. Inhabits Eu- rope. CaRULEOCEPHALA, a {pecies of Bomsyx, common in various parts of Europe, and in England known by the tri- vial name of the figure-of-eight moth. The wings are grey- ifh, varied with brown, with a large double irregular whitifh fpot. Linn. &c. The larva feeds on apple and on other fruit trees. CRULEOCEPHALA, in Ornithology, a {pecies of ArcEDO, or king’s-fifher, found in the ifland of Madagafear. The prevailing colour is blue above, beneath mifaua! throat white ; quill-feathers blackifh. The length of this bird is four inches, and it has the bill and legs of a red colour. Buffon calls it martin-pécheur @ tete bleue, and petit martin-pécheur du Senegal. It is the blue-headed king’s-fifher of Latham, CHRULEOCEPHALUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Curcutio, violet coloured, with the thorax and elytra teftaceous. Fownd in Saxony. CxruLeocernatus, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Psit- Tacus, ceruleous, with the belly, rump, and tail green, crown yellow, and feathers of the wings and tail red; the red and blue parrot of Willughby and Latham. Found in Guiana. CHRULESCENS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Can cer, abuudant in the feas between the tropics. The colour is bluifh; thorax fmooth; beak advanced, fubulate, and furnifhed with two teeth. Fabricius. A crab of a {mall fize.—Alfo, a fpecies of CryprocerHatus (Ciflela), black, with the ftriated elytre cerulefcent. Found in Barbary. Carucescens, a fpecies of Ceramayx (Saperda) that inhabits Germany. ‘The thorax is unarmed, cylindrical, white-blue; three lines on the thorax and {cutel pale. Scopoli, Schranck, &e. CxruLescens, a fpecies of CurysoMELA (Altica) of a greenifh blue colour, and very glofly; thorax fmooth ; autenne and legs rufous; pofterior thighs black, Degeer. CxeRULESCENS, a fpecies of Canxanus, of a blackith blue colour, with the bafe of the antennx red. Fabricius. Inhabits Europe. Cerurescens, a {pecies of Necypatts, with a round- ith thorax, and ceruleous fub-opake body. Trabr. CRULESCENS, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Anas, called by Latham and other Englifh writers the Blue-winged- goofe. This kind inhabits North America; the colour is fufcous, beneath white; wing-coverts and polterior part of the back bluith. Briffon calls it anfer fylvettris frets Hudfonis; Buffon, oie des Efquimaux. Obf, The bill and legs are red ; crown yellowifh, reft of the head, with the collar, white ; fhoulders and tail waved with white and grey. CrruLescens, a fpecies of Rarxus, light-red, beneath bluifh, the beak and legs red, the vent w lite, with black tranfverfe ftrie on the abdomen; the blue-necked rail of Latham. Fouud at the Cape of Good Hope. CARULESCENS, in Boaters, a fpecies of CoLupery found in South America and India, fmooth, cxrulefcent, and an acuminated lead-coloured head. ' CARULEUS, in Lntomolngy, a {pecies of Cimex, defcribed by Linneus in his Fauna Succica as being entirely of a blue colour and without fpots. Cexuteys, an Evropean fpecies of Caranvs, def- cribed by Miiller, The colour is black, with cyancous wing-cafes ; antenna, feelers, and legs fulvous. Crrureus, a fpecies of Ruinomacer, cerulefcent, with the bafe of the antenne and legs yellow. 48 CARULEUS, CAE Cerurevs, a fpecies of Scaraszus, oblong and wholly cyaneous. Found in Siberia. Czru eus, a fpecies of Cucajyus, black, with a fuleated thorax, ftriated czruleous elytrz, and red abdo- men. Fabr. Wound in Germany.—Alfo, a fpecies of CrypTrocrePrHAtus, azure, with brownantenne. Found in the equinoctial part of Africa, Czrureus, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Cucutus, with a roundifh tail and blue body. The beak, legs, and claws, are black; the remiges and tail are green and violet. Found in Madagafear. "V'his is the blue cuckow of Latham, and taitfon of Buffon. CxruLeys, the name of a {mall fpecies of Parus, called in England the blue-titmoufe. The quill-feathers of this bird are bluifh; primaries whitih at the outer mar- gin; front white; crown blue. Linn. Fn. Succ. This kind inhabits Europe. Its length is about four inches, frequents gardens, and does confiderable damaze by bruifing the young buds in queft of infe€ts, on which it feeds. Czru evs, a fpecics of Ortorys, black or cinereous, with the head, wings, and tail ceruleous. This is the Kan- thornus czruleus of Briffoi, the fmall blue jay of Ray, and blue oriole of Latham. The beak is red. Czruteus, a fpecies of Rampuastos, ceruleous with a mixture of cinereous; the blue toucan of Latham; found in New Spain. CzruLeus, in Zoology, a fpecies of Coruser, found in America, czrulefcent, with the feales white on one fide, and beneath white. ; Cxruceus is alfo a name given by Solinus to the “ great Indian worm,”’ defcribed by Pliny and others as inhabiting the Ganges. It is conceived with much probability that all the accounts we have of this monftrous animal are only falfe defcriptions of the crocodile. CAERWENT, in Geography, a village of Monmouth- fhire, England, about 4 miles from Chepftow, in the road to Newport, was a place of great importance in the Roman times and is diftinguifhed in the Itinerary of Antoninus by the name of Venta Silurum. This ftation was found, like many Roman military works, with a fortification, afluming in ground plan the parallelogramic fhape, with the corners a little rounded. Such figures were called terriata caftra. Each corner nearly correfponded with the four cardinal points. At the fouth-welt fide are three pentagonal bailions; from which circumftance fome writers have inferred that the town was founded under the lower empire, as flanking proje€tions were not in ufe before that period. Other authors refer the building of the walls to the Saxons, but from the mode of conflru@:ing them, the fize and quality of the bricks, and other evidences, this feems very improbable. The circuit of the rampart, nearly a mile in extent, may ftill be traced, and in moft places is furrounded by a deep fofs. The prefent walls are about nine feet in thicknefs at the top, and twelve feet at the bafe. The inclofed area is laid out in fields and orchards ; and a few cottages, with the church, parfonage, &e. oc- cupy the fite of Roman manfions and Roman temples. Foundations of thefe, projecting above the level, and concealed jinder green hillocks, rife in many places, and columns, teffelated pavements, and coins, are continually difcovered in ploughing and digging. A curious teffelated pavement was difcovered about 40 years ago, and preferved under a fhed conftruéted for that purpofe. It is feven yards long and fix broad, within a border of variegated {tones ; it contains three rows of three circular and {piral figures, not ualike thofe in many of our Turkey carpets, but CAE formed of teffele of various colours, neatly put together, Some have fuppofed, that the exploits of Arthur were performed at this place; and that when this was totally deitroyed, they were transferred through ignorance or flattery to the other Caerwert or Winchefter, at a time when it was one of the moft important cities of the ifland. -Venta Silurum, afterwards Caer Gwent, is fuppofed to have poffeffed fufficient confequence to give name to the county of Monmouth, and thofe parts of Herefordfhire and Glou- cefterfhire, whichlongretained theappellationof Gwent-Land. In a MS. of Llandaff, Caer-Gwent is mentioned as a place dedicated to learning, and far famed for its academy, which a difciple of St. Germanus governed with great commen dation. LEvans’s Tour through South Wales, 8vo. 1804. Barber’s Tour throughout South Wales, Svo. 1803. CarrwentT, or Carr-Gwent, q.d. white city, is alfo a name given by the firft Celtic fettlers in South Britain to the prefent city of Wincheiter, on account of the chalky cliffs that encompaffed it. Under this appellation it has been recognized by the moft ancient writers, domeftic and foreion, who have recorded the early ftate of Britain. It was then no more than a colleGtion of long cabins, built of mud, covered witi reed and fheltered by the large fpreading bows of the contiguous foreft, and furrounded with a rampart and ditch for proteétion from the affault of neigh- bouring tribes. The adjoining fields were devoted to the fattening of flocks and herds, on the flefh and milk of which the inhabitants fubfifted, before they were acquainted with the luxury of bread, and whilft they were averfe from the labours of tillage. It was afterwards occupied by the Belge, who prattifed agriculture, and raifed corn for the purpofe of making both bread and beer, made cheefe of their milk, and wore manufactured cloathing inflead of the raw hides with which their predeceflors were covered. When they took poffeffion of it, it was called ‘ Venta Belgarum.’”? In 516, it was taken and almoft totally demolifhed by Cerdic the Saxon commander; and after- wards denominated ** Wintanceafter,’’? or Winchetter, which name exprefles its former importance a3 a Roman ftation. Miller’s Hift. of Winchefter, vol. i. p. 6. See Win- CHESTER. CAERWYS, a {mall town of Flintthire, North Wales, appears to have been a Roman ftation, and alfo a place of judicature, or the eifteddfod of the ancient Britons. The town now confifts of four {pacious ftreets, crofling each other at right angles. Several Roman coins, and an infcribed ftone have been found here. In the vicinity of the town are many tumuli; but Caerwys is principally celebrated for its eilteddfod, where the feffions of bards and minitrels were held for many centuries. Judges were appointed, and bards of acknowledged merit, and minitrels were admitted as competitors for the prize of fame. ‘T'he judges were nominated by a commiffion from the provin- cial prince, till after the conqueft of Wales by Edward I., when the Englifh monarchs fanétioned this eifteddfod, as an inftitution calculated to foften the manners of a fierce and warlike people. Previous to this, we find that Gruffydd — ap Cynon, contemporary with king John, ena¢ted that no perfon fhould follow the profeffion of a bard, or minftrel, who was not regularly admitted by the eifteddfod, which was alternately held at the three royal refidences, of Ca- erwys, Aberfraw, and Mathravel. In 1568, a commiflion was granted by queen Elizabeth, for holding au eifteddfod at this place, when 55 degrees were conferred on the moftt eminent candidates; 17 in vocal, and 38 in inftrumental mufic. From this period the eifteddfod was neglected, tll 1798, when a meeting was aflembled by a public a rom CS from the Gwyneddigion, or Vendotian Society inftituted in London for the encouragement of Welfh literature. On this occafion the town hall was prepared for the reception of a numerous and refpectable company. Twenty bards, eighteen vocal performers, and twelve harpers, affembled here, and each exhibited {pecimens of his refpedtive pro- feffion and talents. The prefent town confifts of 162 houfes, contains 773 inhabitants, has a {mall weekly market on Tuefday, and is 212 miles N. W. from London. . Evans’s s¢ Cambrian Itinerary,” 8vo, 18c2. CZESALPINIA, in Dotany, (named by Plumier in honour of Cefalpinus, chief phyfician to pope Clement VIII.) Linn. Gen. 515,516. Schreb. jot. 703. « Willd. S15. Juff. 349. Vent. 376, 377- Gert. 442. 467. Clafs and order, decandria monogynia. Nat. ord. Loewentacee, Lion. Leguminofe, Jul. Gen. Ch. Gal. perianth of one leaf with five divifions; tube fhort ; fegments oblong, deciduous, the lowcft longer thau the relt, flightly vaulted. Cor. petals five, inferted into the throat of the calycine tube, unequal. S¢am. filaments ten or five, inferted into the throat of the calyx, thread-faped, woolly or hairy at the bafe, declining ; anthers oblong, de- cumbent. s/f. germ fuperior, linear-oblong, compreffed, attenuated at the bafe; ftyle thread-fhaped, fligma blunt. Peric. legume oblong, comprefled, one, two, or many- celled. Seeds rather egg-fhaped, comprefled, flat. - Eff. Ch. Calyx with five divifions; the loweft fegment longer and flightly vaulted. Stamens woolly or hairy at the bale. . Petals five. Legume compreffed. Obf. Thefe charaGters are fo drawn up as to include Tournefort’s Poinciana which has been admitted as a feparate geous by Linnzus, Juffieu, Ventenat, Gartner, La Marck, Bofe, and Poiret, the fucceffor of La Marck in the bota- nical part of Encyc. Methodique; but as, according to La Marck, Poinciana differs from Cxfalpinia chiefly in the great length of its ftamens, and the deep divifions of its calyx, the two genera have been incorporated by profcflor Martyn and Willdenow. Sp. 1. C. érafilienfis, brafil-wood or brafiletto, Linn. Sp. wild. Brown Jam. 227, ‘Stem and leaves without rickles.”” Linn. ‘ Without prickles ; leaflets ovate-. b- ong; rachis pebeicrats calyx downy: ftamens fhorter than the corolla.” Swartz. Obferv. 166. This is faid by Linnzus and Miller to be the tree which furnifhes the brafil-wood, fo well known in commerce and the arts. But La Marck, who has entirely omittted this {pecies, afferts that the true brafil-wood is the next {pecies which does not occur in any of the works of Lionzus; and it is worthy of notice that Mr. Miller, in direét oppofition to the {pecific charaGter of Linnzus, defcribes his C. brafilienfis as armed with recurved prickles correfponding with the defcriptions of the brafil-wood given by the older botanifts, all of which are quoted by La Marck as fynonyms of his C.echinata. The fynonym of Brown is however an original authority for the exiftence of a {pecies without prickles ; and on this account we have followed Willdenow in admit- i brafilienfis of Linnzus as well as the echinata of La 2. C, echinata, La Marck, Willden. Pfeudo-fan- talum rubrum, five Arbor Brafilia: Bauh. Pin. 393. Rai ated Se Acacia Gloriofa Spinis armata, cujus Lignum B dictum Tinétoria; Pluk. Alm. 5. Ibira Pitanga, Marg. Pifon. Stem and branches prickly ; leaflets egg-fhaped, obtufe ; legumensechinated.” A large tree. Branches long and fpreading. Leaves alternate, twice-winged; leaflets refembling the Ps of box. Flowers in fimple racemes, variegated with yellow and red, {weet- fcented. Legumes, dark-brown, pe ha comprefled, befet with {mall points. Seeds reddifh brown, fmooth. The _compreffed. Seeds {mall, roundifh. CS interior wood is of a red colour, andis covered with fo thick an alburnum, that of fo vat a tree only a very fmall part is fit for the ufe of the dyer. It cannot be ufed without alum and tartar, and produces only a fugitive colour. Boiled in beer, wine. cr viuegar, with the addi- tion of alum, it makes a red ink. By the means of acids it becomes a kind of carmine ; and, with different modes of treatment, is the balis of various pigments. It takes a good polifh, is very hard and dry, crackles in the fire, and burns with very httle {moke. A native of Fernambucco and other parts of Brafil. 3. C. bahamenfis, La Marck, (Pfeudo-fantalum croceum, Sloane, Jam. Haft. 2. p. 184. Catefb, Car. 2. p. 51. t. 51.) “ Branches prickly; leaflets inverfely exg-fhaped, emarginate ; flowers white.” A fhrub or mall tree. Branches and common petioles armed with fhort, feattered prickles, which are turned upwards. Leaves twice-winged ; leaflets {mooth on both fides; pale beneath, and of a delicate green above : having, at their bafe, and at the bafe of each pinnule, from two ro four fmall, firaight prickles, Flocvers whitifh, in Kraight racemes. Zzgumes oblong, pointed, peduncled, La Marck obferves, that on account of the prickly branches, it cannot be re- ferred to the braiilienfis of Linnzeus, under which that au- thor quotes the fynonyms of Sloane and Catefby. A na- tive of Bahama and Jamaica, whence it is brought to Eu- rope for the ufe of the dyer. Large quantities of it were formerly cut down in fome of the Bahama iflands, but it is now nearly extirpated. 4. C. veficaria, Linn. (Colutga Vere-crucis, Pluk. tab. 165. Senna fpuria fabine odore, Sloan. Jam. Hit. 2. p. 50. t. 181. f. 2, 3. Rai. dend. iti. No. 18.) “ Stem prickly; leaves inverfely egg-fhaped ; racemes {piked, flowers Hits La Marck. “ Leaves in- verfely heart-fhaped, roundifh.’ Linn, A tree. Stem about fifteen feet high, nearly the thicknefs of a man’s thigh, rather crooked, covered with an even, whitith bark. Branches crooked, prickly. Leaves alternate, twice-winged; leaflets obtufe, a little emarginate, thofe at the fummit of the wing a little larger than the reft; with a few hooked prickles at the bafe of each pair of leaflets, and each pair of wings. S/owers yellow in eal diftin& fpikes. Legumes oval, nearly obtufe, blackifh, furrowed. Seeds two or three. La Marck. Legume without valves, nearly filled with a fpongy fubftance ; two-celled, with a fingle feed in each cell, Gaertner, 42. tab. 144. Obf. Profeffor Martyn and Willdenow quote Poinciana bijuga of Linnzus, as a fyno- nym of this fpecies, and fuppofe that it has inadvertently been deferibed twice, under different names, and placed in diltinct genera. Poiret, who retains the genus Poinciana, though, as he himfelf acknowledges, without fufficient rea- fon, takes no notice of bijuga, and therefore feems to be of the fame opinion; but in that cafe he ought to have no- ticed the omiffion, as his predeceffor La Marck, when he wrote the article Ciefalpinia veficaria, had certainly no idea that the Poinciana bijuga is the fame plant. Martyn and Willdenow prefer the trivial name bijuga, and give the fol- lowing fpecilic character, ¢* Prickly: leayes doubly-pin- nate with two pairs of obcordate leaflets ; they and the ca- lyxes fmooth ; flamens equalling the corolla’? A native of the Well Indies. 5. C. crifa. Linn. Sp, Pl. C. poly- hylla aculeis horrida, Plum. gen. 26. t. 68. “ Prickly ; featlets oval ; racemes fimple; calyx fmooth; petals. egg- fhaped, fhorter than the calyx; ftamens longer than the calyx.’? A {mall tree, or rather fhrub, about four feet high. Barf rather thick, afh-coloured without, red with- in. Wood folid, heavy, eafily cleft, of a red colour, with a white alburnum. Trunf/ divided near its fummit into feveral branches, nearly the fize of a man’s arm; and armed 452 with CES with mumerous, feattered, fhort, hooked, ftrong, blackifn prickles, each fituated on a tubercle. Leaves alternate ; jcaflets {mooth, of apleafant green colour. Flowers pale green or whitifh, with only five ftamens, in upright ra- cemes forming a pyramid. La Marck, from Plumicr’s MSS. A native of the Antilles, where it is called brafil- letto, from the refemblance of its wood to that of brafil. 6. C. fappan, Liun. Sp. Pl. Roxb. Corom. 1. p. 17. t. 16. Gert. tab. 144. f. 1. La Marck Iluft. Pl. 335. fig. 1. (Ligno brafiliano fimile, Banh. Pin, 393. Rai Hit. 1737. Lignum Sappan, Runiph. Amb. 4. p. 56. t. 21. Tham- pangam, Rheed. Mal. 6. p. 3.t. 2.) Prickly; leaflets oblong, not equilateral, obtufe, a little emargiuate.”” A fmall tree. Zrunk from ten to fifteen feet high. Leaves large, twice-winged 3; pnnules from twelve to fifteen ; leaf- lets numerous, crowded, {mocoth, finely ilriated, obliquely truncate at the bafe. F/owers yellow, {weet-fcented, in racemes. Legume fomewhat woody, thick, fhort, fomewhat rhomboidal, beaked, and one-celled, two-valved. Seeds about four, large, ovate-oblong, fmooth. A native of the Eaft Indies, Siam, the Mclucca Iflands, and Japan. Its wood is ufed for cabinet work ; and being very durable in ea water, is excellent for trenails in fhip-building : when boiled in water, it yields a blackifh colour, which, with the addition of alum, becomes red, and is much ufed jor dyeing woollens and cottons of a beautiful red colour. 6. C. mimofioides, Willd. La Marck PI. 335. f. 2. (Kal-tod- da-waddi, Rheed. Mal. 6. p. 15. t. 8. Mimofa malabarica, Rai Hift. 1740.) ** Stem, petioles and peduncles prickly ; leaflets oblong, obtufe, {mall : legumes woolly.” A fhrub about four feet high. Leaves twice-winged, refembling thofe of feveral fpecies of acacia, fenfitive, with two or three large prickles at the bafe ofeach wing. Sowers large, yellow, in a long raceme; petals unequal, rather longer than the ftamens. Legumes containing one or two feeds. A native of Malabar, communicated to La Marck, by Son- nerat. 97. C. pulcherrima, Barbadoes flower-fence, or Spanifh carnation, Willd. Martyn, (Poinciana pulcherri- ma, Linn. Sp. Pl. Reich. La Marck Pl. 333. Bofc. Nouv. Did. Pl. M. 26. Poiret Encyc. Meth.-v. 5. p. 447. Brown. Jam. p. 225. Jacq. Americ. 122. Tourn. Inft. 619. t. 391. Crifta pavonis, Breyn. Prod. 2. p. 37. Cent. 61.t. 22. Rai. Hilt. p. 991. Erythroxylon ind. Herm. Prod. 333. Senna fpuria flore ex luteo & rubro, Sloane Jam. 2. p. Acacia orientalis, Plukn. Al. 5. Tfetti mandaru, Rheed. Mal. 6. 1. t. 1.) ‘ Prickly; leaflets oblong-oval, emarginate, fmooth ; calyx fmooth ; corymbs fimple; petals fringed ; ftamens very long.” A thrub about twelve feet high, with a grey, {mooth bark. Branches {preading, armed at each knot with two fhort, ftreng crooked fpines. Leaves alternate, twice winged ; leaflets from five to ten pairs, a little narrowed at the bafe, fmaller on the upper leaves; emitting, when bruifed, a flrong odour like favin; with one gland at the bafe, and another on the upper part of the common petiole, and two fmall fharp joints a little above the bafe of the partial pc- tiole. Flowers in a terminal, loofe corymb, fometimes ap- proaching to an umbel; on fimple, {mooth peduncles, two or three inches long ; leaves of the calyx egg-fhaped, con- eave, deciduous ; petals beautifully variegated with red and yellow ; ftamens at leaft three umes as long as the petals. Legume oblong, comprefled, coriaceous, many-celled, two- valved ; partitions rather thick, compofed of rigid briftles, thickly matted ‘together. Seeds one in each cell, ovate- quadrangular, thick, flat on both fides, fmooth, a little olifhed, of a chefnut colour. A native of the Eaft and * Weft Indies. In Barbadoes it is planted in hedges, and makes a beautiful fence. In Jamaica its leayes are ufed as . Cais a puirgative, inftead of fenna. All its parts are thought to be powerful emmenagogues, and are frequently ufed for that purpofe by the negroes. Its wood is faid to afford a good dye. 8. C.e/aia, Willd. (Poinciana elata, Linn. Sp. Pl. Forfkal Flor. f2gypt. 86.) ‘¢ Unarmed; leaflets linear, obtufe, with a point, corymbs compound ; calyxes coriaceous, downy ; petals fringed; ftamens’ very long.’ A fhrub or {mall tree. Branches pubefcent. Leaves alters nate, twice-winged ; leaflets in about twenty pairs, minute, almoft fmooth. #Yoqers in terminal corymbs, on fhort, ftiff, thick, alternate peduncles ; leaves of the calyx united at their bafe, lanceolate, pubefcent, alittle reflexed. Legume almoft {mooth, often depreffed between the feeds, fharp at each end. A native of the Eaft Indies. 9. C. coriaria, Willd. ( Poin- ciana coriaria, Jacq. Amer. 123.t. 175. f. 136. © Siliqua arboris Guatapane, Breyn. Cent. p. 58. f. 5.) “ Unarmed ; leaflets linear, obtufe ; racemes panicled; calyxes fmooth ; ftamens twice as long as the corolla.” A fhrub from twelve to, fifteen feet high, mnch branched, with dark-coloured fpotted bark, Leaves alternate, twice-winged; leaflets {mall, {mooth, about three lines long. #Vawers {mall, yellow, in a terminal, clofe, fpikelike raceme, on fhort, fimple, pedun- cles, with little {mell. Legumes elongated, obtufe, fhort, a little bent, {pongy. A native of Curacoa and Carthagena ; indalt marfhes. The Spaniards and natives ufe the ripe pods for tanning leather, and call them libidibi. Propagation and Culture. | Asall the fpecies are natives of warm climates, they are cultivated in Europe only as orna- mental plants; and though none of them have hitherto flowered in our ftoves, the elegance of their foliage, and the fingularity of their habit, give them a diftinguifhed place in collections of exotic plants. They can be raifed only from feeds fent in the pod from their native country, and after- wards fteeped in water till they are fwollen, and their enve- lope a little foftened; but if kept dry will preferve their vegetative power feveral years. “lhe feeds, when taken from the water, mult be fown in pots filled with a mixture of common mould and bog-carth, in nearly equal proportions, and plunged into a hot-bed of tanner’s bark, kept at a moderate warmth. The plants, if fown at the end of March or beginning of April, will appear in the courfe of May or June, and when they are three or four inches high, fhould be tranfplanted fingly into f{eparate. pets, with a larger proportion of geod mould. In autumn they muit be removed from. the hot-bed into the ftove, and during the firit winter mutt be carefully preferved from cold, humidity, and infeéts, and furnifhed with frefh air in the day-time, when the weather is favourable. ‘They fucceed better in a light, than a ftrong argillaceous earth. CasatpintAj Fl. Zeyl. 157. SeeGuitiranpina Bonduc. CAESALPINOIDES. See Gurepitscuia Triacanthos. C/ESALPINUS, Anprew, in Biography, born at Arezzo in Tufcany, in the early part of the 16th century, was educated under Luke Ghines, dire€tor of the public garden at Pifa, whence he appears to have taken his tafte for botany, which he cultivated with affiduity and fuccefs. But he became ftill more eminent for his fkill in anatomy and medicine, and for his intimate acquaintance with the works of Ariftotle, whofe philofophy he explained and de- fended, in his ‘* Queftionum Peripateticarum Libri Qnin- que,”’ againft the doctrines of Galen, then generally fol- lowed. This was publifhed at Venice in 1571, 4to. After taking his degree of doGtor, he was made proteffor in medi- cine and anatomy in,the univerfity at Pifa, and continued in that office feveral years, until invited to Rome, and made firft phyfician and archiater to pope Clement VIII. He died at Rome, aged 84 years, in 1€03. His works are numerous, and give equal proofs of genius and eee ae e CESAR. « De Plantis Libri xvi’? Florent. 1583, 4to. He com- ares the feeds of plants to the eggs of animals; the feed tate: he fays, to defend and nourifh the germ until it has taken root in the earth. He alfo formed a fyitem of ar- rangement, dividing the plants into ciaffes, from the fructi- fication; but as there are no engravings, or delineations of the lants, and he only gave the trivial names, the work is of ittle value at this time. He left a hortus ficcus of 760 lants, which is faid to be now in being. His fpeculations in anatomy are {till more ingenious. He defcribes very clearly the circulation of the blood through the heart, and was acquainted with the ufes of the valves. Douglas thinks him entitled to equal praife with Harvey, who oxly com- pleted what he had nearly achieved. He ea Douglas fays, deferibes the contraction and dilatation of the heart, which is fhewn from the following paflage from his fourth book, “ Queftionum Peripateticarum.” ‘ Vaforum in cor de- finentium quedam intromittunt contentam in ipfis fub{tan- ftiam, ut vena cava in dextro ventriculo, et arteria venalis in fiuiftro ; quedam educunt, ut arteria aorta in finiftro ventri- culo, et vena arterialis in dextro ; omnibus autem membra- nulz funt appofite et officio delegate ut ofcula intromitten- tium non educant et educentium non intromittant, contingit cordecontrahente, feu arteriasdilatari,ct dilatantes confiringi; dum enim dilatatur cor, claudi vult orificia educentium, ut ex corde non infiluat tune fubftantia in arterias, contrahente autem fe, influere dehifcentibus membranis.’”? The pulfe, he thinks, depends on an effervefcence of the blood in the heart. Hisworks on the practice of medicine have alfo their portion of merit. “ Queitionum Medicarum Libri ii. ;”” « De Facultatibus Medicamentorum Libri duo,’? Venet. 1593, 4to. Bleeding can only be advantageoufly ufed in the beginning of fever. In putrid fever the cure is to com- mence with «he the ftomaeh and bowels. Speculum Artis Medice Hippocratic, exhibens dignofcendos curan- dofque morbos, in quo multa vifuntur, que a preclariflimis medicis intaéta relictaerant.”” Lion. 1601-2-3, 3 vols. 8vo. treating of the Materia Medica, fevers, lues venerea, &c. in which difeafe he very muchextols the ufe of guiacum. Douglas. Bib. Anat. Specimen. Haller, Bib. Bot. Med, ct Anat. CESAR, in Roman Antiquity, was a long time ufed for the heir intended, or prefumptive, of the emp.re; as hing of the Romans has been long ufed for that of the German empire. The Czfars were a kind of adjunéts or affociates of the empire, participes imperii. They wore the imperial mantle, urple, and diadem, and walked with other marks of the overeign dignity: they were created, like the emperors, by putting on the purple robe. » The dignity of Cafar remained the fecond of the em- pire, till Alexius Commenus made Nicephorus Meliffenus Cefar by contraét, and it being neceflary to confer fome higher dignity on his own brother Ifaacius, he created him Sebaftocrator, with the precedency over Meliflenus, order- ing that in all acclamations, &c. Ifaacius Sebaltocrator fhould berramed the fecond, and Meliffenus Cefar the third. ¢ title took its rife from the cognomen, or furname of the firft emperor, C. Julius Czfar, which, by a decree of t'ie fenate, all the fucceeding emperors were to bear. Under his fucceffor, the appellation Auguftus being appropriated to the emperors, in compliment to that prince, the title Cefar was given to the fecond perfon in the empire, though it ftill continued alfo to be given to the firft, and hence the difference between Czfar fed fimply, and Cxfar with the addition of Imperator Auguftus. Authors are divided as to the origin of the word Cafar, the cogacmea of the Gens Julia. The more common opinion is, that the word Cexfar comes @ ce/o matris utero; becaufe his mother’s womb was cut open to give him birth. If this opinion be true, fhe mult have furvived the operas tion; for we ar® told by ‘Tacitus (Dialog. de Orat. 28.) that the took care of his education, and by Suetonius (in Cef. c. 26.), that fhe died when her fon was in the war againft the Gauls. It is alfo known that fhe was alive when he was married to Pompeia. _ It has been alledged, however, that the words of Pliny (H. N. lib. vii. 3. 9.), upon which this opinion is founded, have been erroneoufly «pplied to Cefar the Dictator ; whereas he meant only to exprefs, that the firft perfon who was furnamed Czfar had derived his name from this circumitance. Some pretend that the laurel crown on medals is never given to Cefars, but only to Augutti; which is overthrown by a medallion of Maximus; not to mention another medal of the lower empire, wherein Crifpus Cwefar is crowned with laurel. See Aucusrt. Card. Norris oblerves, that the years of the Ciefars were frequently marked on their medals ; of which we have in: {tances on the medals of Conftantine, Chlorus, and divers others, whofe years are exprefled on their coins, though they were never more than Cefars. Cesar, Carus Jurius, in Biography, the dictator of Rome and founder of its imperial conttitution, was a de- {cendant of the Julian family, which boafted its derivation from Venus by A&neas, the fon of Anchifes, to whom fa- bulous hiftory afcribes the origin of the Roman flate. Sce JEneas. From the roth year of the fecond Punie war, A. U.C. 546, till the time of Caius Julius Cefar, the em- peror’s father, fome of the family of the Czfars enjoyed public offices in the commonwealth. The father of Cwxfar died fuddenly in early life, after having occupied the {tation of prxtor: his mother’s name was Aurelia; and his aunt Julia was the wife of the celebrated Caius Marius. He was born at Rome, on the 12th day of the mouth Quintilis, af- terwards called July, A. U. C. 654, B. C. 100; and though he loft his father in his 16th year, his conneétions were fuch as to favour his introduction into life ina manner fuitable to his talents. In his youth he was betrothed to Coffutia, a rich heirefs; but in his 17th year he broke this engagement, and married Cornelia, the daughter of L. Cornelius Cinna; and at this time he was invefted with the dignity or flamen dialis. When Sylla fucceeded in overthrowing the hon party, to which Cwfar owed his advancement, he was urged by this powerful diétator to divorce the daughter of his ene- my; but Cefar, refifting the injunétion, was deprived of the prieftly office, as well as of his own patrimony and his wife’s portion, and fubjeéted to a decree of bictesiaons This decree, however, was afterwards reverfed, by the in- terceffion of the Vettal virgins and fome diftinguifhed perfons of his own family; although in granting their petition Sylla admonifhed them, that they would repent of their interfer. ence, as he forefaw in Cefar many Mariufes. Czfar, alarmed at his jealoufy, retired from Rome, and after a fhort interval withdrew to the court of Nicomedes, king of Bithy« nia, where his conduct gave occafion to fome fufpicions of an infamous nature. At the fiege of Mitylene, in which he was employed by ‘Thermus, who was at this time pretor of Afia, he diltinguithed himfelf by his military valour, aud obtained trom his general the honourable recompence of a civic crown. Having ferved fora fhort time in Cilicia, un- der Servilius Hauricus, the death of Sylla made way tor his return to Rome; whiere, declining to concur in the ambi- tious defigns of Lepidus; he devoted himfelf to the itudy and practice of eloquence. The mal-adminiltration of Dola- ; bella, € #EoS Ag. bella, who had been pretor of Macedon, and who had been honoured with the confulate anda triumph, afforded him an opportunity of gaining diftinguifhed reputation among the beit orators of hisage, although the defence of Hortenfius and Cotta, the two mott celebrated pleaders of Rome, pre- vented his fuccefs. Asat this fame time he does not feem to have formed, or at leaft to have matured, thofe ambitious defigns which led him to preter the career of war and_poli- tics to that of an orator, he embarked for Rhodes, witha view of gaining improvement in the art of eloquence from tlic inftructions of Apollonius Mclon, one of the moit emi- nent rhetoricians of that period. In his paffage thither, he was captured by fome pirates who infelted thofe feas; and during his confinement he exhibited thofe peculiar afd extra- ordinary talents, which were afterwards exemplified im the progrefs of hislife. His captors demanded 20 talents for his ranfom, but he informed them that they were not duly apprized of the importance of their prifoner, and engaged to pay them 50; and whilfl hisdometlics were deputed to raife the {tipulated fum in the neighbouring cities, he re- mained in cuftody, accompanied only by one friend and two attendants, and amufed himfelf with reciting to his barba- rous auditors, whom he treated with contempt, fome orati- ons and verfes which he compofed for the oceafion; and often, between jeft and earnett, threatened them with future tokens of his difpleafure, if they difturbed his repofe. Having been furnifhed with the promifed ranfom by the inhabitants of Miletus, he obtained his liberty, and in that city fitted out fome fhips, with which he purfued and captured the pirates; and, having conveyed them to Pergamus, he there inflicted upon them the punifhment of crucifixion, with which he had threatened them. He then proceeded to Rhodes, and pur- fued his ftudies. ~ During his refidence in this city, he took occafion to pafs over to the continent, and though he had no commiffion, to raife troops, and with this force to check the progrefs of Mithridates, who was making depredations on the provinces in alliance with the Romans, and to pre- ferve thofe cities, which were ready to revolt, fteady in their allegiance. At this time he was only 24 years of age, and yet conduéted this expedition with a prudence and bravery which would have done honour to the veterans in military fervice. Onhis return to Rome, the chief obje@ of his policy was to ingratiate himfelf with the people, and thus to fecure #3 advancement to thofe public offices, which would ferve him in the accomplifhment of the purpofes of his am- bition. Accordingly he concurred with Cicero in promoting the Manilian law, and in thus fecuring the favour of Pom- pey- Inthe feveral offices of tribune, queltor, and sedile, he contrived by his general condu@, and by hig unbounded liberality, to attach to himfelf the afleCtions of the people. He teftified his refpeét ina variety of inftances to the Ma- rian party, although by fo doing he incurred the cenfure of the ariftocracy, who charged him with meditating defigns againft the government. He alfo obtained the confulate for L. Julius Cefar, one of his own family, who, together with his colleague C. Marcus Figulus, under Cefar’s direction and influence, condemned many of the partifans of Sylla either to banifhment orto death. Catiline, however, was fpared ; and Cwfar is even fufpetted to have concurred in his confpiracy. When this confpiracy was fupprefled, and the fenate deliberated onthe punifhment to be inflicted on thofe that were concerned in it, he delivered an artful fpeech ir praife of clemency, and his oration, which is {till extant, and which, as acompofition has been much admired, made an impreffion onthe affembly, which the fevere eloquence of Cato was hardly fufficient to counteraét. Crfar gave a fingle vote againft the death of the confpirators; and his in- terference in their favour excited fuch indignation that he efcaped with his life by the feafonable interpofition of Ci- cero, whole teltimony contributed to his jultification, not- withitanding the charges alledged againft him of his concern in the plot. During the pregrefs of this conteft, Cxefar in- dulged in the licentious gratitic) (ons of intemperance and gallantry 5 and Servilia, the filter of Cate, avowed her paf- fionate attachment to him, and he was {uppofed to be the real father cE her fon Marcus Brutus. See Brurus. The fuccefs of Cicfar, in his competition for the office of chief pent, againit two of the chief perfens of the republic, ferved to augment the jealouly entertained of him by the Senatorian party. Notwithftanding the licentioufnefs of his own Jite, his pride weuld not allow him to fubmit to the fufpicion of domeltic dithonour; and therefore, upen the difcovery of an intrigue between his wife Pompeia, whom he had married after the death of Cornelia, and P. Cledius, (fee Bona Dea), he mftantly procured adivorce, though he did not fucceed fo far as to fubttantiate the charge; al- ledging in vindication of his conduct, “ Crefar’s wife mutt not be even fufpected.”” At thistime he was ferving the office of praetor, upon the expiration of which he prepared for affluming the government of Farther Spaiv, comprelend- ing Lufitania and Beetica, which fell to his lot: but his creditors would have prevented his fucceeding to his new province, if Craffus had not fatished theirdemands. Inhis journey, he pafled through a iniferable village cn the Alps; and when one of his companions jocularlydugquired, “* whe- ther there could be any contentions for power and dignity in fuch a place ?” Czefar, in token of his ruling paffion, re- plied, «* I proteit that I had rather be the firft man here, than the fecond in Rome.”? His rapacious difpofition, like that of other Roman governors, was manifefted an fome oc- cafions no lefs fignally than his ambition. , He confidered his government as affording the opportunity aad means of enriching himfelf ; and, therefore, availing himfelf of pre- texts for difputes, he marched into provinces unfubdued by the Roman arms, for the purpofe of plunder ; and brought back to Rome, in the following year, a {um fufficient for difcharging his debts, though they are faid to have amount- ed to 1,600,000l. fterling, Having pafled through the fubordinate offices of the ftate, the next object of his ambition was the confulate. In or- der tothe attainment of this dignity, it was neceflary for him to conneét himfelf with one of the two parties that di- vided the power of the ftate, that of Pompey or that of Craffus. In this dilemma, he determined on reconciling the two rivals; and accordingly he propofed a triumvirate, in which the whole power of the ftate fhould be lodged, and this was the firft triumvirate eftablifhed at Rome. See Tri- umviraTE. Bythis artful expedient Cxfar by means of the intere{t of Pompey and Craflus, fecured his election to the confulfhip, A.U.C.694. B.C. 60. Cato alone forefaw the confequeuces of this alliance, and oppofed the election ; ex- claiming, that Rome had loft her liberty; but his opinion was difregarded till it was too late to follow his prudent counfel. The only advantage which he and his party obtained was the election of Bibulus as Cxefar’s colleague ; and for this pur- pofe they were under a neceflity of countera&ing Czfar’s intereit in favour of another candidate, by outbidding him inthe purchafe of votes. As foon as Ciefar entered upon his office, he confirmed all the aéts of Pompey, and pro- ceeded to ufe all his endeavours for conciliating the affec- tions of the people. With this view he se an Agra- rian law for the divifion of certain lands in Campania among fuch of the poor citizens as had three or more children ; but the fenators, though they approved the act, saa their CZSAR. their affent, till at length it was paffed by the people, and the fenators were conitrained to fanétion it by theiraffent ; infomuch that it was jocofely faid, that, inftead of dating any tranfaGtion of this year in the ufual mode, during the confulthip of Czfar and Bibulus, it would be more proper to infert “the cc. .ulfhip of Cefarand Julius.” This vic- tory over tke fenate and Bibulus made Cefar abfolute in Rome; and having fecured both the people and knights, he governed with an uncontroulable fway. ~ As Cicero exclaimed againft the triumvirate, and thus rovoked the refentment of this body, they refolved upon fis ruin, and with this view they promoted Clodius to the tribuoefhip, which proved eventually the caufe of his ba- nifhment. The marriage of Cefar’s daughter Julia with Pompey, ferved to ftrengthen the conneétion between thefe two great men; and by marrying Calpurnia, daughter of L. Calpurnius Pifo, the conful of the preceding year, he attached him to his caufe. He alfg contrived by his influence on the fenate and peo- ple, together with the affiftance of Pompey and Craffus, to procure the government of Tranfalpine and Cifalpine Gaul, contrary to all Jaw, for five years, with the command of four legions. Having thus elftablifhed his intereft at Rome, Cefar found it neceffary, in the year B.C. 58, to haften to Gaul, the province which was the fcene of thofe military exploits, by which he acquired a degree of reputation and influence, that ferved in the progrefs of his career to fubjugate his country. The Helvetians, having abandoned their coun- try, and burnt their towns and houfes, were preparing to enter Gaul by way of Geneva. Czfar, therefore, by forced marches, reached the banks of the Rhone in eight days, and having refufed the Helvetians the liberty they folicited of palling through the country of the Allobroges, prepared, by procuring frefh fupplies of troops from Italy, to defend himfelf againft the effects of theirrefentment. According- ly, whilft they were embarraffed in paffing the Arar, (now Saone), he fell upon them and totally defeated them. Upon their again rallying near Bibraéte, the capital of the AEdui, and purfuing him in his retreat, a bloody battle enfued, which terminated, notwithftanding the valour and obfti- nacy of the Helvetians, in their total overthrow ; fo that they were a" 2c after the lofs of their baggage and many prifoners, to fupplicate his clemency ; and to acquiefce in the obligation which he impofed npon them, of laying down their arms, giving hoftages, and returning to their own country. This victory was fo complete, that Cefar received congratulations from all parts of the country, and the JEdui, in particular, implored his proteétion againft Asrioviftus, king of the Germans, whom he drove back from the frontiers of Gaul to his own territories. Having fucceeded in this enterprife, he put his troops into winter- quarters, and crofling the Alps, returned into Cifalpine Gaul, in order to concert meafures for the operations of the next year. In the mean while all the nations of Bel- gium confederated againft the Roman republic, and furnith- ed ample employment for his military exertions in the courfe of the fecond year of his government. The fame of his exploits in diffolving their confederacy, and fubduing them feparately, extended beyond the Rhine, and induced feve- po gras nations to fend ambafladors to him, with offers of fubmiffion. Having difpatched his troops into winter- uarters, he repafled the Alps, and {pent the winter in In- ubria. By thefe conquefts, Cafar effaced the remembrance of Pompey’s victories in the Eaft, and by the prodigious fums, which he acquired in Gaul, y by plundering the temples of their treafures, he increafed the number of his friends in Italy. The fignal fucceffes of this bloody campaign were honoured at Rome with a /upplicatio, or re ligious thank{giving of the unprecedented interval of fifteen days; and Pompey became jealous of a renown that feem- ed likely to echipfe his own, In the third year of his ad« miniftration in Gaul, Czfar, whillt he was in Illyricum, a part of his province, received information that the Veneti, the ancient inhabitants of Vagnes, in Britanny, together with fome other neighbouring nations, were making prepa- rations for war; upon which he fitted out a fleet, entrufted the command of it to Brutus, who engaged that of the ene- my, and gained a complete viétory. The Veneti fub-« mitted ; but Czfar put their chief men to death, and fold the reft for flaves. Craffus alfo, his lieutenant, reduced the whole of Aquitaine. After fome other fuccefsful expeditions, Czfar repafled the Alps, according to his ufual cuftom, and refided for fome months in Cifalpine Gaul, whence he direGted the oper= ations of his party at Rome, andexcited Clodius to commit atrocious a€is of violence. He likewife concurred with Pompey and Craffus, who afpired to the confulate, and ordered his ageuts to {pare no expence in purchafing the fuffrages of the tribes, fo that thefe two chiefs were una- nimoufly chofen. In the year B.C. 55, Cxfar renewed his military exploits in Gaul; and having driven back fome German tribes, which had croffed the Rhine with a defign of fettling in Belgium ; and haying paffed the Rhine, laid waite the country of the Sicambri, and fpread a general alarm through the parts adjacent, he returned into Gaul, refolving to pafs over into Britain, and to punifh its inha- bitants for furnifhing the Gauls with continual fupplies againft the, Romans. Accordingly, he fitted out a ficet, croffed the channel, and difperfed the natives who op- pofed his landing. This expedition, however, though the fenate decreed him a lupplication of twenty days in honour of it, was merely preparatory to that of the following year, in which he colleéted Soo veffels, and embarked with 5 le- gions, and 2000 horfe, which landed without oppofition on the Kentifh coa{t, at the place of his former defcent. His progrefs was for fome time interrupted by a ftorm which damaged his fleet, and required his drawing his forces to- wards the fea-coaft. But having repaired his fhattered fhips, and properly fecured them, he put his troops again in motion, and advanced, notwithtlanding the oppofition with which he had to encounter, as far as Cowes, near Walton, where he croffed the Thames, although the enemy occu- pied the oppofite bank, and had driven fharp flakes in the only part of the river that was fordable. The Britons fled in confternation ; and Caffivelaunus, finding all his efforts of refiftance ineffe€tual, fubmitted to Cxfar, who conde- {cended to give him peace; after having exaéted a great number of hoftages, and impofed a certain tribute to be ane nually paid to the Roman people. Having thus fettled the affairs of Britain, he marched back to the fea-fide, where he embarked his troops and hoftages, and arrived in fafety at the continent. On his return to Gaul, he found the country grievonfly diftreffed by a famine, which obliged him to difperfe his troops into different quarters for their more commodious fubfiftence. he natives took this oce eafion of attacking them in their winter ftations; but Cae far by his fingular aétivity quelled the infurreétion, and after the moft difficult and glorious campaign of auy he had made in Gaul, patied the winter in this country. The death of Julia during Cefar’s expedition into Britain diffolved the alliance that had fubfifled between him and Pompey, and haltened the revolution which was now ape proaching. Pompey, however, was not thoroughly ap- 4 prifed CESAR. prifed of Cafar’s defigns, and difpatched to him two le- gions in order to recruit the loffes which he had fuftained. The two next campaigns in Gaul furnifhed Cafar with in- cefflant employment, and by completing the work which he had already begun, he reduced the whole country to the {tate of a Roman province, and extinguifhed every fpark of its independence. The war in Gaul lafted till the year B.C. 515 and it has been computed that, during his feveral campaigns there, Cefar took 800 cities or towns, fubdued 300 nations, and deftroyed by the {word a million of men; ‘titles fufficient to place him high on the lift of conquerors!” Thecrifis of the Roman ftate was now {peedily approaching. The power of Pompey was fupreme in the fenate, and as Craffus was dead, and his intereft was altogether detached from that of Czfar, he adopted various meafures for mortifying his rival. The enemies of Cefar were advanced to the chief offices of the {tate ; the legions that had been fent to him were withdrawn ; and his requeft of continuing longer in his government was rejected. Czfar, however, poffeffed the affections of the people, and to him the beft troops of the ftate were zealoufly attached. With a moderation, therefore, real or affe&ted, from which no danger could enfue, he propofed to difband his army, if Pompey adopted the fame meafure. But Pompey, being lefs feared by the conftitutional party than Czfar, was fup- ported by it in his refufal to acquiefce in any terms of accommodation. The former was continued in his go- vernment of Spain, whilft the like indulgence was refuled to the latter, who, having marched with a fingle legion acrofs the Alps to Ravenna, in order to wait the event, was informed that the fenate had iffued a decree announcing him an enemy of the republic if he did not give up his com- mand within a limited time. Three tribunes in Cefar’s intereft, who had protefted againft this decree, were driven with violence out of the fenate-houfe; and had fled to Czfar’s camp in the difguife of flaves, where their prefence inflamed the minds of the foldiers. In the mean time the fatal decree was iffued at Rome, which required the confuls, the pro-conful Pompey, and the confular magiftrates, to provide for the public fafety : which, in effet, was a de- claration of war. It was inthe year B.C. 50 that thefe im- portant events took place, and that the civil war commenced. ‘Two powerful parties were now taking up arms; both pre- tended to have-nothing in view but the defence of their common laws and liberty, whilft their chiefs aimed only at eftablifhing their own power on the ruins of that liberty which they affeéted to defend. Pompey’s party had on their fide the formsof the conftitution; he was acknowledged as the of the common-wealth, and the whole fenate, with general On the other hand, the confuls, followed his enfigns. Czxfar feemed to have the more equitable caufe, and the people, with their tribunes, took part with him. The poet Lucan, who was of Pompey’s party, without abfo- lutely deciding the queftion between thofe two rivals, feems to give the advantage to Cefar, when he fays, that Czefar, could not beara fuperior, nor Pompey an equal. « Nec quenquam jam ferre poteft, C:zefarve priorem, Pompeiulve parem.”’ harf. I. 125. Cefar, as foon as he received the hoftile decree, confiding in the attachment of his foldiers, refolved to begin the war. Accordingly he marched to the Rubicon, a {mall ftream that feparated Cifalpine Gaul from Italy. On the banks of this river he for fome time paufed and deliberated ; put at length, crying out “ the die is caft,’’? threw him- felf into the ftream. Having paffed this river, he became the avowed foe of his country ; and therefore ‘this paflage of the Rubicon” has been proverbially ufed to fignify a cefperate decifion, Having feized the neighbouring town of Ariminum, he ordered his main army in Gaul to haften to him, and augmented his forces by new recruits in Cifalpine Gaul. In his march he took poffeffion of Corfinium, in which many fenators had fought an afylum, and whilft he triumphed in his congeelt, he manifefted his moderation by granting them their lives and liberty. By this well-timed a& of clemency he ferved his caufe almo!t as much as by the power of hisarms. Rome was in the utmoft confterna- tion. The people and all the fenators were alarmed; and de- termined, as they had no fufficient force with which to defend themfelves, to retire to Capua. After the redution of Corfinium, Pompey withdrew from Capua to Brundu- fium, whither he was followed by Czfsr. From thence he withdrew, whilft his purfuer was invefting the place and fhutting it up bya mole, to Dyrrachium: and by his flight furrendered the whole of Italy to his rival. Whillt the lieutenants of Cxfar were deputed to take poffeffion of Sicily and Sardinia, Cefar himielf advanced to Rome. On his approach to the city, he fent a meflage to the fenators then in Italy, requefting their counfei in the capital, and quartered his troops in the neighbouring municipia. To the affembled fenators he gave an account of his condu& and avowed his moderation and defire of compromifing all differences; whilft the people crowded to fee the famous conqueror of Gaul, and to congratulate him on his return after an abfence of 10 years. With a view of providing for the neceflary expences of the war, he repaired to the temple of Saturn and feized the public treafure: and thus fupplied witii money, he raifed troops in every part of Italy, and fent governors into all the provinces fubje& to the republic. The war was now profecuted with vigour. Cefar himfelf undertook the campaign in Spain, and foon fubjugated the whole country ; and on his return to Rome the pretor Lepidus nominated him dictator by his own authority. Having exercifed this dignity with moderation he changed it for that of conful. He then purfued Pompey into Greece, and landed with five legions in Chaonia: but the deftruétion of the greateft part of his fleet by the ftronger fquadron of Pompey, and the formidable force of his antagonift, induced him to propofe terms of accommo- dation, which, though apparently reafonable, were difre- garded. Anxious to effeét a junction with that divifion of the army which was commanded by Antony, he made an attempt, the temerity of which has incurred cenfure. _ Dil- guifed like a flave he embarked on board a fifherman’s bark for the purpofe of croffing over into Italy ; the veflel, however, after ftruggling with contrary winds, was obliged to return, notwithftanding the earneftnefs with which Ceefar urged the crew to rifque the dangers of the voyage. It was on this occafion that he is faid to have difcovered himfelf to the terrified mafter, and to bid him difmifs his fears, 2s © he carried Czfarand his fortune.’? This exploit it related by Plutarch, and poetically deferibed by Lucan ; but Cefarhimfelf takes no notice of it in his Commentaries, Having received the expected fuccours of Antony, he followed Pompey to Dyrrachium, and determined to inveft the town, together with Pompey’scamp. in this fiege his troops encountered a variety of hardfhips, which, however, their attachment to their leader induced them to endure with heroic patience. Pompey, reduced to the want of forage, and difdaining to be cooped up by his enemy in fuch a nook of land, determined to break through the barrier, and at length fucceeded. Czfar, mortified by his efcape, retired to Macedonia, whither Pompey followed him; and on the plains of _Pharfalia the great conteft between thefe two commanders was decided, B.C. 48. The army of CHSAR. of Pompey was totally routed; and Cexfar equally diftin- guifhed Pentel by hie valour and conduc& =i, the battle, and by his magnanimity and clemency after the victory. He difmiffed the Roman citizens who were made prifoners ; and burned, without perufing them, the letters which were contained in Pompey’s cabinet. Affiduous and active in purfuing the advantage he had thus gained, he left the lains of Pharfalia on the third day after the battle, and with his cavalry purfued Pompey. Crofling into Afia, and re- ceiving on his paflage the fubmiffion of a fuperior fleet of Pompey which he fell in with, he haftened to Rhodes, and embarked for Egypt. At Alexandria he was informed of Pompey’s murder ; and the head of his rival, wrapped up in a veil, was prefented to him as a token of his final fuccefs. He turned his eyes from viewing the bloody fpectacle, and reflecting on the fate of this eminent perfonage, once his friend and his kinfman, fhed tears on the occalion ; and difmiffing the meflenger with expreffions of difpleafure, ordered the head to be buried with due folemnity. As a farther tribute of refpeét for his de- ceafed rival, he fet at liberty all his friends who had been taken on the inhofpitable fhore of Egypt, and imprifoned by order of the minifters of king Ptolemy. At Alexandria he took up his refidence in the royal palace; but by exacting with mgour a fum of money, pretended to be due to the Roman le for their fervices in reftoring to the throne Ptolemy Auletes, father of the prefent minor king, and alfo by undertaking to reconcile young Ptolemy with his filter eopatra, who, by the will of Auletes, was to have reigned \ jointly with her brother, but who had been expelled the kingdom, he exercifed an authority which offended the Alexandnians. Accordingly they befieged him in his palace, and thus commenced the Alexandrian war, in which Cefar failed to acquit himfelf either with prudence or juftice. In this war part of the famous Avexanpaian library was burnt in confequence of a conflagration of fome fhips of the Alexandrian fleet. Czfar, who had pofleffion of Ptolemy’s — was at length fo hardly pufhed as to be obliged to urrender him in order to obtain a ceffation of hoflilities ; but he was relieved by Mithridates, king of Pergamus. Ptole- my, however, continued the war, till he was defeated in two = and loft his life in the Nile by attempting to make is efcape. In confequence of this event Czfar fettled the affairs of Egypt, by conferring the crown jointly on Cleopa- tra and a younger brother of Fedlenp: Fafcinated by the allurements of this enchanting woman, by whom he had a fon, he remained in Egypt in a ftate of inaGtivity, till he was called away by the progrefs of Pharnaces, fon of Mithri- an the Great, who was expelling the Romans from Afia nor. When the news of Pompey’s death reached Rome, the fenate and people concurred in accumulating honours and pre- tives on Czfar, the only furviving new of the empire. Howes proclaimed conful for five enfuing years, made tri- bane of the people, and created di€tator for a whole year. Having defeated Pharnaces in Afia, whom he purfued with acelerity, emphatically expreffed in a laconic epiltle to a friend, “* Veni, vidi, vici,’”” J came, J faw, I conquered ; and fettled the affairs of this province, he returned with only one ion through Greece to Rome, and by the moderation and placability which he exercifed on this occafion, diflipated the a of the vanquithed party, and fecured the fuccefs of his ufurpation without thedding one drop of blood. His views were next dire€ted towards Africa, where the remains of Pompey’s party maintained a formidable ftrength under Cato, Scipio, and other renowned leaders; but whil{t he je Preparing for hia expedition into this country, a mutiny ou. V. broke out in his favourite tenth legion, which afforded occa- fion for a difplay of his diftinguithed talents as a commander. Having fummoned them to the Campus Martius, with no other arms befides their fwords, he required them to ftate * the grounds of their complaints. After fome paufe, occa- lioned by the awe of his prefence, they began tumultuoufly to demand their difcharge, and the rewards to which they were entitled. ‘* Your demands,’ faid he, ** are juft; you fhall have your difcharge. Nor fhall you be deprived of your rewards, as foon as I fhall have fubdued the reft of my enemies. Go then, ci/izens (quirites,) return to your houfes and families.” Grieved and mortified at being addrefled with an appellation, which implied that they were no longer Joldiers, they made a freth tender of their fervices, and fup- plicated the honour of being {till the companions of his vic- tories. After fome fufpence, anda fuitable fpeech, he pro- nounced their pardon, and again addrefled them as fellow- Joldiers. "his legion, from this time, uniformly diltinguifh. ed itfelf by the ardour of its attachment to him, The 4/ri- can war commenced in the year B. C. 46, and was for fome time attended with dubious fuccefs on the part of Czxfar. However, by the celerity of his operations, he completely defeated the armies of Scipio, Labienus, and Juba; but the town of Utica was {till defended by Cato and his « little fenate.’ This true patriot, perceiving that refiltance was ineffectual, fecured his own freedom by a voluntary death. When Cefar had fettled the government of Africa, and iffued orders for the re-erveétion of Carthage, he returned in triumph to Rome, and was received by the fenate and peo- ple with unbounded adulation, To the diGtatorfhip, ex- tended to ten years, was added the cenforial office. A double guard was afligned him, and his perfon was declared facred and inviolable. A thank{giving of 40 fucceffive days, and four diftin& triumphs, were decreed for his vitories. His triumphs over Gaul, Egypt, king Pharnaces, and Juba, were conducted with fingular fplendour: he treated the people with fhows, fealts, and donatives, and conferred ample re- wards on his foldiers. He alfo directed his attention to the reformation of the government, and enaéted feveral falutary laws; but he referved to himfelf the nomination to all offices and employments. At this time he availed himfelf of the affiftance of Sofigenes, and other men of {cience, in the cor- rection of the calendar (which fee), and in the eftablifhment of the ¢ Julian year.”’ Whilft Cxfar was thus employed at home, the two fons of Pompey were colleéting a confiderable force in Spain, and his prefence was neceflary to reftrain their progrefs. Accordingly, in his fourth confulfhip he departed for the Spanifh war, and having reduced feveral places, he marched to the plains of Munda, where the elder Pompey was ene camped. Notwith{tanding the fuperiority of the enemy, he advanced to the attack; and in the battle which enfued, contended for a long time, as he himfelf acknowledges, not for vidtory, but for life. So defperate were his circum- ftances, that, at one period of the conflict, he thought of killing himfelf: but recovering his felf-poffieffion, he exerted himfelf with fuch valour as to turn the fortune of the day, and in the event of the contc{t to annihilate the relics of Roman liberty. After having completed the redution of Spain, he returned to Rome and received new honours. The diétatorfhip wes eftablifhed for life: and the title of “ Imperator,” as head of the empire, and denoting the higheft monarchical rank, was conferred upon him, and from him it was tranfmitted through his {uccefiors. Not- withftanding all thefe acceffions of rank and honour, Cefar retained the affable manners of the firlt citizen of the repub- lic, and ftudied to ingratiate himfelf with the nobles and aT people. CASAR, people. He pleafed the latter by difmiffing his guards, re- ftoring the ftatues of their former favourite, Pompey, and treating them with fhows and largefies; and he fecured the attachment of the nobles, by the multiplication of offices of dignity and profit. However, he offended the fenators, by increafing their number from 300 to geo, and by admit- ting feveral perfons of low origin to this honourable clafs. The Romans, who entertained an inveterate prejudice againft the name of Aing, were further offended by Antony’s offer- ing to Cefar a royal diadem for though he refufed the gift, he was fufpected of being privy to the defign. See Antony. It has been fuggefted, indeed, that as Cefar had formed extravagant fchemes of conquett, comprehend- ing an expedition again{ft the Parthians, Hyrcanians, Scy- thians, and Germans, and was emulous of imitating the ex- ploits of Alexander, he and his friends had imagined that the title of king would be ferviceable to him in the execu- tion of thefe grand and extentive defigns, and command re- verence among remote and barbarous nations. This anda variety of other circumftances contributed to excite envy, jealoufy, and refentment in the minds of feveral of the firlt men of Rome; and to concur, with fome remains of an at- tachment to liberty, in producing a confpiracy againft Cz- far’s life. Czfar hirnfelf was warned of it’ by his friends; intimations had been circulated, for fome time, of the perfons concerned in it, and of the time of its execution : and {fo fully poffeffed of the reality of the danger was Calpurnia, Cxfar’s wife, that fhe earneftly urged him not to quit his houfe on the ides of March, the day appointed for the meeting of the fe- nate. In compliance with her intreaties, he determined to re- main at home. But Decimus Brutus reprefenting to him the importance of the matters which were to be propofed in the fenate, diverted his purpofe, and they fet out together. In their way thither, a perfon named Artemidorus put into Czxfar’s hand a paper, containing a difcovery of the whole plot ; but though he was defired to read it, he was prevented by the crowd which furrounded him. On his arrival in the hall of the fenate, a number of the confpirators befet him, under the pretext of uniting their fupplications with thofe of Metellus Cimber, on behalf of his banifhed brother: at this inftant Cimber gave the fignal, by taking hold of his robe, and pulling it from his fhoulders, upon which Cafca ftabbed him in the neck. The enraged Cafflius wounded him deeply in the head ; and many others concurred in ftabbing him on all fides. Till Brutus appeared, he is faid to have refifted his affaffins ; but upon the fight of the dagger aimed at him by Brutus, he exclaimed, “ What! my fon Brutus too!” and covering his face with his robe, fell, pierced with 23 wounds, at the pedeltal of Pompey’s ftatue. Such was the cataftrophe that terminated Czfar’s career, in the 56th year of his age, March 15th, A.U.C. 710. B.C. 44. His death was amply revenged, and his memory was honoured among the tutelary deities of his country ; as he Jeft no direét lineage, his adopted heir was the grandfon of his fitter Julia. See Aucustus. The perfon of Czxfar was tall, flender, and fair, and his countenance was fenfible and expreffive. ‘To the delicacy of his form his firft chara€ter, which was that of a man of pleafure and gallantry, feems to have been better adapted than his later occupation as a warrior. ‘To this purpofe Ci- cero fays of him, ‘ I difcovered in all his enterprifes, and in his whole condu&, a plan continually purfued for raifing himfelf to the tyranny. But when I faw him fo foft in his drefs and manner of living, with effeminate geftures, and his hair in fuch nice order, I could not believe that fuch a man was capable of forming and executing the defign of fubverting the Roman commonwealth.”? But he pofleffed, however, a variety of talents, which rendered him capable of attaining to diltinguifhed excellence in any purfuits, to which he chofe to devote his time and attention. In the department of oratory, if he had reftricted himfelf to this obje&t, he might have rivalled Cicero; and his knowledge of other branches of literature and fcience enabled him to publifh works on grammar, altronomy, religious polity, hif+ tory, and poetry. But of his writings, none are extant be- fides fome ‘ Epiftles’? preferved among thofe of Cicero, and his ‘*Commentaries on the Gallic and Civil Wars.” The latter is reckoned a model of the plain ftyle, and is highly valuable as a repofitory of fa&s, and asa directory in the ufe of the Latin language. Afinius Pollio, at a pe- riod when the events which it records were recent, queltioned its accuracy and veracity ; and it is not improbable that the writer might have accommodated the detail of faéts to the advancement of his own reputation. We have various edi- tions of this popular work, the belt of which are the ‘* Va- tiorum,” by Elzevir, 1661; ‘* Grevius’s,”’” Amit. 1697 ; Davis’s,”? Camb. 17273 ‘¢ Clarke’s,”’ fol. Lond. 1712 3 ** Oudendorp’s,”? L. Bat. 1737 ; “ Barbou’s,” Paris, 1755. In the exercife of his talents, Cafar poffeffed fuch veria- tility of application, and fuch a facility of dire€ting his at- tention to different fubjeGts, that he 1s faid to have diated difpatches to three fecretaries at once. But whatever ex- cellence he might poffefs as an orator or general {cholar, his ruling paffion was ‘‘ambition ;” and to the gratification of this he devoted, in the maturer years of his life, all his men- tal and corporeal faculties. ‘The influence of this paffion marked and difcriminated his charaéter ; and whilft it ex- hibits him to view as a fuccefsful warrior and ufeful legifla- tor, poflefing many qualities, and performing many fervices, which entitle him to admiration and refpe&, it throws a fhade over his moft illuftrious talents and aétions, and exe cites an abhorrence of ufurpation and tyranny. ‘* Without pretending to palliate the excefles of his youth, or to jullify the {chemes of his ambition, he was,’ fays one of his bio- graphers, ‘ one of the moft accomplifhed heroes that ever lived. With the moft fhining talents for war and legiflation, he poffeffed a liberality of fpirit, an elegance of tafte and manners, a generofity of heart, a greatnefs of mind, and an humanity of difpofition, which diltinguifhed him from all the other great men of that republic, who were generally cruel, ferocious, and implacable.’’? ‘ Julius Czfar,’? as the fame writer proceeds, ‘ is accufed of having overthrown the hberties of his country. But what liberty did it enjoy before he appeared on the ftage, while Rome was defolated by the civil butcheries of Marius and Sylla? and what h- berty did fhe retrieve, when Cefar, the fuppofed obftacle, was removed? The truth is, the Romans were become fo profligate, vicious, and venal, and fuch univerfal corruption of morals prevailed, that they neither deferved to enjoy, nor were they capable of relifhing, the bleffings of genuine li- berty ; and Cefar was the only perfon, when living, who could reftore peace, order, and fecurity, give confiltency to their government, and ftability to their empire.” ‘* He was born,” fays another writer, “* to command mankind, if great qualities were alone fufficient, and fuperior to right. Had his birth ora regular election placed him on the throne, he would have been an example to be imitated by all fove- reigns. But his private conduct would be a very bad mo- del ; his whole life being a continued fcene of rapine and extortion, luxury, and profufion, and a devotednefs to all kinds of {candalous debaucheries.’”? Sueton. Cef. Plutarch, C. Cefar, oper. t.i. p. 707, &c. Cefar’s Comment. Anc. Un. Hift. vol. xi. Roilin’s Rom. Hilt. vols. viii. ix. Czsar, in Entomology, a f{pecies of Musca, deferibed by Linneus CES Linneus as being of a fhining green, with black legs. This is a common European infect. ¥ Cxsar Augufla, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hither Spain, feated on the river Iberus, formerly called Salduba, and which afterwards became a colony. Auguitus gave it to the veteran foldiers of his army, after the war of the Can- tabri, whence it obtained its name, the epithet of immunis, and the right of coining money ; now Sarage/a. _ + CZESAREA, a name given to {everal ancient cities. There were two cities in Paleftine of this name, viz. Ce- Sarea-Panie or Cefarea-Philippi, and Ce/aréa-Stratonis. The former was built by Philip the tetrarch, fon of Herod the Great, and made the place of his refidence, as it was con- veniently fituated between Itureza and Trachonitis. Luke, iii. 1. He built it, fays Jofephus, (Antigq. 1. 18. c. 3. 1. 20. c. 8.) at Paneas, by the fprings of Jordan, and called it Cefarea-Philippi, and Nerodiada in honour of Nero, It was feated at the {prings of Jordan the Lefs, not far from Libanus, in the Midland Phernicia, fays Ptolemy, and was a Decapolitan city called Czfarea-Panias, or Sub-Panio, from the name of the mountain Panius, mentioned by Jo- fephus and Eufebius, under which it lies. It is mentioned Matth. xvi. 13. Mark, viii. 27. and was firft called Lais or Lathem, Johh. xvii. 7 ; and when fubdued by the Danites, Dan, ib. v. 29. The latter, Cafarea-Stratonis, or the town of Strato, was the metropolis of Paleftine, after its re-union to the Roman empire, and the feat of the Roman proconful. Ass it was a mart-town, with a very incommo- dicus haven, Herod the Great built on the fite of it a large city, with many ftately marble buildings, a theatre of ftone, a capacious amphithcatre, and an admirable haven, with marble edifices and towers. Herod alfo conftructed, on an eminence, a beautiful and magnificent temple of Auguttus, and placed there acoloffal flatue of this prince, on the model of the ftatue ef Jupiter Olympius; and a ftatue of the city of Rome, equal to that of Juno at Argos. Herod, accord- ing to Jofephus, called the port Scbaite, and the city Cz- farea, in honour of Czfar Auguftus, which he annexed to the province of Syria. He alfo eftablifhed quinquennial mes, and diftributed a great number of prizes at the firft celebration of them, A.U.C. 743. ‘The city was after- wards given to Agrippa, the grandfon of Herod the Great, by the emperor Claudius. Judea and the city of Czfarea were re-united to the Roman empire, at the death of king Agrippa, A.D. 44; nor were they feparated till the inva- fion ofthe Arabs, in the 7th century. Cafarea was fitu- ated between Doron and Joppa, 35 miles from Jerufalem, and was inhabited partly by the Jews, who had their {chools there, but chiefly by the Greeks or Syrians, betwixt whom there were feuds concerning equal privileges; fo that the Cefarcans killed a great number of Jews, when Florus was procurator of Judea. In this city Peter converted Cornelius and his kinfmen. Aéts,x. Here Jived Philip the evan- gelift, Aéts, xxi. 8; and here Paul defended himfelf againit the Jews, and their orator Tertullus. Acts, xxiv. Crsaeea, in more ancient times called Mazaca, and af- terwards Eufebia, and denominated Cafarea by Tiberius, in honour of Augultus, was the metropolis of Cappadocia, and the refidence of its kings. It continued in a flourifhing {tate under the Greek emperors. When it was befieged by Sapor, king of Perfia, about A. D. 260, it was fuppofed to contain 400,000 inhabitants. At this time Demoithenes commanded in the place; and when the city was be- trayed by the perfidy of a phyfician, he cut his way through the Perlians, who had been ordered to exert their utmoft diligence for taking him alive, whilft many of his fellow-citi- zens were involved in a general maflacre. Sapor is accufed CHS of treating his prifoners with wanton and unrelenting cruelty. Deep vallies were filled with the flain; and oes of pri- foners were driven to water like beafts, and many perifhed for want of food, Zonaras, |. xii. p.630. After the reign of Heraclius, when the empire was divided into different military departments, Cappadocia, together with Czfareay its capital, which had furrendered to the Saracens, was comprized in the department of Armenia; but it was, at a period not afcertained in hiftory, ruined by an earthquake. In the 13th century, it was rebuilt about $ of a league more to the north than the old city, by a fultan of the Selgioucide race. It is now called Kaifarich and Kefaria, and isa city of fome note. It is the ftage of all the caravans of the ealt, which here difperfe themfelves to their refpec- tive cities. The bazars are handfome and well ftored, and the inhabitants in a confiderable degree polifhed. It was the fee of St. Bafil, and its archbifhop holds the firft rank among the prelates who are under the patriarch of Conftanti- nople. speereere is alfoa town of Armenia Minor.—Alfo, a town of Ajlia Minor, in Bithynia, according to Ptolemy, who places it between the river Rhyndacus and Mount Olympus, near the fea.—Alfo, a large and famous town of Africa, in Mauritania, which was formerly a royal city, and had a magnificent port on the Mediterranean. It gave the appellation Czfarienfis to one of the diflri@s into which Claudius divided Mauritania, and’it was anciently cal- led Fol. 1t was the refidence of king Juba, who enlarged and embellifhed it, and called it Czfarea in honour of Au- guitus. Claudius made it a Roman colony. It has been ruined for many ages. It was reduced to afhes A. D. 373, by Firmus, who aflumed the title of king among the Moors, but who was made to fubmit by Theodolius, fent to Africa by Valentinian. When it was juft recovering it- felf, it fell under the power of the Vandals, who burnt it. After the deftru€tion of the Vandal government in Af rica, it remained in a tranquil {tate for more than a cen- tury under the Greck emperors. This city was encom- pafled by mountains to the fouth, eaft, and weft, and Pro- copius fays, that there was no accefs to it but by the fea. According to Mela, it was fituated at the confluence of the rivers Maulucha and Ampfaga. Sanfon, and other geographers, place Julia Cwfarea at Tnifs or Tennis; but Shaw, (Travels, &c, p. 18.) adduces feveral arguments to prove, that it is the prefent Shershell, which fee.—Ce/farea is alfo a name faid to have been formerly given to the ifland of Ferfey, which fee.—Cz/area was alfo a town of Italy, in Cifalpine Gaul, not far from Ravenna. CASAREAN Section, in Midwifery, an operation by which a foetus is extraéted from the uterus of the mo- ther, through a wound, made for the purpofe, in the ab- domen. ‘The term, cefarean, is faid to be derived from the operation * cwfo matris utero ;”? and Pliny even deduces the title of Czfar, given to the Roman emperors, from one of them having been brought into the world by means of it. Whether this was the cafe, or not, it feems not improbable, from the prevalence of the opinion, that the operation had been performed prior to his time, although no account of it is to be found in the works of Hippocrates, Celfus, Paulus AZgineta, or Albucaifis, who all of them treat largely on the mode of affifting in difficult parturition, The only method recommended by thefe writers, for ex- traGting the foetus when it was too large to pafs entire by the natural paflage, was to diminifh its bulk with fcalpels, or other cutting inftruments, and then to draw it away with hooks, or crotchets ; a method, in faét, which is now followed, but with inflruments more artificially conftruéted, 473 : and CHS and thence lefs likely to injure the women, than the more rude ones contrived by the ancients. The earliekt account we find of the cxfarean fe€tion in any medical work, is in the Chirurgia Guidonis de Cauliact, publifhed about the middle of the fourteenth century ; but the author only {peaks of it as reforted to after the death of the woman, as was practifed, he fays, on the birth of Julius Cafar. Si autem contingeret mulierem ipfam effe mortuam; et fufpicaveris quod feetus effet vivus ; quia vetat lex regia mulierem pregnantem humari, quoufque feetus vixerit 3 tenendo mulieris os, et matricam apertam, wf vo- Junt mulieres, aperiatur mulier fecundum longitudivem, cum raforio, in latere finiftro; quia pars illa elt magis hbera quam dextra propter hepar; et digitis interpofitis extra- hant fcetum. Ita enim extraétus fuit Julius Cefar; ut in geltis legitur Romanorum.”? vide Cap. de extractione foetus. Vigo, who was born towards the end of the 15th century, in the fhort chapter he gives on difficult birth, takes no no- tice of this mode of delivery; and Paré, who greatly im- proved the praétice of midwifery, thinks the operation only allowable on women who die undelivered. He had heard, he fays, not without aftenifhment, of women who had been more than once fubjeéted to the cefarean fection, it not being praéticable to deliver them by any other means; but he confidered the operation as much too dangerous to be adopted, “ czeterum non poffum fatis mirari eos qui fibi vifas mulieres affirmant, quibus non femel novacula abdomen cum fubjeéto utero refciflum fit ad foetum, nunquam alioqui proditurum, extrahendum, Id enim, falva matre, fieri poffe mihi perfuadere nunquam potui,” &c. “ De Hominis Gene- ratione,” cap. 31. But Rouflet, who was contemporary with Paré, having collected accounts of a number of cafes in which the operation was faid to have been fuccefsfully performed, publifhed in 1581, 8vo. “ Traité nouveau de VHyfterotomotokie, ou Enfantement cefarien, qui eft Pex- traction de Venfant par incifion laterale du ventre et de la matrice de la femme groffe, ne pouvent autrement accou- cher; et ce fans prejudicier a la vie de lun et de l’autre, ni empecher la fecondite naturelle par apres.”” But though Rouflet fpeaks with great confidence of the fafety of the operation, and is warm in its recommendation, it does not appear that he had ever feen it performed, or that more than one of the fix perfons, whofe cafes are related by him, were known to him. The book, however, foon became popular, and being fome years after, viz. in 1601, tranf- lated into Latin by Cafpar Bauhine, with additional cafes and obfervations, it was quickly circulated over Europe. From that time, the operation began to acquire a certain degree of vogue, and to be reforted to in cafes of extreme difficulty, particularly on the continent, where it is faid to have been not unfrequently performed with complete fuccels. Not fo in this country. In five cafes in which it has been performed at Edinburgh, three of the children were ex- tracted through the aperture alive, but the women all died. In England, where the operation has been performed ten times, one of the women only recovered. ‘This gives little encouragement for repeating the trials here. But as this almoft uniform fatality may be in part attributed to the extremely debilitated ftate of the women, who had been in labour feveral days before the operation was determined on, it has been obferved, and with apparent reafon, that if it had been performed earlier, before the ftrength of the wo- men had been exhaufted, and a feverifh indifpofition induced, or before the bladder and other foft parts had been injured by diftenfion and preffure, a more favourable termination might have been expeéted ; as to that circumftance, viz. a more {peedy, or prompt determination, may be attributed CES the fuperior fuccefs with which the operation has been performed on the continent. Having given this fketch of the hiftory of the Czfarean feGiion, it remains to ftate the caufes rendering it neceflary, and to defcribe the manner of performing the operation. Whenever any infurmountable impediment exifts, rene dering it impraticable to bring the child through the na- tural paflage, recourfe muft be had to the cxfarean fe@tion, or the woman, and child, muft inevitably perifh. The moft common impediment is, fuch a deformed and altered fhape of the bones conftituting the pelvis, as to leave too {mall a {pace for admitting the fingers of the ac- coucheur to pafs between them ; difabling him from intro- ducing and direGting the neceflary inftruments for opening and leffening the head, or other part of the child that may happen to prefent, or lie over the orifice of the uterus. Abroad, particularly in France, the cefarean feGtion has been performed where no fuch impediment exifted, or, at the leaft, not to the degree that would be required in this country; as is evident, by the accounts publifhed of wo- men, who after being fubjeCted to the operation, have borne living children by the natural paflage, which could not hap- pen, if the pelvis was contiderably diftorted, or mifhapen. Cafes requiring the cefarean fection, are very rare in this country ; that is, there are very few women whofe pelves are fo diftorted as not to allow a paflage for the fingers of the accoucheur to condu& the neceffary inftruments for opening the head of the fetus fufliciently to allow its con- tents to be fqueezed out, and its bones to collapfe fo far as to allow the operator to fix a hook or crotchet, with which it may be gradually drawn down, and extra&ed. Through how very narrow a {pace this may be done, we have a remarkable inftance related in Dr. Ofborne’s “ Trea- tife on Laborious Parturition.” Authors mention other caufes of impediment to the birth of the child, as coalefcence of the os uteri, or of the fides of the vagina; or large tumours filling up that paflage; but thefe may be all removed by operations much eafier an lefs hazardous than the cefarcan fection. Whenever on repeated examination of a woman in labour, the accoucheur finds the pelvis diftorted to the degree def- cribed above, he fhould apprife the hufband of the danger- ous {tate of the woman, and defire the affiftance of one or two of the moft experienced perfons in the profeffion, and if on a confultation it fhould appear that it is impoffible to bring the child by the natural pafflage, the hufband fhould be made acquainted with the nature of the impediment, and informed there remains no hope of preferving the life of the woman and child, but by opening the abdomen of the wo- man, and extracting the child through the wound. At the fame time acquainting him, that the operation, though ha- zardous, is not neceflarily fatal, many women who fubmit- ted to it having recovered. That the hope of a favourable termination depends on its being performed early, before fever comes on, or any material injury is done to the uterus or neighbouring parts. If the hufband fhould be fatisfied of the neceffity of the operation, the woman fhould then be apprifed of her fitua- tion, in the moft cautious manner, and having obtained her confent, a glyfter is to be thrown up to evacuate the contents of the bowels, and the bladder emptied through a catheter, anda few drops of the tin&ture of opium given to quiet pain as much as poflible, prior to the operation, the manner of performing which, is thus defcribed by Mr. Thompfon, late furgeon to the London Hofpital. ** Me- dical Obfervations and Inquiries,”’ vol. 4. p. 271. s . n -, CHS An incifion is to be made on the right or left fide of the navel, whichever happens to be moft prominent, fix inches in length ; the middle of the incifion to be about level with the navel, from which it fhould be diftant a hand’s breadth. Firft cut through the fkin, then through the tendinous ex- panfion of the abdominal mufcles, and the peritoneum. ‘The uterus being now brought to view, a {mall opening mult be made, to enable the operator to pais his forefinger asa guide for the knife, in extending it to the fize of the external wound ; an afliltant muft then introduce his hand, and bring away the child, and the placenta. This being effected, an afliftant mutt keep in the bowels, which would otherwile protrude, while the operator makes the gaftro- raphy, or future of the belly. Proper bandages are then to be put on, and the woman put to bed. The cure to be conduéted in the fame manner as alter other operations. The fubjec of the czfarean fection is treated in an ample and ingenious manner by Dr. Denman in his ‘ Introduétion to Midwifery,” and by Dr. John Hull, phyfician at Man- chefter, in his “* Defence of the Cafarean Operation,” Svo. 1798. . CZESARIA, river, in Geography. See Couanzy. CZESARIANA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, on the Appian way, fituate, according to the Itinerary of Antonine, in the route from Rome to Columna, 36 miles from Nerulum, in Lucania.—Alfo, a place of Pannonia, which, in Antonine’s Itinerary, is fituate on the route from Sabaria to Acincum. CJESARIANS, or Czsarienses, in Antiquity, were minilters or officials of the procurator Cefaris, to whom be- longed the keeping of the fifcal accounts, and taking pof- feffion of effects devolving or efcheating to the emperor. Thefe were alfo called catholiciant. From the appellation Cefarianus fome deduce the modern word fergeaut. See SERGEANT. CHSARODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gaul, affigned by Ptolemy to the Turones; now Tours, which fee. CHZESAROMAGUS, a town of Gaul, which, accard- ing to Ptolemy, was the capital of the Bellovaci; now Beauvais, which fee.— Alfo, a {tation in the 5th route of Antonine, 28 miles from London; the pofition of which cannot now be exaétly afcertained ; but by the diftance from London, and the direétion of this route, it is fuppofed to have been at, or near, Chelmsford. CASENA, Cesena, a town of Italy, in Gallia Cifpa- dana, on this fide of the Eridanus, with refpeét to Rome, according to Strabo and Pliny. CZESIA Sylva, the Cefran foreft, was part of the Her- cynian, placed by Cluverius, partly in the duchy of Cleves, and partly in Weftphalia, between Wefel and Koefold. Germanicus traverfed this foreft in his march to attack the Marfi, whom he found in a defencelefs ftate, and attacked with great laughter, A. D. 15. Tacitus. CASIAS, or Kasmias, in Meteorology, denotes the north- eaft or N. E. by E. wind; called in the Mediterranean, vento Graco, or Greco levante. Pliny calls this wind Hellefpon- tias, as blowing from the Hellefpont. See Eurocrypon. CASTUS, or Cestrus, a large leathern gantlet, or glove, made of ftraps of leather, and plated with brafs, lead, or iron, withinfide, ufed in the combats, or exercifes of the ancient athlet#, to flrengthen the hands of the combat- ants, and to add violence to their blows. It was called ceflus, a cedendo, from cado, to flrike, or beat. The caftus originally confitted of many thongs of leather, or raw hides of balls, wound about the hand and arm up to the elbow, and feems to have been invented, as well fora CHS fafe-guard to thofe parts that were moft expofed in the fir fury of the combat, as for an offenfive weapon ; ghough, when it was lined with plates of lead or iron, as it fometimes was, according to Virgil, (/En. v.) it feems to have been intended chiefly for the latter purpofe. It is obfervable, however, that the Greek poets, who have given us a defcrip- tion of the ceftus, have not mentioned plates of lead or iron. By thus binding up the hands of the combatants with thongs of leather, they might alfo defign to prevent their laying hold of each other, or with their fingers and nails ripping open the belly ; a circumftance, which occurred in the Nemzan games, and which gave occafion for bringing the ftraps of the caftus over the fingers, and faftening them upon the wriit; whereas, before this accident, they were tied in the palm, or hollow of the hand. See Paufanias, 1. viii. c. 40. This author applies the epithet nersxos, or foft,. to the ancient ceftus, probably, becaufe it was compofed of raw hides. But it is not unlikely, that as the Grecians. began to refine upon the gymnaitic exercifes, and the {ci- ence of the athlete became a kind of profeflion, the cx{tus: fhould from time to time receive feveral additions: and, that at length, it fhould be improved by the Romans, who de- lighted in bloody f{peétacles, into that terrible weapon de- {cribed by Virgil. This conjeéture will account for the difference obfervable between that in Virgil, and thofe de- {cribed by the Greek poets. The combat of the ceftus was very ancient, and is faid to have been invented by Amycus, king of the Bebrycians, who was contemporary with the Argonauts, as we are informed by Clemens of Alexandria, Stromat. I. It was revived in the 23d olym- piad, B. C. 688. But we are informed by Plutarch, (in Alex.) that Alexander never admitted either the ceftus or the pancratium among thofe games which he exhibited during his war in Afia. Lycurgus alfo banifhed thefe ex- ercifes from Sparta, becaufe he would not allow the people to accuftom themfelves to yield the victory to thofe with whom they contended, not even in f{port. Befides, the combatants in the cx{tus fought after, and cherifhed corpu- lence; or polyfarcia, (flefhinets) as the Greeks called it, as a for, of covering and defence of their bones and mufcles againft blows and buffets ; but this mode of life was impro- per for a foldier ; for, as Epaminondas obferved to a fat fel- low, whom for his bulk he turned out of the army, it would require three or four fhields to cover and defend a: belly that hindered a man from feeing his own knee. However, it was practifed by the heroes of the Iliad, and it was one of the games exhibited by /Eneas in honour of his father Anchifes ; and Amycus valued himfelf fo much upon his fuperiority in this combat, as to compel all ftran- gers who touched upon his coalt, to take up the critus, and make trial of his ftrength and fkill in the ufe of this rude initrument of death. See Weit’s differtation on the olympic games, prefixed to his ‘* Odes of Pindar, &c.”’ vol. ill. § 10. CASULIA, in Botany, Willd. 1467. Rox. Cor. 1. p. 64. Clafs and order, /yngenefia aqualis. Eff. Ch. Receptacle chatly; chaff involving the feeds. Down none. Calyx of three leaves. Sp. 1. C. axillaris. ‘ Leaves lanceolate, narrowed at the bafe, ferrated, alternate. Perennial. Stem herbaceous, creeping; branches afcending.’ Flowers axillary, feflile, folitary. Calyx {preading; leaflets egg-fhaped, veined, many-flowered. A native of the Eaft Indies. 2. C. radi- cans. * Leaves lanceolate, narrowed at. the fummit, very. entire, oppofite.”” Perennials. Siem creeping, taking root at the knots. Branches. afeending, from half a foot to a. foot long. Leaves.on fhort petioles ; fometimes, but rarely, 3 with CAT with one or two teeth. Flowers, as well as the general ha- bit of the plant, fimilar to the preceding. A native of Guinea. CZSURA, in Ancient Poetry, is when, in the feanning ofa verfe, a word is divided, fo that one part feems cut off, and goes to a different foot from the reft; e. gr. Menti | rino| ii: nun | quam men | dacia profunt. Where the fyllables ri, i, quam, and men are ce/fures. Or, it denotes a certain and agreeable divilion of the words, between the feet of a verfe ; whereby the laft fyllable of a word becomes the firft of a foot : as in Arma virumgue cano, Troje qui primus ab oris. Where the fyllables no and jz are cefures. Czsura, a cut, a feparation, a breathing-place, in Vocal Mufic. The Germans have applied this poetical term to mulic, with no great analogy, and the French are trying hard to naturalize and adopt it. In the fupplement to the fol. edit. of the Encycl. M. Cattillon has given it an article which in the new 4to. Encycl. Methodique, M. Framery has analyfed, and controverted in an able manner. The firft mufical diGionary in which the term occurs, 1s that of Walther, which, though a fmall o€tavo volume only, contains more definitions, explanations, biographical and hiltorical articles, than all the di€tionaries that have been publifhed fince 1732, when it firft appeared in German. Nothing in Englifh expreffes fo well what the Germans and French mean to inforce by the term cz/ura in mulic, as the word phrafeology, which fee. In vocal mufic, the meafure of the verfe determines the phrafeclogy of the melody. In inttru- mental mulic, a fymmetry of phrafe, to a certain degree, feems neceflary, where either grace or energy is required. As to fubje&, the firlt two or three bars give the general eaft and chara@ter to the whole movement. This is more obvious in Haydn’s beft fymphonies, fometimes even through a feeming wildnefs and freedom of fancy. If you Jofe the firft idea in the treble, you find it in the bafe, or fubordinate parts, as too much fymmetry in the upper part is apt to degenerate into monotony and duluefs. An even number of bars, and cefure at equal diltances, however, feldom fail to intereft and imprefs the hearer. Metattafio’s meafures have fuggefted to compofers, and rendered necef- fary, a greater variety of air, than the epic poetry of Italy, or any other country poffeffed before. Grace is often ob- tained by a fucceffion of da&tyles and regular refting places. V6 foleand6 tin mar crudélé Si ulea si dicé l’amicd dove. — See Purase, Capence, Rest, real or underftood. The cefura might have its ufe in mufic if well confidered and framed into rules; but we pretend not to invent new rules or laws in the arts, fo much as to explain thofe al- ready in ufe, and eftablifhed by good authority and fuccefs- ful examples. Czsure, in the Modern Poeiry, denotes a reft or paufe towards the middle of a long Alexandrine verfe ; by which the voice and pronunciation are aided, and the verfe as it were divided into two hemiltichs. See Pause. CAETERIS faribus, a Latin term, in frequent ufe among mathematical, and phyfical writers. The wordsliterally fignify, other things being equal; which expreffes pretty nearly their meaning as aterm. Thus, we fay, the heavier the bullet, ceferis paribus, the greater the range; i.e. by how much the bullet is heavier, if the length and diameter of the piece, and the quantity and ftrength of the powder, be the fame, by fo much will the utmoit range or diftance of a piece of ordnance be greater. , Thus alfo, in a phyfical way, we fay, the velocity and quantity of blood circulating in a given time, through any CAF feétion of an artery, will, ceteris paribus, be according to its diameter, and nearnefs to, or diftance from the heart. CZETOBRIX, in Ancient Geography. See CeETOBRIGA. CAETSE, in.Geography, an land in the Adriatic, or Venetian Sea, which affords anchorage for fhipping. CAFARA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alen- tejo; 12 miles E. of Moura. CAFARO, in Biography, a Neapolitan compofer of great abilities, of the eld ichool, perhaps the belt, in the ecclefi- aftical ftyle, after Leo. He was living in 17743 and at that time was thought by many the belt compofer for the church in Naples. His ttyle was nervous, yet not rude. In his ecclefiaftical productions (fays a French writer, before the revolution,) he proved that there is a ftyle for religious rites capable of interefting a devout audience, and redoubling fervour, inftead of diverting their attention from facred coneerns. CAFARTUTHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia; placed in the Nubian geography, between Dara and Alchabur. CAFER, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cimex, found in Africa, and deferibed by Thunberg. This infe& is of a black colour, with a white band on the thorax: ferruginous wing-cafes, and four white {pots See Carrer. Garer, a {pecies of ScaraBzus, green, with the mar- gin of the thorax and elytre {potted with white. Fabri- cius. Found at the Cape of Good Hope. Carer, in Ornithology, a {pecics of Merops, with grey plumage, a yellow {pot near the anus, and very long tail. This is the grey bee-eater of Ethiopia. Carer, a f{pecies of Prcus, brown above, beneath grape- coloured, dotted with black, the under part of the wings and the fhafts of the wing-feathers, and thofe of the tail vermilion- coloured. Found at the Cape of Good Hope. Gmelin. CAFERISTAN, in Geography. See Kurrore. CAFFA, in Commerce, cotton cloths painted with feveral colours, and of divers defigns ; they are manufactured in the Fatt Indies, and fold at Bengal. The length and breadth are not the fame in all pieces. Carra, or Kaffa, in Geography, the ancient and modern Theodofia, a {ea-port town of Crim Tartary, now called Taurida, is fituated on the fouth-eaft fide of the peninfula, and forms a harbour of the Euxine, or Black Sea. It was formerly the capital of the Crimea; and the Tartars diftin- guifhed it by the name of Half Conftantinople. The Ge- noefe, when they attempted to acquire an independent trade with the Eait Indies, took poffeffion of it about A.D. 1226, maintained it for more than 200 years, and rendered it the feat of an extenfive and flouriihing commerce. They adorned the port, f{trengthened and augmented the fortifications, and embellifhed the city with many ftately edifices, the ruins of which are vilible even at this day. Having the dominion of the Black Sea, and thus moft commodiou(ly itationed for trade, they were furnifhed with the means of expenditure by the riches accruing from their commerce. But in the year 1475 they were deprived of this port by Mohammed the Great, after they had bafely aflifted in bringing the Turks into Europe, and in reducing Conftantinople, againtt all the rules of true policy, as well as di€tates of religion. After the Genoefe were difpoffeffed of the dominion of Caffa, they ftill carried on, for a long time, as merchants, a very lucra- tive commerce with the inhabitants, who, by way of the Cafpian Sea, found means to condu& a confiderable trade in fpices, drugs, cotton, filk, and other Indian commodities. At length the Turks became jealous of the intercourfe of the Genoefe in thefe parts, and abfolutely excluded them, as well as all other nations, from trading to, or even fo much as CAF as entering into, the Black Sea. This exclufion, however, did not immediately terminate the commerce between Caffa and Genoa; for the Tartars were fo well apprifed of the advantages derived from this commerce, that they profecuted it for fome time in their own veffels ; and carried the {pices, and other Indian goods, which they received by caravans from Aftracan, and which had been brought thither from the oppofite fide of the Cafpian Sea, to Genoa; but the Turks foon put an end to this kind of intercourfe, and thus fecured themfelves from the fears of feeing a Chriftian fleet in thofe feas, at leaft from Italy. Neverthelefs, Caffa, not- withitanding all the difadvantages refulting from its fubjec- tion to the Turkith government, continued to be a place of confiderable trade. Sir John Chardin, who vifited it, A.D. 1672, relates, that during his refidence of 40 days there, he faw more than 400 fhips failing in and out of this port. He oblerved alfo feveral remains of Genoefe magnificence. In 1774, Catherine II. obtained for Ruffia the poffeffion of the {traits of Caffa, together with fome other local and commer- cial advantages ; and by the convention of 1783, the whole peninfula of the Crimea was added to the Ruffian dominions, under the name of the province of Taurida, and the Turks having finally ceded their pretentions to the emprefs, fhe de- clared this a free port in her newly acquired territories, under the appellation of Theodofia.- Caffa was formerly one of the beit built and richefl places of its fize in Europe. It ftands at the foot of a {mall hill upon the fea-fhore ; the buildings extending north and fouth, with long wails ftretch- ing on both fides down to the fea; fo that from the port which its large, fafe, and commodious, it exhibits a very agreeable appearance. On the fouth fide is a ca{tle, which ufed to be the refidence of the Turkifh bafhhaw. The num- ber of houfes have been eftimated at 5500 or 6000, and the inhabitants have been computed at 20,000. According to M. Peyffonnel, (Commerce de la Mer Noire, tom. i. p. 15.) the number of inhabitants amounts to 80,000. The bay is capable of containing feveral hundred merchant thips; and the inhabitants are the richelt, and drive the moft extenfive trade inthe Black Sea. The produttions of Crim Tartary, exported from Caffa and the other towns of the peninfula reforted to by the Greek and Armenian merchants, confift chiefly in corn, wine, wool, fine black and grey lamb-fkins, and fal. The imports are fine and coarfe linens, printed cottons, nankeen, Ruffian leather, fine cloths, velvets, taffeties, furs, ropes, paper, falted tifh, and caviare, tobacco leaves, copper and tin, hardware, gold and filver thread, beads, and corals, earthen wares, a coarfe fort of porcelain, and glafs ware, &c. N. lat. 45° 10’. E.long. 35° 20’. Carra, frraits of, the ancient Cimmerian Bofphorus, are the narrow paflage, or found, which forms the communica- tion between the Black Sea to the fouth, and the fea of Azof tothe north. Near the northern entrance of thefe ftraits are the fortrefles of Kertfch and Yenikalé, which command the paflage. They take their name from the port of Caffa. N. lat. 45° 18’. E. long. 35° 45’. Sce Bosruo- rusand Azor. Carra, a province or kingdom of Abyflinia, adjoining to the kingdom of Narea, and fituate to the fouth of it. It is wholly mountainous, without any level ground. It is faid to be governed by a feparate prince, and to have been con- verted to Chniftianity in the time of Melec Segued, fome time after the converfion of Narea. ‘The inhabitants of thefe lofty mountains are not fo dark in their complexion as Nea- politans or Sicilians. It has been faid, that {now has been obferved to lie on the mountains of Caffa, as well as on the high ridges called Dyre and Tegla; but the fact is dif- 6 CAF credited by Bruce; Travels, vol. ii. p. 313. lat. 8°, and E. long. 35°. See Narea. CAFFABA. See Karrasa. CAFFACA, Kerre-xit, in Mineralogy, or earth of Kaf- fa, (corruptly called Caffaca) is a very fine grained white tenacious clayey marl, dug in the Crimea, and formerly fhip- ped from the port of Kaffa to Conftantinople, in large quan- tities for the ule of the Turkifh women. Being mixed up with water to the confiftence of thick cream, it was rubbed by hand among the hair, which, when wafhed again with water, was thus rendered perfectly clean and of a filky {moothnefs. For this purpofe it was greatly preferable to foap, which, though it. cleans the hair, is apt to difcolour it, and render it harfh and brittle. When the Crimea was conquered by the Ruffians, this branch of commerce was ftopped, and is not likely to be refumed, Conftantinople being now fupplied with a white clay from Afia Minor, which is equaily good with the earth of Kaffa. Pallas’s Travels in the Crimea, vol. ii. CAFFARELLI, (Gaetano Mayjorano, detto) was one of the greateft fingers that Italy ever produced. He came to England in 1738, the year after Farinelli’s depar- ture. He fung in two of Handel’s operas, aramond, and Alefjandro Severo. But though he afterwards acquired fuch celebrity on the continent, he was not in high favour here. For though Farinelli, the laft year of his performance in this country, had been neglected, no {ucceffor would be lif- tened to of inferior fame, or indeed talents ; for Caffarelli Was never in voice or in good humour, all the time he was in England. The feeds of caprice with which nature feems to have furnifhed him, began early in life to {pring up, and in his riper years, and fame, grew to an amazing height: Many traits of his chara@ter were current in Italy, long af- ter he had quitted the ftage. When Gizziello firft fung at Rome, his performance fo far enchanted every hearer, that it became the general fub- ject of converfation, which not only contributed to fpread his fame through that city, but to extend it to the moft remote parts of Italy ; it is natural to fuppofe that the ace count of this new mufical phenomenon foon reached Naples, and equally natural to imagine that it was not heard with indifference in a place where fo powerful a propenfity to mufical pleafure prevails. Caffarelli, at this time in the ze- nith of his reputation, was fo far piqued by curiofity, per- haps by jealoufy, that he took an opportunity, the firlt time he could be {pared from the opera at Naples, to ride poft all night, in order to hear that at Rome. He entered the pit, muflled up in a pellice, or fur-gown, unknown by any one there; and after he had heard Gizziello fing a fong, he cried out as loud as he poflibly could, “ bravo! braviflimo ! Gizziello, é Caffarelli che ti Jo dice,’’ ’tis Caffarelli who ap- plauds—and, immediately quitting the theatre, he fet out on his return to Naples the fame night. When at his beft, Caffarelli was thought by many a fu- perior finger in fome refpeéts, to Farinelli: among thefe Porpora, who hated him for his infolence, ufed to fay, that he was the greatelt finger Italy had ever produced. At the marriage of the prefent King of Sardinia, then prince of Savoy, with the infanta of Spain, who had long been a fcholar of Farinelli, it was with great difficulty that Caffa- relli was prevailed on to go to Turin with the Aftrua, to perform at the royal nuptials, in an opera which the King ~ of Sardinia wifhed to have as perfect as poffible. But Cab. farelli, who came with an ill-will, by order of the king of Naples, feemed but little difpofed to exert himfelf; declar- ing before-hand that he had loft a book of clofes on the road, About N. CAF yoad, and fhould be able to do nothing. This was told to his Sardinian Majefty, who was much perplexed how to treat fuch impertinence. Caflarelli was not his fubjeét, and had been fent by the king of Naples, out of compliment, on occafion of the wedding. But the firft night of perform- ance the prince of Savoy, in his nuptial drefs, went behind the fcenes, juft before the opera begun, when entering into converfation with Caffarelli, he told him that he was glad to fee him there, though the princefs of Savoy thought it hard- ly poffible that any one fhould fing in fuch a manner as would give her pleafure, after Farinelli. ‘* Now, Caffarelli,’’ fays the prince, clapping him on the fhoulder, “ exert yourfelf a little, and cure the princefs of this prejudice in favour of her mafter.”? Caffarelli was penetrated by this condefcen- fion in the prince, and cried ont, ‘ Sir, her highnefs fhall hear two Farinelli’s in one, to-night.”’? And he is faid to have fung, on this occafion, better than any one ever fung before. The Aftrua was piqued by his great excrtions to difplay all her talents, which, hke the collifion of flint and fteel, only fired them the more. In a letter which the author of this article received from Garrick, during his tour through Italy, dated Naples, Fe- bruary 5th, 1764, is the following paflage concerning this finger who was then turned of fixty: “ Yefterday we at- tended the ceremony of making a nun, fhe was the daughter of a duke, and the whole was conduéted with great {plen- -dor and magnificence. The church was richly ornamented, and there were two large bands of mufic of all kinds. ‘The confecration was performed with great folemnity, and I was very much affected ; and to crown the. whole the prin- cipal part was fung by the famous Caffarelli, who, though ‘old, has pleafed me more than all the fingers I have heard. He touched me; and it was the firlt time I have been touched fince I came into Italy.” In 1770, we heard Caffarelli ourfelves, fing in a room at Naples. He was then fixty-feven; yet, though his voice was thin, it was eafy to imagine, from what he was {till able ‘o do, that his voiceand talents had been of the very firitclafs. He had been fo prudent as to provide for old age during youth; and he was now not only living in eafe and affluence, in a fumptuous houfe of his own building, upon which was this infeription: “ Amphion Thebas, Ego domum;” but had purchafed a dukedom for his nephew after his deceafe. Caf- farelli died in 1783, at eighty years of age; and the ne- phew, to whom he bequeathed his fortune, is now Duca di Santi Dorato. CAFFER, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cerambyx, of a braffy-green colour, with ipinous thorax, teftaceous wings cafes, and fhort antenne. Fabricius. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. ‘ Carrer, in Zoology, Bos Carrer, the Cape Ox an ani- mal of the Ox genus, with horns that are broad at the bafe, then fpreading downwards, next upwards, and curving in- wards at the tip: mane fhort. Sparrmann. Tt is, as Dr. Shaw very properly obferves, to Dr. Sparr- mann, Dr. Forfter, and Mr. Maffon, that we are principally indebted for the particulars relative to the defeription and natural hiftory of this animal, which, though long ago im- perfectly kaown, has but lately been accurately defcribed. Dr. Sparrmann publithed an account of this animal in the 'TranfaGions of the Stockholm Accademy for 1779, and Matf- fon in the 56th volume of the Tranfaétions of the Royal Society of London. By thofe writers this animal is deferib- ed as being about five feet and a half in height, and far fu- perior in itrength and fiercenefs to the European oxen, which renders it a dangerous creature. It encounters men, CAF horfes, and other oxen with ferocity, trampling and crufh< ing them to death with its feet, and is fo {wift that in run- ning up hillit is not eafily overtaken by a horfe. This fpecies inhabits the interior parts of Africa, north of the Cape of Good Hope, where it is found in large herds in the more defert parts, retiring by day into the thick fo- refts, and appearing chiefly towards the evening and morn- ing. It is affirmed of this creature, that it will often ftrip off the fkin of fuch animals as it kills, by licking them with its rough tongue, as recorded by fome ancient authors of the Bifon, The {lin is exceffively ftrong, and is on this account in high eitimation with the coloniits at the Cape, for its fuperior excellence in making harnefles, and other ufeful articles, in which the ftrongeft and moft durable kind of leather is required. The body of the Cape Ox is ofa black or darkifh colour, and the face is covered with long harfh hair: the horns are thick and black, and lie flat upon the head, diverging fo widely, that the tips of the two horns are fometimes five feet afunder: the ears are pendulous, and not unfrequently a foot long: tail fhort, tufted, and black at the tip. The flefh is coarfe, and has the flavour of venifon. CAFFETANS, are long velts of gold or filver brocade, flowered with filk, which are prefented by the grand fignior and the vifier, to thofe to whom they give audience: by the grand fignior defore, and by the vilier after audience. The caffetans of the attendants are more ordiuary. CAFFILA, a company of merchants or travellers, or both together, who join company, in order to go with more fecurity through the dominions of the Great Mogul; and through other countries on the continent of the Eait Indies. In Perfia, the caffila differs from a caravan; as the former properly beiongs to fome fovereign, or to fome powerful company in Europe; whereas, the latter confilts of a come pany of particular merchants, each of whom trades on his own account. There are alfo fuch caffilas, which crofs fome parts of the deferts of Africa, particularly what is called the fea of fand, which lies between Morocco, and the kingdoms of Tombut and Gago. This is a journey of four hundred leagues, and takes up two months in going, and as many in coming back; the caffila travelling only by night, becaufe of the exceflive heat of the country. _ chief merchandize they bring back confifts in gold- uft. ‘ The caffila is properly what is called caravan in the do- minions of the grand fignior, and in other parts of the Eaft. See Caravan. On the coaft of Guzerat, or Cambaya, it fignifies a {mall fleet of merchant-fhips. CAFFRA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Apis, that in- habits the Cape of Good Hope. Fabricius defcribes it as being hirfute, black, with the pofterior part of the thorax, and anterior part of the abdomen, yellow. Carrra, in Ornithology, a fpectes of Certuia, of a fuf- cous colour, with the breatt and abdomen pale, and the rc tail feathers longelt. Inhabits the Cape of Good ope. CAFFRARIA, or land of the Carrers, or Karrers, in Geography, av undefined diftriét in the fouth-caftern part of Africa; deriving its name from the Cafres, Caffers, or Kaffers, who inhabit it. The appellation ts denved from the Arabic word Cafir, which fignifies an :xfidel, aid is ap- plicd by the Arabs, as a term of reproach, toall thofe who do not profefs the Mahometan religion. The Portuguefe taking the name in a mere general fenfe, have denominated all thofe nations of Africa Caffres, who have, or feem to have CAG have no knowledge of a deity. Geographers have not agreed in affigning the boundaries of that country in the fouthern part of Africa, to which the appellation of Caffra- riahas been appropriated. By fome, the name has been applied to the whole country that commences at Cape Ne- ; extending from thence fouth-eafterly to the Cape of Boca Hope, thence, north-eaft to the river Del Spiritu Sando, which feparates it on the north-eaft from Monomo- tapa; reaching on the north, almoft to the equator, where it borders on the kingdom of Makoko; and bounded on the north-weft by Congo, or Lower Guinea, and the king- dom of Benguela. Accordingly, they have divided this ex- tenfive country into the kingdom of Mataman, the country of the Hottentots, Terra de Natal, and Terra dos Fumos. Others have divided Caffraria into two parts, viz. Caffraria Proper, and the country of the Hottentots. The inhabi- tants of Caffraria Proper are generally taller than the Hot- tentots, more robult, fierce, and warlike, and yet their manners are as inoffenfive. Their figure is more graceful, their countenances are not fo narrow, nor their cheeks fo prominent as thofe of the Hottentots; neither have they the broad fiat faces and thick lips of the inhabitants of Mo- zambique. If it were not for their colour, many of their females would be deemed beautiful even by the Europeans. They tattoo themfelves very much, and wear their hair frizzied. In hot weather they are naked; but in winter they throw a “ kros’’ of calf’s or ox’s fkin over their fhoul- ders, which reaches to the ground. Their huts are larger and more regular than thofe of the Hottentots; their frames are conitru@ed of wood, and they are plaftered within and without with a mixture of cow’s dung and clay. The women form veffels of clay, and weave bafkets of fo clofe a texture as to be capable of holding milk or water. They are more difpofed to agriculture than the others ; nor would they wander if they were not compelled by an enemy. Their women principally prepare the fields for receiving feed, which is chiefly millet. Notwithftanding the appa- rent richnefs of their paftures, their cattle are much inferior in fize to thofe of their neighbours. Their fuperior know- ledge of agriculture, fome dogmas of religion, greater in- dultry, and more addrefs in procuring fimple neceffaries, indicate, that the Caffres have made greater progrefs in ci- vilization than the fouthern people. They praétife circum- cifion, but not asa religious rite. They have elevated ideas of a fupreme power, and believe in a ftate of future retribu- tion ; but imagine that the world is eternal. They never pray, nor have any religious ceremonies; but they hay faith in forcery. They are governed by a chief, whofe power is very limited: he is deemed the father of the peo- ple, and is often lefs rich than his fubjeéts; for, receiving no fubfidics, and being permitted to have as many wives as he pleafes, his finances are not always equal to the fupport of his retinue; and his honour is hereditary. The Caffres are more courageous than their neighbours: they dare to face the enemy, and difdain the oz of poifoned arrows. Le Vaillant’s ‘Travels into Africa. Tora forther account of the country and hiltory of thefe people, fupplied by Mr. Bar- row, in his “ Account of ‘T’ravels into the interior of fouth- ern Africa,” fee Karrens; fee alfo Hottrentors. CAFRA, a town of Egypt, 2 miles E. of Siut. CAFRES. See Carraania. CAGACO, in Ancient Geography, a fountain of Greece, ia Peloponnefus, near the town of Gythium, according to Paufanias. CAGADA, in oa a fmall ifland of the Weft Indies, near the north-caft coaft of Porto Rico, N. hat. 18° 33'.. W. long. 64° 10’. Vor. V. CAG CAGADO ¢ agoa, in Zoology, the name by which the Portuguefe in South America call a fpecies of tortoife, coms mon in that part of the world. The Bralfilian name is jurura, Cacapo de terra, is the Portuguefe appellation of the jaboti of South America, a remarkable {pecies of tortoife. This is the teftudo terreftris of late writers. Kil. Stobxus AG. Litter. et Scient. Suec. 1730. CAGADOS rocks, in Geography, are two large rocks that lie betwzen the ifland of Palmas and Cape Formofa, on the weltern coaft of Africa. CAGANUS, or Cacanus, an appellation anciently given by the Huns to their kings. The word appears alfo to have been formerly applied to the princes of Mufcovy, now called czar. From the fame alfo, probably, the Tartar title cuam, or can, had its origin. CAGAYAN, or Cacean, in Geography, a province in the northern part of the ifland of Lucgon or Manila, in the Eatt Indies. It is the largeft in the ifland, being 80 leagues in length, and 40 in breadth. The chief city is New Se- govia, which is feated on the banks of a river of the fame name, which runs almoft acrofs the whole province. In this city is the cathedral church; and here refides the chief Alcayde, with a garrifon of Spanifh foot. This province commences with the moft northerly cape called Del Enga- no ; and after doubling cape Bojador, which is 15 leagues from the capital eaftward, and coaiting from north to fouth 20 leagues, the province terminates on the boundaries of that of Ilocos. The peaceable Cagayans, who pay tri- bute, are about gooo, befides thofe that are not fubdued. The whole province is fruitful; the men are robuft, em- ployed in agricultiire, and of a martial difpofition ; and the women apply to feveral works in cotton. In the moun- tains bees are fo plentiful, that the poor burn wax inftead of oil ; and they abound with brafil, ebony, and other forts of valuable wood. In the woods are many wild beatts, par- ticularly boars, and alfo deer, which they kill for their fins and horns, purchafed by the Chinefe. CAGE, an inclofure made with wire, wicker, or other matter, interwoven latticewife, for the detention of wild beafts or birds. The word is French, cage, formed from the Italian gageia, of the Latin caveo, which fignifies the fame: a caveis theatralibus in quibus includebantur fere. Beafts were ufually brought to EE fhut up in oaken or beechen cages, artfully formed, and covered or fhaded with boughs, that the creatures, deceived with the appear- ance of a wood, might fancy themfelves in their foreft. ‘Thofe of the fiercer fort were pent in iron cages, left wooden piifons fhould be broke through. In fome prifons there are iron cages for the clofer confinement of criminals. The French laws diftinguith two forts of bird-cages, viz. high, or fing- ing cages, and low, or dumb-cages; thofe who expole birds to fale are obliged to put the hens in the latter, and the cocks in the former, that perfons may not be impofed on, by buying a hen for a cock. Caces, cavee, denote alfo places in the ancient amphi- theatres, wherein wild beaits were kept, ready to be let out for fport. The cavee were a fort of iron cages different from dens, which were under ground and dark ; whereas the ca- vee being airy and light, the beafts rufhed out of them with more alacrity and Gercenefs than if they had been pent under ground, Cacr, in Agriculture, an inclofure formed of wire or wicker-work, for the purpofe of containing different forts of poultry or other animals. It alfo fignifies a machine for weighing live animals of the fheep, pig, and other {mall kinds. See Macuins. 4U Cace, CAG Cace, in Carpentry, fignifies an outer work of timber, enclofing another within it. In this fenfe we fay, the cage of a wind-mill. The cage of a ftair-cafe denotes the wooden fides, or walls which enclofe it. CAGELO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the king- dom of Naples, and province of Calabria Ultra; 6 miles S.W. of Girace. CAGGAR, or Kenxer, a river of Hindoftan, which rifes in the mountains that feparate Sirhind from Cahlore and Sirinagur, about N. lat. 30° 45’, and E. long. 76° 42’, and purfuing its courfe to the fouth-weft, and uniting with the Surfooty, and other fmaller ftreams, difcharges itfelf into the gulph of Cutch. CAGGAW, in Botany, a name given by the people of Guinea, to a plant which they boil in water, and ufe the decoétion to wath the mouth with, as a cure for the tooth- ach. The leaves of this are {mooth and thining, like thofe of the laurel, but they are thin, and bend like thofe of the bay. Phil. Tranf. N° 232. CAGHNEWAGA, in Geography, the name of a fmall village or dilri& on the north-fide of Mohawk river in the townfhip of Johnitown, about 24 miles W. of Schene¢tady in North America. It might probably have been formerly inhabited by a tribe of Indians of Lower Canada, of the fame name, fome of whom are found near Montreak. CAGIT, in Natural Hiftory, a name given by the people of the Philippine iflands to a {pecies of parrot, very com- mon in their woods ; it is of a middling fize, and is all over of a fine green colour. CAGLI, in Geagraphy, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Urbino, built near the ruins of the ancient Callium, on the Cantiano ; the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Urbino; 18 miles S. of it. N. lat..43° 30’. E.long. 14° 12’. CAGLIA, or Marapan cape, the fouth-welt point of the Morea. N. lat. 36° 33’. E. long. 22° 36'. CAGLIARI, Paoto, ufually called Paoto Vero- NESE, in Biography, an hiitorical painter, was born at Ve- rona in 1530, and became a difciple of his uncle, Antonio Ba- diglio, a principal artift at Verona. His talents difplayed themfelves at an early period; and at Mantua, whither he was conduéted by cardinal Hercules Gonzaga, he was diftin- guifhed above all his fellow artifts. At Venice, the prize of a large gold chain, offered by the procurators of St. Mark for the beft picture painted by fix eminent artifts, was adjudged to Cagliari, by Titian and Sanfovino. Having executed feveral fubjects, chiefly of the light and tural kind, exhibiting the fertility of his invention, and the brilliancy of his pencil, in the Venetian territories, he en- gaged in larger works for churches at Venice and Verona, which ferved further to advance his reputation. At Rome, whither he accompanied Grimani, ambaflador from Venice to the pope, he much improved his ftyle by an infpeGtion of the works of Raphael and Michael Angelo Buonaroti ; and on his return to Venice, the doge conferred upon him the honour of knighthood. Duly fenfible of the honour to which he attained, in his own country, he declined accept- ing the invitation of Philip If. to go to Spain, and paint at the Efcurial, and fent Zucchero as his fubftitute. Such was the refpect in which he was held by his brother artitts, as well as by perfons of diflinétion, that Titian is faid to have greeted him with an embrace, whenever they met, and Guido declared, that next to Raphael and Corregio, he would rather be Paolo Veronefe than any other painter of his time. By the number and value of his performances he acquired not only fame, but wealth: and yet he difregarded money, and generoufly parted with it, whenever any fuitable eccafion offered. Of his generofity, as well as facility in CAG the exercife of his art, the following inftance is recorded. Having been detained on a journey, and hofpitably enter- tained at the houfe of the Pifani family, he fecretly painted, during his ftay, a picture of the family of Darius, confilting of 20 figures as large as life ; and leaving the canvas rolled up under his bed, he informed his hofts that he had left fomething behind him towards paying his expences. This artift, whofe fuperior merit has been univerfally acknow- ledged, died of a fever at Venice, in 1588, at the age of 58 years, and was buried in the church of St. Sebaitian, which he had previoufly decorated by his own hand. The pictures of this mafter were rendered fingularly beautiful by the excellence of their colouring, by the magic effe&ts of light and fhade, and by the grace and harmony of compo- fition, But in order to produce this kind of beauty, which charmed the eye, he facrificed much expreflion, correétnefs of drawing, propriety of coftume, and other qualities which fatisfy the mature judgment. Of his pi€tures, which are difperfed all over Europe, fome of the principal are in the palace of St. Mark at Venice, and in the churches of that city, and of others in the north of Italy. Among his moft celebrated pieces, are the Four Banquets ; and of thefe, the Marriage at Cana, once in the refectory of the convent of St. George at Venice, now in the Louvre, confifting of at leaft 130 figures, is reckoned one of the moft capital performances in Europe. Many of his works have been engraved by the principal artifts of their time. For his amufement he etched fome few plates, which fhew the hand of the mafter. Among thefe are ‘* the Adoration of the Magi,” and “ Two Saints fleeping.”’? His fons, Carletto and Gabriel, acquired, alfo, eminence as painters. Carletto was born at Venice, in 1570; and poflefled a genius, which, under the inftru@tion of his father, manifefted itfelf betimes, and arrived at an early maturity ; fo that he promifed to have equalled, if not to have exceeded his father.. But by inceffant application, he impaired his conftitution, and died in 1596, at the age of 26 years. Gabriel was born at Venice in 1568, and having talents inferior to thofe of his brother, he turned his attention to commerce. He died 1631. Thefe brothers finifhed works, which had been left ims perfect by their father; and feveral pitures of their own de- fign and execution have been afcribed to him; nor can fome of them be eafily diftinguifhed from thofe of this great matter. They were affifted by their uncle Benedif, or Bene» detto, who was born at Verona in 1538, and died in 1598. He refembled his brother Paolo in his ftyle of painting ; but his peculiar excellence confifted in the architeGtural figures, with which he enriched the compofitions of his brother. At Venice there are feveral paintings, defigned and executed by himfelf, which are much admired. D’Ar- genvile. Pilkington. Strutt. Cacuiari, or Caxraris, in Geography, a fea-port city, and capital of the ifland of Sardinia, is fituated in the fouthern part of the ifland, on the declivity of a hill, and has a large and fecure harbour, fcreened by a {mall ifland called ‘* Fietra Laida,”? and defended with a caftle and for- tifications. It is large and populous, the number of inha- bitants amounting to about 50,000, and carries on a cons fiderable commerce. It is the fee of an archbifhop, and the refidence of a viceroy; and contains five churches be- fides the cathedral, and 23 convents. In 1708, it fur- rendered, upon an attack of the Britifh fleet, to the em- peror Charles VI.; but in 1717 it was retaken by the Spaniards, and about two years afterwards ceded to the duke of Savoy in hey of Sicily, who obtained the title of king of Sardinia, N. lat. 39° 12’. E. long, 9° 14’. 7 CAG- CAG CAGNACCTI, in Biography. See Guino. CAGNANO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cor- fica; 14 miles N. of Baia. Cacwano is alfo a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and province of Abruzzo Ultra; 3 miles N.N.W. of Aquila. ; CAGNETE, Canere, or Guarco, a town of South America, in Peru, and capital of a jurifdiction of the fame name, in the archbifhopric of Lima, near the fea-coaft ; 80 miles S.E. of Lima. S. lat. :2° 40’. W. long. 73°. Cacyetr, or Canerte, a diftri& or jurifdictiion of South America, in Peru, beginning at the diftance of 6 leagues S. from Lima, and extending along the coaft in the fame rhumb above 30 leagues. The temperature of the air in this diftri@ is the fame with that in the valleys of Lima; and the country, being watered by a large river, and other lefs ftreams, produces great quantities of wheat and maize. The lands are very much planted with canes, which yield an excellent fugar. In the vicinity of Chilca, fituate about 10 leagues from Lima, is found falt-petre, of which gun- powder is made in that city. It has alfo a good fifhery, which affords a comfortable fubfiftence to the Indian inha- bitants of the town, particularly thofe fituated near the fea- coaft ; together with plenty of fruits, pulfe, and poultry ; whence a large trade is carried on between this jurifdiGion and Lima. CAGNI. See Bourrtrers. ~ CAGNICOURT, a town of France, in the department of the ftraits of Calais, and diftriét of Bapaume, 3 leagues N.N.E. of it. CAGNO, a town of Germany, in the country of Tyrol ; 10 miles S.W. of Bolzano. CAGNOLU, in Ichthyology. GAENA. CAGOTS, in Geography, a name diftinguifhing a fingu- lar clafs of people, who inhabit fome of the vallies conti- guous to the Pyrenées. M. Ramond de Carbonnieres in his «¢ Obfervations faites dans les Pyrénées,’? &c. Svo. Paris, 1789, adopts the opinion of M. de Marca, that this mifer- able race, whofe imbecility of mind and deformity of perfon have fo frequently engaged the attention, and exercifed the ingenuity, of philofophical travellers, are the defcendants of the Goths and Wifigoths, who were perfecuted and dif- perfed on account of their Arian principles. Thefe heretics were treated with cruelty by the Franks, and driven from the borders of the Loire and the Sevre to the moft defolate places. After the deftruction of the kingdom of the Wifi- goths by the children of Clovis, thofe who were degene- rated by intermarriages, and were not able to follow the warlike Goths into Spain, funk into contempt on account of their religious tenets. They were excommunicated from the church, and refufed Chriftian burial. They were branded with the names of Cazots, Cabets, and Caffos, which fignify, according to Gebclin, * polluted” and “ infe&ted.”” ey became leprous, he fays, by being, through fuccef- five generations, expofed to the moft extreme poverty, and by being prohibited from intermarriages with any other families than their own. “ Their return to the bofom of the church was not fufficient to remove the ftigma of their calt: they ceafed from being Arians, without ceafing to be leprous; and they afterwards ceafed to be leprous, without being freed from all the evils engeudered by a vitiated flate of the Auids.”” CAGUAN, a diftn& of Terra Firma, with a town of the fame name, fituate in the fouthern part of New Gra- nada. ‘The town lies in N. lat. 2°. W. Bor. 76°. See Sguatus Zy- CAH CAGUANABO, atown of the ifland of Cuba; 60 mile N.N.E. of St. Yago. ; CAGUANICO, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 55 miles N.N.E. of St. Yago. CAGUATUS, Marsitivs, in Bierraphy, born at Ve- rona, about the middle of the 16th century, was educated at Padua, where he acquired fo much reputation, that he was invited to teach medicine at Rome. He continued to refide there to the time of his death, in 1610. He was well read in the ancient Greek fathers of medicine, and em- ployed much of his time in commenting on their works, and corre€ting many errors which time had introduced, often, Haller thinks, happily enough. His works are “ Variarum Obfervationum Libri duo, cum difputatione de ordine ciborum Libri quatuor,’? Rome 1581. Svo.; con- fifting principally of critical obfervations on the works of the ancients. In one cafe, he had feen the bones of a hu- man fcetus which had been voided by the anus. ‘ De Morte, Caufa Partus.’”? He contends, contrary to an opi- nion held by fome anatomilts, that the offa pubis do not fe- parate in parturition. ‘ De Sanitate tuenda,’’ 1591. 4to. * De Aeris Romani Salubritate, de Tiberis Inundatione, et de Epidemia Romana, feu de Populari Zgritudine que Anno 1591, et de altera que Anno 1593, orta cit,” 1599. 4to. He contends that the air of Rome is not unhealthy, and modern Rome more healthy than the ancient ; that Rome abounds with perfons of great age ; that though the Tiber frequently overflowed its banks, he had never known any epidemic follow from that circumftance. Haller. Bib. Bot. Med. et Anatom. CAGUI Minor, in Zoology, the name given by Marc- graave to the fpecies of ape defcvibed by late {cientific writers under that of fimia jacchus. Edwards after Marc- graave alfo calls it cagui minor, or fanglin. It is the ftriated ape of Pennant. Cacui Major Brafilienfibus of Marcgraave is the fimia oedipus of Gmelin, and little lion monkey of Edwards. AGURRIA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Na- varre, feated on a {mall river, which almoft furrounds it, and difcharges itfelf into the Ebro ; 6 leagues N.W. of Cala- horra. CAHA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ; 40 miles N.E. of Amadan. CAHAIGUES, James, in Biography, born at Caen in Normandy, about the middle of the 16th century, applied early to the ftudy of medicine, in which he took the degree of doétor at the univerfity of Caen, in 1580. In 1583, he publifhed “ Elogiorum Civium Cadomenfium Centuria 1 ;” reprinted in 1609, 4to. ; ‘ Brevis facilifque Methodus cu- randarum Febrium,” Cadom. 1616, 8vo. “ Brevis facilifque Methodus curandorum Capitis Adfe@tuum,” 1618, 8vo. ; “De Aqua Medicata Fontis Hebecrevonii,” 1614, 8vo. He alfo publithed a tranflation into French of Julien le Paulmier, “ De,Morbo Gallico.”” Haller. Bib. Medica. Eloy. Bib. Hitt. CAHIER, or Canir, in Geography, a fmall neat poft and market town of the county of ‘Tipperary, province of Mun- fter, Ireland, where there is a bridge over the river Suire, and near it, on an ifland in the river, is a caftle, formerly of reat ftrength, which was twice taken, firlt by fir George arew in the reign of queen Elizabeth, and afterwards by Oliver Cromwell. On the bank of the river, oppofite to the town, are the ruins of Cahier abbey, which was founded in the reign of king John. Diftance S. W. from Dublin 85 Irifh miles. N.Tat. 52° 22' 30%. W. long. 7° 54’. CAHIR is alfo the name of afifhing village in the county of Kerry, Ireland, on the coaft oppofite to Valentia ifland, 4U 2 which CAH which was formerly much frequented in time of war, becaufe no French privateer ever landed there to plunder, as was ufaal on other parts of the coalt; a privilege faid to have been procured by the Roman Catholic bifhop of.the fee from the French monarch. Smith’s Kerry.. Cauie, a {mall iiland in the Atlantic ocean, on the weft coat of the county of Mayo, Treland, a little fouth of the entrance into Clew bay. N. lat. 53° 44’. W. long. 9° 53’. CAHIRCONREE, a high mountain, fouth of Tralee, in the county of Kerry, Ireland, the name of which is fup- pofed to fignify the fartre/s of king Con. On the top of it is a circle of mafly ftones, laid one on the other, in the man- ner of a Danifh intrenchment, feveral of them being from eight to ten cubical feet, but all very rude. Different opinions have been entertained refpecting -this aud other ancient monuments of the fame kind. Some fuppofe them to be of ealtern origin, and defigned for religions purpofes in honour of the fun; whilft others maintain that they are of northern otigin, and were monuments of fome great action performed near the place, or perhaps a fepulchral trophy raifed over fome eminent perfon. Mr. Pinkerton, in his account of Stone-henge, fuppofes them to have been intro- duced by the Belge or Goths, whom he confiders as the Irith Firbolgs. Thefe people ufed them, he fays, as circles of judgment. or folemn places where courts were held, of all kinds and dignities, from the national council down to the baronial court, or that of a common proprietor of land, for adjufting difputes between his vé/lani and flaves. According to this account they are of greater antiquity than the Danes, though ufed by this people. The common people, unable to conceive how human ftrength could poffibly raife ftones of fuch a prodigious weight to the fummit of a fteep moun- tain above 2000 feet high, get over the difficulty by fuppof- ing it to have been the work and labour of a giant. See Stone-wence. Smith’s Kerry. Colle&tanea Hibernica. Ledwich’s Antiquities. Pinkerton’s Geography. CAHLLO, in Jchthyology, a name given by fome old writers to the fifh they alfo called /upus marinus, or wolf-fith, anarhichas lupus of Linnzus. CAHOKIA, in Geography, a. fettlement in the north- weltern territory of America, north of Kafkafkias, which fee. CAHORS, a confiderable town of France, before the revolution the capital of Quercy, and fee of a bifhop, now the principal place of a diftrict in the department of the Lot, fituate in a vale between mountains on the bank of the river Lot. One part of the town feems to lean againft the fteep fide of a mountain; the other is feated in a {mall plain, watered by the meandering ftream of the river, and finely cultivated, with its corn-fields, gardens, and fruit-trees, particularly the almond. The town is irregularly built, and its ftreets are narrow. The cathedral church is diftinguifhed by its large cupola, which muft in part have been an ancient Roman work: the remains alfo of a Roman amphitheatre and aque- du are feen in this place. The number of inhabitants in the north and fouth diftri&s of the town Is 11,728, in the north canton 10,162, and in the fouth 8,981 ; the territory eomprehends 1424 kiliometres and 10 communes. The lands round the town are very fertile ; and the wine of this place has high reputation, and is exported from Bourdeaux as an article of commerce. It is produced by dwarf or ground vines, on fteep mountains, and holds a high rank among the red wines of France. This. town is fortified and furrounded with thick walls; but it was taken by affault by Henry IV. in 1580, when mortars are faid to have been firlt ufed. N. lat. 44°27’. E. long. 1° 6’. CAT CAHUSAC, Louis pe, in Biography, was born at Montauban, and having finifhed his ftudies at Touloufe, was admitted an adyocate. On his return to Montauban, he obtained the poft of fecretary of the intendance. He after- wards removed to Paris, and became fecretary to the count de Clermont, and after attending him in the campaign of 1743, he devoted himfelf to literature, and particularly to dramatic compofitions, He died at Paris in June 1759. His temper was reftlefs, lively, and arrogant ; and his fenfi- bility with regard to his reputation was fo acute, that it is faid to have produced a degree of derangement, which pro- bably fhortened his days. His publications were ‘¢ Grigni,”’ a romance, 12mo.; ** The Hiftory of the Dance, ancient and modern,” 3 vols. 1zmo; ‘* Pharamond,”? written in 1736, and the tragedy of the ‘ Earl of Warwick ;”” two comedies, viz. ‘ Zeneide,’’ and the ‘ Algerine;’’ the ‘ Feltivities of Polyhyinnia,”” and of “ Hymen,”? ‘ Zais,’”? «© Nais,”? “ Zoroafter,”? the ** Birth of Ofiris,”? and ** Ana+ creon,”’ all operas ; befides the ‘* Loves of Tempé,” which: is alfo afcribed to him. Biog. Dia. Cauusac, in Geography, a town of France, in the departs ment of the Lot and Garonne, and diftrict of Lauzun, and.5 miles E.N.E. from it. CAHUZAC /ur Ferre, a town of France, in the departs ment of the Tarn, and diftri€t of Gaillac, and 2 leagues N. of it. x : CAHYS, in Commerce, a dry meafure for corn, ufed in fome parts of Spain, particularly at Seville and Cadiz. It is near a buthel of our meafure. CAL, in Zoology. The Linnean Simra Minas is de- cbt under this name by Ray in his Hiftory of Quadrue - peds. CAJA, in Entomalogy, the {pecies of Puavana,. known in England by the name of the garden tiger moth. The anterior wings are whitifh, with large fulcous {pots pof= terior pair red with black fpots. Donov. Brit. Inf. Caja, in Geography, a river-of Portugal, which runs into the Guadiana, 7 miles E. of Elvas. Caia, in Ornithology. Buffon gives this name to the HOODED Parrot, PsirTAcus PILEATUS. ; Catia, in the Turti/b Military Orders, an officer ferving in the polt of a deputy or fteward, and aéting for the body of the janizaries. CAIAC, in Geography, a town of. Perffa, in the pro- vince of Irak ; 64 miles W.S.W. of Ifpahan. : CAJANA, or Cayaneborc, a town of Sweden ina. lehn or diftri& of the fame name, and capital of Ealt Both- nia, feated on a lake near the borders of Lapland, and al- moft furrounded by the river Pyha, which forms a tremene - dous cataraé in the neighbourhood. The diltri€t_of which . it is a partis about 60 leagues long and 16 broad. It was - granted as a barony, in 1650, to Peter Brahe, under the title of the fief of Cajana. N. lat. 64° 13/ 30”. E. long. 15° 50" 47". CAIANTI, in Ecclefiaflical Antiquity, a fort of heretics, thus denominated from one Caianus of Alexandria, their leader, otherwife denominated ApHTHARTODOCETA.. The fame name is fometimes alfo given to the feé& of Cai- nians or Cainites. CAIAON, in Geography, a kingdom of- the ifland of ava. CAIAPHAS, in Scripture Hiffory, the high prieft of the Jews, at the time of our Saviour’s crucifixion. He fucceeded Simon, the fon of Camithus, A. M. 4029, and after pofleffing this dignity nine years, till the year A. M. 4038, was depofed by Vitellius, governor of Syria, cn i € cAtr the dignity devolved upon Jonathan, the fon of Ananus. It appears that Caiaphas was high priett all the time that Pilate was in Judea. Some have thought, that the phrafe, “ being hich-prieft that fame year” (John, xi. 49.) implies, that St. John fuppofed the high prielthood was annual, And on this account, they have been difpofed to charge him with a great miftake; for Pontius Pilate was governor of Judza 10 years, and Caiaphas was put into the prieft- hood by Valerius Gratus, the predeceffor of Pilate, and continued in it, till after Pilate’s removal. But the phrafe «that year,’’ as it fhould have been rendered, and not that fame year,”’ denotes no more than “at that time.’ St. John, therefore, merely fays, that Caiaphas was high- prieft at that time. It is added, that ‘ being high-prieit that year he prophefied.”” By prophefying we may under- ftand his declaring the event; which it was in a peculiar manner the office of the prieft to do, when he was inquired of, or when God was inquired of by him, concerning any important matter under deliberation. Lardner’s works, vol. i. p. 387, &c. CAJARE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- rtment of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Figeac; 54 leagues E. of Cahors. The town contains 1975 and the canton 8,126 inhabitants: the ter- ritory includes 2074 kiliometres and 14 communes. CAIATUS, in Botany, (Rumph. amb. iv. 64, t. 24). See ZiscHYNOMENE indica, CAIAZACOS, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 40 miles W.S.W. of Bayamo. CAJAZZO, a town of Naples, in the country of La- yora, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Capua, 8 miles N.E. of it. . CAIC, Carque, Carca, in Sza-language, is ufed’ to de- note the {kiff, or floop, belonging to a galley. The Coffacks give the fame name, caic, to a {mall kind of bark ufed in: the navigation of the Black fea. It is equipped with-forty or fifty men, all foldiers; their employ- ment isa kind of piracy.. The Turks have alfo a fort of caics, which fome render by Liremes. The Caics, or Caiques, that navigate the fea of Marmora, . are generally manned by two or three rowers ; and they are inceflantly employed in crofling the harbour, and proceeding with celerity to all the villages of the Bofphorus, to Scutart, to Prince’siflands, and to every place in the environs. Thefe. caiques are long narrow boats, extremely light, equipped with one, two, or three pairs of oars, feldom with four. - They carry one or two, and even three fails, which are fet only in fair weather, or when the wind is not too ftrong. They are not provided with ballafl, and are fo buoyant that a fome what iff breeze would overfet them, if the boatman did not take care to let go the theet on the fmalleft danger, and to throw the boat up in the wind by fhifting thehelm. Thefe caiques are fo numerous, and they divide the water with fuch velocity, that in fome cafes the utmoft {kill of the rowers canugt prevent their ronning foul of each other, and one of the two from being overiet, efpecially in bad weather. Such accidents, when they occur, are little regarded. ‘They are no lefs {wift in failing than elegant in their form. In two hours, with a light breeze, they will fail from Conftan- tinople to Prince’s ifland, diftant from 10 to 12 miles; and notwithftanding contrary. wind and current, three rowers never take more time for reaching Buyuk-Dere, diftant 18 miles. ‘The Caiques belonging to the Sultan are remarkable for their fize, their gilding, their elegance, and the number and dexterity of the rowers: they carry 14 pairs of oars, and are manned by 28 boftangees, drefled in white, the boftan- gee-bachi being the cock{wain, or fleerfman, The caique CLAVT of the grand vifier has 12 pairs of oars; thofe of the prin- cipal officers of the Porte, and of the ambafladors of foreign powers, have feven pairs each. In thefe large caiques one man is required for each oar; while thofe of private perfons are fufficiently narrow for a fingle man to make ufe of two: oars at a time. When the fultan in fummer vifits his different palaces on the Black fea, his caique is diftinguifhed by a beautiful crimfon awning, f{pread towards the ftern: and he is preceded and followed by a number of others, in which are his principal officers. CAICANDROS, or Carcanprus, in Ancient Geogra- phy, an ifland of the Perfian gulf, 400 ftadia diltant from Catwa, and before a place named Ilan, according to the journal of the navigation of Nearchus. It is mentioned alfo by Arrian. It was a {mall place and uninhabited. CAICINUS, a river of Italy in Brutium, near the Epi- zephyrian Locrians. It was near this river that the Athe- nians invaded the territory of the Locrians. CAICO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba;. 25 miles S. E. of Bayamo. CAICOS, or Cayos,.a clufter of fmall iflands or rocks, called Little and Great Catcos, lying between St. Domin- go, and the Bahama iflands. N. lat. 24° 14! to 22° 23/. - W. long. 71° 40’ to 71° 50’. CAICUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of SpHinx that: in- habits Surinam.. The wings are fufcous: pofterior pair rufous ftreaked with black.: abdomen cinereous with black rings. Caicus, in Ancient Geography, a {mall river of -Afia Minor, in Myfia, which pafled near the frontiers of Lydia, and uniting with other {treams, difcharged itfelf into the fea near Elza ; fuppofed to be the prefent Girma/i. CAIDBEIA, in: Botany, (Forik, Agyp.) See For- SKOEHLEAI CAJELT, or Cacery, in Geography, a bay. at the north-eaft end of the, ifland of Bouro, where the Dutch : have a fortrefs. . CAJELIE,. a country of Celebes in India, lying on the. weftern fhore of the ifland, towards the north, between Mandhar Mamoedje and Sinlenfe, which is the fouthernmott place belonging to the government of Ternate. By the treaty of Boni, this country was ceded to the king of Ter- nate; but the government.at Batavia afterwards iffued orders that it fhould be confidered as belonging to the go-. vernment of Macafler. It formerly yielded much cocoa‘nut- oil; but fince the year 1730, it has been fo much ravaged, firft by the internal diffenfions between their own nobles, and afterwards by the Mandharefe, that all the cocoa-nut trees were felled ; and the land lies now almoft uncultivated and defert, and is fubjeét, for the greateft part, to the Mandharefe, CAJEPUT Oity Oleum Volatile. Melaleuce. This ef- fential oil is prepared from the dried leaves of the Meta Leuca Leucodendron, a tree which grows abundantly in » many of the Molucea iflands. The oil is brought over in contiderable quantity from Amboyna, Batavia, and-other Dotch fettlements. Cajeput oil is a very limpid fluid with a flight green tinge, . lighter than water, of a very penetrating and peculiar-fmell fomewhat refembling a mixture of ether and camphor, to- tally evaporable in a moderate temperature when expofed to air, very inflammable and burning without leaving any re- fidue. In chemical qualities it refembles the other e/ential Os. To the tafte tt is highly acrid and ftimulating, and it appears to poflefs valuable medicinal properties asa general flimulant « CLAS flimulant and antifpafmodic. Hence it is warmly recom- mended in flatulent colic, paralyfis, chorea, hooping cough, and convulfive diforders in general. The dofe is from one to fix drops. It is alfo of confiderable ufe externally applied for the relief of tooth-ach, rheumatic pains, fprains, and the like. This oil was firft introduced into. the Amfterdam Pharmacopeeia about the year 1726, and is retained in the laft edition of that of Edinburgh. Infe€&ts have a great averfion from this oil, the vapour of which appears to intoxicate and killthem. A peculiar property of cajeput, in which it excels other effential oils, is, that it is a perfect folvent of caoutchouc, from which a per- feé&t drying varnifh may be made in the manner defcribed under that article. CAIET, or Cayvet, Peter Vicror Pauma, in Bio- graphy, was born in 1525, of poor Proteftant parents, at Montrichard in Touraine; and after purfuing his theologi- eal ftudies at Geneva, became a domeftic in the houfe of Calvin, and afterwards a minifter. However, he left his church to follow the court, and was appointed chaplain to Catharivie, filter of Henry IV.; but being addiéted to al- chemy, he was calumniated as a magician, and charged with publifhing a book in favoar of the eftablifhment of public ftews ; and depofed from his minilterial funtion by a fynod. Thus difgraced, he abjured Proteftantifm, in 1595, and was cordially received by the Roman Catholics, among whom he was ordained prieft at the college of Na- varre, and made doétor in theology, and appointed royal pro- feffor of Hebrew. His zeal, as a new convert, led him to attack the fe&t he had abandoned in feveral controverfial writings, and in a difputation with Du Moulin. But his principal reputation was founded on his hiftorical compila- tions. In 1598 he publifhed a relation of the recent war between the Turks and Hungarians; and, in 1605, his « Septenary Chronology,”” from the peace of Vervins, in 1598, to 1604, to which he afterwards added the hiftory of the nine years’ war, terminated at this peace, in his «* No- vennary Chronology,” printed in 1605. He alfo wrote two works in Latin; one intitled, “ Concilium pium de componendo Religionis Diffidio,” and the other, * In- ftruétions in the four principal Oriental Languages.”” He died in 1610. Gen. Did. CAJETA, in Entomology, the name under which Cra- met figures the Gmelinian Nocrua FULLONICA, which fee. CAJETA, in Ancient Geography, a fea port town of Italy in Latium, now Geta. “CAJETAN, Carninat, in Biography, fo called from the place of his nativity, Cajeta, (his proper name being Thomas da Vio,) was born in 1469, and entered into the order of Dominicans, among whom he was diftinguifhed for the acutenefs of his underflanding and his learning. The chapter of his order conferred upon him the degree of doétor in 1494; and after having taught philofophy at Rome and at Paris, he was chofen general of his order in 1508, and raifed to the dignity of cardinal in 1517, by Teo X. In the following year he was deputed as legate to the emperor, for promoting the war againft the Turks and oppofing the Lutheran herefy. At this time he held three conferences with Luther at Augfburg, in the condué& of which he behaved in a manner fo imprudent and imperious as to give offence at the court of Rome. Inftead of recurring to argument, he ufed the mere language of autho- rity, and in an overbearing tone infifled on the reformer’s giving up his opinions and fubmitting refpectfully to the judgment of the Roman pontiff. Luther’s temper could not brook fuch treatment, and of courfe the breach was CAT widened by thefe conferences. Pope Adrian VI. fent him ag his legate to Hungary, and upon his return he was promoted to the fee of his native city. When Rome was facked+in 1527, he fell into the hands of the foldiers, by whom he was treated with great indignity, and they infifted ona large fum for hisranfom. He clofed his life at Rome, where he was affiduoufly employed in the ftudy of the Scriptures, in 1534. His earlier works were “* Commentaries upon Arif- totle,” and upon the “ Summa Theologie” of Aquinas. In his *¢ Traétatus de Comparatione Authoritatis Pape et Concilii,”” he alleges many frivolous and groundlefs argue ments in favour of the abfolute authority of the popes as fucceffors to St. Peter. His theological treatifes difcufs the mott important tenets of the Roman Catholic religion ; and in his illuftration of the doétrine of indulgences he main- tains that they avail only as an abfolution from the penances enjoined by the church, but that their benefits extend to fouls departed merely in the way of fuffrage or interceffion. With refpeét to indulgences he contended, in his conference with Luther, that ‘* one drop of Chrift’s blood being fuffi- cient to redeem the whole human race, the remaining quan- tity that was fhed in the garden and upon the crofs, was left asa legacy to the church, to be a treafure from whence indulgences were to be drawn and adminiftered by the Ro- man pontiffs.”” Cajetan’s moft confiderable work is his ‘¢* Commentary upon the Scriptures,” comprehending the Old and New Teftament, except the Song of Solomon, the Prophets, and the book of Revelation. In this performance, he re- {tri€ted himfelf to the literal fenfe of the words of Scripture in the original languages, without regarding the expofitions of the fathers. Ignorant of the Hebrew, he employed a Jew and a Chriftian to furmfh him with the exa& import of the words according to the letter and grammar, without troubling themfelves to give a fenfe of their own when no fenfe appeared. In the New Teftament he chiefly followed the verlfionof Erafmus. By deferting the vulgar Latin tran- flation, and difregarding the fathers, heincurred the cenfure of fome of his own communion ; and, in 1544, the univerfity of Paris ifflued a decree, condemning his work, as contain- ing falfe, impious, and even heretical propotitions. Some more candid Catholics have vindicated him, though he is jultly charged with too ferupuloufly adhering to the literal verfion of the rabbins. Many editions of his works have appeared. ‘Thofe on the Scriptures were printed at Lyons, in 1639, in 5 vols. fol. Dupin’s E. H. 16th century. Mofheim’s E, H. vol. iv. CAI-FONG, in Geography. See Kat-ronc. CAILAR, a town of France, in the department of the Herault, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri of Lo- déve. The town contains 722, and the canton 3127 in- habitants: the territory comprehends 255 kiliometres, and 8 communes. CAILHALU, a town of France, in the department of the Aude, and diftri& of Limoux; 3% leagues S. W. of Carcaifonne. CAILLE, Nicworas Lewis pe va, in Biography, an eminent mathematician and philofopher, was born at Rumigny, in the diocefe of Rheims, March the 15th, 17173. The amufements of his father, after withdrawing from the army, in mathematical and mechanical philofophy, led the fon, at an early period, to form an attachment to mechanics. Having left fchool in 1729, he profecuted his ftudies at Paris, and applied particularly to theology, in the college of Navarre, with an intention of becoming an ecclefiaftic. But his inclination to aftronomy diverted his purpofe ; and, by the friendfhip of the celebrated Caflini, to whem he was introduced, CAI introduced, he obtained an appointment in the obfervatory ; and under the in{tru@tion of this excellent patron, his natural genius had favourable opportunities for-cultivation and ex- ercife, and he acquired the reputation of an able aftronomer. In 1739 he was conneéted with M. Caffini de Thury, in verifying the meridian through the whole extent of France; and in the fame year he was appointed profeffor of Mathe- matics in the college of Mazarine. In 1741 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences, and from this year to 1763 in- clufive, he enriched every volume of the memoirs with fome valuable paper. He alfo publifhed, at different periods, fome ufeful treatifes on geometry, aftronomy, mechanics, and optics. He alfo computed all the eclipfes of the fun and moon, from the commencement of the Chriltian era, which were printed in the work intitled, « L’Art de’ verifier les Dates, &c.”? Paris, 1750, gto. He alfo compiled a volume of ** Aftronomical Ephemerides,”” for to years, from 1745 to 1755; another from 1755 to 17653 and a third, from 1765 to 1775. His excellent work, intitled, “ Aftronomie Tundamenta, noviffimis Solis et Stellarum Obfervationibus ftabilita ; *? was publifhed at Paris in 1759; and in 1760 ap- d his corre& folar tables, under the title of “ Tabule olares, quas ¢ noviflimis fuis obfervationibus deduxit,”’ N. L. de la Caille. Having completed a feries of feven years’ obfervations in the obfervatory at the Mazarine college, he formed a pro- je&, which was approved by the French court, of obferving the fouthern ftars at the Cape of Good Hope; and pro- ceeded upon this expedition in 1750. in the fpace of two years he obferved the places of about 10,000 ftars in the fouthern hemifphere, inyifible in our latitude; and deter- mined feveral other important elements, fuch as the parallaxes of the fun and moon, and fome of the planets, the obliquity of the ecliptic, the quantities of refra€tion, &c. Previous to his return he engaged in the arduous attempt of eftimat- ing the dimenfions of the earth by meafurement, at the fouthern parallels, as other aftronomers had done near the équator, and in northern latitudes, with a view of deciding whether the former correfponded with the latter. The re- fults of his labours were fatisfactory ; for having determined a diftance of 410814 feet from a place called “ Klip-Fontyn”’ to the “Cape,” by means of a bafe of 38802 feet, three times a@wually meafured, he difcovered an unknown fecret of nature, viz. that the radii of the parallels in fouth latitude are not of the fame length with thofe of the correfponding parallels in north latitude. He found that a degree on the meridian in 32° S. lat. contains 342222 Paris feet. In con- formity to orders from the court of Verfailles, he alfo de- termined the fituation of the Ifles of France and Bourbon. During his abode at the Cape he likewife made fome curious meteorological obfervations ; and he particularly obferved, than when the fouth-eaft wind blows, which is often the cafe, the ftars appear larger and feem to dance; that the moon has an undulating tremor; and that the planets have a fort of beardlike comets. Upon his return to France, after an abfence of 4 years, he replied to fome ftri€tures, publifhed by the celebrated Euler, relating to the meridian: he afterwards fettled the refults of the comparifon of his own obfervations, refpe€ting the xes, with thofe of other aftronomers. Accord- ingly, he fixed that of the fun at 94”, that of the moon at 50 56”, that of Mars, in his oppofition, at 36”, and that of Venus at 38”. He alfo fertled the laws, by which altro- nomical refraGtions are varied by the different denfity or ra- rity of the air, by heat or cold, and by drynefs or moifture. And he was one of the firft promoters of the lunar obferva- tions for determining the longitude at fea. In confequence CAI of the reputation which he had thus acquired and eftablifhed, he was elected a member of moft of the academies and foti- eties in Europe: as London, Bologna, Peterfburg, Berlin, Stockholm, and Gottingen. Independently of his own publications, he edited the me- moirs of Father Feuillée, at the Canaries; the journal of the voyage of M. de Chazelle, to the Levant; the manufcript collection of obfervations of William, Landgrave of Heffe, and Bouguer’s treatife on the gradation of light. Although he was attacked in 1760 with a fevere fit of the gout, the energy of his mind was unimpaired: fo that beiides purfuing his courfe of ftudies, he fetched out the plan of a new and large work, propofed to be * The Hiftory of Aftronomy through all Ages, with a Comparifon of the ancient and modern Obfervations, and the Confru€tion and ‘Ule of the Inftruments employed in working them.” In the year 1761 his conftitution gradually declined, without interrupting his ftudies, in which he perfevered to the laft: and they ouly terminated with his life, March 21{t, 1762. Mem. of the Paris Academy for 1762. Caixte, in Ornithology, among the French, fynohymotis with the Englifh word quail, as for example, caille de la Louifiane of Buffon, the Louifiane quail of Latham ; caile dela Chine of Buffon, the Chinefe quail of Edwards; caille de Pifle de Lucon of Sonnerat, the Luzonian quail of Latham, &e, = CAILLERE, va, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vendeé; 44 leagues N.E. of Lucon. CAILLOT; in Biography, a moft pleafing, and almolt the only pleafing, theatrical French finger, to the natives of other countries, that France has produced. He continued, during many years, the favourite a€tor and finger of the comic opera at Paris. His voice, which he could make a bafe, tenor, or counter-tenor at pleafure, was fweet and flexible. He was an excellent aor, and, in all refpects, a moft interefting, entertaining, and admirable performer. He firft appeared in the part of Colas, in Ninette a la Cour, in 1760. , CAILLY, in Geography, atown in France, ia the de- partment of the Lower Seine, and diftri& of Rouen; 32 leagues N.N.E. of Rouen. CAILO, a fmall ifland in the guiph of Perfia, 80 leagues W. of Ormus. CAIMACAN, or Caimacam, a dignity m the Ottoman empire, aniwering to that of lieutenant, or vicar, among us. The word is compofed of the two Arabic words, Caim machum, q.. he who holds the place, or difcharges the furtfions of another. There are ufually two caimacans: one refides at Conftan- tinople, who is the governor thereof: the other attends the grand vifir, in quality of his lieutenant. Somctimes there are three caimacans: one conftantly attending the grarid fignior, another the grand vifir, and a third conftantly at Conftantinople, who examines affairs of policy, and regulates them in great meafure. “he caimacan that attends the vifir, only officiates when at a diftance from the grand fignior ; his funétion ceafing, when the vifir is with the fultan. The caimacan of the vifir is his fecretary of ftate, and the firft minifter of his council. The caimacan is properly the fub- ftitute of the grand vifir, appointed by the fultan, when the former is obliged to abfeut himfelf in order to take command of the ariny. The caimacan difcharges his funétions, is in- velted with the fame authority, enjoys the fame rights, but not the fame revenues; his Clary is fixed, and the emolu- ments of the place belong to the vilir, to whom the caimacan renders an account of them. It is generally a pacha or bafhaw CrANI bafhary with three tails who is appointed to this eminent lace. CAIMAN, in Geography. See Cayman. CAIMENI. See Kammens and Hiera. CAIN, YP» derived from 793}, to acquire, and denoting -acquifition or poffeffion, in Scripture Hiflory, the eldett fon of the progenitors of the human race, Adam and Eve, was born towards the end of the firft year of the world, B.C. 4003. From the concife hiftory of Cain that occurs in Genelis, ch. iv. we learn, that he devoted himfelf to hufbandry, and his brother Abel to the keeping of fheep ; that when they brought their refpective offerings to God, that of Abel was accepted, and that of Cain rejected ; that this preference en- ‘raged Cain, exciting in his mind jealoufy and envy of his brother ; and that the indulgence of thefe wicked paffions at length terminated in the murder of his brother. Asa pu- nifhment of this atrocious crime, God condemned him to be a fugitive and vagabond on earth, and to till an ungrateful foil, which fhould not recompenfe his labour with the plenty and increafe he had before experienced. Neverthelefs he fet .a mark upon him, or gave him a fign, that none might take away his life in his wanderings. Many ridiculous conjectures ‘have been made both by Jews and Chriflians concerning this -mark. Some have fuppofed that God ftigmatifed him with a brand in his forehead, to denote his being accurfed ; others, that he had a wild afpect and bloody eyes, which rolled in a horrid manner. The fathers, in general, apprehend, that he had a continual trembling of the body, fo that he could hardly get his food to his mouth; and this opinion is fa- ‘voured by the LXX, which render “ a fugitive and a vagabond”? sevav xa rgez0y, lamenting and trembling. Others fay, that wherever he went the earth fhook under him; and others again intimate, that he had a. horn growing out of his forehead, to warn people to avoid him ; and others have in- dulged him with the fign of the crofs. Le Clere imagines, that God ordered him to wear fome diftinguifhing garment, perhaps of feme glaring colour, as a mark or fign upon him for his prefervation. To thefe fanciful conjectures we may add a more probable opinion of Dr. Shuckford (Conn. vol. i. p- 8:), who renders the words FF? ow DN J b, «‘ God gave to Cain a fign,”’ or token, probably by fome apparent miracle, that he would providentially protect him ; fo that none that met him fhould kill him. In this fenfe the word FA\& is ufed, when the rainbow is called the MAX oth, that is, the fign, or token, of the covenant which God made with Noah, affuring him that he would drown the world “no more. (Gen. ix. 12—17.) Seealfo Judg. vi. 17. Pfalm, Ixxxvi. 17. Dr. Geddes (Crit. Rem. vol.i. p. 59.) tranflates the words above cited, “and the Lord gave a token of _fecurity to Cain ;” and he obferves, that the original cannot admit of the common interpretation, as there is not a fingle paffage in the Bible where FRX fignifies a mark or brand {et on one. It always denotes a fign, a token, a wonderful event; but never a mark. And although [5 yy fignifies to place or fet, it has often a meaning like that of 77)); and TIS Tow is here equivalent to 7% MX, and fuch is its fignification wherever it is connected with the word JX. Pf. xxiv. 4. Ixxvili. 43. cv. 27. If Ixvi. 19. Cain at length fettled with his wife and family in the land of Nod, on the eaft of Eden, where he built a city, calling it after the name of his fon, Enoch. But Jofephus feys (Ant. 1.i. c. 2.) that inftead of being reformed by the punifhment in- fli&ed on him, he became more wicked and violent, and headed a band of thieves, whom he taught to acquire riches by oppreffion and robbery. He is faid to have corrupted and changed the fimplicity and honefty of the world, and to have invented weights and meafures. He was alfo the firft CAT who fet bounds to the ficlds, and who built and fortified'2 city. CAINAN, the fon of Enos, was born A. M. 325, B.C. 3679, Enos being go years of age. Gen. v.9. At the age of 70 he begat Mahaleel, and dicd at the age of gio yearss ALM. ‘12.35, B.C. 2769. Carnan was alfo the fon of Arphaxad, and father of Salah, whofe name does not occur either in the Samaritan or Hebrew text, nor in any of the ancient verfions of Gen. xi. 12, &c. except the LXX; and hence it has been generally deemed an interpolation. ‘The name, however, occurs in the genea- logy of Chri, Luke iii. 36, between Salah and Arphaxad. Dr. Jackfon, in the firft volume of his ‘ Chronological Antiquities,” labours hard to fhew, that the reading of the LXX is the true original reading, and tiat it ttood in the original copies till after the Chrittian era. It mult be ac- knowledged, that it is not eafy to detcrmine by what means it could have got into the Septuagint verfion, if it had net been found in their Hebrew copy; and it is certain, that it muft have been in the copy ufed by St.-Luke in forming his genealogy of Chrift. It is not ealy to congeive, how fuch an interpolation could have been made, or for what purpofe ; whereas its having been dropt out of the Hebrew text may be readily accounted for. On the other hand, the confor- mity of the Samaritan with the Hebrew copies, the filence of Jofephus and Philo, and its omiffion in the chronological computations of Julius Africanus, Eufebius, and Theophilus, are urged as cogent proofs that the paflage was not in the original copies of the Septuagint ; and Grotius even aflerts, that it was not to be found there before the 4th century. But it may be afked, how came it to be inferted? To which it is replied, that it was foilted into St. Luke’s gofpel by fome carelefs copyift from ver. 37, where it rightly occurs ; and this interpolation, being tranfcribed by other copyitts, got imperceptibly into almoft all the exemplars; and, on thefe exemplars, the copies of the LXX were next interpo- lated, in order to make them agree with the evangelift. This indeed, though not an impoflible, is certainly a {trange, rapid, and almott incredible procefs. For we find this fame interpolated Cainan in the Syriac, Vulgate, Arabic, -and Ethiopic verfions. Upon the whole there is reafon for in- clining to the opinion, that the comma in quettion ftood originally in the Septuagint verfion, and that Luke drew his genealogy from that vertion. After all, it is a point, in its conne¢tion with Biblical criticifm, of no great moment, as the defign of the evangelift was only to prefent us with the genealogy of Chrift in its afcent to Adam, which is equally clear, whether we reckon Salah as the immediate defcendant of Arphaxad, or whether we confider him as his grandfon by Cainan. We mutt not, however, omit to mention, that the comma is wanting in three of Holmes’s MSS. in the Coptic (which indeed has Cainan, but makes him one of the fons ef Shem, and places him after Aram), and Armenian, edited copies, and m one Arab. MS. Nor was it read by Theo- philus ; nor by Jerom in his Heb. Queftions ; where he ex- prefsly fays, ‘* Arphaxad genuit Sala.” CAINAS, in Ancient Geography, a navigable-river of Afia, which difcharged itfelf into the Ganges; mentioned both by Pliny and Arrian. CAINITES, or Carnians, in Ecclefiapical Hiftory, a fed of ancient Gnofllics, that {prung up towards the clofe of the fecond .certury, and paid extraordinary honours to thofe perfons reprefented in Scripture as the worft of man- kind ; fo called from Cain, whom they efteemed their patri- arch, and the chief obje& of their veneration: They held that Cain, Efau, Core, Dathan, and Abiram, and thofe of Sodom, were born of a moft eminent celeltial virtue; that Abel, . . CAI ‘Abel, on the contrary, was born of a virtue much lefs emt- nent : to Cain, and others of the fame order, who, according to them, had a mighty knowledge of all things, they aflo- ciated Judas, whom they held in fo much efteem, that they had a book among them called the gofpel of Judas. 5S, Epiphanivs, who feemsto have borrowed his account from Trenzus, relates, and at the fame time refutes, their errors. Irenzus and Epiphanius concur in their accounts of the fa errors and atrocious wickednefs of thefe people. Dr. rdner, however, difputes the credibility of their relation. The wickednefs afcribed to them, he fays, is incredible ; as Gt is not eafy to conceive, that any number of perfons calling themfelves Chriftians fhould honour Cain, Core, and Judas, ‘and all who lie under juft condemnation in the f{criptures, both of the Old and New Teftament, for the mott notorious wickednefs ; and efides, the account is inconfiftent with Guelf ; for it is not poffible that men fhould be extremely wicked in principle and praétice, and at the fame time be concerned about the falvation thet is by the crofs of Chrilt, and honour Judas for his love of truth, and folicitude for the falvation of the world ard the gencral good. Moreover, the tile of this denomination of Cainites may be accounted for another way, without making a particular fe&. It might stife from the SerH1ans, thole who cali themfelves by {hat name, and extolled their anceftor. Seth could not well avoid declaiming againt Cain; end they might fometimes fay of thofe in a different courfe of life from themfelves, that they a@ed as if they were the children of Cain, who was of the evil one; and feemed to fhew themfelves kindred ef Core, and Dathan, and even Judas himfelf. From this circumftance or mode of fpeaking, fome perfons, who were Gifpofed to multiply herefies, took occafion, or by miftake were led to talk of a fe& under the denomination of Cainites. Lardner’s Works, vol. ix. p. 456. See Seruians,. CAINITO, in Botany, (Plum. Gen. 10. ic. 69.). See Curysospayiium Cainito. CAINON, Kau, the mew court, in Antiquity, a civil court of jultice at Athens, fometimes called zapefuser przor, which took cognizance of trifling matters, not exceeding in value one drachm. ‘The judges in this court were the eleven magiftrates. Sce Aruens. CAINS, in the ifland of Candia, denote, Greeks revolted and retired tothe Venetians, either at Suda or Spina Longa; who in time of war, burn, pillage, and commit all manner of crueltics on their ancient brethren underthe Turks. When 2 Cain, or falfe brother, is taken, there is no mercy forhim, they either impale him, or put him to the ganche. ‘CAINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia. Not. Imp. CAJORI, in Geography, an iland near the mouth of the Ganges, at the bottom of the bay of Bengal, on the weft fide of the river. CAJOU, Casnew,orCassu. See Anacarvium. CAIPBA, Catarna, or Hern, in Ancient Geography, atown at the foot of Mount Carmel, to the north, on the gulf of Prolemais; its ancient name was Sycaminos, or Por- hyreon. It was feparated from Acco or Ptolcmais; by a ani and beautiful harbour. The diftance from Acco to Cstapha, or Capha, by fea, is not above 15 miles ; but itis twice as much by land. CAIRA, in Geography, a river of South America, which runs into the Oronoko, or Orinoco, N. lat. 7° 16’. W. long. 65° 1'. Ca-in, a poft-town of America, in Ameliacounty, Vir- ginia, 190 miles from Wathington.— Adio, the chicf town of Sumner county, Teneflee. Vor, V. CAl CAIRINA, in Ornithology, the Mufcovy duck, Anat Moscuara, according to fome authors. CAIRN, Sce Carn. CAIRNEY, in Geography, atown of Scotland, in Aber- deenfhire, into which the linen manufaGture bas lately been introduced, and where it is likely to flourish ; 8 miles W. of Aberdeen. CAIRNGORM, a mountain in the Highlands of Scot- land, and north-ea part of the county of Inverary, 4060 fect high, called alfo the Blue Mowntain, which is clothed with almoft perpetual foow, and which is remarkable for quartz of dffcrent colours, chiefly the {moaky kind, well known to lapidaries. CAIRO, Francesco, called Cavarre're DEL Cairo, in Biography, a painter of hiftory and portrait, was boro at Milan, in 1598, and inftru€ted in his art by Morazzone, whofe flyle he for fome time imitated; but in confequence of purfuing his fludies at Rome, he altered his manner, and evinced his improvement by compofing with judgment, de- figning in an elevated ftyle, and giving corre€inefe, grace, and harmony to his compcfitione. In the Venetian {chool, he farther acquired a ftrong and lively manner of colourirg, and a talent of execution which has occafioned fome of his pictures, particularly bis portraits, to be alcribed to Titian, and Pacla Veronefe. He is {aid to have adopted three manners of painting, the Milanefe, Roman, and Venetian ; and by this variety he obtained extenfive employment and applaufe. At the court of the duke of Savoy, Victor Ama- deus I., whither he was invited, he was honoured with a penfion, and with the order of knighthood. His © The- refa,”’ at Venice, is much admired for its colouring and ex- preffion ; and his pifture in the chapel of the Chartreux, at Pavia, reprefenting the Virgin, St. Catharine of Siena, and another faint, is excellently defigned, and beattifully colour- ed, ina ftyle refembling that of Rubens. This artifl died in 1674. Pilkington. Cairo, or Granp Cairo. in Geography, the chief city of Egypt, and reckoned the fecond capital of the Eeft. and the metropolis of Africa, is feated on the eaft of the Nile, and ciftant from it about one quarter of a league; but con- need with it by the fuburbs, called Mifr, or Mafr cl At- tiké, and Bulac, or Bovlac, which fre. This city was founded in the year 358 of the Hegira, A. D. 968, by Jauhar, or Giavhar, general of Moaz, the firft caliph of the race of the Fathimites. Having fubjugated Eyypt, he built this town for the accommodation of his vittorious foldiers, and a palace for the refdence of the emperor. Four years after, Moaz himfIf removed from Barbary to this plece, completed tlie building of the city, and eftablifh- ed the empire of the Fathimites. As the foundation of the city was laid at the inflant when the planet Mars paffed the meridian, and this planet was denominated by the Ara bian aftronomers Cahér, q. d. victorious, it obtained from this circumftance the appellation £/ Cahera, Kaherah, or Kahirah. This new city was erected near O/d Cairo, former- ly called Ma/r, and now Fofat, which fee ; and farther from the Nile, which rendered its fituation lefs advantageous for trade, When the French, under king Lufignan, had ex- tended their conqueftsin Syria, and carried their victorious arms even into Epypt, they proceeded, in the year of the Hegira 564, A.D. 1168, to Belbeis, and having taken it by ftorm, they advanced towards Grand Cairo, which they alfo captured. Schaouar, king of Egypt, fearing lett Foftat fhould alfo fall into their hands, fet fire to it; and the inha- bitants, being thus reduced to the neccflity of abandoning it, took refuge in the new town, which afiumed the name of ‘‘ Mafr,” or “ Mifr,” attached to the capital of Egypt. 4% Salab GAVE Ri; Salah Eddin, or Saladin, being nominated governor of Egypt, in the year 554 of the Hegira, fuccefsfully refitted the Franks, almoft entirely expelled from the eaftern coun- tries, ‘and eftablifhed in Egypt, of which he acquired the fovereignty, the dynalty of the Aioubites. In the year 572 of the Hegira, A.D. 1176, he built the walls that en- compafs Grand Cairo, and the caftle fituated on Mount Mo- kattam. It is faid to be about 29,300 cubits (3 leagues) in circumference: 13 leazues from north to fouth, or, ac- cording to Browne’s eftimate, about 35c@ yards, and 2 of a league from ealt to weit. To the fouth-ealt and ealt of Grand Cairo is a ridge, called Mokattam, of the extenfive chain, which runs along the courfe of the Nile to Upper Egypt, fometimes receding and leaving a plain about a league broad, and at other places oppofing its barrier to the ftream. This mountain is totally without verdure, and pre- fents nothing to the eye but adry fand and ftones calcined by the fun, which of courfe refle& a fuffocating heat upon the town, whenever the northerly wind does not blow. To the north of the city a plain extends to the Delta, which it re- fembles in foil and produGions. Immediately under the mountain is the caftle, now incapable of defence, though efteemed of great ftrengtn, before the invention of artillery. As it is commanded by the neighbouring mountain, it could not fuftain a battery from thence fortwo hours. It is more thana quarter of a leayue in circumference ; and the accefs toit is by two very fteep paflaces, cut out of the rock on which it ftands, which lead to two gates, entrulted to the guard of Affabs (no longer exiting) and Janizarics. The former occupied the lower part of the fortrefs, and the others the part called the citadel. The interior of the caltle con- tains the palace of the fultans of Egypt, almoft buried un- der their ruins. In one of the halls of thefe ruined build- ings, exhibiting only fome fhattered remains of their ancient magnificence, is fabricated the rich carpeting, or embroi- dered-cloth, which the Emir Hagg, or bey, who 1s prince of the caravan, carries every year to Mecca, for the purpofe ef covering the Caaba. The pacha’s apartments in the caltle are mean and incommodious ; the audience-hall, where the divanis held three times a week, is a long room ftained with the blood of the beys, maflacred by order of the Porte. At the extremity of the place called «* Cora Maidan,”’ is the mint (the only one for Egypt), where they coin in gold mah- bibs, and half-mahbtibs, the firft being worth about 5 fhil- lings each; and in copper wathed with filver the {mall coins worth about a half-penny, called in Turkifh ‘ paras,” in Arabic, ‘* diwani,’’ * fuddha,’’ or “ maidi;’? and by Euro- pean writers, ‘ afpers,” and ‘“ medines.”” On one fide is the name of the reigning fultan, and on the reverfe ‘© Mifr,”? and the date. The fequins are worth about 6s. 3d. Englifh, and are made of the gold-duft brought from Abyffinia, which furnithes annually upwards of four millions. One of the molt curious monuments in the caftle is the «© Well of Jofeph,’’ hewn out of the rock, which, according to Pococke, was funk about 700 years ago by avilir, called Jofeph, by order of Sultan Mahommed, fon of Calaoun. ‘The Egyptians afcribe it to Salah Eddin. It is hardly ne- ceflary to obferve, that fabulous tradition attributes it to Jofeph the patriarch, whofe palace this caftleis faid to have been. The well is 280 feet deep, and 42 in circumference. A ftair-cafe of gentle defcent winds round it. Within this well, at a confiderable depth, is an efplanade with a bafon ; where oxen turn the wheel that raifes the water from the bottom of the lower well ; other oxen, placed above, raife it trom this refervoir, by the fame mechanifm. The water proceeds from the Nile, and, asit filters through a fand im- pregnatcd with falt and nitre, itis brackifh, From: the fa- zm loon of the palace of Salah Eddin, fituate in the quarter of the Janizaries, and exilting only in ruius, the view extends over an immenfe horizon, including the whole extent of Grand Cairo, a multitude of mofquesand minarets, the river, and on the fide of Boulac, a rich country covered with har- velts, and interfperfed with groves of date-trees. Mafre Foftat appears to the fouth-welt, and the plains of the Said, or Upper Egypt, when overflowed by the Nile, pre- fent to view different hamlets, built on eminences, now cone verted into iflands. The land{cape is terminated by the py- ramids, which, like the tops of mountains, lofe themfelves in the clouds. This caftie commands the town, which forms an immenfe crefcent around it. The ttreets of this famous city are narrow, crooked, and unpaved, interfe€ted here and there with large vacancies, which become lakes dering the increafe of the Nile, and are gardens during the reft of the year. In the month of September they are paflable by boats; but in April they are covered with flowers and vere dure. The narrownefg of the fkreets, however, affords pro- tection from the fierce effulgence of the meridian fun. The ** Chalige,” “* Knalig,’? or canal, which traverfes Grand Cairo from north to fouth, and which is opened every year with great folemnity, takes its rife near Mafr el Attiké, or Foftat, fills the lakes of the city, and lofes itfelf four leagues beyond it, in the “ Birque” (large piece of water,) of the pilgrims of Mecca. Mr. Shaw calls this the canal of Trajan. Pococke, and other modern writers, afcribe the con- ftruction of it to this emperor ; and it has been commonly des nominated ** Amnis Trajanus.”? Macrifi fays it was built by the Emperor Adrian. Elmacin, cited by Savary, fays that this grand projeét was executed by Amrou, who, hav- ing announced the capture of Alexandria to Omar, received his inftrutions to cut a khalig, by which the produce of Egypt might be tranfported into the fea of Colzoum (or Red Sea), and from thence to the port of Medina. It was called ‘ the river of the prince of the faithful;”’ and boats paf- fing from Foftat, conveyed the commodities of Egypt into the Red Sea. Through the negligence of fucceeding caliphs ichas been choked up, fo that it no longer conveys its waters tothe Red Sea. By opening this important communication with the Red Sea, a proje&t which engagedtheattention of Bos ~ naparte during his {hort abode in Egypt, Grand Cairo would again become the richeft and molt commercial capital in the world. Fora further account of it, fee Canar. At different feafons of the year, this canal, in its paflage through Cairo, af- fumes various afpects ; but its moft permanent charaét-r is that of adunghill, or public receptacle for all kinds of offal. Be- fore the rife of the Nile, it tscleaned, and becomes a {treet 3 it isthen filled by theincreafe of the river, and-exhibits the appearance of a canal covered with boats. The kites fhriek wildly over this canal ; and the city is infefted with its ufual herds of dogs; while the turtle-doves, unmolefted by men or children, breed in the houfes, building their nefts under the projeting beams. The principal ftreet of Cairo runs parallel to the “‘ Cha« lige.”” And on this canalare all the houfes of the Europeans, notwithttanding the {tench that proceeds from it, and that is fail to produce the peftilence, to which, however, that order of men is leaft fubject. Within the walls of Grand Cairo are more than 309 mofques, molt of which have fe. veral minarets, or high fteeples ofa very light archite@ture, and furrounded with galleries. Thefe elevated ftru€ures give to the city an agreeable variety, which would other- wife appear too uniform, on account of the flatnefs of Ethe roofs, all of them being in the form of terraces : and they feem alfo to accommodate the public criera, who call the people to prayers at the hours preferibed by the Maho- metan cAIRO. About 800 voices may be heard at the fame pe Sigg reminding the people jnftact in every quarter of the town, the feafona of devotion. q ¢ Four or five of the mofques at Cairo far exceed the retin fplendour. One of the molt magnificent is calied “ Iama el Acher;” it is ornamented with pillars of marble, and Per- fian carpets, and has attached to it immenfe. property. A fheich, b-ing an ccclefiatlic of the higheit order, prefides over the eftablifhment, which alfo fupports a number of perfons ditingu fhed for their profound Aci!l in theology, and accurate knowledge of literal Arabic. It is furnithed with a large colle@ion of MSS. ; and lectures are read on all fub- jeats which are here called ftientific, though commonly very remote from real fcience. This ts alfo a very confiderable éleemofynary eftablifhment, fupplying chiefly poor ecclefi- altics, to the amou-t of fome thoufands, with broth, and other articles. Ac Cairo, moft of the mendicants are ¢c- clefiaftics, who plead their Qudies as an excufe for idlenefs. The other mofques moft frequented are, that of ** Sultan ei Ghouri,” “ el Haffanein,”’ and, of later date, that erected by “ Mohammed Bey Abudhabab.”” For the conftruction of this latter, the molt cottly materials were provided, and it is efleemed a chef d’ceurre of oriental magnificence. The city abounds with large and ay Tae ent which fupply paffengers with water; and allo with commo- dious he a hora) baths. Sce BATH. The «© Okals,” or warchoules, for wholefale goods, are fpacious, ftrongly built, convenient and clean: the baz4rs, for retail commo- Gities, are extentive buildings, with convenient fhops, each trade being appropriated to its allotted quarter, and fur- nifhing a plentiful fupply of every commodity. Mott of the houfes are built with fof ftone from the adjoining mountain; many of them are conitructed with, earth, or bricks badly burnt ; and they are two, or fometimes three ftories high, with flat roofs, or terraces of flone or tiles. ‘The windows of the upper {tories are latticed ; the ground- floor being either a fhop, or having no windows to the ftreet. Sometimes they content themfelves with lattices 3 {ome few have paper windows, and fome of the rich have giafs. The houf-s of the great chiefly furround “ Birket- el-fl,” or Birque, already mentioned, a pool which re- ceives the water of the Nile from the “ Coalize.’”’? The prlace of a bey contains a {quare court, having one or two fides occupied by his Mamlukes. Apart is the Harem, which fee. The room in which the bey geuerally fits in {fammer, has a contrivance in the roof for admitting a Co- pious fupply of freth air. In the halls of houfes belonging to perfons of fuperior rank, are marble bafons, which re. ceive fpouting water; the paved floor, inlar! with marble and coloured earthen ware, is covered with mats and mat- treffes, and over all is fpread a rich carpet, on which they fit crofs legged. Around the wall is a fort of fofa, with cuthions, to fupport the back and elbows; and above, at the height of 7 or 8 feet, a range of fhelves, decked out with China or Japanefe porcelain. The wails are chequered with fentences extra@ed from the Koran, and painted foliage and flowers, with which, alfo, the porticos of the beys are covered. Fire is only employed at Cairo for cookery ; the cffeéts of cold being iufficiently obviated by warmer cloath- The mean annual heat of Cairo, according to the eftimate of Mr. Kirwas, is 73°. The apartments of the women in this city are furnithed with the finelt and mokt ex- pentive articles; but thofe of the men are dittinguifled by piainnefs and neatnefs. The houfes, in general, are irre- gular, but {ubftantial and commodious. ~ ‘The population of Cairo confilts of the Arabs, or lower clas of Mabometans, who form the body of the people ; ing. of the Coptic Chriftians, who are numerous ; of Mamlukes, whom Browne eftimates at no more than ro or 12 thoufand ; of Grecks, Syrians, and Armenians; and of Muggrebins, from Tripoli, Tunis, and Morocco, to whem an eppropri- ate quarter is affigned, who are remarkable for indvitry and frugality, and are attra€ted hither by the great protits of trade. Befides th-fe above recited, there are other Ma- hometans from Arabia Proper, and countries farther ealt. There are few Turks who are permanent inhabitants, but they occafionaliy refort hither on bufinefs, and return to Conftantinople. Jews were once numerous: but they are now on the decreafe, _Exclufively of negro flaves in every houfe, there are blacks from Nubia, who a& as porters at the gates of the rich, and fometimes fell catables. It ts not eafy to calculate the precife amount of the whole popula- tion, becaule the Turks have no regifters of births, deaths, or marriages ; and if the number of houfes were known, it would furnifh no fufficient datum for computing the num- ber of inhabitants, as in Egypt.a large proportion of the people have no vilible dwelling. Baron de Tott ftates the whole number at Cairo, and the adjacent port Boulac, on the authority of an officer of the cuftoms, at 700,000 5 and Volney, admitting with Niebubr, that the circumference of Cairo is 3 leagues, and comparing it with Paris, after proper allowances, eftimates the number at 250,000. Browne thinks it cannot be lefs than 300,000. The wom-n of Cairo are, in general, well-formed, but not tall. Thofe of the upper’ranks are tolerably fair, in which quality, and fatnefe, confiits the chief conflituents of beauty ia the Egvp- tian climate. They marry at 14 0r 15, and at 20 are paffed their prime. The Coptic women have interciting features, large black eyes, and a genteel form. See Corris. Life at Grand Cairo, fays Savary, is more a paflive than an aétive exiltence: the body during nine months of the year being oppreffed with exceflive heat, and the mind par- taking of this {tate of indolence. The Mamlukes breakfatt before fun-rife, make cheir fecond meal at ten, and the third about five in the afternoon. They have plenty of amimel food, and in the middie of the table appears a large dilh of p:lav, furrounded with (mail difhes of meat. fifh, and fowl. Before they drefs their meat, they cut it in imali pieces, Their drink is water, which is brought from the Nile into the houfes, and put into jars, called ‘ hanmam,” previoufly rubbed in the infide with a kind of paite, made of bitter almonds. hus preferved, it becomes quite clear and limpid in two hours, But it is often drank in its muddy ftate, without any ill cffeets. After the meal, coftce 18 ferved ; and at the tables of the great fherbet is introduced. A fermented liquor made of maize, millet, bavley, or rice, pleafant to the tate, but in the hot feafon fpoiling in the courfe of the day, is drank at Cairo, as well as in Said, in confiderable quantities. ‘I'he native Chriftians moftiy dillil for themfelves, from dates, a liquor called by the general name of ‘* araki;’? it is alfo made from currants, or the {mall grapes imported from Cerigo. The principal difeafes to which the inhabitants of Cairo are fubject, are defluxions in the eycs, fometimes terminat- ing in blindnefs ; the diforder called by the vulgar the bleffed evil,” or Neapolitan difeafe, as the fyphylis has been fometimes improperly called, hydroccle, malignant fee vers, and the plague. Among the amufements of Cairo, we may mention its dancing girls, (fee Axmé) and rope dancers; sts chief games are chefs, and Polith drafts : on folemn occafions, fire-works are exhibited ; and on Friday, a mofque without the walls is frequented by the ladies as a pilgrimage of 9) -a~ 4K%2 fure. CATR @: fare. Parties are alfo formed for failing in light boats, like Venetian gondolas, on the increafe of the Nile. Before the difcovery of the paflage to India by the Cape of Good Hops, the commerce of Cairo was very exteniive ; but though it has fince declined, this city may ftill be re- garded as the metropolis of the trade of eaftern Africa, as Tripoli chicfy pofleffes that of the weft. From Yemen are imported coffee, odours, gems, and fome ufeful drugs: from Surat, and other neighbouring parts of India are ob- t2ined moflins, and varions articles of cotton manufa@ure ; from Ceylon, f{pices; and fhawls from Cafhmire. A few flaves are brought from Atyflinia by the way of Jidda and Mecca. Caravans paffing to and from ,Sennaar, Darfur, and Fezzan, bring flaves, gold-duft, ivory, horns of the rhinoceros, oftrich feathers, gum, and drugs. See Cara- yan. From Tunis and Tripoli are brought oil, red caps, for which Tunis is famous, and fine flannel; from Syria ar- sive cotton, filk, foap, tobacco, and glafs beads; from @onftantinople they obtain white flaves, male and female, and all kinds of brafs, copper, and iron manufaStures. Numerous negro flaves pals from Cairo to the more northern Mahometan countries. “Two powerful caufes,”? fays Volney, ‘* have contri- buted to render Cairo the feat of an extenfive commerce : the firft of which is, that all the commodities confumed in Egypt are colle€ted within the walls of that city ; and ail the perfons of property, that is, the Mamlukes and law- yers, are aflembled there, and draw thither their whole re- venues, without making any return to the country from which they receive them. The fecond is’ the fituation, which makes this city a centre of circulation, while, by the Red Sea, it correfponds with Arabia and India; by the Nile, with Abyffinia and the interior parts of Africa; and by the Mediterranean, with Europe and the empire of Tur- key. Every year, a caravan from Abyffinia arrives at Cairo, and brings from 1000 to 1200 black flaves, as alfo ele- phants’ teeth, gold duft, oftrich feathers, gums, parrots, and monkeys; while another, deftined ‘for Mecca, leaves the extremities of Morocco, and receiving pilgrims, even from the river of Senegal, coafts along the Mediterranean, collecting thofe of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis, and arrives by the defert at Alexandria, confifting of not lefs than three or four thonfand camels. From thence it proceeds to Cairo, where it joins the caravan of Egypt. They then jointly fet out for Mecca, whence they return one hundred days after.’ —* The lading of thefe caravans confilts in In- dia ftuffs, thawls, gums, pearls, perfumes, and the coffee of Yemen.”? ‘The fame commodities arrive by another rout at Suez, to which port the foutherly winds bring in May 26 or 28 fail of veffels from Djedda.” <* Small cara- vans alfo arrive from time to time from Damafcus, with filk and cotton ftuffs, oils, and dried fruits.’? Befides, ‘* there are always fome veffels in the road of Damietta, unloadiag hogfheads of tobacco from Latakia, the confumption of which in Egypt isenormous. Thefe veflels take rice in ex- change, whillt others arrive fucceflively at Alexandria, bringing clothing, arms, furs, paffengers, and wrought filk, from Conftantinople. Veflels come likewife from Marfeilles, Leghorn, and Venice, with cloths, cochineal, Lyons’ ftuffs and laces, grocery, paper, iron, lead, Venetian fequins, and German dollars. All thefe articles conveyed by fea to Ro- fetta in barks called ‘* djerm,”’ are firft landed there, then reimbarked on the Nile, and fent to Cairo.”? From this ac- count, itappears, that we nced not hefitate to admit the report of the commiffioner general of the cultoms, who afferted, that in 1783, Cairo had traded to the amount of near 150 millions of livres, or fix millions 250 thoufand pound fterling, 4 - Among the manufaQures are fugar, of a bad quality, fal. ammoniac, which is very good, glafs lamps, falt- petre, coarfe. gun-powder, red and yellow leather, and linen cloth, made of the fine Egyptian flax. The only manufa€ture in any degree of perfeGtion is filk ftuff ; but the workmanthip islefs highly fini- fhed, and the price much greater than in Europe. Their mer- cery, their hardware, their gun and pi‘tol barrels are all impcr~ ted from foreign countries. Tt is difficult to find at Caira more than one watchmaker who has fkill enough to repair a watch, and he too isan European. Jewellers, indeed, are morecommon herethanat Smyrnaand Aleppo; but they know. not how properly t mount tohe fimpleft rofe. For the mode of. hatching eggs at Cairo without incubation, fee Harcuine. The government of airo, and of Egypt im general, is veftedC™ in one of the 24 beys (fee Bre) : and the chief judicial autho rity in the city is delegated to a ** Mulla,” who is annually. appointed from Conftantinopie ; but his jurifdiction is prin- cipally direéted to cafes of doubt and difficulty. There are, befides this officer, * Cadis”? in ail the diftrids, which, iz this great city, amount to more than 200.. There are allo «‘ Imams,’” or priefts of the four fe&s, each having the di-- retion of the adherents of his fe€&t. The revenue of the cadis arifesfroma tenthof the value of thethinghtigated. See Capte In Cairo every trade or profeffion has its fheich or leader, who has great authority over the reft of theclafs to which» he belongs ; and this circumftance much contributes to the good order of the city. The gates alfo, which are at the end of every ftreet, impede the progrefs, and render diffi cult the efcape of ill-intentioned perfons. Notwithftanding thefe forms of government and fubordination, Cairo affords no fecurity either for life or for property ;. and, therefore, the ftranger on his arrival is ftruck with the univerfa! ap. pearance of fqualid wretchednefs. Indeed, he often meets with horfemen richly clad ; but this difplay of luxury only renders the contraft of indigence the more fhocking. Every thing that he fees or hears, reminds him that he is in the country of flavery and‘tyranny. The chief fubjeGs of cone verfation are inteftine diffenfions, the public mifery, pecuni= ary extortions, baltinadoes, and murders. ‘* The blood of men,”’ fays Volney, “ is fhed like that of the vileft animals, Juftice herfelf puts to death without formality. The offis cer of the night in his rounds, and the officer of the day in his circuit, judge, condemn, and execute in the twinkling of an eye, without appeal. Executioners attend them, and, on the firft fignal, the head of the unhappy victim falls into the leathern bag in which it 1s received, for fear of foiling the place.”’—‘* Without any other reafon than the avarice of a powerful chief, or the information of an enemy, a man is fummoned before fome bey, on fufpicion of having money. A fum is demanded of him, and if he denies that he poffefles it, he is thrown on his back, and receives 2 or 3 hundred blows» on the foles of his feet, nay, fometimes is put to death.” To the north-eaft of Cairo are gardens, and large houfes, to which perfons of rank and opulence occafionally retreat 5 and the Mamlukes alfo perform their military evolutions, and exercife their horfes, in an open {pace appropriate to this purpofe. The ground under the mountains to the eaft is filled with tombs. The gates of Cairo are numerous ; but the moft remarkable are two at the northern extremity of the city, called ‘* Bab-el-Nafr,’? and ‘¢ Bab-el-Fitufch,’”? which prefent a fplendid difplay of Saracenian architeQture. N. lat. 30° 2! 44”. EE. long. 31° 18! 16”. Cairo by the mean of feveral accounts is about 59 geographical miles W. of Suez, equal to 1° 8! of longitude ; and accordingly, Cairo fhould ftand at 31° 20! of longitnde.s Savary’s Egypt, vol. i. Volney’s Travels, vol. i. Sonnini’s Travels. Browne’s Travels in Africa. See Eoxrr. CAIs . CAI CAIROAN, or Kara-wan, the 7icus Auguili of the Ttinerary, a walled city of Africa, in the ancient Bizacium, or modern kingdom of Tunis, inferior in trade and in num- ber of inhabitants only to Tunis, is fituated in a fandy bar- ren plain, Sleagues W. of Sufa, and about the fame diftance S.W. of Herkla. In this city and its vicinity are feveral fragments of ancient archite@ture. Its prefent name feems to be fyronymous with “ Caravan,” and might originally dénote the place where the Arabs had their principal ftation jn conquering this part of Africa. It is faid to have been founded for this purpofe, and colonized by Akbah, or Hucba, in the soth year of the Hegira, A.D. 670. Notwithitand- ing the inconveniences of its fituation, which renders it ne- ceflary to obtain vegetable food from a great diftance, and to colle& a precarious fupply of rain-water in cifterns or refer- voirs, Akbah encompaffed it with a wall, inclofing a circum- ference of 3600 paces; end in the fpace of five years, the gorernor’s palace was furrounded with a fuflicient number of private habitations ; a fpacious mefque was fupported by 500 columns of granite, porphyry, and Numidian marbie; and Cairoan became the feat of learning, as well as of empire. Under the government of Ibrahim Ben Aglab, from whom was derived the dynatty of the Aglabites, in the year 184 of the Hegira, A.D: Soo, its buildings and inhabitants were very confiderably augmented ; aod its inland fituation, 12 miles weltward of the fea, proteGted it from the Greek and Sicilian ficets: In the year of the Hegira, 956, A. D..1549, it had its own fovereign, who was an Arab ; but he was de- foiled of part of his dominions by Dragut, who command- ed’ in the city of Tripoli for Soliman II. emperor of the Turks. WN. lat. 35° 36. E. long. 10° 13”. CAISIOMU, a town of the ifland of Cuba; -30 miles E.S.E. of Villa del Principe. CAISSON, in Architedure. The praGice of building in caiffons is a method fometimes adopted in laying the foun- dation of bridges in very deep or rapid rivers. Thefe are large hollow veffels framed of {trong timbers, and made wa- ter-tight, which being launched and floated to a proper pofition in the river where the ground has been previoufly excavzted and levelled, are there funk. The piers of the bridge are then built within them, and carried up above, or nearly to the level of the water, when the fides of the caiffon art detached from the bottom and removed; the bottom, compofed of a trong grating of timber remaining, and ferving for a foundation to the pier. The mof confiderable work, which has come to our knowledge, where caiffons have been ufed, is in the building of Wefminfter-bridge ; of thefe, therefore, a particular ac- count may be acceptable. Each of the caiflons contained 150 loads of fir timber, and was of more tonnage than a man of war of 40 guns; their fize was nearly 80 feet from point to oint, and 30 feet in breadth; the ‘fides, which were 10 feet in height, were formed off timbers laid hori- zontally over one another, pinned with oak trunnels, and framed together at all the corners,-except the falient angles, where they were fecured by proper iron-work, which being unferewed would permit the fides of the caiflon, had it been found neceflary, to divide into two parts. Thefe fides were planked acrofs the timbers infide-and ourfide with sinch planks, in a vertical pofition. The thicknefa of the ides was 18 inches at bottom, and 15 inches at top; and in order to flrengthen them the more, every angle, except the two points, had three oaken knee timbers properly bolced and fecured. Thefe fides when finifhed were faftened to the bottom or grating, by 23 pieces of- timber on the out- fide, and 18 within, called ftraps, about 6 inches broad, and about 3 inches thick, reaching avd lapping over the GAY tops of the fides; the lower part of thefe ftraps were dove. tailed to the outer curb of the grating, and kept in their places by iron wedges. The purpofe of thefe flraps and wedges was that when the pier was built 1p fufficie ntly high above low-water-mark, to render the caiffon no longer ne- ceflary for the mafons to work in; the wedges being drawn up gave liberty to clear the traps from the mortices, in confequence of which the fides rofe by their own buoyancy, leaving the grating under the foundation of the pier. The preflure of the water upon the fides of the caiffon was refifted by means of a ground timber or ribbon, 14 inches wide, and 7 inches thick, pinned upon the uppsr row of timbers of the grating; and the top of the fides was fecured by a fufficient number of beams laid acrofs, which alfo ferved to fupport a floor on which the labourers ftood to hoilt the ftones out of the lighters, and to lower them into the caiffon, - The caiffon was alfo provided with a flutce to admit the water. The method of working wai as folows: A pit being dug and levelled in the proper fituation for the pier of the fame fhape as the caiflon, and about five feet wider all round; the caiflon was brought to its pofition, a few of the lower courfes of the pier built in it, and funk once or twice to prove the level of the foundation; then being finally fixed, the mafons worked in the ufual methods of tide work. About two: hours before low water, the fluice of * the caiffon, kept open ull then, leit the water, flowing to the height of many more feet on the outfide, than the infide, fhould float the caiffon and all the ftone work out of ite» true place, was fhut down, and the water pumped low enough, without waiting for the loweft ebb of the tide, for the mafons to fet and cramp the ftone-work of the fucceed~ ing courfes. Then when the tide had rifen to a confiderable height, the Muice was opened again, and the water ad- mitted ; and as the caiffon was purpofely built but 16 feet high to fave ufelefs expence, the high tides flowed fome feet above the fidee, but without any damage or inconvenience to the works.. In this manner the work proceeded till the pier rofe to the furface of the caifion, when the fides were floated away to ferve the fame purpofe at another pier. - (Labelye’s Defcription of Weltminiler-bridge.) Caisson, in the Jilitary Art, is fometimes ufed for a - cheft ; and in particular for a bomb-chett. The caiffon is.confidered as a fuperficial mine, or fiurncaus Caisson is alfo a covered waggon to carry bread, or am~ munition. CAISTOR, in Geography. See Casror. Caistor, a townfhip of America, in the county of Lin- coln, Upper Canada, between Binbrook and Gainsborough, watered by the river Welland. CAISTRUS, in Ancient Geography, Kaifler, a foiall river of Afia Minor in Ionia, formed by the union of twa branches, which had their fources in mount ‘I'molus, and flowing by the fouth-welt, watered Metropolis or Ephefus, near which it difeharged itfelf into the fea. It is called at prefent by the Turks “ Kitchik» Meinder,” or the Little Meander. Virgil refers to it, ‘¢ Jim varias pelagi volucres, et que Afia circum Dalcibus in ftagnis rimantur prata Cayftn.” Georg: I. 5. CAITAIA, in Zoolozy, the name under wmch Mare» - yaave notices fimia fciurca of Gmelin. CAITHNESS, in Geography, fometitoes denominated the thire of Wick, is the moft northerly county of Scotland. Ite S. W. border unites with the county of Sutherland, and the remainder is wafhed by the waters of the Pentland-frith, and the German Ocean. This diftriét, includes an area of about 35 miles from N. to S, by 22 miles from ealt to wett, Mr, CAF Mr. Pennant defcribes the country as a large morafs inter- fperfed with fome fruitful patches which produce barley and oats. The coaft is rocky, and abounds with bays and promontories. The principal of thcfe are, Sandfide-head, pointing to the opening of Pentland-frth; Orcas, or Hol- born-head, and Dunnet-head, both pointing northward to the frith. Soribilter-bay is a good harbour for flipping. There are two other [mailer bays, named from the contigu- ous places, Rice and Thurfo. The only ifland annexed to this country is Stroma, which is fituated in the Pentland- frith ; the property of which was formerly claimed by the earls of Orkney, but was afterwards attached to Caithnefs. The cavfe of this reverfion is faid to have refulted from a cu- rious experiment. The earls of Orkney and Caithnefs con- tended for the property of this ifland, it being fituated about midway between their refpeCtive diftri@s. Initead of reforting to the {word in this difpute, they mutually agreed to abide by the iflue of a more inoffenfive trial. As venomous animals would not live in the Orkneys, fome were conveyed to Stroma, and finding that they continued to thrive in the ifland, it was determined that it naturally belonged to Caitknefs, and was adjudged to that earldom accordinaly. This county is well watered, and contains a few birch plantations; but the foil and the climate are un- favourable to the growth of timber. At fome parts of the coalt, the fea is generally very impetuous, being continually agitated by violent counter tides, currents, and vortices. ¥ith are caught in great abundance, but from the above named caufes, and the want of convenient harbours, the proprietors do not derive much advantage from exportation. The rocks round the fhore are perforated into numerous caves, which are frequented by an abundance of feals. Many of thefe are deftroyed by the inhabitants. Eagles, hawks, and a vaft quantity of fea-fowl frequent thefe rocks. Caithnefs is well peopled-with a race of hardy, athletic inhabitants, whofe chief employ, and fource of livelihood are fifhing, and breeding fheep and black cattle. Of the late ter it has been recorded, that from 1000 to 2000 head have been fent from this country in one year. In bad feafons, the farmers motltly kill and falt them for home confumption and for exportation. Great numbers of {wine are alfo reared here, but according to the opinion of Dr. Morifon, (Sir John Sinclair’s Statiftical Account, vii. 150.) * the damage they do in the winter to the grafs and corn lands, as they are al- lowed to roam at large, far exceeds any advantage that can accrue from them.’? Thefe animals are rather peculiar in charaGter and fpecies: they are fhort, high-backed, long- briftled, fharp, flender and long nofed, have high erec& ears, and are very wild in afpect. Barns and granaries are unknown to this county; the corn is thrafhed out and pre- ferved in the chaff in byhes, which are flacks in the fhape of bee-hives, and thatched quite round. Much falmon is taken in the rivers of this county, particnlarly at Caftle-hill, Dunet, Wick, and Thurfo. At the laft place there was «+4 miraculous draught taken within the memory of man; not lefs than 2500 being caught at one tide.” (Pennant’s ‘Tour in Scotland, i. 202.) Caithnefs is divided into ten parifhes, and contains one royal borough, Wick, and the town of Thurfo. It fends a member to parliament alter- nately with the county of Bute. The principal landholders are the earl of Caithnefs, Sir John Sinclair, bart. Sir Ben- jamin Dunbar, and Sinclair, efq. all of whom poflefs feats in the county. Many monuments of antiquity are ftil remaining in Caithnefs, moit of which are of a military nature. Of the more ancient kind are the Cairns, Duns, and Tumuli; which are fcattered over many parts of the county. Some ruins of caltles are flill left at Caftle-Sin- GA TI clair, Germéngo, Auchnavere, Dirlet, and Lochmore. In mineralogy, Gaithnefs poffeffes fome articles of value, as excelleat free-ttone and lime-ftone ; alfo, copper, lead and iron ores. At the N.E. point of Caithnefs is Dunfby-head, the moft extreme northern promontory of Britain. At this place the breadth of the frith does not exceed twelve miles, and is the molt ufual ferry or paflage to the Orkney iflands, In the forefts of Moravins and Berridale, are abundance of red deer, roe-bucks, &c. and the county abcunds with groufe, heathcocks, plover, hares, and moft other game. Birds of a'peculiar fpecies, called Snow-fleeta, frequent this county, in large flights, about the middle of February, and depart in April. They are about the fizz of a fparrow, and efteemed very delicious in flavour. The laft private war in Scetland was occafioned by a difpute relating to this county. Pennant’s Tonr is Scotland. Sir John Sinclair’s Statiltical Account of Scotland. CAIUS, Pore, in Biography, fucceeded Eutychianus in the pontificate A D, 283, and held it till A.D 296. The church of Rome reckons him among her martyrs; but hif- tory informs us, that, having concealed himfelf under the perfecution of Dioclefian, he died in peace A.D. 296. To him is afcribed a decree that bifhops fhould pafs through the feven inferior orders of the church before they aflumed the epifcopal office. Bower. Carus, or Garus, an ecclefiaftical hiftorian, who flou- rifhed, according to Cave, about the year 210. Photius fays, ‘* that he was ordained bifhop of the nations,’’ 1. e. as fome have interpreted the phrafe, that he was ordained to preach the gofpel to infidel countries, without the allotment of any particular diocefe. Fzbricius reads, inftead of * nations,”? Athens; and accordingly fuppofes, that, having been at firft a prefbyter of the church of Rome, he was afterwards made bifhop of Athens. It has been afferted by many writers, but upon difpurable authority, that he was a difciple of Ireneus. Three or four books are afcribed to Caius, vize “© A dialogue or difputation with Proculus or Proclus,” a follower of Montanus; “Of the Univerfe;’? the * La- byrinth ;” and atreatife again{t the ‘* Herefy of Artemon.” Some fragments of thefe works are ftill extant. The firit, however, is, in Dr. Lardner’s opinion, the only piece juitly afcribed to him. In his dialogue are fome peaflages that indicate the author’s ref{peét for the ancient {criptures gene- rally received by Chriftians; though he feems to have thought, the epiltle to the Hebrews was not written by St. Paul, and that the book of the Revelation was not genu- ine, but probably an impotture of Cerinthus. Cave, H, 1. T.i.p. 100. Lardner’s Works. vol. ii. p. 371, &ce Caius, Bernarp, born at Venice towards the end of the 16th century, where he received his education, pub- lied, in 1606, ‘€ De Veficantium Ufu.”? He entirely rejeAs blifters in all acute difeafes, as adding greatly to the malady by irritating the fyflem. He alfo publifhed in 1608, “De Alimentis, que cuique nature conveniunt, de Voluptate, Sapore, Frigida Potione, Viribus Salis Nitri ad refrigeran- dum,”’ 4to, republifhed in 1610, Haller Bib. Med. Caius, Kaye, or Key, Joun. an ingentons and learned phyfician, was born at Norwich, OGober 6th, 1510. After pafling through the ufual fchool education at Norwich, he was admitted a ftudent.in Gonvil Hall in Cambridge, Sept. 12th, 1529, and having difinguifhed himfelf by his proh- ciency in literature, he was made fellow of that community in 1533. His thirft for knowledge, and his defire of pere feGing himfelf in the different branches of medicine, deter- mined him to vifit the continent, and to pafs fome time at Padua, then famed for the celebrity of its-profeffors, pare ticularly in that branch of f{cience. He here ftudied aS ohn CAK John Baptifta Montanus, having Vefalius for his fellow ftu- dent. His progrefs here in Greck and Latio, as well as ia the knowledge ‘of anatomy and medicine, equalled the pro- mifes of his early years; as wes evinced by his tranflations and commentaries on various parts of the works of Hippo- crates, Galen, Scribonius Largus, &c. correQting the errors of the tranfcribers, aod elucidating and explaining the more difficult paflages. With the view of hearing other profef- fors, and of examining ancient maoulcripts, he vifited molt of the principal cities of Italy. At Bologna he refided fome time, and there took his degree of Doctor of Medicine, in rs541. He then returned to Padua, and in conjunétion with Realdns Columbus, read leGtures on the Greek text of Ariftotle. In 1544, he came to England, and for fome time read le€tures in anatomy to the corporation of furgeons in London. He afterwards pracifed medicine at Shrewfbory, where he was at the time when the {weating ficknefs made its appearance in 1551; of which he publifhed a popular account, with the view of inftruaing his countrymen in the nature of the complaint, and of the methods he thought mo proper for oppofing its progrefs. This he afterwards, in 1556, publifhed again in Latio, much enlarged and im- proved, under the title of ** De Ephemera Britannica.” As it contained an accurate defcription of the difeafe, whatever might be the value or the efficacy of the pradtice, it was thought deferving of being preferved, and was reprinted in 1721, 12mo. His reputation for learning and abilities being eftablifhed, he was admitted a fellow of the College of Phyficians in 1547. He was alfo appointed phyfician to king Edward the Sixth, and in fucceffion to the queens Mary and Elizabeth. To the College of Phyficians he was a warm and ftrenuows friend, and on the death of Linacre, under whom it was founded, he waa appointed prefident, which office he held for feven years. During this time, he revifed their laws, appointed infignia for the prefident, and, to encourage the ttudy of anatomy, he obtained a grant of the bodies of two malefactors every year, to be diflected under the dire@tion of the College. He alfo drew up their annuals in Latin, or an account of their inftitution, with a journal of their proceedings, which he lefe with the College. ‘Mindful of bis alma mater, he obtained from Queen Mary a power of ereGting Gonvil Hall into a College, adding to its endowments, provifions for three fellows, and twenty {cholars. He 2dded an entire new court to the College, and built three gates. They coft him together 18341. The improvements were begun in 15573 when completed he was made matter of the College, and continued in that polt un- til a fhort time before his death, when he refigned it to Dr. Legge, but ftill refided as a fellow commoner; and died there in 1573, aged 63 years, having ia bis laft illnefs fup- ported himielf by woman’a milk. On his tomb, by his di- re@ion, was engraved, ‘* Fui Caius.” Befides his verfions from the Greek, andthe “ Ephemera Britannica,” he pub- lifhed * De Canibus Britannicis,” 1570, inferted entire by Mr. Pennant in his Britith Zoology; to which were added « Hiftorie rariorum Animalium,” originally printed in Gefner’s colleétion: alfo, “* De Libris propriis,” and “ De Antiqvitate Cantab. Academie 3? and from numerous unedited manulcripts, appears to have projeéted various other works. Hialler’s Bib. Med.et Anat. Akin’s Biog. Mem. of Medicine in Great Britain. CAJUS, in Entomology, a Species of Papitio (He/peria Fabr.), having entire brown winge, with a bluifh difk: beneath, varied with cinereous and white, with brown ocel- Jar dots. Inhabits India, CAIX, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Semme; 12 milea E. of Amicns. CAL CAKE, a finer fort of bread, denominated from its flaty round figure. We meet with divers compolitions under the name of cakes; as feed-cakes, made of flour, butter, cream, fugar, coriander and caraway-{ceds, mace, and other {pices and perfumes, baked in the oven; plum-cakes, made much after the fame manner, only with fewer feeds, and the addition of currants; pan-cakcs, made of a mixture of flour, eggs, &c. fried; cheefe-cakes, made of cream, eggs, and flour, with or without cheefe-curd, butter, almonds, &c. ; oat-cakes made of fine oaten flour, mixe with yeatt, and fometimes without, rolled thin, and laid on an iron or ftone to bake over a flow fire; fugar-cakes, mad+ of fine {ugar beaten and fearced with the fine!t flour, adding butter, rofe-water, and fpices ; rofe-cakes, placenta rofaceey are leaves of rofes dried and preffed into a mafs, fold in the fhops forepithems. Sce ErirHem. Caxe of Copper, denotes a quantity from 14lb. to one hundred-weight. Caxs, in Rural Economy, aterm applied by farmers to the {ubf%tance which remains after the o!l has been exprefled from flex and rape feeds. Cakes made from the firlt of thefe feeds, are much employed in the feeding and fatten- ing of bullocks, and other fort of cattle. Thefe fubfances have likewife, {emetimes, been made ufe of for the pur- pofe of manure, efpecially when made from the latter mae terial. See Oiv-caxe. Caxe-wax, a denomination fometimes given to the white or virgin-wax. Caxe-/oap, ftands diftinguifhed from foft-foap and ball. foap. See Soar. CAKET, in Geography, atown and capital of a country in Afia, in the northern part of Perfia, near moust Caucatus, trading principally in fills N. lat. 43° 2!. E. long. 46° 4’. CAKILE, in Botany, (Tournelort, Gertner, and Ven-- tenat.) See Bunras. CALA, in Geography, atown of Spain, in the country of Seville, on the borders of Eftramadura;:14. miles S. of Lerena. Cara. See Ev Carian. CALABA, in Botany, (Plumier.) See CALopHYLLUM, CALABAR, or Carzari, in Geography, a country of Africa in the kingdom of Benin, or Upper Guinea, ufually diftinguifhed into New and Old Calabar, with a river of the fame name in each. The entrance into New Calabar ts in N. lat. 4° 30’. W.long. 9° 10, ‘That into Old Ca- labar is in N. lat. 4° 32/.. W. long. 10° 28’. The Dutch carry on a confiderable trade with this country. See Benine CALABASH, in Botany. See Cucursira Pepo. Cavapasn-iree. See CRESCENTIA. Carasasu, African. See Apansonta and Baonan,. The word is Spantlh, calabaga, which fisnifies the fame. The Indians, both of the North and South fea, put the pearls they have fifhed in calaba/bes, and the negroes on the coa{t of Africa do the fame by their gold-duft. The {maller calabafhes are alfo frequently ufed by thefe people as 3 mea- fure, by which they fell thefe precious commodities to the Europeans. Cavanasu-bay, in Geography, lies on the S.W. fide of the ifland of Jamaica, between Flint bay on the eeft, aad Swift's river on the weft, and affords good anchorage. CALABER; Quixrus, in Biography, a Greck poets fuppofed to have flourifhed under the emperor Anafafius [. about the year 491, and to have derived his name from Ca- labria, though he refided chiefly at Smyrna. He is known as the author of a poem, confifting of 14 books, on the ‘* Paralipomena’”’ of Homer, or the events of the Trojan war, not related by that poet, and commended for its ele- gant verlification. It was dilcovered by cardinal Bellarion, in CAL in amonaftery near Otranto in Apulia. “Two of the books, defcribing the capture of Troy, were publifhed feparately by Neander, in his “* Opus Aureum,” Leipf. 1577. Edi- tions of the whole have been given at Hanau, 8vo. 1604 ; and by Paw at Leyden, Svo. 1734. ‘Woil. de Poct. Grec. CALABEZA, in Geography, a town of South Ame- rica, in Terra Firma, on Oronooko river. CALABITE, a {mall ifland of the Eaft Indian ecean, being one of the Philippines, between Mindoro ard Luban. CALABRIA, in Ancient Geography, a name fuppofed to have been received from the oriental ‘*caleb,”” or pitch, on account of the refin obtained from the pines of this coun- try, and correfponding to that part of ‘Italy more generally denominated * Meflapia,’’? and the prefent Calabria. Cavasara, in Geography, a country of Italy, in the kingdom of Nap'es, divided into: Calabria~Citra, and*Cala- bria Ultra, or Hither and Farther Calabria. ‘The former is bounded on the north by Bafilicata, on the eaft by the gulf of Taranto, on'the fouth by.Calabria Ultra, and on the weft by the Mediterranean, and a {mall part of Princi- pato Citra. «Swinburne efiimates its extent at 1,605,463 moggie, (five moggie being equal to four Enghth acres) and the number of inhabitants at 315,330. It abounds in excellent fruits, corn, wine, oil, hemp, cotton, flax, faf- fron, honey, fait, wool, filk, and manna. It -has fome mines of gold and filver, lead and iron, together with ful- phor, alabafter, and rock cryftal. Flogs and fheep are nu- merous. “Its coafts are defended by:towers. Its principal towns are Cozenza, Paola or Paula, Bifignarno, Caflano, Scalea, Cariati, Roflano, Umbriatico, Strongoli, Caren- za, Martorano, and Amantee. Jts chief rivers are the Co- chile, Crate, Juao, Celano, Trionto, Aquanile, and Bato. Calabria’ Ultra is bounded. on the north by Calabria Citra, and on the eaft, weft, and fouth, by the Mediterranean fea. “Che produdtions are nearly the fame with thofe of Calabria Citra. The extent, according to Swinburne, comprehends 1.901,878 moggie 5 and the number of its inhabitants is 460,392. The principal towns are Catanzaro, Cotrone, St. Sev rina, Ifola, Taverna, Nicaftro, Belcaftro, St. Eu- femia, Squillace, Tropea, Nicotera, Mileto, Oppido,-Gerace, Reggio, and Bova. The chief rivers are the Aili, Angitola, Tacina, Alaro, Alice, Amato, Metauro, and Mectremo. In Celabria all the oxen are white, large and long-horned, except thofe of the red breed, which have been introduced from-Sicily: by the princes of Cariatiand Gerace. The buf- faloes are black ; and.moft of the goats, fheep and hogs are of that hue. The laft fpecies have no hair, but their hides are as fleck as thofe.of elephants. In fome parts of this country dormice are accounted delicate game, as they were zn ancient Rome, where. they were-kept in warrens, and fatted for the tables of the mof refined epicures. They are fmoked ovt of their nefts in hollow trees, end caught with fharp hooks. Lheir-fkirs make very:fine leather. The Calabrian horles are pretty, {pirited, and brilliant in their motions ; but generally low, and feldom free from vice. All live animais in Calabria are taxed. -Six carlini.(or about 2s. gd.) are paid for an ox, 4 graies (to of which make a carlino) for a iheep ; and theretore it is 10 wonder that the graziers fhould be indigent, and that the cottagers fhould keep no beaft of any kind, and that they fhou:d live upon.cafual and unfubflantial putriment, inflead of milk, cheefe, and other wholefome diet, which the rich palturage of the country ought to afford them. Arable land is ploughed four times ; but inftead of layinz down their fallows with hay feeds, clover, or ary of thofe rich artificial grafles, which are fown in England to produce fine meadows and pattures, the Calabrian farmer thinks he CGAL does his farm ample juftice if he ceafea to plough it for tws or three years, and leaves the good gra{s, accidentally pro- duced there, to make its way, as well as it can, through the matted fibres of various forts-of rank weeds. The Calabrian forefees no melioration uf-his condition from any of his efforts; and he is difcouraged by the apprehenfion that in- creafing aGivity and produce on his part would fubje&t him to an additional weight of taxes and oppreffion. : The Zingari, or gypfies, of Calabria do not contra allie ances with any other clafs of inhabitants, but marry among themfelves. "Thcy have no permanent:property, nor any-fixed habitation. They fubfitt bythe profitsof little handicrafts, and chiefly by trucking affes and horfes, which they do for the {malleft trifle to boot. They generally work in iron, and make trivets, knitting-needles, and bodkins, and baubles of that kind. Their drefs is very mean; they fhave their chins, but wear long hair, to which they apply neither comb nor {ciflars. ‘Their religion is altogether myferious; and though they oceafionally conform to the ceremonies-of the Roman Catholic church in marriage, burials, &c. they often perform thefe funétions according to their own cuftoms, which re- femble thofe of the heathens. Art their weddings they carry torches, and have paranymphs to give away the bride, with many other unufual rites. With regard to their con- duét they are depraved and licentious.; and are univerfally accounted to be pilferers, cheats, faithlefs, fhamelcis, and abandoned to all manner of -diffolutenefs.. They accuftom themfelves to teil fortunes, and to play juggling-tricks, as they do in other countries. In-+560, they were banifhed the kingdom as thieves, cheats, and {piesfor-the Turks. In 1569 and 1585, the order was renewed ; but not being en- forced, it had little efle&. Chey make ufe of two languages, one Calabrian, with a foreign accent and_pronunciation; the other peculiar to themfelves, which, in found, bears a great affinity to the oriental tongues, and is {poken by them when- ever they have fecrets to impart to each other. There is a vifible difference in the-drefs and manners of the two Calabrias.; the inhabitants of the fouth part refemble the Sicilians; and, like them, the men weer bonnets: but-north of Rogliano, the boundary of the provinces, hats are univerfally worn. ‘The Sicilians, it is fuppofed, even now betray itrong marks in their chara@er of their ancient conneétion with the Africans, and the North -Calabrefe ‘have in their difpofition much German folidity, arifing perhaps from colonies tranf- planted thither by the Swabian princes; and in the fouthern Calabrefe, and Neapolitans, particularly the latter, there are evident traces of Grecian manners and temper. Calabria is in bad-repute with refpeét to the fafevy of travellers; and yct the people feem perfeétly honeft with regard to one an= other ; for their houles have no bolts or bars to their doors 3 and during the owners’ abfence, they are left to the mercy of every paffenger. Swinburne’s Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. ii. and iv. Calabria, formerly poffeffed by the Brutii and other Greck colonies, has been in all ages convulfed and defolated by earthquakes. In 1638 and 1659 the two provinces of Cas labria were almoft utterly dettroyed; and that of 1744, ‘though not equally injurious, was very calamitous and dif- trefling. The dreadful effects of the fucceffive earthquakes of 1783 are particularly deferibed by count Ippolito and tr William Hamilton. The part of Calabria, according to fir William’s account, which was moft afleGied, is cumpre- hended between the 38th and 39th degree ; and the greateft force of the earthquake feemed to have exerted itfelf from the foot of thofe mountains of the Apennines, called the Monte Diio, Monte Sacro, and Monte Caulone, extending weltward to the Tythene fea, The towns, villages, and farm-houfes, neareft CAL sieareft thefe mountains, fituate either on hills or in the plain, Were totally ruined by the firft fhock of the 5th of February; and the farther removed towns and villages were from this centre, the lefs they fuffered. Indeed, the face of the earth of that part of Calabria above-mentioned was entirely al- tered; many openings and cracks had been made in the ground; fome hills had been lowered, and others quite levelled ; roads were rendered impaffable by the chafms that had been produced in the plains; huge mountains had been fplit afunder, and parts of them driven to a confidcrable iflance ; deep vallies had been filled by the fevered moun- tains; the courfe of fome rivers had been altered; new fprings broke forth in dry ground, and other {prings totally difappeared ; and in one place the furface of two whole tene- ments, on which grew large olive and mulberry trees, were detached by the Sone ber and tranfplanted, whilft the trees remained in their places, to the diftance of about a mile from their former fituation ; and from the fpot on which they formerly ftood, hot water fprung up to a confiderable height, mixed with ferruginous fand ; and near this place fome countrymen and fhepherds had been fwallowed up with their teams of oxen and their flocks of goats and ‘fheep, « From the city of Amantea,”’ fays fir William “ fituate on the coaft of the Tyrrhene fea, in Calabria Citra, and along the weftward coa{t to cape Spartivento in Calabria Ultra, and then up to the eaftern coaft as far as the cape d’Alice (a part of Calabria Citra) on the Ionian fea, there is not a town or village, either on the coaft or land, but what is either totally deftroyed, or has fuffered more or lefs, amounting in all to near 400 of what are called here “ Paefes;” a village - containing lefs than 100 inhabitants is not counted as a * Paefe.”” At Cafal Nuovo, the princefs Gerace, and up- wards of 400 of the inhabitants, loft their lives; at Bagnara, the number of dead amounts to 3017; Radicina and Palmi count their lofs at about 3°00 each; Terra Nuova about 1400; Seminari ftill more. The fum total of the mortality in both Calabrias and in Sicily, by the earthquakes alone, according to the returns in the fecretary of ftate’s office at Naples, is 32,367;”’ but fir William conceives that the whole number amounted at leaft to 40,000. In the accounts from Calabria Ultra, two fingular phenomena are mentioned. «« At about the diftance of 3 miles from the ruined city of Oppido, there was a hill (the foil of which is a fandy clay) about 5co palms high, and 1300 in circumference at its bafis. It was faid that this hill, by the fhock of the 5th of February, jumped to the diftance of about 4 miles from the {pot where it ftood, into a plain called the Campo di Baffano. By tee fame time the hill on which the town of Oppido ftood? which extended about 3 miles, divided into two, and as ite fituation was between two rivers, its ruins filled up the walley, and ftopped the courfe of thofe rivers ; two great lakes are already formed, and are daily increafing, which lakes, if means are not found to drain them, and give the rivers their due courfe, in a fhort time muft infe& the air greatly.” For a farther detail, fee Phil. Tranf. vol. 73. arti. See Ear TuQuake. CALABRINI, in Botany, a name by which fome au- thors call the rough spLzeNwort, or lonchitis afpera. Ger. Emac. Ind. CALABRITA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea; 35 miles W. of Corinth. CALABRITO, a town of Naples, in the province of Principato Citra. CALABURA, in Botany, (Pluk.) See Mustinara. CALACHERIN, in Geography, 2 town of Perfia, in the province of Irak; 125 miles W. of Amadan. Vor. V. - , aD CALACINE, or Caracuens, in Ancient Geography, a province or diltrict of Aflyria, bounded on the north by the mountains of Armenia and Arrapachitis, on the weft by the Tigris, on the eaft by the Lycus, and on the fouth by Adiabene. It contained the following cities, viz. Marde, Calath, Beffara, and Refen. CALACTA, a maritime town, feated on the northern coaft of Sicily. Ptolemy. , CALADE, in the Manege, a defcent or flope in a riding- ground, by which to bring a horfe to bend his hanuches, and form his flop, with the aids of the calves of the legs, bridle, and cavefon, feafonably given. The calade is alfo called, by the French, dafz. They fay to ride or gallop down the calade. CALADIUM, in Botany, a name given by Rumphius to a plant which Linnzus atterwards called Arum efculen- tum. Ventenat has feparated it from Arum; and uniting it with the ovatum, the fagittefolium and_arborefcens of Linnzus, and the bicolorum of Aiton, with two others lefs known, has formed a new genus under the original n-=j,6 given it by Rumphius, with the following gener} chara@ter. Spathe {welling, folded in its lower parr, Spadix or ament fhorter than the {pathe, fimple, *;aight, cylindric, with the male flowers on the upper part, and female on the lower. Anihers {effile, difpofed in a fpiral form, with twelve furrows full of pollen in molecules agglutinated together, and ter- minated at the top bya flat furtace in the fhape of a lozenge, which is {prinkled with fhining dots, and crenulated at its border. Germs numerous, orbicular, concave. Stigma fef- file, umbilicate; full of a vifcous liquor. The {pace between the ftamens and piltils occupied by four rows of oblong, obtufe, elevated glands. Fruit fimilar to that of Arum. Its effential charaéter, according to Ventenat, is founded on the fituation and ftruéture of the anthers, and even of the pollen itfelf, on the direétion and form of the glands, and om the umbilicated ftigmas. Sce Arum. CALADUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, afligned by Ptolemy to the “ Callaici Brean in the Tar- ragonenfis, and fituate, according to M. d’Anville, to the north-welt of Aque Flavize. CALAI, iflands of the Indian ocean, placed by Arriam at the mouth of the Perfic gulf. CAL/JENUS, a fountain of Afia Minor in Lycia. Steph. yz. ' CALAF, in Botany, (Alpinus Egypt.) See Sarix JEcyPTiaca. Cavar, in Geography, Karaighen-Soui, a ftream of Afia in Mefopotamia, which, running from welt to ealt, dif- charges itfelf into the Tigris, ncar Amida. CALAGORINA, a town of Spain, attributed by Pto- lemy to the Vafcones. CALAGORRIS, Cazéats, a place of Gaul, belong- ing to the “ Volee Teétofages,’”’ at fome diflance S.W. of Tolofa, and comprehended within the Narbonnenfis Prima. CALAGUM, Cuarru1, a place of Gaul, belongin to the * Meldi,” S.E. of Meldi or Iatinum (Meaux.) i was included in the Lyonnenfis Quarta. CALAGURIS, now Caranorra, a town of Hifpa- nia Citerior, feated on the Iberus, belonging to the Vaf- cones. Alfo, a town of Spain, belonging to the Ilégertes, according to Ptolemy ; now Loharre. It was fituated N. W. of Ofca. CALAH, or Care, in Ancient Geography, one of the four cities built by Afhur, of which we have an account in Gen, &. 11, 12. ‘I'his is fuppofed to be the Calach, fituate about 4Y the CAL the fprings of the river Lycus, and mentioned by Strabo as the capital of a province called Calachene, feeming to be the fame with Ptolemy’s Calacine, above Adiabene, towards mount Niphates. CALAHORRA, in Geography, an epifcopal town of Spain, in Old Cattile, feated on the fonth fide of the Ebro, on the borders of Navarre; 62 miles N.W. of Saragofla. N. lat. 42° 18’. W. long. 2° 7’. CALAIS, a fea-port town of France, and chief place of a canton, in the department of the ftraits of Calais, and diftri&@ of Boulogne; the place contains 6,750, and the canton 15,266, inhabitants; the territory includes 165 ki- liometres, and 12 communes. Calais has a citadel on the N.W. fide, and near the fea, as large as the town, with one entrance, and is ftrongly fortified; but its chief ftrength depends upon its fituation among the marshes, which may be overflowed at the approach of an enemy. It is encom- pafled, except for a fhort {pace towards the harbour, by a moat and wall, which latter ferves as a public walk. It is a regular well-built town, with a {pacious and handfome {quare, and its ftreets are tolerably clean and well paved ; and has feverai churches and monafteries. Its harbour, form- ed by a {mall rivulet, is too much obftruéted by fand to ad- mit of large veflels, or even common merchant fhips, except at high water. This haven ebbs dry at every tide; but at high water, with a common flow, it has not lefs than 3 fathoms. The flood fets in N.E. by E. The harbour commences at the gate of the town, where a fine maflive quay terminates in two long wooden moles, which extend far into the fea. Calais isa trading town, and in time of peace regular packets for the mail fail from and to England; and other paffage boats form a conftant intercourfe between this place and Dover, from which it is diftant 22 miles S.E. Some have fuppofed that an ifthmus formerly joined Calais and Dover; and that the rupture of it was occafioned by an earthquake, and has been gradually widened by tides and currents. Calais communicates by means of canals with St. Omer’s, Gravelines, Dunkirk, &c. ‘About the clofe of the r2th century, Calais was only a fifhing village; but from the fuccefs of its inhabitants in the herring fifhery, it foon acquired fo much importance as to attraét the notice, and excite the rapacity of the church 5 for in the year 1180, we find that pope Alexander III. granted the tithe of all the herrings there taken to the abbey of St. Bertin, recorded for its immenfe wealth, for the luxurious and diffolute lives of its monks, and for the worthleffnefs of its abbot. ‘The honeft fifhermen, not readily comprehending the pope’s right to give away their property, declared that they would fooner decimate the monks than fuffer their herrings to be decimated. They were, however, reduced to obedience by the count of Flanders, who was then their regent, as guardian to Ida, countefs of Boulogne. Its walls and caftle were built in the year 1228 by Philip count of Boulogne, brother of Lewis VIII. ; but its municipal laws and privileges are fup- pofed to have been granted by the countefs Ida, and her fourth hufband, Renaud de Dammartin, in the year 1191. From thefe laws it appears that the city was governed by its o-vn magiftrates elected by the citizens, and by a bailiff appointed by the count. Among its privileges we find that, if a woman offered to take, as her hufband, a man condemned to death for theft, fhe might demand and obtain his pardon. In 1347, Calais was taken by Edward III. of England, after having been reduced to extreme diftrefs by famine. Edward, having been detained under its walls for eleven months by the obitinate refiltance of its defenders, welt of Hippo-regius. CA & conveyed a meflenger to the governor, who informed him that he would grant them no terms; but that they muft fur- render at difcretion, At length, in confequence of the fpirited remonftrances of the governor, and the interceffion of fir Walter Manny, whom he had deputed as his meffenger, Edward confented to grant their lives to the garrifon and its inhabitants, except fix of the principal burgefles, wha were required to deliver to him the keys of the city, with ropes about their necks. In this extremity of deep diftrefs, Euftace de Pierre, one of the moft wealthy merchants oF the place, voluntarily offered to be one of thofe fix viétims ; and his example was foon followed by five others of the richeft citizens. 'Thefe illuftrious patriots, barefooted and bareheaded, with ropes about their necks, were attended to the gates by all the inhabitants with tears, bleffings, ana prayers for their fafety. When they were introduced into the prefence of Edward, they laid the keys of the city at his feet, and, falling upon their knees, fupplicated his mercy in ftrains fo moving, as to melt the {pectators into tears. The queen enforced their interceffion, and implored and obtained their lives. Having thus fucceeded, fhe con- ducted them into her own apartment, entertained them ho- nourably, and difmiffed them with prefents. Edward, having taken poffeffion of the city, found it necefflary to turn out all the ancient inhabitants, and to people it with Englifh. Calais remained from this time in fubjection to England till the reign of queen Mary, when it was retaken by the duke of Guife. The duke obliged all the inhabitants to abandon the place, and conferred the government of it upon Des Termes, who was foon after made a marfhal of France. By the treaty at Chateau Cambrefis, it was agreed, that Calais fhould, after the expiration of 8 years, be reftored to Eng- land ; and, at the expiration of that term, queen Elizabeth difpatched fome troops to recover it; but the furrender was refufed, becaufe, five years before, the Englifh had taken Havre, and violated the terms of the treaty. In the year 1596, it was taken by the Spaniards, under the conduct of the archduke Albert, but was reftored two years after by the peace of Vervins. In 1694, it was bombarded by the Englifh, under fir Cloudefly Shovel, but without fuftaining - much damage. Calais is diftant 7 leagues from the South Foreland, and 40 from Dunnofe; 5 pofts S.W. from Dun- kirk, and 343 N. from Paris. N. lat. 50° 57’ 31”. E. long. 1° 50’ 56”. High water 11° 30’. Carats, S#.a town of France, and principal place of a diftri& in the department of the Sarthe; 6 leagues E.N.E. of Chateau du Loir. The place contains 3,630, and the can- ton 13,749, inhabitants; the territory comprehends 3075 kiliometres and 14 communes. N. lat. 47° 56’. E. long. 0° 39’. Catats, a townfhip of Caledonia county, and ftate of Vermont, in America i05 miles north-eafterly of Benning-~ ton; containing 45 inhabitants. CALAMA, in Ancient Geography, Gelma, or Kalma, an epifcopal town of Africa, in Numidia; fituate to the fouth- St. Augultine mentions a difturb- ance that happened in this place, A.D. 408, or 409; and that foon fucceeded a law ena&ted by Honorius in 407, or 408, exprefsly prohibiting the fclemnities of the Gentiles. Catama, the name of a village of Afia, in Carmania, or Gedrofia, according to Arrian, Catama, in Geography, a town of Naples, in i of Calabria Ulera ; 6 fiilee NED of Reggio. pee CALAMZ, or Carames, in Ancient Geography, a burgh of Peloponnefus, in Meilenia, feated on the river Aris, and mentioned by Polybius and Paufanias._ CALAMA. CAL CALAMAGROSTIS, in Botany, (Trag. ic. Dalech. Hilt.) See Taicrocuin palufre. Linneus has given it as a trivial name to a f{pecies of Agroftis, and alfo to one of Arundo. Dr. Withering has made it a generic appellation for fuch fpecies of Arundo as have only one floret in a calyx: but, as Dr. Smith juftly obferves, (Flor. Brit. vol. i. p. 145.) the very natural genus arundo ought not to be broken merely on account of a difference in the number of florets, and, if that were not the cafe, the term calamagroilis is not admiffi- ble, as a generic name, on the eftablifhed principles of the Linnzan Nomenclature. CALAMANCO, in Commerce, a woollen fluff manufac- tured in Brabant and in Flanders, particularly at Antwerp, Lifle, Tournay, Turcoin, Roubaix, and Lannoy. It is commonly woven wholly of wool; there are fome, however, wherein the warp is mixed with filk, and others with goat’s hair. There are calamancos of all colours, and diveriely wrought. Some are quite plain, others have broad ftripes adorned with flowers ; fome with plain broad ftripes ; fome with narrow itripes; and others watered. This has been alfo no inconfiderable branch of the woollen manufac- ture in England, both for home wear and exportation ; but of late it has declined. CALAMRACUM, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, in Magna Grecia, between Petitia, and the marfh of Lucania. CALAMARIA, in Botany, (Dillen. Mufc.) See Isor- tes lJacuffris. CALAMARIA, one of the natural orders of Linneus, nearly allied to the graffes, and having commonly the fame kind of leaves, but differing from them in not having a two- valved glume. The calamariz have a culm which is gene- rally triquetrous, rarely cylindrical, often leaflefs, or bearing only a few leaves. The leaves are generally more rigid and rough, and the flowers are often difpofed in an imbricated manner. The genera enumerated in the Syftema Naturz are, bobartia, (but the genus is now abolifhed; fee Bosartia,) {cirpus, cyperus, eriophorus, carex, and fchenus; with a “doubt, whether flagallaria, juncus, ard fcheuchzeria fhould not be added. In the pofthumous le¢tures of Linnzus, as publifhed by Gifeke, they ftand thus: fparganium, typha, eriophorum, f{cirpus, carex, fcleria, cyperus, {chenus, ref- tio, gahnia, kyllingia, fuirena. The genus fcleria is added ifeke. CALAMARIUS, in Zoology, a {pecies of Coruser, having 140 abdominal plates, and 22 caudal feales. Linn. Mof. Ad. Fr. This kind inhabits America: general colour livid with linear brown itreaks and dots: beneath teffellated with brown. : : CALAMATA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea, feated on the river Spinazza; taken by the Venetians in 1685, but fince retaken, together with the reft of the Morea, by the Turks; 13 miles W. of Militra. CALAMBA, or Catamsac, in Commerce, a kind of wood brought from China, ufually fold under the denomina- tion of /ignum ALOES, OF AGALLOCHUM. Sir Phil. Vernatti makes calambac and lignum aloes fyno- nymous. Others feem to diftinguifh, reftraining calamba wood to the beft fort of aloes wood, growing chiefly in Ma- lacca, and Sumatra ; and much ufed in India for making of beads and crucifixes, Phil. Tranf. N° 43. p. 863. CALAMENTHA, or Catamixtua, in Ancient Geo- graphy, a town of Africa, in Libya, belonging to the Phe- nicians. CALAMIANES, in Geography, a clufter of iflands in the Indian Sea, among thofe called the * Philippine Iflands,” GAL fituate at a {mall diftance from the northern cape of Para- gua, and weit from Manilla, and giving name to a province ° or government. They are reckoned twelve in number, which are all {mall, and inhabited by peaceable Indians, who pay tribute. The chief produ& of their mountains is wax, which they gather twice in the year. The rocks over the fea afford fome of the efteemed birds’ neits, and on the coafts are fine pearls. CALAMIDES, a clufter of iflands, amounting to about feventcen, fituate.in the Indian Ocean, 14 or 15 leagues S.W. of Luban, and forming a province; the largeit of which is Paragua, which fee. CALAMIFEROUS, in Botany, a denomination given by fome to thofe otherwife called cutmirerous plants. — CALAMINA, in Ancient Geography, a lake of Afia, in Lydia; in which, according to Pliny, were floating iflands, which, during the Mithridatic war, ferved as a place of re- fuge for the Roman citizens. CALAMINE, or Lapis Caraminarts, is an ore of Zixc, which fee. The lapis calaminaris, calcined, powdered, and fifted, forms a heavy brownith-yellow powder, which when mixed with wax ard oil forms the “ ceratum lapidis ca- laminaris,”’ (ceratum epuloticum of the old difpenfaries, ) the molt commonly ufed of all the fimple unguents. Calamine is much ufed for taking off films from the eyes of horfes, &e. Caramine, in Rural Economy, an ore of zinc, having a white-gray brown, or red colour, and varying in hardnefs. It is found in Derbyfhire, and fome other diftri@s, and is fuppofed by fome writers to be capable of being made ufe of in agriculture with advantage, from its containing oxy~ gen in a large proportion, as one of its conftituent prin- ciples. Too few experiments have, however, yet been made with this material to fully afcertain its utility in this application. CALAMINT, in Botany, (Smith Flor. Brit.) See Tuymus Calamintha, and Nepeta, removed by Dr. Smith Soe eit. ALAMINTHA, (Pluk. Mant. 34. t.344. fig. 1. Morif. Hitt. ii. ant SAQA isp fs.) de ae LA mariana. CacaminTHA arvenfis veriicillata, (Bauh. Pin. 229). See Menrua arvenjis. CacamintHa aguatica belzarum, (Lob. ic. 505.) See MENTHA exigua. Caramintua hederacea, (Scop.) See Grecuoma hede- racea. Catamintua magno flore, (Bauh. Pin. 229. Riv. Mon. 43-) See Mecissa grandiflora. CacamintHA vulgaris, (Bauh. Pin. 228.) montana, (Dod. Pemp.98. Riv. t.46. Blackw. t. 166.) See Me- Lissa calamintha, Linn. ‘Thymus. Dr. Smith. CALamMInTHA pulegii odore, (Bauh. Pin. 228.) montana prealta, (Bocce. Muf. 2. p.a5. t.40 & 38. Riv. t. 47. Kniph. Cent. 7. n.27.) See Mrurssa nepeta, Linn. Thy- mus. Smith. CatamintHa incana, (Bauh. Pin. 228. Pulegii minor Bar. ic. 1166.) See Mexissa cretica. Cacamintua hi/panica frutefcens, (Tourn. Inf. Montana incaua minor. (Moi See Mevissa fruticofa. Catamintua ¢ertium genus, (Fuch. Hilt. 436.) InuLa dyfenterica. CALAMINTHA, in Ancient GC. ography, a town of Libya, probably of Mauritania, taken notice of by Hero- dotus and Hecateus, whofe fitaation is unknown; but fup- pofed by Bochart, from the ctyinology of the name in the 4X 2 Puenician odore 194+) (Morif, Hilt. 3. p.413. n. 3. See CAL Pheenician language, to be feated on an eminence, and of Pheenician original. CALAMISSUS, atown of Greece, in the country of the Locrii Ozolli, fituated, according to Pliny, on the Crifean gulf, and placed by M. D’Anville, under the name of Cala, to the weft of Naupattus. CALAMITA forax. See Srorax. : CALAMITES, in Natural Hijflory, a name given by fome to the ofteocolla, which, when in {mall pieces, fome- times pretty exactly refembles the barrel of a quill ; others have called fome of the foffile coralloides by this name, there being frequently in them the refemblance of feveral quills cemented together in ftone. CALAMITIS is ufed for a fpecies of artificial cadmia, found adhering to the fticks, ladles, and other utecfils where- with they ftir the copper when in fefion in the furnace. It is denominated calamiiis, fromthe Latin ca/lamus, a reed, on account of its refemblance to the figure ofa reed cloven in the middle. CALAMO, in Geography, fometimes called Cal/mino, or Calimena, an ifland in the Archipelago, near the ceaft of Afia, not far from Mitylene, about 5 or 6 leagues in cir- cumference. ‘The ancients called it Claros: Pliny alfo dif- tinguifhes it by the name of Calydna, and Ovid has extolled the abundance of honey which it produced: * Foecundaque melle Calydna.’~ Metam.1. viii. On this ifland are fome lofty mountains, an inconfiderable population, and the re- mains of an ancient town on the welt coaft, and, on the other fide, a village, called Ca/amo, built on the fummit of a mountain, and near it a tolerable good harbour. This ifland is poor and incapable of providing fubfiftence for its inhabitants ; and it is therefore chiefly occupied in pro- curing foreign refources by a carrying trade. Its moun- tains contain minerals, which, under the Turkifh govern- ment, are a fource of oppreffton and ruin. CALAMOCHA, atown of Spain, in Arragon, feated on the Xiloca; 14 miles S. of Daroca. CALAMON, orCaramos, in Ancient Geography, Kale- mony, atown of Pheenicia, fituate on the fea-coaft, at the fouthern extremity of mount Carmel. Pliny fays, that it was burnt by Antiochus the Great. CALAMOTI-Sinus, the gulf of Propontis, in Afia Minor, at the entrance of the Thracian Bofphorus, fouth- eaft of Byzantium. CALAMUS is commonly ufed to denote the fame with arundo, a reed, rufh, cane, or flag. Caramus, in Botany, (KoAwpos, the ufual name among the Greeks for areed, and applied by them to feveral plants, chiefly aquatic, with hollow ftems. See Theophrattus, Hitt. Plant. lib. iy. cap. 12.) Linn. gen. 436. Schreb. 589. Willd. 669. Gert. 801. tab. 139. Lam. Illuit. pl. 770. Jul. 37. Vent. vol. ii, 122. Rotang. Encyc. Meth. and Nouveau Di&. Rattan. Clafs and order, hexandria mono- ynia, Kinn, Gert. Vent. Monecia hexandria, Lam. to which difpofition Jufficu alfo inclines. Nat. Ord. Tripeta- Joidea, Linn. Palme Juff. Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. permanent, of fix leaves, or in fix divi- fions ; the three outer ones fhorter and broader ; the three inner ones longer, narrower, and acuminate. Cor. none. Stam. filaments fix, capillary, longer than the calyx, (often feparate from the piftil, Poiret): anthers round. Pi. germ fuperior, roundifh: {tyle trifid, round, fpiral, thread-fhaped: fliigmas three, fimple. Peric. membranous, top-fhaped, or globular, covered with feales imbricated backwards and obtufe, one-celled, at firft pulpy, afterwards dry. Seeds one, two, or three, globular, flefhy. Eff. ch. Calyx of fix leaves, or with fix divifions. Co- = rolla none. Fruit a one-celled berry covered with feales imbricated backward. Obf. The three inner leaflets of the calyx have the ap- pearance of petals, and-it is not eafy to determine why they were not confidered as fuch by Linnzus. The divifion of the ftyle and the three ftigmas make it probable that thefe are naturally the rudiments of three germs, but two of them generally prove abortive. Juffieu obferves that this genus forms the conneting link between the palms and the grafles, having the flower of the former and the habit of the latter. The fago palm fo nearly refembles calamus in its parts of fructification that it fearcely feems a diftin@ genus. The only difference between them, according to Gertner, is that the flowers of the former are monoicous, and of the lat- ter hermaphrodite; and that the embryo of the former is on the fide, and of the latter at the bafe of the feed. As the flowers, at leaft of one fpecies of Calamus, are now al-: lowed to be monoicous, the former difference vanithes 3 and whether the latter alone be a fufficient generic diftinc- tion, may juttly be doubted in the prefent imperfe&t ftate of our knowledge. Linnzus makes only one {pecies, but mentions eight vae rieties, all taken up from Rumphius, who calls them Pal- mijunci from their fimilarity to the palms in their fruétificae tion, and to the iunci, or rufhes, in their flexibility. Lou. reiro has diftinguifhed and defcribed fix fpecies. _Willdenow has enumerated eight, at the fame time acknowledging that he cannot identify the fcipionum, amarum, and dioicum of Lourciro. Poiret has extended them to twelve, from the defcriptions of different authors, but without being abfo- lutely certain that his fynonyms are in all cafes exaGt. As he is the lateft writer on the fubjeét, we fhall take him for our guide. Sp. 1. C. petreus, Lour. (Rotang. Willd. var. and Linn. * Arundo zeylanica {pinofiffima: Burm. zeyl. 36. Flor. 468, Tfieru-tfiefel: Rheed Mal. v.12. p. 12, t. 64. Palmijuncus calapparius: Rumph. Amb. v.5. p. 97, t-51-) ‘ Stem thick, fet with prickes; prickles ereét; fpadix ereét.’” Willd. Stems more than a hundred feet hich, and at leatt the thicknefs of a man’s arm : internodes cylindrical, unequal, furrowed, fpotted, about a foot long, downy towards the fummit. Leaves, or fronds, in terminating tufts, alternate, winged ; leaflets fword-fhaped, long. ftraight, befet with numerous, ftraight, long, very fharp prickles. Spadix nearly {traight, moderately branched. Ca/yx with fix divifions.. Berry rather egg-fhaped, acuminate. A native of the Eaft Indies and Cochinchina, where it is ufed for making lon pikes. The inner part of the young fhoots, ftripped of the bark, is eaten either boiled or roafted on the hearth. The fruit is pleafantly acid. 2. C. radentum, Lour. (C. rotang: var. y Linn. Palmijuncus albus: Rumph. t. 53.) *¢ Prickles. of the ftem reflexed; fpadix divaricated, ftraight.’? Willd. Stems very tough, not more than an inch thick, but rifing by the means of trees, and pafling from. one tree to another, fometimes to the length of more than five hundred feet; internodes nearly equal, round, a foot and a half long. Leaves, long, winged, reflexed ; common petiole lengthened into a naked, pendant, prickly fila- ment; leaflefs, fhort, ftraight, acuminated, downy, ter= minated bya long briftle. Spadixes, large, fpreading out in a loofe panicle. F/owers, numerous, nearly feffile. Ber ries, very {mall. It is one of the moft common {fpecies, and is ufed inftead of ropes to bind untame elephants, to draw heavy loads, and to make cables for fhips. 3 C. /cipionumy walking cane, rattan. Lour. (Katutfiurel: Rheede. Arundo rotang ditta: Pifon mant. 188, La Marck illuft. pl. 770. f, x.) “Internodes of the ftem, very long, awl-fhaped, fhining ; CAL ining; prickles recurved, {padix thick, with fhort branches’’, Poiret. Stems f{mooth, glofly, marked with dark fpots: internodes three feet lonz, or more, unequal. Leaves, winged: leaflets, {word fhaped, acuminate ;-armed, as well as the petioles, with fhort, recurved, prickles. Mowers, few, but rather crowded on the branches of the fpadix. Berry, glo- bular, of a moderate fize, and a clear yellow colour. Sted, one, globular. It grows abundantly on both fides of the ftraits of Malacca, whence it is exported into China and Eu- rope ; and on account of its long internodes and gloffy fur- face, has been long preferred for walking canes. 4. C. wve- rus. Lour. (Palmijuncus verus: Rumph. t. 54, rotang var. 3. Linn.) “ Prickles of the item honzontal; fpadix ere& ; three of the leaflets of the calyx very long,” Willd. Stem, fingle and not, as in other {pecies, feveral from the fame root ; more than a hundred feet high, and about the thick- nefs of aman’s finger ; very flexible, and of a yellowifh brown colour: internodes very long, almoft equal. Leaves long, winged; leaflets ovate lanceolate, three-nerved. Spadixes racemed. Spathes oblong, prickly. The three interior leaflets of the calyx whitifh, having the appearance of pe- tals. Berry rather large; brown : common in foreits in the Eaft Indies, Its ftem cut into thongs, is ufed to make ca- bles and other ropes, cane chairs, and many kinds of houf- hold furniture. 5. C. fecundiflorus. Beauvois, t. 9, 10. S¢ Leaves, winged, flexible, reflexed, gibbous at the bate, cultrate at the margin; leaflets prickly at the bafe.” A fhrab. Leaves, long, winged, without leaflets at their fum- mits, but armed with feveral pairs of large prickles ; oppo- fite, almoft triangular without, flat, or a little concave within ; leaflets prickly at their edges. Calyx, with three fhort exterior divilions in the form of {caleg; the three inner ones longer. Stigma, capitate, almolt trifid. Berry, nearly lobular. A native of Africa, in the kingdom of Benin. By the means of the prickles on che edges of its leaflets, it firmly attaches itfelf to other plants; and its own leaves, which hang down to the ground, are fo clofely entangled together, that each fhrub forms an impenetrable buth, which efferds a fure defence to the {maller animals again{t their numerous enemies. M. Beauvois has feen the nefts of the termites in the kingdom of Benin fo compleatly covered by thefe fbrubs, as fcarcely to leave a paffage for the f{malleft bird. 6.C. amarus, Lour. “ Prickles crowded, fhort; deaflets linear; fpadixes remote ; fpathes partial.” Stems, about the thicknefs of a finger, about fixty feet high, hard- ifh, even, pale-coloured ; internodes long, round, almoft equal. A native of Cochinchina. It is ufed for the fame urpofes as the preceding, and is more durable. 7. C. draco, Wild. (rotang var. 5, Linn. Palmijuncus Draco, Rumph. t. 58. f. 1.), ** Prickles of the ftem preffed clofe to it; of the leaves fpreading ; fpadix erect.” Willd.- Internodes from two to three feet long, of the thicknefs of a finger, unequal. Leaflets alternate, linear, acuminate, narrowed at their bafe, befet with a few hairs. Spadix branched into fmall, thort racemes. Berries egg-fhaped, about the fize of a hazel nut, terminated by a blunt point. Seedone, {mooth, oval. From this fpecies is obtained the gum, commonly called Dragon’s blood. 8. C. niger, Willd. (var. @, Linn. Palmijuncus niger, Rumph. t. 22.) “ Prickles of the ftem ‘and of the leaves horizontal; fpadix compat, pendulous,’ Willd. Stems thick, armed with prickles, which enter eafily into the fkin and chen break off. Leaves very long, alternate, winged; leaflets alternate, ftraight, narrowed al- moft into a petiole at their bafe, acuminate. Spadixes ax- illary, in tufted racemes. Berries, globular, fcarcely the fize of a {mall pea. A native of the Eaft Indies. Its ftems do not eafily fplit, and are fo egos in their fhape, that . CAL ae are not of the fame ufe as feveral of the other fpecies. Q. C. viminalis. Willd. (rotang var. ¢, Linn. Palmijuncus vi- minalis Rumph. t. 55.) ‘ Prickles of the ftem f{preading ; of the leaves, diftant, reflexed: fpadix nodding :’”? Willd. Stems, about the thicknefs of a goofe-quill : internodes, about a foot long on the lower part, fhorter near the fummit, where they are armed with ftraight, horizontal, very fine prickles. eaves alternate, diftant, winged; petioles lengthened beyond the leaflets; leaflets ftraight, long, acu- minate,farmed with reflexed prickles. Spadixes axillary; branched in rather fpreading racemes. Flowers peduncled, almoit oppofite. Berries very fmell. A native of moift foreits in Java and the Celebes Iflands. Its ftems anfwer the purpofes of ozier, and divided into fhreds, make feveral kinds of houfhold furniture. 10. C. egueflris, Willd. (ro- tang, var. ¢ Linn. Palmijuncus equeftris, Rumph. t. 56. andt. 57. f. 1.) ‘* Prickles of the item ereét, {preading ; of the leaves hooked : leaflets elliptic: fpadix ereA.’? Willd. Stems flender, very fupple: internodes fhort, equal, {moothy furnifhed near their fummit with alternate, winged leaves : Leafiets, alternate, from eight to ten inches long : petioles extended beyond the leaflets, but prickly to the end. Ber- ries round, about the fize ofa pea. A native of humid,. rocky places, in the ifland of Amboina. It is in general. ufe in the Eaft Indies as a riding cane. r1.C. dioicus, Lour. ‘ Stem very flender; leaves and prickles fhorter ; flowers dioicous.” Nearly allied to the two preceding. It may poflibly be only a variety of one of them: or it per- haps is an intermediate {pecies. Svems flender, f{earcely the thicknefs of a goofe-qnill, twenty feet high, very flexible and regular, pale and gloffy; internodes a feot long; leaves winged. Calyx. with fix unequal divifions ; the three inner ones refembling petals, white, ovate-lanceolate, ftriated. A native of Cochinchina, on the banks of rivers. 12. C. zalacca, Willd. Gert. Tab. 139. f. 1. Lam. Pl. 770. fig. 2. copied from Gertner. (C. rotang. var. », Linn; Zalacca, feu rotang zalak, Rumph. t. ak 2. Fruétus Baly infule pyriformis, J. Bauh. Hift. p. 401, with a figure.) ‘ Prickles {preading ; fpadix radical,”? Willd. Stem, none. Leaves, in a tuft, from the crown of the root, from ten to twelve feet long, winged; leaflets long, acuminate ; petioles ftrong, ftraight, {preading, prickly. Spadixes racemed, nearly ra- dical. Berries rather large, top-fhaped, of an irregular form from their prefflure againft each other ; rind thin, pa- pery; fcales fomewhat cartilaginous; the upper ones erect, linear; the reft preffed clofe, imbricated downward ; marked with a railed line along the middle, and a little re- flexed at the tip, fo as to make the berry rough to the touch. Seeds three, fixed to the bottom of the berry, two enerally abortive, nearly globular, with a fmall umbilical Frkiack thick, rather heart-fhaped lobe affixed to them below. Gert. Fruit rather larger than a pear, of a pleafant acid flavour, which has been compared to that of the pine- apple. They are eaten cither raw or pickled, and are a ge- neral fea-flore. A native of Java, and other parts of the Eaft Indies. This fpecies has the habit of a palm, and cons nects the others with the Sago Palm. See Sacus. Cacamus, in Ancient Geography, a place fituated on the Thracian Bofphorus, which is faid to have taken its name from the quantity of rofes which grew there. Cavamus aromaticus,in Botany. See Acornus Calamus, Cavamus aucupatorius, or calamus flru€us, among Fowlers, fignifies a bird-cavv. Caramus indicus petrifaaus, in the Natural Hiflory of the Ancients, a name given to a fubftance found often in the foffile kingdom ufually of about three inches long, half'an inch broad, and one third of an inch thick, and covered all over CAL ever its furface with large round figures in form of radiated ftars within. This very much refembled in external appear- ance the root of our common calamus aromaticus of the {hops turned into ftone, and feems to have been vulgarly fuppofed to be that fubftance petrified. The more accurate among the early writers, however, have by no means countenanced fo wild a conjeGure ; and Theophraftus, though he records the fubftance under that name, as it had no cther in his time, yet joins it to the corals, which, he fays, grow in the fea, and are vegetables; and adds, that thofe and this fub- {tance are properly the fubitance of another treatife, not of a hiftory of ftones. This author’s placing it among the corAts is perfectly right, fince the fpecimens of it now found are plainly no other than corals of the ftellated kinds, which have been long buried ‘in the earth. Cavamus odoratus, Mathioli, in Botany. POGON nardus. Caramus pafloralis, in Mufic, the fhepherd’s pipe; an ancient muiical inftrument, the origin of the flute ; at firft, made of a ftraw or reed; avena and calamus. It fhould feem as if the jovxvr0:, monolos, with holes to produce dif- ferent tones, muft have been fuggeited by the fyrnx, or Pan’s pipe, an inftrument in which pipes of different lengths, of one tone each, without ventiges, produced the fcale by moving them over the lips ; but afterwards it was difcovered, (as it is faid, by Minerva,) that one fingle pipe, perforated, would furnifh as great a variety of founds, and more conve- niently, than all the pipes of the f//u/a Panis. Flutes were improved and multiplied, almoft to infinity. See Pl. of an- cient mufical inftruments, and Hitt. vol. i. pp. 408, and 412. According to Horace, the flute had undergone various changes and improvements from its firft invention : Tibia non, ut nunc, orichalco vincta, tubeque Emula ; fed tenuis fimplexque, foramine pauco, Afpirare. A. P. 202. See Fiure. Caramus /criptorius, properly denotes a reed or rufh to write with, anfwering to the ufe of the ancient ftylus and modern pen, The ancient Egyptian calamus was a fort of arundo aquatica growing plentifully about Memphis, and on the banks of the Nile; whence it was alfo called ca/amus Memphiticus, Niloticus, &c. Caramus fcriptorius, in Anatomy, is a dilatation of the fourth ventricle of the brain ; fo called from its figure, which refembles tbat of a quill. See Brain. Catamus alfo denotes a fort of meafure otherwife called CANNA, CANE, or reed. CALAMY, Epmunp, in Biography, an eminent divine among the Englifh Nonconformiits of the 17th century, was born in London in the year 1600, and educated at Pem- broke Hall in the univerfity of Cambridge ; where he took his degrees of bachelor of arts, and bachelor of divinity, but on account of his hoftility to the Arminian party, he was revented from obtaining a fellowfhip in that fociety, to which his ftanding, talents, and literary acquirements en- titled him. His itudious difpofition and religious character, however, recommended him to Dr. Felton, bifhop of Ely, who made him his domeitic chaplain, and gave him the vi- carage of Swaffham prior in his neighbourhood. In this fituation, he ftudied at the rate of 16 hours a day, and acquired that large fund of folid and ufeful learning, which enabled him to difcharge, with great ability, the feveral of- fices which he afterwards occupied. After the death of the bifhop in 1626, he was chofen one of the leGurers at Bury St. Edmund’s, and refigned his vicarage. During his 10 years’ refidence in this place, he diftinguifhed himfelf for the moft part as a ilrict conformift: but when bifhop See ANDRO- GAL Wren’s articles, and the reading of the book of Sports were enforced, he avowed his diffent, made a public apo- logy for his condu& from the pulpit, and, from this time, was regarded as an undifguifed and ative nonconformitft. Being much in favour with the earl of Effex, he was pre- fented by his lordfhip with the rectory of Rochford in Effex, which, though a valuable preferment, was, on account of the infalubrity of its fituation, the occafion of permanent injury to his conftitution. In 1639, he was chofen miniiter of St. Mary, Aldermanbury, and removed to London, where he took an active part in the controverfy concerning church-government, which was then agitated. In 1640, he engaged with other writers in the compofition of the famous book, entitled ** Sme&tymnuus,”’ from the initials of the names of thofe that were concerned in it ; viz. Stephen Marfhall, Ed- mund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, and William Spurftow. This treatife, though written with a confiderable degree of afperity, has been confidered, not only by the Nonconformi'ts, but by Dr. Wilkins, bifhop of Chefter, as a capital work again{ft epifcopacy. Calamy himfelf fays of it, that it gave the firit deadly blow to this fyftem of church government. In 1641, Mr. Calamy was appointed by the houfe of lords a member of the fub-com- mittee, which ineffectually attempted to accommodate the differences that fubfifted with regard to religion. And he afterwards diftinguifhed himfelf, by his learning and mode- ration, in the aflembly of divines. He was alfo at this time one of the moft eminent preachers in the city of London, and held in high eftimation, particularly by the Prefbyterian party. With this party he concurred in oppofition to the Independents and Seétaries, and in teftifying his difappro- bation of the violent meafures that brought on the king’s death, an event which he ardently deprecated. During the ufurpation of Cromwell, he withdrew from all public con- cerns; but he boldly oppofed the projeét of his fingle go- vernment, which he undertook ‘to prove to be both unlaw- ful and impracticable. As foon as a favourable opportunity occurred, he was ative in promoting the reftoration of Charles II. ; and he was one of the divines delegated to compliment the king in Holland onthe occafion. In 1660, he was appointed one of his majefty’s chaplains ; and he was offered the bifhopric of Litchfield and Coventry, which, af- ter previous deliberation, he declined accepting. As foon as the a& of uniformity was paffed, he confcientioufly dif- continued his public fermons in the church, and preached his farewel fermon at Aldermanbury, Auguft 15, 1662. He joined feveral of his brethren, however, in a petition to the king for liberty to retain their public funétions, and on the occafion made a long and moving f{peech ; but this laft effort for toleration proved ineffectual. After he had ceafed to officiate in the church, he attended its public fervice ; at one time, viz. December 28, 1662, when the appointed preacher did not appear, he was urged by fome of the prin- cipal parifhioners to take his place ; but taking occalion to fpeak with freedom concerning the parifh, and the fituation to which he was then reduced, he was arrefted by the lord mayor’s warrant, and committed to Newgate. Doubts, however, occurred as to the legality of his confinement; and the hardfhip of his cafe being duly confidered, he was li- berated in a few days by the king’s order. After the fire ° of London, he was driven over its ruins in a coach on his way to Enfield; and the fight fo much affeCted him, that he died within two months afterwards, October 29, 1666, Mr. Calamy was well acquainted with the fubje¢ts appro- priate to his profeffion: as a preacher, he was plain and practical ; and he boldly avowed his fentiments on all ne- ceffary occafions. Several of his fermons, delivered on par- ticular CAL 7 ticular occafions, were printed feparately ; and a fet of five fermons, entitled “ The godly Man’s Ark, or a City of re- fuge in the Day of Dittrefs,”” was publifhed in 1653, 12mo, and became a very popular book in thofetimes. Biog. Brit. Cavamy, Besyamiy, a divine of the church of England, of the s7th century, was the fon of the preceding by a fe- cond wife, and having received the rudiments of education at St. Paul’s {chool, he completed his courfe at Catharine Hall, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow, and an eminent tutor. In 1677, he was chofen minifter of St. Mary, Aldermanbury, and foon after appointed one of his majeity’s chaplains in ordinary ; and in 1680, he took his degree of doctor in divinity. The attention of the public was very much engaged by “ A Difcourfe about a {crupu- lous Cenfcience,”? which he publifhed in 1683. It was de- dicated to fir George Jefferies, afterwards the chancellor of notorious memory, whom he compliments as his friend and patron. This difcourie, which was defigned to fhew the crime and danger of feparating from the eftablifhed church on the pretext of a tender conicience, and which inculcates the notion, that “fuch wayward, {fkittifh confciences, as doubt of and fufpett the rights of the crown, ought to be well bridled and reftrained,”’ was much decried by one party, and extolled by the other. Mr. Thomas de Laune, a Non- conformift {chool-matter, publifhed a warm reply to this difcourfe, for which, and fome other intemperate publica- tions, he was committed to Newgate, and fentenced to pay a fine, which he was unable to difcharge; fo that the event roved fatal to himfelf, his wife, and children. It is al- dged, however, in vindication of Dr. Calamy, that he ex- erted himfelf in favour of this antagonift ; and that though he avowed himfelf a ftrenuous advocate for the principle of religious intolerance, and was unfortunate in the felection * of his patron. he was far from poffefling the {pirit of a per- fecutor : and it is further faid, that his opinions on this topic underwent fome change before his death. In confe- quence of the high eftimation in which he was held by the beft men of all parties in the city of London, he obtained in 1683 the vicarage of St. Lawrence, Jewry, and in 1685, a prebend in the cathedral church of St. Paul. Towards the clofe of the year 1685, his health declined in confe- uence, as it is faid, of the calamitous ftate of public af- ere by which he was deeply impreffed, and he died of a leuritic complaint in January, 1656. He was diftinguifhed if his zealous attachment to the government and church of England ; and at the fame time refpeéted and efteemed for his piety and charity, by perfons of different denominations. As a preacher, he was ‘much applauded: and fome of his pofthumous fermons, publifhed by his brother, have been frequently reprinted, and are at this day read and admired. Biog. Brit. Caramy, Epmuxp, an eminent diffenting divine, was rand-fon of the firft Edmund Calamy, by a father of the i name, and born in London, in 1671. After a previ- ous courfe of education in fome private and public {chools, he was placed under the tuition of Mr. Samuel Cradock, by whom he was inftruéted in logic, metaphyfics, and natural hilofophy. In 1688, he removed to the Univerfity of trecht, where he diftinguifhed himfelf by his proficiency in philofophy and law, under De Vries, Vander Muyden, and Grevius, fome of the moft learned profeffors in their refpeGtive departments at that period. In thefe feveral flages of education, Mr. Calamy recommended himfclf to his tutors by the diligence of his application, and to all his affociates by the fweetnefs of his temper, and the urbanity of nis manners. Having declined the offer of a profeffor- fhip in the college of Eisburgh, he returned from Hol- CAL land to England, and fpent fome time at Oxford, without becoming a member of the univerfity, availing himfelf of the patronage and counfel of Dr, Pocock, and Dr. Edward Bernard, and alfo of the inftruGive converfation of Mr. Henry Dodwell. Determining to devote himfelf to the pre- feflion of divinity, he dire&ted his courfe of ftudies to this object ; and having deliberately inveftigated the grounds af the controverfy between the eftablifhed church and the Se- paratifts, he refolved to conne&t himfelf with the latter ; and in 1692, he commenced the regular exercife of his minif- try at a mecting-houfe in Black fryars, London. In 1694, he was ordained ; and this was the firft inftance of the kind that was performed among the diflenters, after the pafling of the at of uniformity : and in 1703, he was chofen paftor of alarge and refpectable congregation in Weftmintter. ‘To the diffenters he performed an acceptable fervice, by publifhing « Baxter’s Hiftory of his Life and Times,”’ which he after- wards abridged, annexing an account of many of the ejected minifters, and an apology for their non-conformity. Bax- ter’s hiftory terminated with the year 1684; but Calamy’s continuation extended to the year 1691; and was publifhed in 1702, 8vo. A new edition of this work was publifthed in 1713, in 2 volumes Svo.; in which the hiltory of the Non- conformifts is continued through the reign of king William and queen Anne, to the time of pafling the occafional bill. The firft edition of this work was, as we may reafonably imagine, very differently received by perfons of different parties and opinions; and it occafioned a controverly of fome extent and continuance, which, however, was carried on with a greater degree of candour and moderation than mott controverfies ofa fimilar kind. In Scotland, which Mr. Calamy vifited in1709, he was received with fingular refpeét 5 and each of the three Univerfities of Aberdeen, Glakvow, and Edinburgh, prefented him with the degree of doctor in divinity. In 1718, he wrote a vindication of his grand- father, and feveral other worthy perfons again{t the reflec- tions of Archdeacon Eachard, in his Hiftory of England. About this time the queftion of fub{cription to the firft ar- ticle of the Church of England, relating to the Trinity, began to be agitated among the diflenters ; Dr. Calamy, however, remained neutral, and he has incurred reproach among the prefent race of diffenting clergy, for not having joined thofe 73 minifters who carried it againft 69 for the Bible, in oppoli- tion to human formularies. As to‘the belief of the doétrine he was decidedly orthodox, which was alfo the cafe with feveral others ; and he publifhed a fet of fermons in defence of it, which was dedicated and prefented to the king, and for which he received from his majefty a gratuity of 5ol. and likewife the thanks of feveral dignitaries of the church. In 1727, he completed his great defign of preferving the hiftory of minifters, &c. ejected and filenced, after the re- ftoration, in a work intitled, ** A Continuation of the Ac- count of the Minilters, Leéturers, Mafters, and Fellows of Colleges, and Schoolmafters, who were ejected and filenced after the Reftoration in 1660, by, or before the Aét of Uniformity, &c.”? 2 vols. Lond. 1727. This is a work of laudable induftry and labour, and contains a valuable col- le&tion of memoirs, which would have been otherwife lott. In 1775, the rev. Mr. Samuel Palmer of Hackney pub- lifhed in two large volumes Svo. under the title of Non- conformilts’ Memorial,’”’an abridgement, with corre¢tions, ad- ditions, and new anecdotes, of Dr. Calamy’s 4 volumes, con- cerning the eje&ted and filenced minifters; and a new edi- tion of this work, with improvements, has been lately reprint- ed. De. Calamy diftinguifhed himfelf by other learned and ufeful writings, confilting chiefly of fermons and controverfial pamphlets, Of his publications, befides thofe already arg 7 Cd, oy, a ed, we may mention his “ Infpiration of the Holy Writings of the Old and New Tettament, in 14 Sermons ;” and “ Tris De- fence of moderate Nonconformity,”’ in 3 parts. The introduc- tion to one of thefe trasts, reprefenting the true ftate of the controverfy between the Church and the Diffenters, was fo much approved by Mr. Locke, that he fent a meflage to our author informing him, that he thoug!t it fuch a defence of nonconformity as could not be anfwered ; and that, in ad- hering-to the principles thus laid down, he had no occafion to be afraid of any antagonift. After an honourable courfe of profeffional fervices for which he was much efteemed, and after fuftaining a charaGter which was much refpected, not only among diffenters, but alfo among the moderate mem- bers of the eftablifhed church, both clergy and laity, with ‘many of whom he lived in great intimacy 5 he clofed his life June 3, 1732, in the Goth year of his age. Io his fu- neral fermon by Mr. Mayo, his character is very juitly de- lineated, as “a perfon of found judgment, extenfive learn- ing, fincere piety, of a candid and benevolent temper, and very moderate with regard to differences in points of reli- gion.” Biog. Brit. ! re: CALANDA, in Geography, a town of Spain in Arra- gon, on the river Guadaloupe ; 3 leagues W. S. W. of Al- kanitz. CALANDRA, in Ornithology, a bird of the Avaupa, or lark genus, called by fome the calandre lark, and which appears to be a general inhabitant of Sardinia, Italy, the South of France, Syria, Ruffia, and Tartary, and alfo of America. This is the calandra of old authors. Briffon calls it alanda major f. calandra: it is the calandra of the arctic zoology, of Aldrovandus, Willughby, and Edwards, and groffe alouette ou calandre of Buffon. The length of this bird is about feven inches and a quarter, It builds its neft on the ground: fings finely, and imitates the notes of other birds extremely well. It is fpecifically diftinguifhed by having the firlt exterior tail feather on each fide white on the outer web; fecond and third tipt with white: pec- toral band brown. Gmel. &c. Ob/ The bill and legs are pale grey: body above varied with brown and grey: chin white: throat with a white crefcent, and beneath that a whitifh band fpotted with black: belly white : quill fea- thers duiky edged with white; the leffer ones tipt with white : tail black. ' CALANDRE, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by the French writers to an infect chat does vait mifchief in granar- jes. It is properly of the fcarab clafs. The female lays a confiderable number of eggs, and the increafe of thefe creatures would be very great, but nature has fo ordered it, that while in the egg ftate, and even while in that of the worm, they are fubjeét to be eaten by mites; thefe little vermin are always very plentiful in gra- naries, and they deftroy the far greater number of thefe larger animals. ; CALANDRO, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Tur- key, in the province of Caramania; 100 miles S. of Cogni. CALANGAY, in Natural Hijfory, a name given by the people of the Philippine iflands to a {pecies of parrot very common there ; it 1s allover white, and hasa cre(t of white feathers on its head; it is of the fize of a pigeon, and 1s eafily kept tame, and learnt to talk. It is called alfo in fome of the Philippines catatua and abacay. CALANNAS, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the county of Seville, near the river Odiel ; 40 miles N. W. of Seville. ve CALANTIGAS, an ifland of the Eaft Indian ocean, not far from Lingen, which fee. CALANUS, in Biography, a brachman or Indian phi- CAL lofopher, who followed Alexander the Great, in his expe= dition to India. Having pafled 83 years without ficknels, a fit of the colic made him impatient of life, and he refolv- ed to render his exit as ofteitatious as poffible. Accord- ingly, having obtained perméflion of Alexander to burn himfelf, “a funeral pile was ereCied and ftrewed with per- fumes ; and the whole army was arranged round it in battle array : upon which, Calanus, magnificently drefled, afcend- ed the pile with a compofed air, and faw the flame applied without emotion. When he was afked if he had any mef- fage to Alexander, he only replied, “I fhall foon fee him again at Babylon ;”’ which declaration fome have interpret ed as prefigmificative of his death in that city ; and the lait words he uttered were, “* Happy hour of departure from life, in which, after the mortal body is confumed, the foul fhail go forth into light.” This event took place on the frontiers of Sufiana, B. C.325. See ALEXANDER. CALAO, in Ornithology, fynonymous with the modern Latin Buceros, and Hornbill of the Englifh. Petiver called the Philippine hornbill (Bicornis Linn.) Calao, and fince that period, the French have adopted the expreflion asa generical name for the other {pecies of the fame tribe. Thus, Buffon has calao d’Abyflinie, calao d’ Afrique, calao de Ma- labar, calao & cafque rond, calao a bec rouge de Senegal, &c. all which refer to the correfponding fynonyms, Abyf- finian hornbill, African hornbill, Malabar hornbill, Helmet hornbill, red-billed hornbill, &c. CALAON, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia Mi- nor, in Ionia, near the town of Colophon. CALAPADA, in Geography, a cape on the north fide of the ifle of Candia, to the eaft of cape Meleche, and about one-fourth part of the length of the ifland from the weft end. } CALAPIS, in Ancient Geography, a colony of Afia Mi- nor, in Bithynia; eltablifhed, according to Strabo, by the inhabitants of Heraclea. CALAPIZZATI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Calabria Citra; eight miles N.W. of Ca- riati. CALAPPA, in Botany, Rumph. See Cocos nucifera. Cavappa, in Entomology, a {pecies of Cancer that in- habits America. The thorax is crenulated, with the pof- terior angles dilated, and very entire: hand-claws creited. Fabricius. CALASCIO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Abruzzo Ultra; eight miles E. of Aquila. CALASCIONE, a mufical inftrument much in ufe by ftrolling and ftreet muficians throughout the kingdom of Naples. It is a f{pecies of guitar, with only two itrings, tuned 5th to each other. It has a very long neck, which is fretted. See Fret. ‘The Turks have an inftrument of the like kind, with three ftrings, called in Arabic, dambura. Sometimes the flrings are {truck witlva plectrum, and fome- times with a quill, See PLecrrum. The tone is rough and coarfe; the neck is fometimes fix feet long. The frets amount te 150r 16. But the Neapolitans,have a fmaller fort called calafcioncina. See Muf. Pl. of mod. inttr. CALASH, or Cares, a {mall light kind of chariot, or chair, with very low wheels, ufed chiefly for taking the air in parks and gardens. The word is French, caleche, which Menage derives from the Latin, carrus, carri, carifcus, carrifea, carrefca, calefcay caleche. _ The calafh is for the moft part richly decorated, and open on all fides, for the conventency of the air, and prof. pect; or at mott enclofed with light mantlets of waxed cloth, to be opened or fhut at pleafure. In Ae * "In the Philofophical TranfaGtions, we have a defcription ef anew fort of calafh going on two wheels, not hung on traces, yet eafier than the common coaches ; having this farther advantage, that whereas a common coach will over- turn if one wheel goes on a furface a foot and a half higher than that of the other, this will admit of a difference of three feet and one third, without danger of overturn- ing. Add that it would turn over and over, that is, af- ter being turned fo es that the {pokes are parallel to the horizon, and one wheel flaty over the head of him that rides in ir, and the other flat under him, it will turn once more, by which the wheels are placed in fatu quo, without any diforder to the horfe or rider. N° 172. p. 1025. CALASIO, Marrus pe, in Biography, a Francifcan profeilar of Hebrew at Rome, and author of a “ Concordance of the Hebrew Words in the Bible,’? in four volumes folio, printed at Rome in 1621, and at Londonin 1747. This Concordance has been highly approved both by proteftants and pepifts; and contains, befides the Hebrew words oc- curring in the Bible, the Latin verfion, and, in the margin, the variations between the LXX verlion, and the Vulgate. Befides, at the beginning of every article, there isa kind of diGtionary, which gives the fignification of each Hebrew word, and it furnifhes an opportunity of comparing it with other oriental languages, viz. the Syriac, Arabic, and Chal- ee. CALASIRII, in Ancient Geography, the denomination of a people, who, according to Herodotus, formed a clafs of Egyptians, amounting in number to 250,000 perfons, de- voted, from father to fon, to the profeflion of arms, without being attached to agriculture, or to any art. The kings of Egypt had always one thoufand of them among their guards. CALASIRIS, or Carassis, in Antiquity, a linen tunic worn by the Pienician, Egyptian, Roman, and other iefts. We alfo find mention of the calafiris as worn by the foldiers and by women. In which lait fenfe, it feems to have been 2 knot in the woman’s gown, whereby it was _ drawn about the neck. ’ CALASTRI, in Ceagraply, a town of Hindoofan, in the Carnatic ; 15 geographical miles E.N.E, from Tripetty, and 61 fi ot: but Major Rennell has fome doubts concernin ccuracy of its pofition. CALATABELLOTA, formerly the Crimifus, a river of Sicily, with the waters of which the inhabitants overflow their beautiful rice grounds; and alfo a town of Sicily in the valley of Mazara ; fix milea S.E. of Sciacca. CALATA-FIMI, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Mazara; 19 milea E.S.E. of Trapani. It is built on a ridge between two valleys, and its inhabitants are eflimated at 10,000. Carata-cirnone, or Caracinzone, a royal city of Sicily, in the Val di Noto, fituate about 20 miles from the fea on the fummit of a very high infulated hill, embofomed in thick groves of cypreffes, and containing about 17,000 inhabitantr, who live by agriculture and the manufaéture of potters-ware. The road to it, though paved, is very fteep and difficult of paflage for any animal except a mule or an afs. The inhabitants of this city are deemed the politeft people in the ifland, and many of them live in a very ele- gant flyle. The natives have an idea that this city is very ancient, and that it figured as are public among the Sicilians during the zenith of Grecian glory, under the name of inland Gela or Gelone. The Saracens fortified it, but the Genoefe wrefted it from them; however, their force was dwindled into a fhadow waen the Normans arrived. Earl = 3 on him{elf, on many occafions, of the trufty va- OL. Vv. CAL lour of the Calatageronefe, and rewarded them liberally with eftates, which are {till in their poffeffion, and render the cor- poration one of the richeftin Sicily. De Non fays, this city, in which ancient coins are flillfound, mult have been the ** Hybla-herea” of antiquity. Swinburne’s Travels in the Two Sicilics, vol.iv. De Non’s ‘Travels in Africa, &c. P- 292. CaLATA-MISSETA, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Ma- zara; 27 miles E.N.E. of Girgenti. _Carara-scibetta, a mean town of Sicily, in the Val di Noto, built on the point of a rock, about three miles from Caftro- Giovani. CALATALUD, a city of Spain, in Arragon, fituated at the toot of ahiil, at the conflux of the Xalon and Xiloca, defended by a caftle placed upon a rock. It contains 13 parifhes, and 15 convents; 37 miles S.W. of Saragoffa, N. lat. 41° 22! W. long. 2° of. CALATHE, in Ancient Geography, Galata, an ifland of the Mediterranean, on the coait of Atrica. See GaLara. CALATHIAN Vioxer. See Geytiana Pneumo- nanthe, CALATHIFORMIS, aterm in Botany, denoting bowl- fhaped, or hemifpherical and concave. CALATHION, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Peloponnefus, in Meflenia, fituate to the eat of Gerenia; on which was a temple dedicated to Calathea, with a grotto having a very narrow entrance. CALATHUA, or Cataruusa, a town of Arabia De- ferta. Ptolemy. CALATRHUS, in Antiquity, akind of band-bafket made of light wood, or rufhes; ufed by the women fometimes to gather flowers, but chiefly after the example of Minerva, to put their work in. The figure of the calathus, as repre- fented on ancient monuments, is narrow at the bottom, and widening upwards like that of atop. Pliny compares it to that of alily. Hitt. Nat. lib. xxi. cap. 5. The calathus, or work bafket of Minerva, isno lefs celebrated among the poets than her diftaff. Cararnus is alfo ufed to denote a drinking cup. Pliny feems likewife to ufe it for the caryx of a flower. Hitt. Nat. lib. xxv. cap. 7. . CALATHUSA, in Geography, a townof Pontus, Ste ph. YZ CALATTA, atown of Italy, fituate in Campania Fe- lix. In the war of Hannibal, it fubmitted after Capua ; and in that of the allies, Sylla aflizned it to the colony of Capua. Julius Czfar eftablifhed in it a colony of veterans. CALATIS, or Carratis, a town of Lower Myfia, in Europe, where, according to. Strabo, was a colony of the inhabitants of Heraclea.>. It is mentioned by Salluft, who places it on the weftern part of the Euxine fea, between [ftropolis and Byzone. In the Peripius of Scylax, it is called Callabis. . CALATOR,} in Antiquity, a cryer, or officer appointed to publifh fomething aloud, or call the people together. The word is formed from zaAew, J call. Such miniflers the pontifices had, whom they ufed to fend before them when they went to facrifice on feric or holidays to advertife the people to leave off work, The magiltrates alfo ufed calatores, to call the people to the comitia, both curiata and centuriata. The officers in the army alfo had calatores; as had likewife many private families co invite their guefts to entertains ments. CALATRAVA, in Geography, a town of Spain in New Caltile, and province of La Mancha, fituate near the Morena mountains, on the river Guadiana; 50 miles S.E. of Toledo, N, lat. 39°. W. long. 4° 20, 4Z Cava- CAL Caratrava; Knights of, in Hiflory, a military order infti- tuted in 1158, by Sancho III. king of Caftile, on the fol- lowing occafion. When the Moors propofed to attack the little city Calatrava, the Templars, who held it, furrender- ed it up to the king, ona fufpicion of their inability to de- fend it ; upon this Diego Velafquez, a Ciftercian monk, but aman of quality, perfuaded Raymond, abbot of Fitero, a monaftery of Ciftercians, to beg Calatravaofthe king. He obtained it; and Raymond and Diego put themfelves init; being followed by a great number of people who joined them out of zeal, for the defence of Calatrava. The Moors abandoning the enterprife, many of thofe who came to the defence of the city, entered the order of the Ciftercians ; and that under a habit more fit for military than monattic exercife. Accordingly, they began to make excurfions on the Moors; and this was the rife’of the order of Cala- trava. The firft grand mafter was Gracias; under whofe govern- ment the order was approved by Alexander III. in 1164, and confirmed by Innocent III in 1195. In 1489, Ferdi- nand and Ifabella, with the confent of pope Innocent VIII. reunited the grand malterfhip of Calatrava to the Spanith crown: fo that the kings of Spain are now become perpe- tual adminiftrators, or grand matters of this order. he badge of the order is a crofs fleury gules, which is worn at the ftomach pendant toa ribbon. Their rule and habit were originally thofe of the Cifter- cians, but their drefs was a little fhortened, on account of their exercifes ; and in procefs of time they were permitted afecular habit. The prefent habit of ceremony of the or- der isa mantle of white filk tied with a cordon and taffels, like thofe of the garter; and on the left arm, a crofs fleury embroidered gules. Mariana obferves, that this noble infti- tution has. gradually degenerated: the commanderies, which were formerly the reward of military merit, be- ing frequently beftowed on minions and favourites. Toe order is {aid to have at prefent 34 commanderies, and eight priories, which produce an annual revenue of 120,000 du- cats. As the order of St. James is diftinguithed by the epithet of the rich, and that of Alcantara is flyled the noble, this of Calatrava is entitled the gallant. Alphonfus 1X., having recovered Alcantara from the Moors in the year 1212, committed the cuftody and de- fence thereof, firft to tne knights of Calatrava; and two years afterwards to the knights of the Pear-tree, or of St. Julian, another military order intlituted at Pereiro, in 1156, under the protection of Ferdinand Il. king of Leon, and ratified as a religious order under the title of St. Benedi&, by pope Alexander ILI. in 1177, at the requeft of Gomez Fernandez, the firft prior or grand mafter; upon which they changed their name, and affumed the denomination of the knights of Alcantara. The king of Spain is fovereign of this order, which is in high eftimation in that kingdom : the mantle worn by the knights of this order is of red filk, with a far of five points embroidered in filver on the left breaft. The badgeisa crofs fleury of gold, enamelled vert, and worn at the ftomach with a broad ribbon. The religious order of Calatrava for ladies was inftituted by Don Gonzales Yannes in 1219. The badge of the or- der is the fame as that worn by the knights of Calatrava, only embroidered on the front of the ladies’ habits. CALATUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Britain, in the country of the Brigantes, according to Ptolemy. It is placed by Horfley at Appleby, and by Baxter at Kirkby- thorein Weltmoreland. But both the name, and the rela- tive fituation efligned to it by Halts might incline us to cAL place it in or near the Galaterium Nemus, now the foreft of Galtersin Yorkfhire. -In the Itinerary of Antonine it isdes nominated Galacum, and placed 47 miles from Bremetoe nacis. CALAU, in Geography, a town of Lifatia, which carries on a large trade in wool; 15 miles N.W. of Cotbus. Carau-Cene, a town of Egypt; 12 miles S. of Abu Girgé. CALAVON, a river of France, which runs into the Dorance, about 8 miles W. of Cavaillon. CALAURES, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia Minor, in Phrygia, which ran, according to Livy, between Cibyra and Mandropolis. CALAURIA, one of the Greek iflands in the Argolic bay, fituate, according to Strabo, in the bay of Hermione, over-againtt ‘Troezen, a maritime city of Argia, from which it was diltant four furlongs, being itfelf thirty in compafs. It was famous for a temple confecrated to Neptune, and an afylom. Demofthenes was an exile in this ifland, and was bu- ried inthe temple, after having poifoned himfelf, becaufe he would not furrender to the oider of Antipater. In the time of Paufanias, the inhabitants end ftrangers paid great refpe& to the memory of this illuftrious orator. This ifland was alfo denominated Irene, Anthedonia, Hypereia, and Poffidonia; however, Pliny dittinguifhes Irene from Calauria. Ancient tradition reports, that Latona gave this ifland to Neptune in exchange fer that of Delos, whence the proverb, ‘ Pro Delio Calauria.”’” A fort of litharge, denominated ‘“ Ca- lauritis,””? was brought to the Greeks from this ifland, and applied by them to medical purpofes. = CavauriA, a town of S:cily, mentioned by Plutarch. CALAUWE, in Geography, an inhabited ifland of the Indian Ocean, near Saleyer, (which fee,) and belonging to it. Its chiefly inhabited, as well as Bonarette in its vici- nity, by Bouginefe. CALBARI, or Catasar, the name of two rivers, as well as ofa ditriét in Africa, eaft of Cape Formofa. See Ca- LABAR, CALBARIA, a province of Africa, adjoining to Rio Real, or Royal River, called aifo Calabar ; deriving its name from that river, which, though broad, is too fhallow to be navigated by fhips of burden. Near the coaft, on the welt bauk of it, is a town called by the Dutch Wyndorp, and by the negroes, trom the great quantity of wine, Toke; two branches {pread to the eatt and weit from the river, whofe courfe runs con{tantly north. In the welt branch isa road, three or four leagues long, for trading veflels; and the town Calbaria is fituated on the north fide of this arm, and it is a place of great trade with the Dutch, enclofed with pallifadoes, watered on the fouth by the river, and defended on the north by a boggy wood. On the fouth of this rivulet. is an ifland of an oval figure, at a diltance from the con- tinent, from which it is divided only by a fhailow canal, the land !ow and covered with woods, About 12 leagues welt- ward of Calbaria, lies Belli, governed by one captain: and 20 leagues above the mouth is an arm of Rio Real, running eaft-north-eaft, and many other rivers are near the banks. The province of Krike, bordering on the weft of Moco, lies about 20 miles from the coaft ; onthe back of Rio Real, fouthward of Moco, towards the coalt, is the province of Bani, whofe chief town is Culeba, the principal of this country, which extends weftward from the river Calbaria, as far as Sangma, and has ten under officers. negroes, inhabitants of the ea{tern banks of Calbaria, circumcife the women that are marriageable, eat only the flain, and fell the prifoners of war at Calbaria, The cas noes ufed by the Calbarian negroes are pointed at he endsy The cannibal « *, CAL ende, 60 feet long and fix broad, with a fire-place in the centre for dreffing vi@uals, and planks acrofs for rowers. Near each rower hangs a quiver of arrows, in cafe of an at- tack; thefe nations living in continual war. The canoes carry 80 perfons; the flaves only are expofed to the damps of the air, the mafters being fheltered in the night by reed ‘rats {pread upon poles, and fixed in the form of tents. At the eaft end of Loitomba river, called by the Portu- uefe Rio do Santo Domingo, which is three leagues from the mouth of Rio Real, is a large town inhabited by re- gro traders, who treffic in flaves, which they bring from diftant countries. Next to Loitomba is Old Calbaria, or Calborg river. The interjacent couctry is voprovided with water: the cozft from Rio Real to ancient Caiborg is 24 leagues in extent, north-north-eaft. See Cavanar. CALBE, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Ssxony, and duchy of Magdeburg, on the Saal; 20 miles S. of Magdeburg. Cares, or Kanne, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and old mark of Brandenburg ; 8 miles from Gardeleben. CALBERGA, atown of Hindooftan, in the country of Hydrabad, formerly a large city, and the ftated refidence of the kings of the Deccan; but now iefs populous, fince it ceafed to be the feat of royaltv; 85 miles W. of Hydra- bad, and 110 E. of Vifiapour. N. lat. 17° 25). E. long. 77° 25". ; CALBIS, a town of Egypt, 3 miles N. of Rofetta. Caxsts, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia Minor, in the Doride, according to Ptolemy, and in Caria, according to Pomponius Mcla. Pliny calls it Indus, and fays that it fprung from the mountains of Cibyra, and that it received jn its courfe Go rivers, and more than soo torrents. Its mouth was in the north-weft part of the gulf of Glaucus, W. of the promontory of Pedalium. CALBONGAS, in Geography, the inhabitants of a country in Africa, which lies near the fource of the river Rio do Rey, or the King’s River, and borders on Biafra, at a diftance fe the coat. They are deferibed as a wicked, deceitful, and filthy people, who are naked, except that they cover their private parts, and who bedaub their bodies with various colours, and figures traced on their foreheads. They are reprefented as deftitute of natural affeGiion, as well as fincerity, infomuch that parents fell their children, hufbands their wives, and brothers their filters. In this country, thofe criminals are declared innocent, who make en incifion and fuck the blood out of their arms. Sze Rio po Rey. CALBUCO, a town of South America, in the king- dom of Chili, and military government of Chiloe, on the coat of the South Pacific Ocean, inhabited by Spaniards, Meftizos, and Indians, with one parifh church, a convent of Francifcans, another of the Fathers of Mercy, and a college of Jefuits. In this town refides a Corregidor, who is nominated by the Prefident of Chili. It is fituate 180 miles S. of Valdivia. S. lat. 42° 40. W. long. 999197". C. ALBUM, in Entomology, a {pecies of Curcutro tound in Europe, and defcribed by Scopoli. This infect is varied with copper and black, and is particularly diftinguifhed by having an incurvated line on the wing-cafes at the bafe, next to the external angle. C. atpum, is allo the fpecific name of a well known {pe- cies of the European Paritiones, called in roe the comma butterfly. This infeét has the wings angulated, ful- yous, fpotted with black: polterior wings beneath marked with a white curved line refembling the letter C, whence its name. CAL CALCADA, in Geography. See Carzapa. CALCAGIUM, in Middle Age Writers, a tax or con- tribution paid by the neighbouring inhabitants towards the making or repairing of a common caufeway. CALCAGNINI, Cexio, in Biography, a learned Ita- lian, was probably the illegitimate fon of the apottolical Prothonotary at Ferrara, and born in 1579. Having borne arms, alter the completion of his ftudies, under the emperor Maximilian, and pope Julius II., he was employed in various embaffies, and honourable comiiffions. On his return from Hungary, whither he accompanied cardinal Hippolito d’Efte in 1518, he was made profcffc: of belles-lettres in the unt- verfity of Ferrara, which office he held till his death in 1541. He was diftinguifhed by his promotion of the Aca- demy, “ Degli Elevati,” in that city; and by the liberal donation of his valuable library, and colleQion of mathe- matical inftruments to the Francifcans of Ferrara, on con- dition of their preferving them for public ufe. He wrote much both in profe and verfe. His profe works were col~ leGtcd by Frobenius at Bafil in 1544. Among thofe that relate to antiquities are, the 3 books, * Queftionum Epifto~ licarum,”? and his treatifes, “* De Rebus Aigyptiacis,” * De Re Nautica,” and “* De Talorum, Tefferarum, et Calculo- rum Ludis.” Others relate to philofophy, morals, and politics. Before Copernicus publifhed his fyftem, he wrote a book to prove, “ Quod Czlum flat, Terra moveatur.”” Erafmus highly applauds this author; though others con- demn his ftyle aa laboured and overwhelmed with quotations. His poetical ftyle was more efteemed. Three books of his Latin poems were publifhed at Venice in 1553, with thofe of Pigna and Ariofto. Tirabofchi. CALCANEUM, or Caccaneus, in dnatomy, the fame as calx, os calcis, calcar, or the heel bone. Tt lies under the aftragalus, to which it is articulated by ginglimus; behind it is a large protuberance, which makes the heel, and into which the tendo achillis ic in- ferted. CALCANTHUM, in Mineralogy, See Vitriov. CALCAR, in Anatomy, the fame with cALcANEUM, Catcar, or Kerxar, Joun, in Biography, a painter of hiftory and portrait, was born at Calcar in 1499, and he excelled fo much as a difciple of Titian, that feveral of his defigns and paintings have been afcribed even by Goltzius to this eminent matter. Sandrart affirms, thac he alfo imi- tated the works of Raphael fo exaétly, that fome of his pro- duGtions have been elteemed to be Raphacl’s own. His ‘« Nativity,’ which was a much admired compofition, and which exhibited the light proceeding from the infant, was in the poffeffion of Rubens; and after his death purchafed by Sandrart, and fold to the emperor Ferdinand, by whom it was very highly prized. Calcar defigned all the heads for the works of Valari, and the anatomical figures in thofe of Vefalius. He died in 1546. Puilkington’s Di@ionary by Fufeli. Caxrcar, in Botany, a conic projeétion from fome of a flower refembling a Saco Tropzolum, the ae turtium or Indian crefs of the gardeners, is an inftance of a calcarate or fpurred calyx; delphinium, or larkfpur, of a calcarate corolla; and orchis of a calcarate ne@tary, Caucar, in Conchology, a {pecies of Turso, the fhell of which is fomewhat imperforated and depreffed ; whorls fcabrous: {pines above comprefled and hollow. Linn. &c. This is the Calcar of Rumpfius and Argenville. Chemnitz i feveral diftinét varietics of this fhell from India, the outh Seas, and the Mediterranean. Catcar, a fpecics of Nautirus, found in the Adri- atic fea, and defcribed by Plancus among his microfcopic 4Z2 fhelle, ! CAL fhells. Tt is diftinguifhed fpecifically by the aperture being of a linear form, and having the joints of the whorls elevated, This is a minute fhell of an opake white colour, and has been found on the fhore of Sheppy ifland. Caucar, in Entomology, a {pecies of Curcutio, the co- lour of which is black: thighs witha fingle tooth: antenne and feet teftaceous. Fabricius. This is a fmall infe&, and \ inhabits Germany. Caccar, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weltphalia, and duchy of Cleves, about 5 miles from the Rhine. It contains two convents and two churches, one for Roman Catholics, and one for Protef%ants, and all other feAs are tolerated; 5 miles S. E. of Cleves. N. Jat. 51° 45'. Es long. 5° 41’. Caucar, in Glafs-making, is the name of a {mall oven, or _reverberatory furnace, im which the firlt calcination of fand and falc of pot-afhes is made, for the turning them into what they call rrit. CALCARATA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Burrestis that inhabits Germany. The wing-cafes are bidentated, and fomewhat ftriated: fhanks of the middle pair of legs toothed : body coppery. Schall. Herbit gives this the name of Bupreftis eruginofa. Obf. This is of a 4mall fize, with four ftriz on the wing-cafes, and a fingle black blue line on the thorax. CALCARATUS, an European fpecies of Cerambyx, of a violaceous-black colour, with rufous thighs, the pofterior ones dentated. Scop. Ann. Hitt. Catcaratus, a fpecies of Cimex, of a fufcous colour, with the abdomen fanguineous above, and the pofterior thighs fix-roothed. Fabricius. Inhabits Europe. CALCAREOUS, fomething that partakes of the na- ture and qualities of CALX, ox lime, Catcareous cements. See Cements calcareous. Carcareous earth. See Lime. Catcaretous earth, in Agriculture, a fort of earth in which calcareous matter abounds. Earths of this kind have the following properties in common :—They become friable when burnt in the fire, and afterwards fall into a fine white powder, which is promoted, if after being burnt they be thrown into water, by which a ftrong heat arifes, and a par- tial folution takes place. They cannot be melted by them- felves into glafs in aclofe fre; but when burnt, they aug- ment the caufticity of pot-afhes, and they are diffolved in acids with effervefcence. This earth is found pure, in the form of a powder, in fome places, and called by chemitts Jae lune. tis of a white colour, ard is met with in fome moory fituations, at the bottoms of lakes, and in the fiffures of free-{tone quarries, in fome of the midland diftri@s. In fome countries, as Sweden, the colour varies to red and yel- low. This is fuppofed to be lime-ftone wafhed from the rocks, and pulverized by the motion of the water. It is, however, found in quantities too {mall to admit of any applications to agricultural purpofes. It is frequently met with in a friable or compaét flate in the form of chalk. The white chalk is the pureit, yet it contains, according to lord Dundonald, a little filiceous, and about two per cent. of ar- gillaccous earth. ‘There is more fixed air in chalk than ia any other calcareous earth, generally about forty per cent. It is alfo feen in a hard or indurated ftate in lime-ftone; and united with the fulphtric or vitriolic acid, in the form of gypfum, felenite, or what is generally termed plafter of Paris. It is likewife combined with clay in the form of marl. See Lime-sronze, Gypsum, and Mart. Tt is maintained by lord Dundonald, in his treatife on the ‘© Connection of Agriculture with Chemiftry,”’ ‘¢ that it cons flitutes not only the furface, or foil, but likewife the under- cAL ftratum of many countries to a very great dépth 3 and that under this general name of calcareous matter are included chalk, marble, lime-flone, coral, fhells, &c. The three firft mentioned are frequently mixed with iron, and with different proportions of the fimple earths, but are confidered as cal= careous when the proportion of that earth predominates. This material is capable of abforbing, and of retaining moifture, though in a confiderably lefs degree than clay. By the aétion of the fire it becomes lime, and returns again to the ftate of chalk or calcareous matter, by expofure to the air or atmofphere.”” ind it is tated by Dr. Fordyce, in his * Elements of Agriculture and Vegetation,”? that when combined with gas or fixed air it is termed mild, but that when free from it, it is cau/lic; that calcareous: earth, when mixed with clay, gives a greater friability to it than fand does; that it unites with fulphur, forming separ ful= Pburis ; and with animal and vegetable fubftances, forming afoap. It prevents putrefaGion. It attraéts acids ‘more ftrongly than volatile alkali or magnefia. If it be expofed to the air, it attra¢ts from it the fixable air, and reverts to the ftate it was in before it was burnt. Mi'd calcareous earth forwards putrefaftion. It is foluble in water, and when reduced to the ftate of a powder, and applied to a fail, it is apt to be wafhed through it. Cauftic volatile alkali will not precipitate calcareous earth, if diffolved in an acid; but fixed vegetable alkali will. ‘This diftinguifhes it from the other earths. Vitriolic acid will not diffolveit fo as to form a clear folution ; and if this acid be added 'to a folution of it in any other, it will make a precipitation. It is fuggefted by the author of Phytologia, that one great ufe of calcareous earth confifts ‘* in its uniting with the carbon of the foil in its pure or caultic ftate, or with that of the vegetable or animal recrements, during fome part of the procefs of putrefaétioa ; and thus rendering it foluble in water, by forming an separ carbonis, fomewhat like an hepar fulphuris produced by lime and fulphur, by which procefs, it is {uppofed, the carbon is rendered capable of being ab- forbed by the laéteal veffels of vegetable roots. The black liquor which flows from dunghills is, it is thought, probably a fluid of this kind; but the author {peaks hypothetically, as he has not verified it by experiment ; and the carbon may be fimply fupported in the water by mucilage, like the coffee drank at our tea tables; or may be converted into an hepar carbonis by its union with the fixed alkali of the decaying vegetable matter, or by the volatile alkali which accompanies {ome ftages of putrefaction.”? Anda fecond mode by which it is believed to affilt the purpofe ef vegetation “is by its unton with carbonic acid, and rendering it thus foluble in water in its fluid ftate, inftead of its being expanded into a gas; and thus a great quantity of carbon may be drank up by vegetable abforbent veffels. In the practice newly in- vented of watering lands by driving ftreams oyer them for many weeks together, it has been faid, that water from {prings is generally more effectual, in promoting vegetation, than that from rivers; which, though it may in part be owing to. the azotic gas, or nitrogen, contained in fome {prings, as thofe of Buxton and of Bath, according to the analyfis of Dr. Prieftley, and of Dr. Pearfon, yet it is fup- pofed to be principally owing to the calcareous earth, which abounds in all {prings, which pafs over marly foils, or through calcareous ftrata ; and which does not exift in rivers, as the falts wafhed into rivers from the foil all feem to de- compofe each other except the marine falt, and {ome mag- nefian falt which are carried down into the ccean, The calcareéus earth likewife, which is wafhed into rivers, enters into new combinations, as into gypfum, or perhaps into fi- liceous fand, and fubfides.’”? And a ftill farther mons, " whic 4 | fe CAL ‘which calcareous earth may promote vegetation is, it is cone are ‘© by its containing phofphorvs, which by its union ‘with it may be converted into an /epar, and thus rendered foluble in water without its becoming an acid, by the addi- tien ofoxygen. Phofphorus, it is fuppofed, is probably zs neceffary an ingredient in vegetable as in animal bodies; which appears by the phofphoric light vifible on rotten wood dur- ing fome ftages of putrefaGtion ; in which, it is fuppofed, the hofphorus is fer at liberty from the calcareous earth, or | th the fixed alkali, or from the carbon of the decompofing wood, and acquires oxygen from the atmofphere; and both warmth and light are emitted during their union. But phof- phorus may, perhaps, more frequently exift in the form of phofphoric acid in vegetables, and may thus be readily unit- ed with their calcareous earth, and may be feparated from its acid, by the carbon of the vegetable during calcination, and alfo during putrefaGtion, which may be confidered as a flow combuftion. The exiftence of a folution of phofphoric acid and calcareous earth in the veffels of animals is proved by the annual renovation of the fhells of crab-fifh, and by the fabrication of the egg-fhells in female birds ; and is oc- eafionally fecreted, where it cements the wounds made on fnail fhells ; or where it joins the prefenc year’s growth of a fnail fhell to the part where a membranous cover had been attached for the protection of the animal during its ftate of hybernation; and laftly, it is further evident from the growth of the bones of quadrupeds, and from the depofition of callus to join them when they have been broken.’’ It is therefore contended, that ‘* many arguments may be ad- duced to fhow, that calcareous earth, either alone, or in fome ef the ftates of combination, mentioned above, may contribute to the nourifhment and fupport of both animals and vegetables. Firft, becaufe calcareous earth conftitutes a con- fiderable part of them, and muft of courfe be either received from without, or formed by them, or both; and fecondly, becaufe from the analogy of all organic life, whatever has compofed a part of a vegetable or animal, may again, after its chemical folution, become a part of another vegetable or animal ; fuch, it is obferved, is the tranfmigration of matter. See Lime and Manure. CaAvcareous manures, are all {uch as abound in calcare- ous matter. Chalk, pounded lime-ftone, lime, calcareous marl, fhellz, and various other fubftances of a fimilar kind, are of this defcription. They are found particularly bene- ficial on all the ftiffer forts of foil when made ufe of in due proportions. Carcaztous /rils, {uch as are conftituted of this fort of materialin a large proportion. From their dry and friable nature, foils of this nature are in general weil {uited to the growth of moft forts of grain, a8 well as fome plants of the artificial grafs kind, fuch as clover, faint-foin, &c. See Sort. Carcareous fpar. See Lime-stone. CALCARIA, in Ancient Geography, thought by fome to be Califfane, a city of Gallia Narbonnenfis, upon the Au- relian way, weft of Aquz Sextiz. Catcaria, a town of Ancient Britain, 9 miles from Eburacum, and 20 miles from Cambodunum, according to the Itinerary of Antonine, placed by fome at Tadcatter, by others at Newton-kyme. CALCAYLARES, in Geography, ajurifdiGion of South America, in the country of Perv, fituate between Cufco and the fea, and commencing 4 leagues weft of the city of Cofco. The air in this jurifdition excels that of all the other provinces, and accordingly it produces an exuberance of all kinds of grain and fruits. In the hotteft parts called ** Lares” were formerly very large plantations of fugar canes, but for want of hands to cultivate them, they are CAL now fo diminifhed, that inftead of 60 or 80,000 arobas which they annually produced, they are now reduced to lefs than 30; but the fugar is of fuch an excellent kind, that without any other preparation than that of the coun- try, itis equal both in colour and hardnefs to the refined fugar of Europe. This diminution of its fugar has greatly leffened the principal branch of its commerce. CALCEARIUM, or Caxciaritum, in Antiquity, a donative, or largefs beftowed on the Roman foldiers for buying fhoes. In the monatteries, calcearium denoted the daily fervice of cleaning the fhoes of the religious. CALCEDONIANS, a denomination given by Copt writers to the Metcuires, on account of their adherence to the council of Calcedon. See Cornti1, Monoruy- SITES, &c. CALCEDONIUS is a term ufed by the jewellers for a defe& in fome precious ftones, when, in turning them, they find white fpots, or ftains, like thofe of the calcedony, or chalcedony. This defe& is frequent in, granates and rabies. The lapidaries ufually remedy it by «hollowing the bottom of the ftone. CALCEDONY. See Cuarcepony. CALCENA, in Geography, atown of Spain, in Arra- gon; 14 miles S. of Tarracona. Caucena, a term ufed by fome medicinal writers to denote a morbid tartareous humour in the body. CALCEOLARIA, in Botany, (from Calceolus, a little flipper.) Slipperwort. Lino. Mant. 171. Reich. 32. Schreb. 39. Willd. 51. Gert. 374. La Marck Illuf. 36. Juff. p. 120. Vent. vol. ii. p. 297. Clafs and order, diandria mo- nogynia. Nat. Ord. Corydales; Linn.? Scrophularia, Juff. Rhinanthoides, Vent. . Gen. Ch. Cal. one-leafed, with four, equal, fpreading divi- fions ; permanent. Cor. monopetalous, bilabiate, inverted : upper lip very {mall, contraétedly globular ; lower lip large, inflated, concave, flipper-fhaped, gaping before. Stam. fila- ments two, very fhort, within the upper lip ;_ anthers in- cumbent, two-lobed. Pi/. germ fuperior, roundifh 5 ftyle very fhort; ftigma rather obtufe. Peric. capfule fomewhat conic, two-furrowed, two-celled, two-valved. Seeds wumerous, egg-fhaped. Eff. Ch. Calyx with four equal divifions. Corolla ringent ; lower lip inflated, concave. Cap/ile two-celled. Sp. 1.C. pinnata. Linn. Mant. 171. AG. Stock. 1770. t- 8. Feuil. Peruv. 3. 12. t. 7. Curt. Mag. t. 41. Gert. tab. 62. f. 4. Lam. Iiluft. Pl. 15. f. 2. « Leaves winged.’? Annual. Stem ere&t, two feet high, round, branched, pubefcent, flightly {welling at the knots. Leaves oppofite, without ftipules, brittle, pubefcent, foft, fpreading, longer than the internodes, unequally winged, of a delicate green co- lour ; leaflets nearly oppofite or alternate, fometimes, as reprefented in Curtis’s figure, fo united as to make the leaf only pinnatifid ; fomctimes, as in a fpecimen now before us, from a plant railed by R. A. Salifbury, efq. completely fe- parate, bluntly ferrated, narrowed at their bafe, and fre- quently decurrent on the common petiole. J/oqwers yellow, axillary and terminating. Cap/ule thin, {welled at the bafe, and diminifhing to a pyramidal top, deeply furrowed ; ma- ture valves bifid at the tip ; partition contrary to the valves. Seeds {mall, pale, marked with about fx longitudinal, cre- nulated furrows. A native of Peru: introduced into Eng- Jand in 1773 by fir Jofeph Banks, Bart. 2. C. integrifolia, Willd. Smith icon. ined. 1. p. 3. C. falvie folio, Feuill, Peru. 3. t. 7-C. ferrata, Lam, ‘ Leaves lanceolate, wrinkled, fer- rated ; flowers in terminal panicles.”” Smith. Root fibrous. Stem branched, round, two or three feet high, Leaves op- polite, f{eflile, bright green above, pubefcent and pale ol neath, Foley: i neath. Flowers yellow, peduncled, A native of Peru and Chili. 3. C. ovata, Smith icon, ined. 1. t. 3. C. dicho- toma. La Marck. C. integrifolia, Linn. Supp.? ‘* Stem branched; leaves egg-fhaped, fcolloped.”” Smith. Pubef- cent in all its parts. Root annual, fibrous. S¥em flender, round, dichotomous, feven or eight inches high. Leaves {mall, oppofite; upper ones {cffile, acuminate ; lower ones petioled and rather obtufe. Flowers {mell, yellow, on fim- ple peduncles, axillary and terminating. Found in Pern by Dombey. It flowered in the royal garden at Paris in 1781. 4. C. perfoliata, Linn. Sup. Mutis. Amer. v. 1. t. 3. Smith icon, incd. 1. t. 4. € Leaves perfoliate, arrow-fheped, downy on both fides.”? Smith. A handfome plant, very different in its appearance from all the other fpecies. Stem about a foot anda half high, round, pubefcent, branched. Leaves oppofite, triangular, or almoft arrow-fhaped, irre- gularly toothed, woolly and white beneath. FYowers yel- low, large, in bundles at the tops of the branches, on fimple or branched peduncles. Calyx large. Braéies retembling the leaves, but egg-fhaped and feffile, not perfoliate. Fourd in New Granada by Mutis, and in Peru by Jofeph Jufhiev. 5. C. crenata, Willd. La Marck. “ Leaves feffile, oblong, acute, fcolloped ; flowers in cymes terminating the ftems and branches.”? Stem about two feet high, downy. Leaves oppofite, almoft embracing the ftem, refembling thofe of Rhinanthus crifta galli, green above, downy and pale be- neath. Found in Peru by Jofeph Juffieu. 6. C. ra/mart- nifolia, Willd. Lia Marck. ‘* Leaves linear, very entire, re- fleXed at the margin, downy beneath; {tem {mooth.”” Stem about a foot and a half high, round, more or lefs branched. Leaves oppofite, {mooth and vifcous above, efpecially when young. Flowers yellow ; in terminating cymes on {mooth, vifcous peduncles. Found in Peru by Jofeph Jufficu. C. plantaginea, Willd. Smith icon. ined. 1. t. 2. La Marck. © Scapes with few flowers; leaves rhomb-fhaped, ferrated.’’ Leaves only from the root, veined, fmooth, tringed with jointed hairs, narrowed at their bafe into petioles, about two inches long. Scapes two or three, as long again as the leaves, with two yellow flowers. Found by Commerfon at the Straits of Magellan. 8. C. nana, Willd. Smith icon. ined. 1.t. 1. C. uniflora, La Marck. Pl. 15. f. 3. ** Scapes one-flowered ; leaves egg-fhaped, very entire.” Smith. Leaves all radical, fearcely an inch long, {mooth, narrowed into a petiole at their bafe. Scapes as-long again _as the leaves. Flowers large, yellow, {potted with red; upper lip very fhort,.vaulted ; lower lip elongated, pendulous, and {wel- ling ; edge membranous, folded back, angular. Found at the Straits of Magellan by Commerfon. 9. C. Fothergitlii, Willd. Aiton. Kew. 1. t. 1. La Marck. Pl. 15. f. 1. copied from Hortus Kewenfis. ‘ Leaves fpatulate, very entire: peduncles in the form of fcapes, one-flowered.”’ Biennial. Stems {carcely an inch high, fubdivided near the root. aves {carcely an inch long, oppofite; many-nerved, obtufe, hairy above, narrowed into petioles. Peduncles foli- tary or in pairs, twice the length of the leaves. Divifions of the calyx acute, bent in at the end, hairy without. Up- per lip of the corol/a yellow, erect, vaulted, alittle fhorter than the calyx ; lower lip defcending, four times as long as the upper, dilated in front, inflated, pale yellow underneath, above red at the fides, in front yellow with red fpots, near the palate yellow ; aperture large, open; filaments inferted into the fides of the corolla at the bafe of the aperture ; anthers roundifh, large; ftyle thick, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma thickened, flat. A native of Falkland iflands, introduced by Dr. Fothergill in 1477. Propagation and Culture—The firft and the laft are the only ones hitherto cultivated in England, The firft may Te CAL be eafily raifed from feeds fown ona gentle hot-bed in the fpring: the feedlings, when of a proper fize, may be tranf- planted into the borders of the flower garden, where they will flower, ripen, and featter their feeds; but being a delie cate plant, it appears to moft advantage in a tan-ftove, in which, as it will grow from cuttings, it may be had in flower all the year, by planting them in iucceffion. Curtis. Carcroraria (Lef.). See Viora Calceolaria, and Oppofitifolia. CALCEOLUS, a genus formed by Tourrefort corre- fponding with cypripedium of Linnzus. Tournefort’s name is that of nearly all the old authors. Carceotus Lapponun { Scheff Lap.). Lycoéonu m. CarceoLus Philippenfis ( Petiv.). Galanga. CALCHAS, in Fabulous Hiflory, a famous diviner, who followed the Greek army to Troy. He is faid to have predicted, that the fiege of Troy would lait ten years, and that the fleet, which was detained in the port of Aulis by contrary winds, would not fet fail till Agamemnon’s dauzhter had been facrificed to Diana. After the capture of Troy, he is faid to have retired to Colophon, and to have died there with grief, becaufe he could rot divine what another man of his own profeflion, called Mopfus, difcovered; thus fuliliing a prediction mentioned by Sophocles, according to which, Calchas was to die as-foon as he fhould meet with his malter in the art of divining. If Suidas is to be ere- dited, one of the Sibyls was Chaleas’s daughter; ber name was Lampaia; he calls her the Colophonian ; and alcribes to her fome oracles in verfe. Gen. Di&. CALCHOPHONOS /apis, among the ancients, a name given toa ftone of a black colour and confiderable hardnefs, which, when cut into thin plates, and ftruck againft by any other hard body, gave a found like that of brafs; it feems to have been one of the hard black marbles. CALCIANA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Bafilicata; 16 miles S.E. of Acerenza. CALCIFRAGA, in Botany, (Lobel.) See Critus MUM maritimum. See Aconttum See Kempreria » CALCIFRAGUS, fone-breaking, an appellation given- by fome to the /colopendrium; by others to pimpernel, on account of their lithontriptic quality. CALCIMURITE, in Mineralogy, a {pecies of earth or ftone, in which magnefia is mixed with a notable proportion of calcareous earth and fome iron. The colour is blue or olive-green, of the confiftency of clay: the latter contains no argil, but merely calcareous earth and magnefia tinged with iron: the former contains a larger proportion of cal- careous earth. Both are found near Thionville: the former isufed by potters. Kirwan’s El. Min. vol.i. p. 146. CALCINARA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Tufcany ; 12 miles E. of Pifa. CALCINATION. In general, a fubftance is faid to be calcined when it has been expofed to heat of a fufficient intenfity to drive off every thing volatile, but fhort of that requilite for its fufion. A calx, therefore, was underftood by the ancient chemifts to be a pulverulent fubftance no longer combuftible cr capable of further alteration by fire than that of vitrifaGion, As moft of the metals were found tobe reducible to fuch a form by a continuance of a melting heat, the term calces of metals was long particularly appropriated to them, and is {till partially retained, though it has been chiefly fupplanted by the more chara€teriftic appellation of oxyd, which expreffes the peculiar change that occurs in calcining metallic bodies by the abforption of oxygen. Cafcination, therefore, ex- prefles 4 CAL preffes the mode (or at leat one mode), by which, in metals, this change is produced, and oxidation the circumflance of change. Itis, however, obvioufly improper to confider the term calcination as fynonymous with oxidation, even in {peaking of metals, fince the true original fenfe of the former rm implies the agency of fire; whereas, oxidation may be produced as well by the action of acids, as by heat and air. Of the calces, or calcined bodies, in which the change is totally independent of the abforption of oxygen, calcined SJlints, calcined plafter of Paris, and calcined hart/born, are com- mon examples. Caucination of gold and filver by eledricity, was effe&ed by Mr. Canton, who, by the heat of clerical explofions, produced aumberlefs beautiful globules of tranfparent glafs, and alfo others tinged with all the varieties of colour from thofe metals. He made it alfo probable that the black dult difcharged from the brafs chain, and other pieces of metal in fuch experiments, is the calx or glafs of the metal reduced to {maller particles than the laws of optics require to pro- duce colour. Hift. of Ele&. edit. 1775, vol. ii. p. 292. See Exectaricat Battery. CALCINATO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Bergamafco ; 7 miles S.E. of Bergamo. Catcinato, a town of Ltaly, belonging to the ftate of Venice, inthe Breffan, where the Imperial troops were de- feated by the duke of Venddme, in 1706; eight miles S.E. of Brefcia. N. lat.45°25'. E. long. 9° 55'. CALCINELLA, in Conchology, the name given by Adanfon to the Maétra piperata of Poiret. See Prrerata. CALCINELLE of Adanfon, theGmelinian Venus peE- ALEATA. CALCIS Os, in Anatomy. See Os calris. CALCITRAPA, in Botany. (Hal. Helvet. p. 193, 194.) See Centaurea /olfiitialis and calcitrapa. Caccitrapa lutea. (Vail. a. 1718, p. 212.) See Cen- TAUREA criophora. CALCITRAPOIDES, (Ifn. Paris, 1719, 9.) Sce Centaurea Jfnardi. The calcitrape form a fection in the genus centaurea of Linnzus, which confifts of fuch f{pecies as have the {pines of the calyx compound. Juflieu has formed a diftin€@ genus for them, in which he has been followed by Gartner, Ventenat, and Bofc. The name isa hybrid pro- du@ion from the Latin calx, the fole of the foot, and the Greek zgexx, which fignifies to turn, and was fuggelted by the refemblance of the calyx, inthefe plants, to a machine ufed in war, confifling of fharp fpikes, which turn on an axle when touched with the foot. It is called by the French chauffe-tr See Centaurea. sALCUA, or Natcua, in Aacient Geography, a town of the Atrebatii, in Aucient Britain, generally agreed to have been the fame with the Ca/leva, in the Itinerary of Antonine, placed 22 miles from Venta Belgarum, or Winchefter. An- tiquaries are much divided about the precile fituation of this lace. See ATReBATII. CALCULARLL, in Antiquity, a fort of jugglers who practifed flight of hand. heir art confifted in laying feve- ral calculi, or counters on the table, then covering them with cups, and shifting and changing them with dexterity, like what is preét'{ed by our jugglers. CALCULARY ofa pear, a congeriesoflittle tony knots difperfed through the whole parenchyma of the fruit. The calculary is no vital or effential part of the fruit; the feveral knots whereof it confifts being only fo many con- cretions or precipitations out of the fap, as we {ee in urines, wines, and other liquors. CALCULATION, the 2& of computi . feveral fums, by adding, fubtraGing, multiplying, or ividing. See ¢ CAL Arirumetic. An error in calculation is never protected, or fecured, by any fentence, decree, &c. In {tating ac- counts, there isalways underftocd, /i/vo errore calculi. The word calculus is ufed in this fenfe, in a'lufion to the practice of the ancients, who ufed calculi, or little ftones, in making computations, in taking fuffrages, and in keeping accounts, &c. as we now ufe counters, figures, &c. A merchant or trader is faid to have been miltaken in his calculation, or accounts, when he has happencd to take falfe meafures, and has not fucceeded in his undertakings fo wellas he expected. CatcuLaTion is more particularly ufed to fignify the computations in altronomy and geometry, for making tables of logarithms, ephemerides, finding the times of eclipfes, &e. Carcurarion of clock and watch work. See Crock and Warcu-work. Carcucartion, in -Mujfic. D’Alembert, and many other theorifts, and eminent mathematicians, are of opinion, that the calculation of ratiog is of no ufe in practical mufic: fup- pofing that a good ear and ftrong hand on initruments, where the tone depends on the performer, are a mufician’s belt guides for true intonation, Inthe prelim. dife. to his Elem. de Muf. 2d edit. the great math-matician cautions theoretical muficians again{t the admiffion of mathematical or metaphyfical principles in mufic. On this fubje&, he fays: it would be abfurd to expe& what is calied demon- Jration: it isan achiczvement of no {mall importance, to have reduced the principal fats to afyltem confiltenr with itfelf and firmly conne&ed withits parts; to have deduced them from one fingle experiment (the harmonies ofa fingle fring or founding body), and to have eftablifhed on that founda- tion, the moft common and effential rules of the art. In di- gefting and comprefling M. Rameau’s principles, 1 had no defire to multiply his calculations: I rather wifhed to fup- prefs them as much as poffible ; fo much was it to be feared that the generality of readers would be led into a belief, that all this arithmetic was neceflary to form a praétical mufician. Calculation may, indeed, facilitate the intelligence of cers tain pointsin theory, fuch as the relation between the tones ofthe gammut and temperament; but the calculation ne- ceflary for treating thefe two points is fo fimple and trifling, that it merits no difplay. Let us not, therefore, imitate thofe muficians who believe themlelves geometricians, or thofe geometricians who fancy themfelves muficians, and, in their writings, heap figures on figures, imagining, perhaps, that this difplay is neceffary to the art. The ambition of giving to their productions a {cientific appearance, impofes only on the ignorant, and bas no other effeét than to render their treatiles more obfcure and lefs inftru€tive.”’ CALCULATOR, amachine contrived and conflruéted by Mr. Fergufon, in the fhape of an orrery, for exhibiting the motions of the earth and moon, and refolving a variety of aftronomical problems. See an account of the conftru@tion, figure, and ufe of this machine, in Fergufon’s Attronomy, 4to. p. 283, &c. CALCULATORES, in Antiquity, accomptants who reckoned their fums by calculi. There were feveral fervants under this denomination in great families. Children alfo at f{chool were taught to praétife the fame. In the ancient canons we find a fort of diviners orenchanters, cenfured un- der the denomination of calculatores. CALCULUS, primarily denotesa little ftone, pebble, or cownter, anciently ufed in making computations, taking of fuffrages, playing at tables, and the like. Hence the phrafe ponere calculos, to denote a feries of reafons, and a multitude of others alluding to the ule of thefe caculi in accounts. Computitts CALCULUS, Computifts were by the lawyers called calculones, when they were either flaves, or newly freed men; thofe of a better condition were denominated calculatores, or numerarii : or- dinarily there was one of thefé matters in ezch family of dillin@iion; the title of whofe office was 4 calculis, or a ra- tionibus. The Roman judges anciently gave their opinions by calculi, which were white tor abfolution, and black for con- demnation. Hence calculus albus, in ancient writers, denotes a favourable vote, either in behalf of a perfon to be abfolved and acquitted of a charge, or eleéted to fome dignity or poft; as calculus niger did the contrary. This ufage is faid to have been borrowed from the Thracians, who marked their happy or profperous days by white, and their an- happy by black p.bbies, put each night intoanurn. Hence alfo the phrales, fignare, notare aliquid albo, nigrove lapillo feu culeulo. Befides the diverfity of colour, there were fome alfo which had figures or charaSers painted or engraven on. them; as thofe which were in ufe in taking the fuffrages both in the fenate and at affembiies of the people. The letters mark- ed upon thefe calculi were U. R. for uti rogas, and A. for antique; the firft of which expreffed an approbation of the law, the latter a rejection of it. Afterwards the judges, who fat in capital caufes, ufed calculi marked with the letter A, for abfoive, C. for condemno, and N. L. for non liquet ; fignifying a more full information was requiréd. We may alfo mention another fpecies of calculi ufed at the publicgames, whereby the rank and order in which the athlete were to fight were determined. If for inftance they were twenty, then twenty of thefe pieces were cait into an urn; each ten were: marked with numbers from one to ten, and the law was, that each of thofe who drew, fhould fight him who had drawn the famenumber. Thefe were called calculi athletict. Catcuuus isalfo ufed in Ancient Grammatic Writers fora kind of weight equal to two grains of cicer.. Some make it equivalent to the fil/igua, which is equal to three grains of barley. Two calculi made the ceratium. Catcutus alfo denotes acertain method of performing mathematical inveftigations and refolutions, Thus, we fay the antecedental calculus, the arithmetical or numeral cal- culus, the algebraical calculus, the calculus of derivations, the differential calculus, the exponential calculus, the fluxt- onal calculus, the integral calculus, the literal or fymbolical calculus, &c. See the following articles. Carcuus, Aniecedental. This is a geometrical method of reafoning without any confideration of motion or velocity, applicable to every purpofe, to which fluxiens have been or can be applied. It was invented by James Glenie, efq. A. M. and fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, as early as 1774, but not publifhed tll the year 1793, when it was printed in London for G. G. I. and I, Robinfons, Paternofter-Row. As he derived it from an ex- amination of the antecedents of ratios, having given confe- quents and a given ftandard of comparifon in the various de- grees of augmentation and diminution, which they undergo by compofition and decompofition, he denominated it the Antecedental Calculus. It is certainly founded on principles admitted into the very firlt elements of geometry, and re- peatedly made ufe of by Euclid himfelf. The inventor of this calculus does not in imitation of modern mathematicians talk of the powers of magnitudes and quantities, but con- fiders every expreffion in it as truly and ftriétly geometrical, or rather as univerfally metrical in a geometrical form. For although the general formule in his univerfal comparifon, from which itis derived in an eafy, fimple dire@, and con. 3 > cife manner, are eftablithed on the fame principles with” thofe of Euclid’s elements of geometry, and are deducedin, - a demonttrative way from an application of fome of the truths Contained in thofe elements to the do&trine of ratios or proportion, theyware, ftrictly peaking, generally metrical, and extend not only to geometry, but alfo to algebra and arithmetic, when the ftandard of comparifon is fuppofed to become I or erithmetical unity. The tranfitions from them intheir geometrical forms to their algebraic and numerical ones are, as Mr. Glenie has obferved, fo aatural, fo fcientific, and fo beautiful, that they cannot fail to furnifh the mind with the higheft pleafure and fatisfaQion, in pointing out, as it were, at one general view, the c »nneétion between thefe different fciences, and unfolding the reafons of their various operations, from the fame indifpetable and mathematical principles. Hehas not, like other mathematicians, im con- liderinz ratio, confined himfelf to sny particu'ar modification of it; but he has regarded it as a magnitude poffeffing all the meafurable affections of any other magnitude,’ viz. ad- dition, fubtra&tion, multiplication, divifion, and ratio or proportion, or, as admitting, like other magnitudes, of aug- mentation or diminution, of increafe or decreafe. He is the firft perfon, that Ave know of, who has roundly and exprefs- ly confidered ratio or tproportion as an, affe€tion of ratio, which it molt unqueftionably is. And by applying the cle- ments of geometry~to this confideration of it, he has ex- tended the geometrical analyfis indefinitely farther than any one before him, either among the ancients or moderns, as far as we are able to difcover, has carried it. That he formed the defign of applying- geometry to ratios under this _ conception of them, as magnitudes /ui generis, capable of all the poffible degrees of increafe and decreafe, though they know no diverfity of dimenfion in refpe& of kind, being how mogencous, and differing not in kind, but only in degree, and aGtually made fuch an application of it when he could not have been above eighteen or twenty years of age, is evi- dent from his own performances. For in a fhort introduc- tionto a paper read before the Royal Society of London, the 6th of March, 1777, and publifhed in their tranfactions, which isentitled, * The general Mathematical Laws, that regulate and extend Proportion univerfaily ; or a Method of comparing Magnitudes of any kind together, in all the poffible Degrees of Increafe and Decreafe,’? he makes ufe of the following words: « The doGtrine of proportion laid down by Euclid and the application of it given by bim in his elements, form the balis of almoft all the geometrical reafoning made ufe of by mathematicians both ancient and modern. But the reafon- ings of geometers with regard to proportional magnitudes have {eldom been carried beyond the triplicate ratio, which is the proportion that fimilar folids have to one another, when referred to their homologous linear dimenfions. This boundary, however, comprehends but a very limited propor- tion of univerfal comparifon, and almoft vanifhes into no- thing when referred to that endlefs variety of relations, which mutt neceflarily take place between geometrical mag- nitudes in the infinite poflible degrees of increafe and de- creafe. The firlt of thefe takes in but a very contraéted field of geometrical comparifon; whereas the laft extends it indefinitely. Within the narrow compafs of the firft, the ancient geometers performed wonders; and their labours have been pufhed fill farther by the ingenuity ard indefae tigable induftry of the moderns. But no author, that I have been able to meet with, gives the leait hint or in- formation with regard to any general method of exe prefling geometrically, when any two magnitudes of the fame kipd are given, what degree of augmentation or > diminution CALCULUS. _@iminhtion any one of thefe maguitudes muft undergo, in order to have to the other any multiplicate or fubmul- tiplicate ratig of thefe magnitudes in their given itate ; or any fuch ratio of them, as is denoted by fraGions or furds ; or (to fpeak ftill mare generally) a ratio, which has to the ravio of the firit-mentioned of thefe magnitudes, to the other the ratio of any two magnitudes whatever, of the fame but of any kind. Neither have I been able to find, that any other author has fhewn geometrically, in a general way, when aay number of ra/ios are to be compounded or de- compounded with a given ratio, how much either of the magnitudes in the given ratio is to be augmented or dimi- nifhed, iv order to have to the other a ratia, which is equal to the given ralio, compounded or decompounded with the other ratios. To inveltigate all thefe geometrically, and to fix general laws in relation to them, is the object of this paper ; which, as it treats of a fubjeét as new as it is general, T fatter myfelf will not prove unacceptable to this learned fociety. It would be altogether fuperfluous for me to men- tion the great advantages that muft neceffarily accrue to ma- thematics in general, from an accurate inveitigation of this fubje&, fince its influence extends more or lefs to every branch of abltra@t {cience, when any data can be afcertain- ed for reafoning from. I fhall in a fubfequent paper take an opportunity of fhewing, how from the theorems after- wards delivered in this, a method of reafoning with finite magnitudes geometrically may be derived without any con- fideration of motion or velocity, applicable to every pur- pole, to which fluxions have been applied.” He then de- fines magnitude to be “ that which admits of increafe or decreafe,” and quantity to be “ the degree of magnitude,” obferving, that “ by magnitude he means, befide extention, every thing which admits of more or lefs, or what can be jacreafed or diminifhed, fuch as ratios, velocities, powers, &e. In a fhort performance of his, printed in Latin, in 1776, entitled “ Leges Metaphytice, feu Principia Mathematica, quz Omnia fere adMagnitudinum Rationes, Rationumque Relationes fj ntia univerfaliter gubernant et indefinite proferunt,”” he gives the. fame metaphyfical definitions of “magnitude and quantity, with a decleration of what he means by magnitude, wz. “ Magnitudo elt id, quod augeri vel diminui potett.” * Quantitas efl gradus magnitudinis.” « Per magnitudinem, preter extenfioném, omnia, que au- eri vel diminui poffunt, ficut rationes, velocitates, vires, &c. satelligo.”” And in bis Univerfal Comparifon itfelf he fays, “ When Efpeak of magnitude, I mean to be underitood as taking it in its general, abftracted, unlimited, and metaphyfical accep- tation, viz. to be whatever admits of more or lefs, of increafe or decreafe; and by quantity I mean the degree of magni- tude.’” And to prevent any mifconception of his meaning or intention, in regard to his mode of exprefling magnitudes geometrically, and connecting them together by means of the cultomary figns, he makes ufe of the following words : —“ When I mention the fum of magnitudes, or fpeak. of them as additive or fubtraétive, I only mean that they are to be taken with or from other magnitudes of the fame kind. The figns plus and minus are only intended to denote fuch. aggregates and differences, or to conne¢t magnitudes to- gether in thefe relations, and by no means to convey any numerical ideas in the following theorems or formulz, or to imply in themfelves any fort of myftery, or even mean- ing, independent of the magnitudes thus connected. By ats a=} &c. I mean a fourth pro- b Lb BL : Vou. V. ae to D, C~D, and A; a fourth proportional to » A—B, and A; a fourth proportional to B, A—B, and a, A-B amp a courfe to fuch expreffions in the formule, which ought not on any account to be confidered as algebraic, as it is impof- fible to exprefs them by means of geometrical {chemes or figures in fuch a way, as to be fufficiently or clearly under- ftood.”’ _As both the differential and fluxionary calculi are imme- diately, and with the greatelt facility derivable from this calculus when the expreffions in it are fuppofed to become numerical, or the {tandard of comparifon to be 1, or arith- metical unity, and in forms too altogether unexceptionable, and as it is itfelf chiefly derived from the rft and 5th formu- lz in theorem 3 of the univerfal comparifon, it is perhaps neceflary to prove the truth of thefe formule, by means of what is delivered in the paper firit herein above-mentioned, that was read before the Royal Society of London in 1777, in which, among other things, it is demon{trated geometri- cally, that if m be any whole or integral number whatfo~ ever, and A and B be any two homogeneous magnitudes, n—2 A-—BY = A. Bb 1. oF ‘ A. B | has to B, fuch a multiplicate rafio of A to B, as is exprefled by the number 2. Now if in this geome- trical expreffion for A, we fubftitute its equal B+ A—B I am obliged to have re- » &c, ref{pectively. n—-tI - A-B A+— A. =+ + &e. to or we get the following expreffion: B + . A-—B+ me —: = 2 ey ps =a Ne n a is . — ae + &c. to A-B). hav- Bo ee ing alfo to B fuch a multiplicate ratio of A to B as is ex- prefled by the number n. This expreffion may alfo be eafily. derived geometrically by means of Euclid’s elements, in the manner purfued by Mr. Glenie in that paper. Forlet MN, NO, and OP be each equal to, or reprefent B, and let NR reprefent A. Let OP, NR be drawn perpendicularly to VO, or otherwife, if in the fame angle ; and let the reGangles or parallelograms MR, NP be compleated. Let LM be a fourth proportional to OP, MN, and NR-OP, and let the rectangle or parallelogram LQ be compleated. Then (14. E. 6.) LT is equal to TR, and finee MT is equal to TQ by conftruétion,. LM is equal to QR, or A~B, and LN to A or B+ A-B. And fince by (23. E. 6/) MR has to NP the ratia compounded of the ratios Vv... & L of CALCULUS. of MN to NO and NR to OP, the magnitude LN, which has to B the ratio compounded of the ratio of A to B, aud the ratio of equality Bto B is expreffed by B + A-B. In like manner if PJ, RY be parallel to VO and KY to NR, and KL be a fourth proportional to OP, QR, and LN, orto B, A—B, and B+ A-—B, it will be equal to AB + and KN will be equal to B + =, ae} 9 3, AB A=B ir 5 2 Pr oie Again, if VK be a fourth proportional to OP, QR, and B-—B-—A to B, as is expreffed by thenumbers. And, 82 B—A_ may be equal to any magnitude C, of the fame kind with A addB/B—-2-Cig Cees 1 1 2 3 B +—&e. . Cnr -to + B ratio of B—C to B as is expreffed by the number a. That B4 —*A-ByYe. BaeBly ciecuiees q q 2q B has to B fuch a multiplicate ratio of B + +, AG at q — has to B fuch a multiplicate nr nr— iat 2 === 2 2-1 ' KN, or to B, A—B, and B + = A-B + awe 5 c = ; a see! Sto Bas is cxpretied By A—B\ , it will be equal to A—B + 2. A-—B, + the number # is thus hewn, Let B + D be equal to B B q 5 a) + 2 SSS a Bey 315 A—BY ey ees en a UE cn + &e. &e. (r and g Sand VN will of courfe be equal to B+ 3. A-B a, el B B having to each other the ratio of any two homogencous mag- +3 _—— + A orto Bee: 3 A-B rite — * nitudes whatever). Then B + ee 8 fe Mea ish SS i 2 SB 3928. 3ot, ASB oy De gas ame Bee et pe — : = > =), Wherefore the B : aw B: + &c. to en has to B (by magnitude of the fame kind with A and B, which has to B the triplicate ratio of A to B, or, which comes to the fame thing, the ratio, that avifes by compounding the triplicate ratio of A to B, with the ratio of equality B to B, is geo- 4: Oe Ate Bist: ai pois metrically expreffed by B = ASB. 3.31.32? AUB, a yan a a a BAT nd univerfally by the fame geometrical reafoning it isfound that B + 2. A-B I n n—t, A=Bl’ A nom an? A-B gatos B esa press &c. to A-Br has to B fuch a multiplicate ratio of A to B —_I B, or of B + A—B toB, as is expreffed by the number #. And as A—B may be equal to any magnitude C of the fame kind with A and B the expreffion B + =: C + “ . n—2z CGC Ca B ee F + &c. &c... to Bae: is a magnitude of the fame kind with C and B, that has to B fuch a multiplicate ratio of B + C to B as is expreffed by the number a. The foregoing expreffions are obtained geometrically when A is greater than B. But if A be lefs than B, and be reprefented by EN or FN, we have FM equal to B—A, and by proceeding in an exatly fimilar manner we n—-t C —- B= get the geometrical expreffion B— *. B—-A + = 1 Boal. ue E—al B bs A 3 + &c ... to B * ve 3) 5 3 e =a for the magnitude of the fame kind with A and B, a1. a2—2 Sie ee 2 J that has to B fuch a multiplicate ratio of A to B, or of what is above demonftrated) {uch a multiplicate ratio of B+ D to B. as is exprefled by the :umber 2. Now if the term, in which A—B is found in the value of D be multiplied by * the co-efficient of D we get = - AB for the feeond term of the expreffion, (in terms of , +, ,and A+B). And if the term, in which A=» is found in the value of D, be multiplied by ~ » the co-efficient of D, and the term, in which ot is found in the value of = be multipli- = n . D: ed by aa the co-efficient of 3’ thefe taken together Spec 4 — for the third term. And will give us = q Be by thus proceeding we get B+ "-D 4 2-7 2 I I 2.218 no oneI n=? D D: ~.o Tp nen eee Ries equal to B eR Rigs ae ees VATE a eee: q q 2g B whatever be the ratio of r to q Precifely in the fame manner is it proved that the ratio B— — a r —— pee \? a a ee ae — + &c. : B is a multiple by a of the ratio B = a B=A + om 4 2q This then being premifed, it can be generally, and at the BOAV + we. 2B fame time very briefly proved, that B + : -A=B+ 5° CALCULUS. r—y, A-B' A et A eT A—B} ae 2g UdiB 7. 2 ie has to B fuch a ratio, as has to the ratio of B+ A—B to B, or of Ato B, the ratio of r to g, be the ratio of r to g what it may, by taking any multiples whatfoever of thefe ratios and the fame multiples of r and g. Fo~ the fake of perfpi- cuity let thefe magnitudes, and their multiples, ftand in the following manner: The magnitudes. A eo a ~ a Their multiples. r | Of the rift. ay . mr me Obthe2ds. co dg sd. B+ —° B—B 4 --| 34. B+ —-A—B+ —- q g g g pan + &c.: B wt PB ap 2g — iB 2q—Ci : @h .. . BEA-—B: B wh.B47-A=B+2- mat ABV sxe. :B 2 B Now it is evident, that if ar be equal to mg, by fubftitut- ; pa Ry ES ge eae ing mq for ar, the ratio B + J A—B+ ;: = a" + &c. : Bis equal to, or becomes the ratio B + ee = lm a —B)’ A-—B + = : — + &ce.... to A-Fi". 5 Be It is equally evident, that if ar be greater than mg, the an- eee ean oe PRB q q 29 ~=B —1 &c. is greater than B + < fi RD 42-5 A-By + &c.to A-B|" fince , B B”"—": ae ee me fs &c. a 2q ave then relpe@ively greater than ae = 7 =S5 Se mi m m—i1 =) lo —’ &e or than oe bs = j sad the ratio B 4+. = - AB. Zag : q q 2q + &c. : Bis, of courfe, a greater ratio of greater inequali- m m—tI — A—By ty than the ratio B + = - A-—B + eine Sate + &c.: Bis. And it is no lefs evident that, if nr be lefs than ar mr—Q A—1L)’ ? zq «6B + ke. is lefs than the antecedent B + = *A-B+ ~ . mg, the antecedent B + = A—B+ = Ss. A=By 5 Bic. ba a, Mek eed 2 B Mine 2 are then refpeCtively lefs than. . . = = =I7 4%, &c, oe Mit SPs oe he SEES a rot | and the ratio B + ~ - A—B ae Pcia: hs q q 2¢q z —, B + &c.: B isthen, of courfe, a lefs ratio of greater inequality than the ratio B + = *A-B+ = : — 1S Vip = _ Here then are‘four magnitudes, and any equimultiples be- ing taken of the rit and 3d, and alfo any equimultiples be- ing taken of the 2d and 4th, it is proved that, if the multiple of the 1ft be equal to the multiple of the 2d, the multiple of the 3d is alfo equal to the multiple of the. qth; if greater, greater; and if lof, lefs.. Wherefore (5. Def. E. 5.) the magnitudes themfelves are proportional, er the ratio B + r oo— ror-g A=By : -° A-B es ae &e. 2: Bi , + ; = 5 + ke is to the ratio B + A—B: Basr: g whatever be the ratio of r to + &c. : Bis. Having thus fully explained the doétrine of proportion, on which this calculus is grounded, we wui briefly illu(trate Mr. Glenie’s derivation of it from the fame, and then jhew, with how much eafe and’ facility both the differential and fluxionary calculi may be derived from the fame fource, and in a manner too altogether unexceptionable.. If for R and Q we fubititute 7 and g in the rft'and sth formule, in the jd theorem of his Univerfai Comparifon, they become refpetively A + See fs A-B ee q b q ge iy re, Pe eee ae ev q 29 oF , 3 —_—_—————_ — cai + &c. and B + ES A—B. + Applian; B q gq 9 ; = = —=B? BT dct ot tne pinch Se. the B q 2q 3 B Tift of which is immediately derived from the firft, by fub- flicuting for A in it, where it ftands unconnected with B by the fign minus. B + A—B, which is equal to A, and is the very magmitude, which we have juft proved to have to B a ratio, which baa to the ratio of B + A—B: B or of A to B the ratio of r : g, even when r has to g the-ratio of any two homogeneous magnitudcés whatfoever, Mr. Glenic, however, takes the rfliof thefe two formule, and fuppofes A +N to be in the firlt place fubftituted in it every where tor A. By this fubftitution he gets A+ N+ +4AN x for the magnitude, which has to B the duplicate ratio of A+N to By, exceeding the magnitude A+A ° DB » which has to B the duplicate ratio of 2AN+N? — Ato B, by DB In like manner he gets the ex- 5A2 eels ALC cefs of the magnitude, which has to B the triplicate ratio of A+Nto B above the magnitude, which has to B the triplicate ratio of A to B, equal to the geometrical expref- 3A?7N+3AN?+4N3, fion 2—————_—_— And he thus finds, in general, that the excefs of the magnitude, which has fg B {uch a ratio, as has to the ratio of A+ N to B the ratio of 7 to g, (when r has to g any given ratio whatever, ) above the magnitude, which has to B fuch a ratio, as has to the ratio of Ato B, the fame ratio of r to g is geometrically ex- T—29 Avg N+ hy tbe Gr * ‘ig l Boge FSG THs ye he et q 2q 39 rf By Preeifely in. the fame manner he makes it appear, that the excefs of the magnitude, which has to B fuch a ratio, as has to the ratio of A to B the ratio of r to g, above the magni- tude, which has to B fuch a ratio, as has to the ratio of A—N to B the ratio ofr to g is geometrically exprefled by r =] T——29 r Ago Re q Ge il Ng By But if A+N and A—N ftand to A in relations nearer to that of equality than by any given or afligned magnitudes of the fame kind, each of thefe general expreflions becomes ss eo q S ‘ Lier | Thus he calls.the antecedental of the q 5 - magnitude, which has to B fuch a ratio, as has to the ratio -of A to B the ratio of r to g. Now if ‘N, the antecedental of A, be denoted by A aoe (for the notation does not at all alter the cafe) the an- a is=9 “a r fet Si seegy Psi teens tail tecedental £ =a becomes a Ba By i iin? Se hs eid r- A andhastoA orA the ratio of Bite fats <, —L +B. Ifg=1 and r=z, 3 4, &e. it gives g . r—¢ = = > 399 % ° £ Bg a a a a 2AA, 347A, 4A°4, 5SA‘A, &c. refpectively. If B B B? B* @ —} @ Ape A A e=1 and g=2, 3) 4, &e. it wives) Gap 2B ULUS. 3S a A *A ; : eqs ,’ &c. refpeively. And if I= I and r= we 7 B & : af tak a V3> V4 445s Ke. it gives yy2 . A A, 2— +) pV! oe J3 —I @ 3 raat Pee red A V4 d aw’ Ia BY 3 ” ye — “*&e. refpee- tively, and fo on. Mr. Glenie then makes ufe of the Jaft of thefe two formu- le, which is the 5th of theorem 3d, to come at the fame conclufions.. By it, when A ftandsto Bin a relation nearer to that of equality than by any given or afligned magnitude of the fame kind, the excefs of the magnitude, (which has to B {uch a ratio as has to the ratio of A to B the ratio of r tog), above B is generally expreffed by = ASB ie q by - . Aor by ; . A, fince in this relation of (A to B), a A—B may be denoted by A or A; which expreffion is al- ways as the meafure or quantity of the ratio, that the faid formula has to B, whatever be the relation of Ato B. For inthe fimple, duplicate, triplicate ratios, &c. it gives A, 2A, 3A, &c. and in the fubduplicate, fubtriplicate ratios, &c. . . a a A, A, &c. or A A &c. But if the ratio of Br Ak aya 355° : . Yr a a A to A or "i A to A, which denotes the relation be- tween the quantities of the ratios, that the magnitude ex- prefled by this formula and A have refpectively to B, be compounded with the ratio of thefe magnitudes themfelves, when A has to B any ratio whatever, or with that of r r Ag ro Ae a = to Awe get the ratio 5 : = Ato A.A, which By By r—@ ig pee Nc . is equal to the ratio of Bi eee to B the ratio of the B ¢ r antecedentals of ~, and A as found above. B 2 It is certainly worthy of remark, that the antecedental of 3 A?_ jg a fourth proportional to B less Bi? aaespte the ftandard of eomparifon, the magnitude itfelf, and the antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio, which it has to the ftandard B. ‘Thus a fourth proportional to B, A, and ye « ‘ i { B-A:; A or A -the antecedental of A; a fourth pro- any fuch magnitude as portional CALC «a a portional to B, =” and 2B.A j,2A.A ; anda fourth A B t Tr ; a Rae ae Xp r . « . proportional to B, we and gg: A a i a = * A? A . Alor: At:: 2% :2A.A3 andr: Alb=!s Fe ab iy a a Ars: 3A, 3A°WA, , By means of the firft formula in theorem 1 of his Univer- fal Comparifon, which exprefles the magnitude, that has to B fueh a ratio, as aries by compounding any number of fatios CtoD, EtoF, &c. with the ratio of A to B, he a a A.c AC+CAor r D ' determines the antecedental of tob AC+CA, and that of A-C-E fo We ACE f ao mil D.F = a a i Z E AE,C 4 CE.A o ACE +:AEC + CEA, ang DE ..#:.DF 7 © fa fo on, fu ng the confequents D, F, &c. of the ratios ra “6 ae And it is obfervable, that the anteceden- tal of x is equal to a fourth proportional to B, the mag- nitude s* itfelf, and the antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of A to B, together with a fourth propo;tional to D, the magnitude a and the antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of Cto D3 that the antecedental of AC E ACE al DF. DF the antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of A to B, ACE DF antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of C to D, to- is equal to a fourth proportional to B, » and the together with a fourth proportional to D, gether with a fourth proportional to F, » and the AC DF antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of Eto F; and fo on. He makes ufe of the firft formula in Theorem 2, Univer- fal Comparifon, which expreffes the magnitude, that has to B fuch a ratio, as arifes by decompounding any number of ratios C to D, Eto F, &c. with the ratio of A to B to de- AD, ADF and fo on for any CCE termine the antecedental of number of ratios. And here it is alfo obfervable, that the antecedental of = or SS or sen 16 equal to the excefs of a fourth proportional to B, ae and the an- tecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of A to B above a. fourth proportional to D, = and the antecedental of the magnitude of the ratio of Cto D; and fo on. ULUS. And it is eafily thewn, from the principles he has lait tT a. | down, that the antecedental of “TB 1s =e & a a Prd Doi 4c a oA VM+ ash B VM+MV ; ; BE 7’ Cex Ss) or that the antece- . Bo .' B ° Av M 7 ‘ dental of an 1s st g58.t)p For, if M denote the magnitude of the ratio A; B to the ftandard of com. parifon B, vM will be the magnitude of the -ratio of Be-r AY to B. But Bea B :: the antecedental of Bea? a a the antecedental of vo M(vM-+-Mv). Wherefore the ante~ a a Av ,.Av woM-+Mo Av cedental of Der ® Boa —) Re x vM-4Mp\, a) The antecedents and their antecedentals will therefore ftand thus, B being the ftandard of comparifon. Antecedent, Antecedental, a A = ~ AorA a e a Al. 2AA 2AA & eNA F AR - Di eh or BO Ast (putting N for A—B), or, &c, a a a A? or AZ B - 2AA or 2BA+2NA, or &c. A A’ A yt A A 3 2 2 A AS 3 GAD BONA (so) in, B or A, BR - B or ane + ace: or gA+ a a NA a ~ a a or &c. Av a a a . A} or Aw, B? 3A°A, or 3BAA+3ANA, or 3B’A. +6BNA+3N’A, or Ke. “ f a Goes And ind A? fale? A general } r-q r-a B? g-B? rAA . r «rag ANA | or B “P 7 . 7 3 ; IIMB ig | q q 2q B rA r ry N r ‘ OR a Bie ad GE Bee gg Bt rg 4-29 NA | a ee Lor &c. &c. Antecedent, CALCULUS. Antecedent. Antecedental, @ a Ac 2 e — or &e. &e. D a a AC - ° AC-+CA, or &c. a @ a ACFE ACE+AEC+CEA DF ° ° DF » or &e, a a a ACE - - ACE+AEC+CEA, or &c. And fo on. a a = 5 4 ss ae @ BA - - BA a = - oe or &c. &c. a a B+A+C - A+C t DA” a aDAn-1A BA+- - BA+—j,— 3 Or &e. EE SIO a ~— x (ure), or &e. calling ne M the magnitude of the ratio of A to B. &e. &c. &c. &c. Mr. Glenie informs us that this calculus firft occurred to him in 1774, and that, asit is purely geometrical and per- featly fcientific, he has always fince that time ufed it inftead of the fluxionary and differential calculi. In a paper, which was written in a great meafure at the requeft of fome of his friends, as he informs us, and is publifhed in the fourth volume of the Tranfactions of the Royal Socigty of Edin- burgh, explanatory of its principles, to prevent mifconcep- tions and erroneous opinions refpecting them, he fhews that they are the fame with thofe on which the geometrical for- tule iv the Univerfal Comparifon itfelf are fourded ; that no indefinitely {mall or infinitely little magnitudes are fup- pofed in it, but only magnitudes lefs than any that may be given or afigned, and ratios néarer to that of equality than any that may be given or affigned, and proves it to be equally geometrical with the method of exhauftions | of the ancients, who never fuppofed lines, furfaces, or folids to be refolved into infinitely {mall or infinitely little elements. He fays, indeed, that the expreflion, infinitely little magnitude, implies a contradi@tion, fince what has maynitude cannot be infinitely little. ‘Sa We fhall now fhew, with what facility both thefe other ealculi may be derived from the fame principles. The general geometrical expreffions, from which the T A antecedental of —>- 9 Was derived, Be rad vraag 1 become -. A” oN} = 3 Nae 7-9 i 7-29 aa: 2 ye ae a A?’ N4—+4Ke.J refpectively when B the ftandard or comparifon, becomes 1, or arithmetical unity, and when A+N and A—N are to A in relations nearer to that of equality than by any given, or affigned magnitude of the fame kind they become ng each of them -.A” N. Now if we denote the vf differential of A by dA, and fubftitute this for N we get r q Tr 7 OA ® dA for the differcutial of A’, aad if we Qn -¢ the fluxion of A and fubftitute it for N we get 2 ae A for the fluxion of A7. Andit is evident hacer 'g r-9 A‘! dAjis a fourth proportional to 1 (the arithmetical itandard of comparifon, to which the expreffions both in the fluxionary and differential calculi have a reference}, r r dA A ? pe ‘z r the differential of the magnitude of the ws A | ratio A’ : 1 to the faid ftandard 1; and that- . A r A is a fourth proportional to 1, Al, and =. = the fluxion r of the magnitude of the ratio A’ : 1 tothe fame ftardard 1. If, therefore, we make ufe of x, y, z, &c. inftcad of the variable magnitudes A, C, E, &c. in the antecedental cale culus as delivered by its inventor, the integrals and their differentials will {tand as follows : Integral, Differential. x dx x axde x3 gx’dx ae rxt- Idx r r-9 xf = yc pani! habe q xy xdy+ydx xy xdy yds b beat xyz xydz -xzdy+-yads x ydx —xdy y a-xty dx+dy we x° x (vdm-+mdv) putting m for the magni- tude of the ratio of x to 1. &c. &c. &e. &e. &c. Kew And the fluents and their fluxions wilt ftand in the fol- lowing manner. Fluent. Fluxion, < x x 5 x Qn = x? 3x°% ° xr xT = tye Fluent. CALCULUS. Fluent. Fluxion r T- 9 x2 Rey 2? . xy spt xy xy +yx é b xyz xye +xzy +; 2x x yx reed y # atxty x+y xo xX (vm-pmv) putting m for the magnitude of the ratio of x to 1 &e. &e. &e. &e. &e. &e. ’ Thus it is manifelt that the fluxionary and differential calculiare legitimately derivable from one andthe fame fource, viz. gencral arithmetical proportion, and are in fact a branch of it, differing enly from each other in words and in the me- thods of notation. Sir Ifaac Newton has not determined ; r , the fluxion of x- when r has to g any ratio whatfoever. q Neither has Mr, Leibnitz determined the differential of FF x’ when r and g are not integers but have to each other the tatioofany twohomogeneous magaitudes whatfoever. Butthey are obtained immediately by this method of deriving thefe r - calculi, and of courfe the Auxion and differential of x? in every poffible relation, that r can ftand into g, whether it be that of two integers, two furds, two lines, two furfaces, or two folids, &c. Catcutus, Arithmetical, or Numeral, is the method of performing arithmetical computations by numbers. See AgiTHMETIC. Carcutus, Algebraical. ALGEsRA. Catcutus of derivations, denotes a general method of confidering quantities, deriving themfelves one from the other, particularly developed and illuftrated by M. L. F. A. Arbogait, of the National Inftitute of France, and profeffor of mathematics at Strafburgh, in a treatife entitled “ Du Calcul des Dérivations,”’ &c. 4to. Strafburgh, 1800. “ To form an idea (fays the author) of thefe derivations, it is to be obferved that quantities or funétions, which are deduced the one from the other, by an uniform procefs of operations, are derived quantities; fuch are the fucceffive differentials. This idea may be extended, by confidering quantities that are derived one from another, not in themfelves, but folely in the operations which colleé and bind them together; the uantities themfelves being any whatfoever, arbitrary and in- Mawtiet: Thus, on the fuppofition that, out of many dif- ferent letters, the firit enters folely into a funétion, while the two next enter into the derivative of that fun€tion; that the firft three, by the fame law, enter into the derivative of the derivative, and fo on; we thall have the derivatives in the ex- tended fenfe which I have given tothem. In my theory, the —— defignated by different letters are not derived one trom another; and the derivatives which I confider are lefs the dervatives of quantities thau of operations ; as al- gebra is lefs a calculus of quantities than of operations, arith- metical or geometrical, to be performed on quantitics. De- “rivation is the operation by which a derivative is deduecd from shat which precedes it, or from the function. The method See Carcurus fteralis and of derivations, in general, confifts in feizing the faw that connetts together the parcels of any quantities whatever; and in making ufe of this law as a method of calculation for ping from derivative to derivative.” In ord to form the algorithm of derivations, the author has fatroduced new figns. Accordingly, as Leibnitz has appropriated the fymbol d to denote the operation for obtain- ing the diff-rential of a quantity, M. Arbogaft employs the fy ~bol D in the procefs for obtaining the derivative of a quaacity : thus, D (x) = mxx—1, D (ar) =ar; and the ae oe of a function, F («+-x), is therefore thus ex- prefled : Fe E Fx + +s x+ ti x? +, &e. which, according to the notation in the differential calculus, 16 aie eee AGS” eb At Wa bps To avoid writing the fa@tors, 1.2.3, &c. in thei@enominators, " leD: zo We 1D et Den generally reprefent aa! then, ie F (a+x) = Po + DFa x + Do'Fa.x? + De? Fe.x? +, &e. This is the ksowa form for the developement of the fun@tion of a binomil; and the objet of the primary articles of the prefent treatife is to find a form for the developement of the function of a polynomial; viz. «+ @x+yx'+3x3+, &e. The method of obtaining it may be thus briefly explained :— When « is variable, and Da=@, write D.¢x for the deri- vative: when a is variable, and Dz=1, write Dox for the derivative: therefore, OF (2 + Ax) = (Fa + D.Fa.x + Det.Fa.x? +, &c.)! but ae (a+ a! = 0Fa + D.?Fa.x 4+ Do.¢Fa.x? +, &e. put Fe =a, DFa =D. a, &c. and @(a + D.a.x +Der.m, «+, &c.) = da. + D. a. x + De’. Ga. x*, &e, Now, to determine D. ¢a, D’. $a. &c. we have D. ?a = Dea. D. a D:. ¢2 =D. Ke ga) = D (D¢a. D. 2) = Dea. D. 2 + D*¢a. (D. a)’, and fo on. To find @ («+x 4+ yx* +, &c.), put it =$a +D. ta. x + Des da. x? +, &e; develope D. gz, D*. ga, &c; and after developement put D.«2=8, Deve =y, Dei.a=3, &a Hence it appears that ? © + Bx + yx’ +, &c.) may be con- verted into a feries of the form A + Bx + Cx? + Dx? +&c.; and the firit term A will = $<. The coefficient of the fecond term will = D.¢x, or D.A. The coefficient of the third term will = D*.¢x, or DA. The coefficient of the n + 1 will = D*. dx, or D”.A; provided that, after the derivations have been made, we put in the refults @ for D.«, y for D.’. a, &c. B for D.A. C for DA, &c. The coefficient of x” or A” in the feries A + Bx +-, &c. equals D-. $x, which is = Doa. Den—1. 8 +- D? da. Der—?, B? t+) &eo.—— Der da. B.. The method of proof is this :— put 7 =8 + yx + 4x? +, ke. then 9 (a 4+ 8x +yx’? +. Ke.) = O(a +x) = 4 + Dtz.xx +De' da. x xi +, &e. but x, x’, 7’———-7” are functions of the polynomial, a + Bx + yx’, ke. -"s generally #2 = 8" 4+ D. B7.% +4 De’. 1.x? +, &e. (2) White, therefore, in feries (1), for w, x’, x’—2n, the values refulting from (2); collect the terms affeCted with the fame power of x and it will ealily appear that the coefficient of xn, or Aa, is fuch as we have {lated it to be. In this method is comprehended, as is evident, the form for the developement ot a polynomial raed to any power 3 which CALE which was firf given, but without fatisfaQory demonftration, ‘by De Moivre, in the TranfaGions of the Royal Society, and in ‘his. ‘*Mifcellanea Analytica,” p.S7. The above form of M. Arbogaft has many advantages; it exhibits compendioully the law of the coefficients by means. of the fymbol D ; and, when the operations indicated are to be aétually performed, the coefficients eafily refult in terms of the polynomial quantities. : The formula tor the fun@tion, being general, manifeftly ferves for the developement of expreffions, fuch as ex + 6x box? +, &e., fin. (2 +62 +yx* +, &e.) &e. After having exhibited the general form for (~ 4+ 8x + yx +, &c.) M. Arbogalt fhews how from one term to de- duce the next fuccecding, and likewife how to calculate any term, whatever of the developement, independently of ali the others. The length and intricacy of the calculations render it impoffible for us to give details of thefe methods. In the latter part ef the firft article, the author applies his «method of @@rivation to afiign the fum of the powers of the roots of an equation, in terms of the coefficients of the equa- tion; and the formula which he deduces is remarkable for the fimplicity of the law by which the coefficients are ex- prefled. Vandermonde (Memoirs of the Academy, 1771, p: 373+)» Euler (Comms. Pat. 15 vol.), La Grange (Memoirs of Berlin, 1768), and Waring (Meditationes Algebraice, p-1.), having given general formule for the fum of the powers of the roots of an equation, M. Arbogait compares his own with the demonttration of thofe, and fhews how they follow from it. Whoever will take the trouble of examining thofe feveral formule will find them not only lefs fimply ex- prefled than that of the prefent author, but lefs evidently and lefs rigoroufly demonftrated. The author proceeds to the developement of fundtions of two or more polynomials, arranged according to the powers of the fame letter. Suppofe the feries @ + dx +-cx* +, &c. and « + @x + yx? +, &c. &c. are to be multiplied to- aw + a8 + bx =D. 4, c=De.a, &c. B= D. «, y= De’. a, &e. the coefficients of the terms affeéted with x, x’, x?. &c, will be (a. Die +D. a. 2), (a. De? a + D.a D.a + De. a. 2), or D (a. «), De* (a «), and the coefficient of the term affected with x” will be D-”, (aa), which may eafily be developed. Hence the form for the produ of any number of feries, arranged according to the powers of x, may be determined. In four feries, for inftance, of which the firft terms are a, a, a’, al”, the origin of the derivations will be aa’, a", al”; and the coefficient ot the term affected with x”, will be Dex aa’ a" a'"). In the developement of the produét of any two funétions whatever of polynomials, for inltance, of ? (a+ 2x +, &e.) and @ (« +@x+&c.), the coefficient of the term affe&ted with x will be De. (a. 92); which, by foregoing methods, may t A gether; then the produé is x +, &c. or making be eafily developed.—Since and A—s are equivalent ex- ae preffions, by the foregoing methods, fraétions fuch as = a bx + cx? +, &e. I Bx -- yx? +P, &e. (a—x)r (a—x). (A—x), &c. converted into feries of the form A + Bx +- Cx?-++ Dx3+ &c. M. Arbogalt, having applied his method to fuch frations zs have been already mentioned, fhews how to deduce the form for the developement of ? (a--bx-+-cx*+, &c., a+ Px 4-yx? +, &c.) and afligns the form for the coefficient of the term affeted with x*. The law by which thefe forms are regulated is imple, and calily senpntey ULUS. This author’s next obje& is the developement of funGions. of one or more polynomials, arranged relatively to the powers.and to the produéts of two or more different letters, into feries arranged in the fame manner. Accordingly he: reduces it to-the following general problem. ‘* Any funcs- tion whatever of one or more fimple, double, or triple po- lynomials being given, to write immediately the feries of the devclopement of this function ; and, moreover, to write im-- mediately the developement of any term whatever of this fe- ries, independently of the other terms.”? He then proceeds to various applications of derivations to recurring feries, as well fimple as double, or triple, &c. of any order whatever. The authors who have treated of recurring feries are De Movire, in his ‘* Mifcelianea Analytica, atd Doétrine of chances ;”? Euler, in his “* Introductio in Analyfin Infimis torum ;” La Grange, in ‘ Melanges de Turin,” in Me- moirs prefented to the Academy of Paris, and in the Berlin: Memoirs ; and La Place, in Memoirs prefented to the Aca demy of Paris, and in the Memoirs of the Academy. To- the fubjeét of the refearches of thefe great mathematicians,. M. Arbogait applies his method of derivations ; and he cer= tainly obtains by it, in our opinion, expreffions very admi-- rable for their fimplicity, and for the facility with which: they can be expanded. -In the methods of the authors above mentioned, in order to find the general term, the de-- nominator of the generating fraétion is refolved into its fac-- tors; which is done by finding the roots of the denominator- put = 0; confequently, if the denominator exceeds an equa-- tion of the fourth degree, the general term cannot be found ;- —but, by the method of derivations, the general term is af- figned in terms of the coefficients of the denominator of the generating fraCtion and other quantities ;. thus, if the gene- at Bx + yx? —— =, the expreien pe ae Poe P for the general term of the refulting recurring feries is Dem (w2—"),. ora Dem, a—'+8. Dom— a—'+y. Der—*. a", (De, a, De. «, &c. being =o). In the courfe of this article, M. Arbogaft fhews how to. find at once a part of the general term of a recurring feries, proceeding from feveral equal factors in the denominator of. rating fractions be the generating fra€tion : thus, let Qbe the generating frac-- 2 te AB, tion, and NX (a—x)"=Q ; in NG put a forx, and fuppofe Pp : : nv? be what this fraction becomes: then the required part of the general term will be pa{ Po] » and De=—x ‘a and n + 1 the index of the term. M. Arbogait determines the fine and cofine of any mul- tiple angle in cofines of the fimpleangle E. His demonttra~ tions for the forms exprefling the fines, cotines, &c. are clear” and rigorous. He aifo direétly difcuffes the difficult and com- plicated fubje&t of double and triple recurring feries. The next article of his treatife contains applications: of the cal- culus of derivations to the general reverfion of feries; and this part of his work is executed with fingular ability. His next obje&t. is the ufe of derivations in the differential cal- eulus, which he confiders as a particular cafe of the calcu- lus of derivations. The 7th article of the author’s work confifts of three divifions : the firit containing the applica= tion of the formule of derivation, to the developement of the funGions of polynomials, containing fines, cofines, &c. : the fecond gives the application of the derivative calculus to’ : the a CALCULUS. the produét of factors in arithmetical progreffion ; and the third fhews the application of the feparation of the fcales of operations to the dire*t and inverfe method of differences. Fora furher account of this fubject, we mutt refer to the author's elaborate treatife. See, alfo, an analyfis of it in the Monthly Review (New Series), vol. xxxvi. p. 524—532- Catcutus diferentialis is a method of differencing quan- tities, or of finding an infinitely {mall quantity, which, being taken infinite times, fhall be equal to a.given quan- tity : or, it isthe arithmetic of the infinitely {mall differences of variable quantities. The foundation of this calculus is an infinitcly finell quan- tity, or an infinitefimal, which is a portion of a quantity incomparable to that quantity, or that is lefs than any al- fignable one, and therefore accounted as nothing ; the error accruing by omitting it being lefs than any afliznable one. Hence two quantities, only differing by an infinitcfimal, are reputed equal. Thus, in Aflronomy, the diameter of the earth is an in- finitefimal, in refpeét of the diltance of the fixed tars; and the fame holds in abftra& quantities. The term infinitefi- mal, therefore, is merely refpective, and involves a relation to another quantity ; and does not denote any real ens, or being. Now infinitefimals are called differentials, or differential quantities, when they are conlidered as the differences of two quantities. Sir Ifaac Newton calls them moments ; con- fidering them as the momentary increments of quantities ; v. g. of a line generated by the flux of a point ; or of a fur- face by the flux of a line. The differential calculus, there- fore, and the dotrine of fluxions, are the fame thing, under different names ; the former given by M. Leibnitz, and the latter by Sir [faac Newton: each of whom lay claim to the difcovery. There is, indeed, a difference in the manner of expreffing the quantities refulting from the different views wherein the two authors confider the infinitelimals ; the one as moments, the other as differences: Leibnitz, and moit foreigners, ex- prefs the differentials of quantities by the fame letters as va- riable ones, only prefixing the letter d: thus the differen- tial of x is called dx; and that of y, dy: now dx is a po- fitive quantity, if x continually increafe ; negative, if it de- creafe. The Englifh, with fir Ifaac Newton, inftead of d x, write x {with a dot over it); for dy,y, &c. which foreigners and others object againft, on account of that confufion of points, which they imagine arifes, when differentials are again dif- ferenced ; on account of the ambiguity of the fluxionary ex- preflions, owing to the pofition of the index ; becaufe the Sinxionary expreffion cannot be fo readily extended as the differential notation ; and, befides, the printers are more apt to overlook a point than a letter. Stable quantities are always expreficd by the firft letters of the alphabet da = 0, dlb=o, de=o; wherefore d (x-++y—a) =dx + dy, and d(x—y +a) = dx—dy. So that the differencing of quantities 1s eafily performed, by the addi- tion or fubtraction of their compounds. To difference quantities that multiply each other; the rule is, firft, ore 7 the differential of one factor into the other faétor, the {um of the two faétors is the differential fought : thus, the quantities being xy, the differential will be xdy+ydx, i.e. d(xy)=xdy+ydx. Secondly, if there be three quantities mutually rideaplying each other, the faétum of the two muft then be multiplied into the dif- ferential of the third: thus, fuppofe vx y, let »«=?, then wxy=ty; confequently d (vxy)=tdy+ydt: but dt == ~ dx _ dv. Thefe values, therefore, being fubftituted on. V. in the antecedent differential, ¢dy -- yd, the refult is, 2 (vxy) =vuxdy+uydx+xydv. Hence it is eafy to apprehend how to proceed, where the quantities are more than three. If one variable quantity increafe, while the other y de- creales, it is evident ydx—xdy will be the differential of xy. To difference quantitics that mutually divide each other ; the’rule is, firit, multiply the differential of the divifor into the dividend ; and, on the contrary, the differential of the dividend into the divifor; fubtra& the laft produ& from the firit, and divide the remainder by the fquare of the divifor ; the quotient is the differential of the quantities mutually di- viding each other. See Fruxions and Funerion, under which article will be ftated La Grange’s method of diveft- ing the principles of the differential calculus of all reference to infinitely {mall or evanefcent quantities. M. La Croix in his * Treatife on the Differential and In- tegral Calculus,” confiders the differential calculus in pre- cifely the fame point of view in which M, La Grange re- garded it in the Berlin Adis for 1772, and fubfequently in aa exprefs and formal treatife on the fubje&t. An ingenious anonymous writer has given the fubltance and fpirit of M. La Croix’s reafoning, without adhering clofely to his nota- tion and method. Let u=/x be any fun@ion of x; then, if for x we fub- flitute x-+4, the developement of /(x+4) will be of this form: Fen ep ey, be. Tee the coefficients f*x, f"'x, &c. being derived from the primi- tive funtion fx, and independent of /. Hence fle-bb) = fr=fish pln +., &e. 3.2 which quantity reprefents the difference between fx and what fx becomes when «x is increafed tox+4. Let the firlt term of this diffence be called the differential, and be denoted by the expreffion dfx; hence we have dfx=f'xh fant Hence to have f'x, divide the difference between two fuc- ceffive values of fx by the increment : but, fince f'x is inde- pendent of 4, 4 mutt difappear by this divifion, and may be reprefented by any fymbol at pleafure. Hence, for the fake of uniformity in the figns, let 4 be reprefented by dx oprak. Hence to find dfx, or the differential of fx, “ write in fx, x-++dx, for x, develope f(x-+-dx) as far as the terms afieéted with the firlt power of dx, and fubtra&t fx.— Since f (x-+-dx)—fx=f'xdx+, &e. Sf '(x+dx)—f'x=f''xdx +, Ke. &e. = &c. 'xdx=dfx "xdx=df 'x Leta kad therefore f"x= yn (=) dx But fince dx is invariable, S'(x+dx) dx—f'xdx=f"'xdx? hence df'xdx=f"'xdx* but df'xdx=ddfx=d’'fx (d* not meaning a fymbol d{quared, but denoting the fecond differential of /x to be taken): hence dfx dfx it appears, fince f Mya? a) and =4f*, ehat’(4e) = ' dx? et dx dx 5 B dfn CA TOA We. a? gis, and thus the derived funétions f'x, fx, f'"'x, &c. dx? ‘ ... dfx d'fe dife may be reprefented by the quantities Sr Pua ainioil fo that the developement of f(x-++4) takes this form, dfx CALE nee Wiad es sh oe casss the celebrated theorem of Taylor. Carcutus, diferentio-differential, is a method of differ- encing differential quantities. As the fign of a differential is the letter d prefixed to the quantity, fo that dx is the dif- ferential of x, that of a differential of dx is ddx, and the differential of ddx is dddx, &c.; fimilar to firft, fecond, and third, ‘&c. fluxions, x, x, x, &c.: thus we have degrees of differentials. The differential of an ordinary quantity is a differential of the firft order or degree, as dx that of the fecond degree is dix, &c. The rules for differentials are the fame with thofe for fuxions. See Fruxions.- Catcutus exponentialis, is a method of differencing ex- ponential quantities, or of finding and fumming up the dif- ferentials or moments of exponential quantities ; or at leaft bringing them to geometrical con{trutions. By exponential quantity, is here underftood a power, whofe exponent is variable; v.g. a”, x!, ay’, x7, &c. where the exponent x does not denote the fame in all the points of a curve, but in fome flands for 2, in others for 3, in others for 5, &e. To difference an exponential quantity: there is nothing re- quired but to reduce the exponential qualities to logarithmic ones; which done, the differencing is managed as in loga- tithmic quantities.—Thus, fuppofe the differential of the exponential quality «y required, let I= Then will y/x=/z zydx =dz xlody + x That is, xy/xdy+xxy—'dx=dz. Bernouilli Opera, tom. i. p- 183. See ExponenrTiar. Cacvcurus fluxional. See Fruxtons. Caucutus integralis, or fummatorius, 1s a method of in- tegrating, or fumming up moments, or differential quanti- ties; i.e. from a differential quantity given, ‘to find the quantity from whofe differencing the given differential re- fults. The integral calculus, therefore, is the inverfe of the dif- ferential one: -whence the Englifh, who ufually call the differential method, fluxions, give this calculus, which af- cends from the fluxions, to the flowing or variable quanti- ties: or, as foreigners exprefs it, from the differences to the fams; by the name of the inver/e method of FLUXIONS. Hence, the integration is known to be juftly performed, if the quantity found, according to the rules of the differen- tial calculus, being differenced, produce that propofed to be fummed. a Suppofe /the fign of the fum, or integral quantity ; then Jydx will denote the fum, er integral of the differential yadx. 4 To integrate, or fum up a differential quantity. It is de- monttrated, firft, that /dx=x- fecondly, /(dx-+-dy)=x +y: thirdly, {(xdy+ydx)sxy: fourthly, /(axn—-t dx=x": fifthly, / (n:m) a dian: fixthly, f (ydx—xdy)ty*=xiy. Of thefe, the fourth and fifth cafes are the moft frequent; wherein the wifferential quan- tity is integrated, by adding a variable unity to the expo- nent, and dividing the fum by the new exponent multiplied into the differential of the root; v. g. the fourth cafe, by m—(1+1) dx, i.e. by mdx. ’ If the differential quantity to be integrated, doth not come under any of thefe formulas, it muft either be reduced to aw integral finite, or an infinite feries, each of whofe terms’ may be fummed. & It may be here obferved, that, as in the analyfis of finites, any quantity may be raifed to any degree of power; but vice verfa, the root cannot be extracted out of any number required: fo in the analyfis of infnites, any variable or flowing quantity may be differenced ; but, wice verfa, any differential cannot be integrated. And as, in the analyfis of finites, we are not yet arrived at a method of extra@ting the roots of all equations ; fo neither has the integral calcu- lus arrived at its perfe¢lion: and as in the former we are obliged to have recourfe to approximation ; fo in the latter we have recourfe to infinice feries, where we cannot attain to a perfe&t integration. The firft traces of the integral calculus are to be found in the arithmetic of infinites of Dr. Wallis. The author, by fumming feries of rational ordinates, was enabled to affion the quadratures of the curves to which they belonged. Newton, the inventor of the fluxtonary method, advanced far beyond Wallis, and affigned the quadrature of curves to which the ordinates were irrational. What this great man performed with regard to the doctrine o- fivents, or the integral calculus, 1s to be found in his treatife, “ De: Quadratura Curvarum.” In his “¢ Principia’? he concealed his analyfis, and adhered to the manner of the ancients. It, does not appear by what method he folved the 34th propo-=- fition of the zd book of the ‘ Principia’ concerning the fo-. lid of leaft refiflance; whether he effe&ed it by a particular- artifice, or whether he really poffeffed the calculus of varia- tions, of which Leibnitz and the Bernouillis are now ef-. teemed the inventors. The mathematicians to whom the in- tegral calculus is chiefly indebted for its improvement, are John Bernouilli, who integrated rational fractions; }ames- Bernoulli, who integrated the fluxional equation, y: -- P yx'= Q x*3 Cotes, who publifhed in 1714, ‘ Theore-- mata tum Logometrica tum Trigonometrica”’ ; Ricati, who. integrated the fluxional equation y*+- ay? x = Q x; Maclaurin, author of a treatife in 2 volumes, 4to.; Simplon,. Fontaine, Clairaut, D?Alembert, and Euler, whofe re- fearches on the integral calculus occur in the volumes of the academies of Paris, Berlin, Turin, and Peterfburgh. The laft author published in 1768 his ‘* Inftitutiones Caleuli In-- tegralis,” highly enriched with original iaventions ; and in the fame year Le Seur and Jacquier publi lifhed a work in twos volumes, 4to. which fuperfeded a work of M. Bougain-: ville, publifhed in 1754, intended as a fupplement to the- « Analyfe des Infimtement Petits of the Marquis de L?- Hofpital. Condorcet, La Grange, La Place, Monge, and: Le Gendre, have alfo made confiderable additions to the integral calculus. M. La Croix has likewife publifhed a comprehenfive and valuable treatife on the differential and- integral calculus (Traité du Calcul Differentiel, &c. 2 vols... 4to. Paris). In the plan of this work it is propofed to com-- prehend and fyftematize all that has been written on the: differential and integral calculus. It commences with a hif-- tory of the fubject which properly originates with the times of Euclid and Archimedes; becaufe the methods of ex- : 5 haufuons. CALCULUS. ‘hauftions and limits reft on the fame foundation. The quef- tions that led to its difcovery have been difcuffed fince the earlieft zra of geometry. The 12th propofition of the 12th book of Euclid’s Elements is a problem of this kind, and the firft that has come down to us. Archimedes, by fimilar methods, advanced to the folution of more difficult pro- blems, than that which inveftigated the relation of circles to one another ; fuch as the relations between the furfaces and fol:d contents of the cylinder and fphere, the quadra- _ture of the parabola, and the proportion of {pirals. M. La Croix thea proceeds in his hiftory of the diff-rential calculus, - as conneCted with the feveral difcoveries made by Cavalleri, Roberval, Decfeartes, Fermat, Huggens, Gregory de St. Vincent, Pafcal, Wallis, Barrow, Leibnitz, and Newton. See Fiuxions. M. la Croix’s treatife confifts of two parts: the firlt part. gives an accourt of the differential calculus; and the fubject of the fecond part is the integral calculus. This part begins with the integration of functions of one variable quantity; and the author has furnithed various for- mulz for integrating rational and irrational funGions, loga- rithmic ard exponential funétions, circular funétions, &c. and he then applies the integral calculus to the quadrature and re@tification of curves, to the quadrature of curve fur- faces, and to the content of the folids comprehended by them. He fubjoins an expofition of the methods which Euler employed in his refearches concerning curves that are quadrable, reCtifiable, &c. His next objeé& is the integra- tuon of differential equations of two variable quantities ; and in reference to this he has coileéted all that has been written on this intricate fubjeét. Accordingly this chapter of his work contains methods for feparating the variabie quantities in differential equations of the firlt order; for inveftigating a fa&tor proper to render a differential equation of the firit order integrable ; for integrating differential equations of the firft order; in which the differential quantities pafs the firft degree; for obtaining particular folutiens of differential equations of the firft order ; for refolving by approximation, differential equations of the firft order; for conftrudcting, geometrically, differential equations of the firft order; for integrating differential equations of the tecond order by means of transformations ; for invelligating a faCtor proper to reader differential equations of the fecond order inte- grable ; for refolving, by approximation, differential equa- tions of the fecond order; and for integrating differential equations of orders fuperior to the fecond. The fubjeét of the next chapter is the integration of fractions containmg two, or a greater number of variable quantities. The fifth and lait chapter treats of the method of variations. The calculus of variations originated from certain pro- Blems concerniog the maxima and minima of quantities having been propofed by John Bernouilli, to the mathe- maticians of Europe. Such a problem was that in which it’was required to find, of all curves pafling through two fixed points, and fituated in the fame vertical plane, that one down which a body would defcend from the highet to the lowelt point in the leait time pofliole. The firlk geome- tricians, remarking that nothing was obtained by putting the differential of the time, ves found that they could obtain a folution by making the time a minimum for two fucceflive elements of the curve; thus, if x, x', x'' were three vertical abfciffas, and y, y', y'* the correfpond- gag ordinates, the time would be exprefled by V (<'—<) + G's) 4) 7 $0") Ve the differential of which being taken, and put =o, gave a Ls) dy Ll dopey quantity ; and confequently proved the curve to be a cy- cloid. —Euler, with far greater analytical knowledge than John Bernouilli, next treated thefe problems in a general manner, in his traét intitled, ** Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas maximi minimive proprictate caudentes ; five folutio problematis ifoperimetici latiffimo feufu accepti.”? M. La Grange afterward gave greater generality to this calculus, by making variable not only yo dys dy, &e. but x. r The explanation of M. La Croix affords a clear idea of the calculus of variations : ** Suppofe (fays he) the variable quantities at firft con- nected together by an equation, or by any other depend- ence, to chanye by reafon of the form of the equation, or of the relation that refults from the dependence eftablithed between them cealing to be the fame; this circumttance cannot be expreffed in a more general manner, than by re- garding the increments of x and y, as abfolutely indepen- dent of each other; fince, in effeét, this hypothefis, not defignating any particular relation between x and y, com- prehends all. It follows thence, that the calculus of vari- ations can only be employed for expreffions, to which the differential calculus has already been applied ; and it differs from the lalt only by the independence which it fuppofes between the variable quantities, which before were confi- dered as conneéted by conftant relations. The following refulting equation = 5 a conftant example will illuftrate this notion. The expreffionS, a which belongs to the fubtangent of a curve, reprefents a determinate funétion of x, when y is confidered asa funttion , whofe compofition in terms of x is known: and if this lait changes, the firlt changes alfo. There will be, perhaps, fome difficulty in conceiving how we can fubmit to calculation the variability of a funétion which is only the abftra& depend- ence in which feveral quantities are with regard to each other: but this difficulty is removed, by confidering that the conrection between the quantities y and x changes, if the firlt be made to vary independently of the fecond. Thus, in the example before us, if we fuppofe x to remain the fame, and y and # to change, the relation between x and y muft neceflarily have changed alfo, fince thefe quantities 1. es » in the dx ie may alone be made to vary, fince it depends only are the immediate confequences of that relation : form on one value of y: but, if an expreffion affected by the figa d J be confidered, y and = mut be made to vary at the fame time; for it follows from the theory for the formation of in- tegrals, that the value of a like function depends on the con- fecutive values of y which are deduced from thofe of, Te “Tt is evident that, to take under this point of view the differential of any expreffion whatever, it is fufficient to make y, dy, d'y, &c. vary without altering x. but, in treating this latter quantity, as variable as the firlt, we ar- rive at refults more general and fymmetrical than what are otherwife obtained, and which lead to very interelting re- marks on the nature of the differential forms. For thefe reafons, we fhall adopt in this chapter the method of mak- ing x, dy, dy’ vary. That the fymbols of this new fpecies of diftrentiation, in which x and y are confidered as inde- pendent, may not be confounded with the fymbols of the 5 Ba firlt, CA LiC-UeLyUS. firft, in which one of the variable quantities is regarded as a funétion of the other, we fhall employ, after the manner of La Grange, the chara@teriftic 3; and we fhall fuppofe, with him, that, when y changes only by virtue of the change of x which becomes x + dx, its differential is dy: but that, when the relation of y and x varies, thefe two quantities become refpectively x+dx, y+dy; and we note by the name of variations, the increments x and oy. e u « Hence it follows that, as du = di + dy, dx dy u being a fun@tion of x and y, 3 fo, du = dx + ye he “ In applying this to the example i we muft regard dx ‘ ’ — asa funétion of x and y; whence it refults that dy dee dxdy > ( 7 dy meme ae je 5 and 3 a0 Cydia __ dyddx—dxddy ( d; ia tae dy? = iia for dx = ddx, ddy = ddy.—.” M. La Croix then proves ddx = ddx, &c. After the methods for finding the variations of any funétion whatever, is given the application of the calculus to the problems of maxima and minima. Carcutus Uiteralis, or literal Catcuxvus, isthe fame with fpecious arithmetic, oralgebra, fo called, from its ufing the letters of the alphabet: in contradiitinétion to numeral arithmetic, which ufes figures. In the literal calculus, given quantities are exprefled by the firft letters, a, 4, c,d; and quantities fought by the lait 2,9, x, &c. Equal quantities are denoted by the fame letters. See ALGEBRA. Catcutus, in Medicine, the difeafe of the ftone in the bladder or kidneys. The calculus in the bladder is called lithiafis ; and in the kidneys, nephritis. See Stone. Catcuxus, Biliary. Small, hard, roundifh, concrete fubftances are often found in the gall bladder, or in the dues leading from the liver and gall-bladder to the inteftine, which oceafion in their paffage moft acute pain to man, and probably other animals, and have attracted fome attention from chemitts. Biliary calculi (or gall-flones, as they are alfo termed) vary both in external appearance, and in chemical properties. The colour is generally green or yellowifh-brown, fometimes, though rarely, white; in fhape they are moftly cblong, often tuberculated. When cut through, they molt frequently confift of a radiated femi-cryftalline mafs, internally often re- fembling {permaceti, coated with feveral concentric lamine. The radiated part is moftly white and taftelefs; the lami- nated is fometimes bitter. Gall-ftones are diftinguifhed for their lightnefs and inflam- mability, few of them being fo heavy as to fink in water ; and when put toa lighted candle, moft of them melt like wax, and burn with a very bright flame, and very little am- moniacal fmell. From the infinite minute varieties in gall- ftones, no natural arrangement is indicated, but the moft im- portant differences, fhewn by chemical analyfis, reft upon the proportion of the radiated, cryftallized, central part, and the general lightnefs and inflammability. The radiated gall-{tones are largely foluble in oil of tur- pentine, and in all the effential oils by heat. Alcohol when cold has but little a@ion, but when boiling it diflolves almoft all the inflammable part of the calculus, leaving an earthy refidue behind. On cooling, this folution depofits very co- pious fpecular cryftals, ftrongly refembling thofe of fperma- ceti treated in this way, and this fingular fubftance forms by far the moft curious part of thefe morbid concretions. Pouletier and Fourcroy have both attended minutely to this matter. The former difcovered fimilar cryftalline concre- tions in a piece of liver long hung up ina dry air. Whi:n the hot alcoholic folution of this concrete is droppe! into a large quantity of water, a white flacculent precipitate is formed, which when dried is found to be of a refinous nature. The fupernatant liquor by faturation with muriatic acid and evaporation gives muriat of foda, by which it is evident that the foda of the bile remains in union with its refin during its converfion into biliary calculus; but the chemical nature of this converfion is very obfcure. Ether diffolves the fpermaceti-like concrete as well as oil of turpentine, and depofits the greater part on cooling. Hot nitric acid is decompofed on it, and nitrous gas is given out, and when cool, a white oil is found concreted on the furface of the acid, now no longer of a cryftalline texture, but altered in its properties, being brittle and friable like a refin, and when re-diffolved in alcohol it has loft its power of eryftallizing by cooling. It is ftill, however, infoluble ia water. Ether diffolves this altered concrete as it did when in its natural ftate, but water now feparates it in the form of drops of oil. Saunders on the Bile. Fourcroy. Boftock in Phil. Journ. vol. vi. Carcutus Minerve, among the Ancient Lawyers, des noted the decifion of a caufe, wherein the judges were equally divided. The expreffion is taken from the hittory of Oreftes, reprefented by Alfchylus and Euripides; at whofe trial, before the Areopagites for the murder of his mother, the votes being equally divided for and againft him, Minerva interpofed, and gave the ‘cafting vote, or calculus, in his behalf. M. Cramer, profeffor at Marpurg, has a difcourfe exprefs, «© De Calculo Msnervz ;”’ wherein he maintains, that all the effect an entire equality of voices can have, is to leave the caufe in flatu quo. Catcutus Tiburtinus, a fort of figured ftone, formed in great plenty about the cataracts of the Anio, and other rivers in Italy ; of a white colour, and in fhape oblong, round, or echinated. They are a fpecies of the ffirie /apidee, and generated like them ; and fo like fugar-plums in the wholes that it is a common jeft at Rome to deceive the unex- perienced by ferving them up at deferts. Catcutus, urinary. See Urinary calculi. CALCUTTA, in Geography, a city of Hindooftan, and capital of Bengal, and of all the Britifh poff-ffions in India, is fituated on the river Hoogly, the weftern arm of the Ganges, at the diftance of about 100 miles from the fea ; and the river is navigable up to the town, for the largeft fhips that vifit India. Its citadel is placed in N. lat. 22° 33’. E. long. $8° 27/45”. It is comparatively a modern city, having been built towards the clofe of the 17th century on the fite of the village called Govindpour. The Englifh faétory ob- tained leave to remove hither from Hoogly in the year 1689 (fee Bencat), when Mr. Channock was agent in Bengal ; and who fixed upon this fpot for the Bnitifh emporium, though from feveral circumitances it was at that time the moft unhealthy he could have chofen, For 3 miles to the north-eaft there was a falt-water lake, that overflowed in the months of September and Oétober; and in the two follow- ing months, when thofe floods withdrew, prodigious quan- tities of fifh were left dry, the putrefaction of which was fuppofed to affect the air; and this, together with the fetid putrid exhalations from the ooze and flime, conveyed by the north-eaft wind to Fort William, occalioned a yearly morta- lity, ‘CALCUTTA. . During the rapid increafe of this town, difeafes were fatal to thoufands, and particularly, according to the tetti- mony of Dr. Lind, among fuch as had lately arrived from Europe. Hamilton mentions an inftance, from his own knowledge, of 400 burials in fix months, at a period when all the Englith refident here did not exceed 1200. Befides, when this {pot was chofen, every man was allowed to build as beft fuited his convenience and tafte, without regard to the difpofition of the whole ; and, therefore, the different houfes bore no refemblance to one another either in their pofition or architeGture. From this fmall and unpromiling beginzin . Calcutta is now become a large, populous, and in man s, an elegant city. The quarter inhabited by the Englith is compofed entirely of brick buildings, many of which appear more like palaces than private houfes; and though they add much to the beauty of the place, they would have a much better effeét if the ftreets were laid out ‘with greater fymmetry and order: but the reft of the city, and, indeed, much the greater part of it, confifts of houfes like thofe of the other Indian cities; all of which are con- ftruéted on the fame plan, with very narrow, confined, aud crooked ftreets, in which are inter{perfed an incredible num- ber of refervoirs and ponds, and a great many gardens. Some few ftreets are paved with brick. The houles are varioufly built; fome with brick, others with mud, and a ftill greater proportion with bamboos and mats; and thefe different kinds of edifices, being intermixed with one another, form a motley appearance. Thofe of the latter kind are invariably of one flory, and covered with thatch. The brick houfes feldom exceed two floors, and have flat terraced roofs. The two former claffes far outnumber the laft, which are often fo thinly feattered, that fires, which frequently happen, do not fometimes meet with the obftruétion of a fingle brick houfe through a whole ftreet. ‘he ftroéture of the European houfes ferves to fecure them from fire ; as only a {mall por- tion of wood enters into the materials, for the partition- walls, as well as the flat roofs, are chicfly conftru@ed of brick and mortar, which laft article, under the denomination of “ Chunam,” the natives have brought to great perfec- tion. The buildings of the place extend full 3 miles along the river, and about half as much in breadth from it. Within the laft 30 or 40 years, Calcutta is wonderfully im- ved, both in appearance and in the falubrity of its air ; ‘or by draining the (treets and filling up the ponds, they have removed a vait furface of ftagnant water, the exhalations of which were particularly injurious. ‘The local fitwation of Calcutta, as we have already obferved, is not fortunate; for it has fome extenfive muddy lakes, and a valt foreft clofe to it. More (till remains to be done before Calcutta can merit the charaéter of a healthy town. In the middle of the city a large open place has been left, in which there is a fpacious tank or refervoir, covering upwards of 25 acres of ground. It was dug by order of the government, to provide the in- habitants of Calcutta with water; as in the dry feafon the water of the Ganges becomes brackifh by the influx of the tide, while that in the tank is very {weet and pleafant. The number of fprings which it contains preferves the water always nearly at the fame level. It is railed round, nor is “7 perfon fuffered to wath in it; but all are at liberty to take as much water from it as they like. Near this tank is a handfome obelifk, ereéted by Mr. Holvell, one of the few furvivors in the tragic {cene of the black hole, of which we fhall fubjoin an account; it is about 50 feet high, in- feribed with the names of the perfons who died on this execrable occafion, and whofe bodies were promifcuoufl thrown, the next morning, into the ditch of the fort. A little farther is the court-houfe, over which are two hand- fome affembly-rooms. Clofe to the court-houfe is a theatre, where plays are fometimés performed. Beyond this is an Armenian church, which is a large and noble building, with a handfome fteeple. There is alfo an Englifh church of modern conftruétion. The citadel, called ‘ Fort Wil- liam,” is fituated about a quarter of an hour’s walk from the city, by the fide of the Ganges, in an extenfive plain. This citadel is fuperior in every point, as it regards {trength and corre&tnefs of defign, to any fortrefs in India; but it is formed on too extenfive a fcale to anfwer the ufeful purpofe intended, that of holding a polt in cafe of extremity ; fince the number of troops required properly to garrifon it, could keep the field. It was begun inthe year 1757, immediately after the viGtory at Plaffey, which infured to the Britifh an unlimited influence in Bengal; and it was the intention of lord Clive to render it as permanent as poffible, by providing for all times a tenable poft. However, he had no forefight of the valt expence attending it, which may perhaps have been equal to two millions fterling. It isa regular pentagon, with feveral outworks. The ramparts are built of brick, halfway up, finifhed with clay, and faced with gazons. Both the body of the fortrefs and the outworks are fur- rounded by a wet ditch, which has a {mall cunette, 6 or 7 feet deep, in the middle. ‘Lhe water from the Ganges may be let into the moat, to the height of 8 feet, by means of flood-gates, of which there are two to each outwork, con- {truéted in fuch a manner, that ifan enemy be matter of one, he cannot prevent both the main ditch, and thofe of the other outworks, from retaining their water. If all the works were mounted with cannon, there would be room for 6co pieces of artillery. Within the fort are bomb-proof bar- racks for 10,000 men. All the works are guarded by mines and countermines. No fhip can pafs up or down the Ganges without being expofed to the fire of this fort ; nor can any enemy approach by land without being difcerned at the diftance of 3 or 4leagues. The population of Calcutta is fuppofed to amount at prefent to more than half a million of inhabitants ; and their different afpe&t and manners prefent a very picturefque and interefting fcene. The black Hin- doo, the olive-coloured Moor or Mahometan, contrat with the fair and florid countenances of the Englifh; andthe charms of the European damfel receive a foil from the dark Hindoo beauties. ‘* The mixture of European and A fiatic manners,” fays a traveller in India, ** which may be obferved in Calcutta, is curious; coaches, phaetons, fingle-horfe chaifes, with the palankeens and hackeries of tie natives, the pafling ceremonies of the Hindoos, the different appearances of the Fakirs, forma fight more novel and extraordinary than any city in the world can prefent to a ftranger.”” “To the luxuries of the Afiatic (fays Mr. Pinkerton) are added the elegance and fcience of the Englifh life. Even the newf- papers are drawn up with care, and printed with elegance ;”” and the Afiatic Society, inftituted by the late admirable fir William Jones (in January 1784), may perhaps rival the Academy of Infcriptions at Paris, if the papers of the latter were adopted as a model. “ The Afiatic Refearches, which are the produétions of this fociety, form a noble monument of Britith {cience in a diftant country.” Calcutta is eminently diftinguifhed as the emporium of Bengal, and the refidence of the governor-general of India. It is alfo the feat of juftice, under four judges, who difpenfe judgment according to the laws of England. Its flourifhing ftate may be afcribed, partly, among other caufes and cir- cumftances that have contributed to it, to the unlimited tole. ration which it affords to all forms of religion; the Pagans being fuffered to carry their idols in proceffion, the Maho- metans not being difcountenanced, and the Roman Catholics being allowed a church. The police of the city is chiefly committed to a fuperin. tendant CAL CD Tf A. tendant of police, and feveral inferior juftices of the peace, with certain ftated falaries. Before thefe all petty delin- quencies are tried, and by them they are punifhed. ‘ Tan- nahs,’’? or guard-houfes, are ereéted in the different diftricts of the town; and the peace is maintained by a few compa- nies of native foldiers who patrole the ftreets, and prevent -diturbance from quarrels, robbery, or theft. Offences of a higher nature, committed by either Europeans or natives, are cognizable by the fupreme court of judicature, which, about 25 years ago, was fubltituted in place of the mayor’s court, with fuperior authority, and more extenfive jurifdic- tion. The powers of this court extend not only to the company’s territories in this part of India, but alfo to every cafe civil or criminal, that may occur between the Coroman- del and Malacca coaits. Its jurifdi€tion, however, does not -extend to the higher {tations ; neverthelefs in thefe, all the European fettlers enter into an engagement to be amenable to its authority. The commerce of Caleutta is very confiderable in falt, Tugar, opinm, yielded by the poppy particularly cultivated in the province of Bahar, filks, muflins, &c. Muik, borax, and other commodities, ufed to be imported frem Thibet, in exchange for European cloths, and hardware; but this trade is probably interrupted fince Thibet became fubject to ‘the jealous Chinefe. Ou the Ganges are tranfported to Afam cargoes of falt, in exchange for gold, filver, ivory, mufk, and a particular kind of filky cotton. The cowry fhells, ufed as a {mall coin, are inrported from the Maldives in exchange for rice. The fine mufli:s are chiefly fabricated in the rainy feafon, from May to September, and with calli- coes form a great part of the exports ta Europe. The merchants and azents of this capital are by no means confined to tranfactions with their conftituents employed in different branches of the fervice: they engage largely in foreign commerce to every port of note either in Afia or in Europe. In fome houfes, the extent of their dealings has been eftimated, probably by an account fomewhat ex- aggerated, at two crores of rupees annually, or above two millions flerling. Neverthelefs, no mercantile houfe has ac- cumulated fums equal to the fortunes acquired by many in- dividuals in the fervice. The charges of clerks, freight, infurances, and other circumftances, particularly houfe-rent, mult deeply afle& the profits arifing from every concern not uncommonly lucrative. ‘The extent of the private trade of Calcutta cannot be eftimated juftly, either from the number or the burden of the fhips belonging to that port. In a period not very remote, there were only 60 that properly belonged to the Britifh merchants here, and their burden was about 27.000 tons. But their concern in foreign fhips is very conliderable.- The Dutch, Danifh, and French fettlements on the river afford opportunities for indirect tyade tc any extent 3 nor are they negligent in availing them- felves of this advantage. The company affords contiderable employment to the country-built fhips, independently of the merchants. It poffeffes a marine eltablifhment, under the direGion of a board inftituted for that purpofe. During war, cruizers are frequently employed ; as well as tranfports, ‘and ftore-fhips, for its own troops. hefe tranfactions fall under the direGtion of the marine board, confilting of five members, and a number of fubordinate officers and clerks. Tt alfo {uperintends the pilot-fervice, which is an important part of the marine eftablifhment ina river of fuch dangerous navigation as the Hoogly, in which fand banks formed by the fand and mud wafhed down this branch of the Ganges -during the rains, are continually flu&uating in their fize and spofition. Conftant attention is, therefore, neceffary to place the different buoys fo that they fhall not miflead the mariner. Freight in this climate is high ; and yet commerce appears to be as adventurous as in any part of the world. The freight of boats in the inland trade’upon the river is far from being low; and this is owing to the time neceffary for performing a moderate voyage on that winding ftream. The larger boats upon the Ganges carry from 300 to 600 mauns; and their hire per month amounts to 20, 30, or even €0 rupees, according to their different -fizes. Budge- rows (fee Bupce-row), for the accommodation of gentle- men and their families, are to be had of all ftzes from § to 24 oars ; the rate of hire for the firft is Go repees per month ; for the largeft, 230. The pinnace is another kind of travelling boat, {till more expenfive than the budge-row. It has {u- perior accommodation, and from its refembling European craft in its ftruGure, both in its hull and rigging, it is better fitted for ‘encountering a gale in the great river. Delides the high rate of freight charged in the mland, and maritime trade, the merchauts in Calcutta pay a confider» able comn:iMfion on the purchafe of goeds by their agents ; and this on moft articles is 5 per cent. The mafters of the country: buiit-fhips, or the fupercargoes, are the immediat agents by whom the trade of this part of the world is con- du€ied ; and they are an enterprifing body of men, and in general better informed than thofe of the fame profeffion in Europe. With the common Malays, anda mixture of Chinefe, and Bengalefe feamen, who never become very ex- pert and intelligent in their profeffion, the country-fhip- matters perform voyages in thofe dangerous feas with aitonifh- ing fecurity. Thefe veffels are termed ‘* Donies”’ ; and their enterprifes at fea are chiefly to be afcribed to the example of Europeans ; for, before their appearance, the Hindoos were hardly known as navigators. In Calentta there are fix differ- ent aflurance-companies ; which cover the preperty of in- dividuals from the rifks of the fea, perhaps at as low a rate of infurance as it can be done in Europe. Of the thips al- ready mentioned belonging to Calcutta, there is not a fingle one commanded by a native. The internal navigation is, indeed, conduéted by the natives. See GAnGEs. The Armenians are the moft refpeable, and perhaps the moft numerous body of foreign merchants in this capital. They carry on an extenfive trade from China, and molt of the fea-ports to the eaftward, and alfo to the weft, as far as the Perfian gulf. Their information from all the differ- ent quarters is deemed the molt accurate and minute of any body of men in their profeffion. They are attentive, regu- lar, and diligent in bufinefs; their houfes are of old ftand- ing ; and many of them are poffeffed of large capitals. As members of fociety, they are peaceable and loyal, polite and inoffenfive. Some few priefts of their perfuafion are main- tained by them, not only in affluence, but in fome degree of fplendour. In their fondnefs for fhew and elegance, the Armenians approach nearer to the Enghifh than any mer- chants at Calcutta ; but they are more guarded in their ex- penditure. The Mogul merchants are the next body of ftrangers, who haye indeed long refided in this country ; they have 13 different mercantile houfes of confiderable ncte, befides many other counting-houfes of inferior importance. Some individuals among the Moguls are very wealthy, and are infe- rior in riches only to fome of the native rajahs, banians, and fhroffs: of thefe fome are more.opulent than the firft noble- men in England. A million fterling, or even half of that fum, which feveral of them are {aid to poffefs, yields a re- venue of three times the amount of any capital in Britain, from the exhorbitant rate of interelt at which thefe people lend their money. In the drefs and table of the Hindoo, little is devoted to the purpofes either of elegance or mag- : nificence, GALE VU TT A- nificence. The greatcft drains upon his income are his pious contributions, and the expences of his Zenana. The notches, marriages, and religious feftivals furnith occafions of pro- fufion ; but thefe ceremonies are under the direGtion of the Bramins; and, according to the ideas which thefe fpiritual guides have formed of his wealth, mult be the otto, rofe- water, and other perfumes, and fweetmeats ferved in vef- fcls of gold, under a large canopy illuminated with beautiful huftres, to many hundreds of guetts of all ranks and deno- minations. On fuch occafions the Hindoo is gratified by the appearance of a large company ; and deems himfelf par- ticularly honoured by the attendance of Europeans. Al- though the notches are intended to do honour to fome deity, who is fuppofed to prelide over the feltival; yet they feem of all inftitutions leaft calculated to excite religicus ideas. Part of the ceremony confifts in liftening to the mufic of the finging girls, whe d:awl out their monotonous ditties with a non-chalance aud dulnefs which can only be equalled by the fluggifh dance, and inanimate geltures with which they are accompanied. Of all entertainments an Hindoftance notch is probably the moit infipid ; and they are fometimes aecompanied with pantomimjcal performances of tio delicate nature. ‘The number of Greek merchants in Calcutta is not con- fiderable ; they, however, maintain one clergyman, who performs religious worfhip according to the rites of that church. Portuguefe houfes of agency are, with refpeé to number, next to thofe of the Englith. A very confiderable number of the defcendants of that nation by native women, refide at Calcutta. No people in Europe feem to have affimilated themfelves & clofely to the manners of the coun- try. Many of this clafs are held in low eftimation. With a complexion darker than that of the Hindoos, with habits fo fimilar, acd with full poffcfiion of the language, it is ftrange that none of thefe have been able to make converts from the Heathen to the Roman Catholic faith. This circum- flance evinces the compleat dominion, which the Bramin fu- peritition poffeffes over the minds of the common people; for no denomination of Chriftians can be more devoted to the work of converfion than.the church of Rome. The Britithh merchants at Calcutta are a numerous and refpe&table body of men. Several of them have ‘acquired _ Targe fortiines, and in the acquifition of thefe fortunes they have difplayed thofe mercantile talents, and that enterprifing fj iit which diftinguith their charaéter in every part of the world, At Calcutta the peculiar habits of their profeffion Have in no degree encroached on the liberality of their minds or the elegance of their equipage and tables. They here Gifplay an expence and fplendour in their mode of living feldom afpired after by the fame order of men in any part of the world ; and it redounds much to their honour, that their ats of charity and munificence to indigent perfons lave, perhaps, never been equalled by any fimilar number of meno of any rank whatever. Few of ihefe gentlemen are engaged in the fervice. The fervice of the company attaches to itfelf certain ideas of. rank and confequence, which often roduce ludicrous effe&ts upon the ivtercourfe of féciety. All perfons in civil and military departments affe&t a degree of fuperiority over fuch as are not in the fervice, which is frequently ill fupported by ‘their talents, birth, or cha. rater. Among the various claffesof the mercantile part of thecom- munity, we liave made no mention of the Jews. Few of thatna- tion ever fettle in India, and Calcutta is perhaps the only opu- lent town in which they are not to be found. The native Banians, Sarkars, and Writers, carry on the greateft part of the retail trade of Calcutta. They go about hawking commodities from morning to night, or fearching after cheap’ urchafes. To this clafs of the Hindoos appertain that ow Sanne {tratagem, and deceit, which charaéterife the money-tranfa€tions of perfons of narrow intelle&s. With all their propenfity to cheat, the native fhop-keepers gené- rally fell their goods on lower terms than thofe on which they are to be obtained in the European ware-rooms ; but they are commonly neither of the firit fafhion nor belt qua- lity. Their houfe-rent is another caufe of their under-fel- ling the Europeans. The fhops of the natives, though bet- ter than their houfes, are mean and difagreeable ; and fromm their fituation in the common bazars, are much cheaper than the larger and more fplendid rooms in which the Bri- tifh merchants expofe their wares. Houfe-rent and fervants” wages are the molt expenfive parts of the charges of houfe-- keeping in Caleutta. The common articles of provifion are- much cheaper than in Europe; but houfe-rent till lately, has been a very exorbitant charge. Only a few years: ago, a houfe fufficient to accommodate a genteel family could not be procured under Goo or S00 pounds a-year ; and many even let ‘at a larger fum. The number of fer- vants neceffary in a private family, to perfons refident in this country, exceeds all belief. This isan evil which admits of no remedy as long as the fuperftition of the.natives fhalf deter them from performing fervice beyond one fpecific © kind of work. ‘The wages vary according to the different: {tations they occupy, from 4 rupees per month to 20. The falary of fervants, added to the houle-rent, and the incidents. al charges of a family, will enhance its expenditure to 3, 4, and 5 thoufand rupees a-year, according to its number. The maintenance and education of the children belongirg, to Europeans in India have, on account of their increafing number, become objects of great importance. With a view to thefe objeis, feveral perfons have done honour to them-- felves and to their country, by eftablifhing fchools for the relief of the orphan childran of the military fervants of the company. Two inftitutions have been formed for this pur- pofe: one for the children of officers, and the other for thofe of private foldiers. Each is provided with teachers of both fexes, qualified to inftruét the children in fuch branches of knowledge and induitry as feem to be adapted to their rank and profpe&s in fociety. The fund for the fupport of thefe inititutions is fupplied by a fixed contribu- tion raifed from the military, or by tlie donations of the benevolent. Befides the two inftitutions already mentioned,. there are feven or eight others for the education of. boys ;. and nearly an equal number for girls. Defides thefe found-- ations, there are fome_ others of inferior note, equally laudable, eftablifhed by the munificence of the inhabitants. of Calcutta. A free fchool, which provides for the educa- tion of nearly 200 children, under the management of the vellry, is, in pait, fupported by voluntary contributions only. Two lacks of rupees were originally devoted to the education of the children of the poor. ‘Tbe intereit of that fum continues to be applied for that purpofe. Another: fchool, equally numerous, has been added to this vpona furd raifed merely by cafual benefadiions, An oratorio has lately been performed annually to aid its funds, which pro- mifes a conliderable fepply of revenue. To thefe inttitu- tions, fo creditable to the humanity and benevolence of the inhabitants of Calcutta, the native hofpital muft be added, This inftitution is alfo fupported by veluntary contribution, and was formed for the rclicf of natives, who,- from acci- dent or difeafe, might need medical aid. A very expenfive- eftablifhment for the education of the junior fervants of the company has lately been inftituted ; hut as it is for bufinefs, and not for education, that thefe gentlemen are fent to India, - CAE India, the utility of this meafure has been queftioned, and the expence of it muft have beenenormous. Inftru€tion, in the native diale@t, is, in general, the only requifite to qua- lify them for the exercife of their duty, and this they have hitherto received from ‘ Moonfhees’’ at the leifure hours that are not employed in their different vocations. Accord- ingly the court of direfiors have abolifhed this college ; and they are at this time forming an eftablifhment at home which is likely, under proper condu@, to an{wer the pur- pofe at a much lefs expence. Notwithftanding the perfeGion to which the medical art has arrived by lonz experience, and its happy effect in pre- ferving the lives of many Europeans; and the knowledge that has been acquired with refpect to the fevers and the whole train of biltous complaints that are incidental to the country, and with refpe& to the mot efficacious mode of treating them ; the climate of India proves a fevere trial to every European conititution. Many fall facrifices to its firft attacks : many more linger on in a ftate of increafing debility, and painful diftafe ; ard other, who for years con- tue to combat its influence, apprehending that the confi mn terminate fatally, are glad to retreat to Europe, there to eke out or to hufband the remains of life.. A fallow and livid complexion is fo univerfal in Bengal, that wh a you behold a face of the roieate hue, you may venture to pronounce that its owner is newly arrived. Iiven in the ordinary health of perfons not fuppofed to be materially in- jured by the climate, they are capable of little exertion or fatigue; and in the hot feafon of hardly any at all. It is not tncemmon to find, at that period, all the officers of a battalion, except perhaps one or two, incapable of doing duty ; and this without any extraordinary or alarming com- plaint. The fair fex are almoft equally liable with the men to fuffer by the climate. Their regulanty is often more uniform, and their expofure to the weather lefs frequent ; yet there is hardly a fingle female complexion in Bengal that retains the bloom of health. Formerly female adven- turers in India were few; but highly fuccefsful. Embol- dened by their fuccefs, and encouraged by their example, fuch numbers have embarked in this {peculation, as threaten to defeat its purpofe. The irregularities of our government, which formerly afforded an opportunity to fome of rapidly accumulating wealth, and enabled them to marry, are now in a great meafure done away. Few comparatively find themfelves in circumftances that invite to matrimonial en- gagements ; and on this account a number of unfortunate females are feen wandering for years in a fingle and uncon- neGted ftate. Some are annually found to abandon the for- lorn hope, and return to Europe, after the lofs of beauty, too frequently their only property. Having mentioned the “black hole’? at Calcutta, which is become proverbialamong Inglifhmen fora placeof infufferable torment, we fhall now recite fome further particulars concern- ing the tragic event to which we have referred. When Sur ajahDowlah in 1756 reduced Calcutta, the Englih prifoners to the number of 146, of whom Mr. Holwell was one, were confined in the black hole prifon. It was about eight o’clock when thefe 146 unhappy perfons, exhaufted by con- tinual aGtion and fatigue, were thus crammed together into a dungeon about eighteen feet {quare, in a clofe fultry night in Bengal ; fhut up to the eaft and fouth, the only quarters from whence air could reach them, by dead walls, and by a wll and door to the north; open only to the weft by two windows, ftrongly barred with iron, from which they could receive fcarce any circulation of frefh air. They had been but few minutes confined before every one fell into a perfpiration fo profufe, that no idea can be CAL formed of it. This brought on a raging thirft, which in- creafed in proportion as the body was drained of its moif- ture. Various expedients were thought of to give more room and air. Every man was ftripped, and every hat put in motion: they feveral times fat down on their hams; but at each time feveral of the poor creatures fell, and were in- {tantly fuffocated or trod to death. Betore nine o’clock every man’s thirft grew intolerable, and refpiration difficult. Efforts were again made to force the door; but fti!lin vain. Many infults were ufed to the guards, to provoke them to fire in upon the prifoners, who grew outrageous, and meny delirious. ‘ Water, water,’ became the general cry. Some water was brought ; but thefe fupplies, like {prmkling water on fire, only ferved to raife and feed the flames. The confufion became general, and horrid from the cries and ravings fur water; and fome were trampled to death. This fcene of mifery proved enter- tainment to the brutal wretches without, who fupplied them with water, that they might have the fatisfa€tion of feeing them fight for it, as they phrafed it; and held up lights to the bars, that they might lofe no part of the inhuman di- verfion. Before eleven o’clock, moft of the gentlemen were dead, and one third of the whole. Thirft grew intolerable: but Mr. Holwell kept his mouth moift by fucking the perfpira- tion out of his fhirt-fleeves, and catching the drops as they fell, like heavy rain, from his head and face. By half an hour after eleven, moft of the living were in an outrageous de- lirium. They found that water heightened their uneafi- neffes; and ‘ Air, air,’’ was the general cry. Every infult that could be devifed againft the guard, all the opprobrious names that the viceroy and his officers could be loaded with, were repeated, to provoke the guard to fire upon them. Every man had eager hopes of meeting the firft thot. Then a general prayer to heaven, to halten the approach of the flames to the right and left of them, and put a period to their mifery. Some expired on others; while a fteam arofe as well from the living as the dead, which was very offenfive. About two in the morning, they crowded fo much to the windows, that many died itanding, unable to fall by the throng and equal preffure round. When the day broke, the {tench arifing from the dead bodies was infufferable. At that junéture, the Soubah, who had received an account of the havoc death had made among them, fent one of his of- ficers to inquire if the chief furvived. Mr. Holwell was fhown to him; and near fix, an order came for their releafe. Thus they had remained in this infernal prifon from eight at night until fix in the morning, when the poor remains of 146 fouls, being only 23, came out alive; but molt of them in a high putrid fever. The dead bodies were dragged out of the hole by the foldiers, and thrown promifcuoufly into the ditch of an unfinifhed ravelin, which was afterwards fAlled with earth. See Bencar. Rennell’s Memoirs, Pinker- ton’s Geog. vol. ii. Tennant’s Indian Recreations, vol. i. CALDA, or Cautpum, inthe Ancient Diet, denotes hot water, ufed much among the Romans, anciently, as a drink, partly for pleafure, and partly for health. The word is formed from calidus, hot ; aqua being under- ftood ; calda, q. 4: calida aqua. Lipfius, Caiftalio, Mercurialis, Baccius, and Freinfhe- mius, have treated largely de potu calde, or caldi, A&. Erud. Lipf. CALDAO, in Geography, a river of Portugal, which runs into the fea, at Setuval. CALDARA, Ayrtonto, in Bosra, and Mufical Hiffory, was a native of Venice, a great harmonift and com- CAL pofer of the old fchool, and extremely voluminous both for the church and the ftage. His firlt opera, “/rgine, was com- pofed for his native city, in 1689, and after furnifhing dif. ferent parts of Italy with 12 operas and oratorios, in 1714, be went to Vienna, where he was appointed fecond Maeltro ai Capella, under Fouchs, to the Imperial court, and where his grave ityle of writing pleafed the emperor Charles VI. fo much, that he hardly ever employed any other compofer of facred or fecular mufic than Caldara, till after his de- ceafe in 1736. So that he not only fet moit of Apoftolo Zino’s operas for the tirlt time, but 13 of his oratorios; and was the firft compofer of Metaftafio’s operas and oratorios, during the firlt fix or feven years of his refidence at Vienna. The mafles and motets that we have feen of his compofi- tion, are admirable ; a gravity of flyle, a purity of har- mony, learning, facility, and correétnefs in the texture of the parts, are manife{t in them all; but with his fecular mu- fic, we are little acquainted ; Metattafio, in his letters, feems to complain of his want of invention, tafte, and elegance, in fetting his dramas; and he firlt fet feven of his beit pro- dnctions for the Imperial theatre. Metaftafiobegan his Imperial laureatfhip at Viennain 1731, Dy writing an oratorio, Sant? ™‘Elina in Calvario.” His tirtt operathere was “ Adrianoin Syria;”’ the fecond, **Demetrio;”’ then “Olimpiade,”’ * L’ Afilod’A more,” ** Le Grazic,” “De- moteonte,”’ * Ia Clemenza di Tito,’”’ “*Ciroriconofciuto,” and # Zenchia.” Allthefe were fet to mufic by Caldara ; but there muft have been fome material deficiency of ftyle or inven- tion, which prevented this mutic from penetrating into the reft of Eurepe; for thefe admirable dramas were never heard of till they had been fet by other compofers. CALDARADI Caravaccio, Potiporo. See Po- LIDORO. CALDARIA Fudiciaria, the method of trial, or purga- tion by boiling water. See Orveav. CALDARIUM, in the Ancient Baths, denoted a brazen veffel or ciftern, placed in the hypocauflum, fall of hot water, to be drawn thence into the fifcina, or bath, to give it the neceflary degree of heat. In this fenke the caldarium ftood contradiftinguifhed from the tepidarium and frigidarium. Cacparium allo denoted the ftove, or fudatory, being a clofe vaulted room, wherein by hot dry fumes, without wa- ter, people were brought toa profufe {weat. In which fenfe, caldarium was the fame with what was ot ife denominated vaporarium, /udatorium, and laconium ; an the Greck baths, hypocauflum, UTOKAUSON Carnagium as, denotes Pot-metal. CALDAS, in Geography, a {mall town of Portugal, in the province of Eftremadura, a league from Obidos, and 13 miles E. of Peniche; much frequented for its fulphureous waters. The town is built in an irregular quadrangular form, and the houfes are fmall, generally confilting merely of a ground-floor, and only a few of them have windows. To this place the rich merchants and principal nobility of Lifbon refort twice a year, wiz. in May and September. Over the warm {pring isa fpacious and handfome bathing- houfe, and adjoining to it an hofpital for poor patients. Be- fides the fprings ufed for drinking, three others fupply four baths: and the united water from all the fprings turns a sill near the bathing-houfe. Canvas de Rey, a town of Spain, in Gallicia, 20 miles fouth of Santiago. CALDER, a town of Mid-lothian in Scotland, is fitu- ated in a pleafant country, at the diftance of 12 miles welt of Edinburgh. Here are two annual fairs, and a weekly 68 io as there are no manufaétories, the population on. V. GA B is but fmall, In 1792, it amounted to 562 inhabitants. A fhort diflance weft of the town, is Calder-hou/e, the feat of lord Torphichen. This manfion is memorable in the ec- clefiaftical hiftory of Scotland, as the place where the Sa- crament was firlt adminiltered after the reformation. The ceremony was performed by John Knox, the celebrated re- former ; a portrait of whom is preferved in the houfe. Cacprr, ariver of England, which runs into the Aire, about two miles N. of Pontefra&t in Yorkfhire. It is navi- gable to Halifax. Alfoa river, which runs into the Ribble, three miles S. of Clitheroe in Lancahhire. Carper Water, a river of Scotland, which runsinto the Clyde, about five miles above Glafgow. CALDERA, a fea-port of South America, in the coun- try of Chili, on the coaft of the Pacific Ocean, two leagues N.E. by E. from the lee of an ifland at the mouth of the river Copiapo. ~ S. lat. 27°. W. long. 7°. q CALDERINI, Domirtto, in Biography, an eminent philologift, was born about the year 1446, at Torri, in the territory of Verona, and at the age of 24 years, he was in- vited, in confequence of the recommendation of cardinal Beffarion, by pope Paul II. to the profefforfhip of belles lettres at Rome. In this office he continned, under Six- tus IV. and died in 1478, in the flower of his age. All his fcholars attended him to his grave in mourning. He was much diftinguifhed by the afliduity of his literary labours, and printed commentaries upon Martial, Juvenal, Virgil, Ovid, Statius, and Propertius, and feveral others of the Latin poets : he alfo publifhed a tranflation of the two firft books of Pau- fanias, into Latin. He, moreover, cultivated jurifprudence, philofophy, and mathematics, and exercifed himfclf fuccefs~ fully in Latin poetry. He is reckoned one of the literary wonders of his age. ‘Tirabofchi. CALDERINO, in Geography, a place of Italy, in the Veronefe, celebrated for its baths, called “ the baths of Ve- rona.”? CALDERO, a remarkable mountain in the gulf of Ve- nice, which is a guide at fea for the harbour Rovigno, which fee. Carpero, Cape, lies on the north coaft of South America, W. of Otchier bay, and about 12 leagues E. by S. from the Caracas fort, called the White Cape. It lies nearly S. or a little weftward from the welt end of Margarita Ifland, on the coalt of the Spanifh main. : CALDERON, pe 1a Bana, Dom. Penro, in Biogra- phy, a celebrated Spanifh dramatic writer, flourifhed about the year 1640, and after having borne arms, and fuftained the rank of a knight of the order of St. James, became an ecclefialtic, and a prieft ard canon of Toledo. Turning his attention to the theatre, he acquired the reputation of the molt copious and ¢fleemed writer for the itage, in Spain, and was fometimes denominated the Spanifh Shakfpeare. The fertility of his invention, and the tafte of his age and country, rendered him incorreé&t in the obfervance of the rules of the drama, and very unequal in his ftyle and com- pofition, His charaéters are unnatural, and his diétion in- flated. His chief excellence confifted in the contrivance of plots, which are full of bufinefs, and abound in intricacies appily refolved in the cataflrophe. Mott of his works were collected and publifhed at Madrid, in nine vols. gto. 1689 ; the three firft containing his comedies, and the fix laft, a number of dramatic pieces on religious fubjects, like the Old Myfterics, under the title of “¢ Autos Sacramen- tales.” His fcanty knowledge of hiltory has betrayed him into feveral blunders. Nouv. Dict. Hilt. Catperox, in Geography, lies on the coat of Coromans del, in India, fix leagues N. from Tranquebar. 5C CAL CALDERSBURG, a townfhip of Orleans county, in the {tate of Vermont, America, about 151 miles N.E. from Bennington, and 11 miles W. of Conneticut river. CALDERWOOD, Davin, in Biography, a prefbyte- rian divine of the church of Scotland, was the defcendant of a good family in that kingdom ; and being early deftined to the miniftry, he acquired, in the courfe of his education, an extenfive acquaintance with thofe fubjeéts that were pe- culiarly appropriate to his profeffion. About the year 1604, he was fettled at Crelling near Jedburgh. Zealoufly at- tached to the Prefbyterian eftablifhment, he difapproved the project formed by king James 1. of Great Britain, for bring- ing the church of Scotland to a nearer conformity with that of England; and when Mr. James Law, the bifhop of Orkney, made a vifitation of the prefbyteries of Merfe and Tiviotdale, as a preliminary towards affuming epifcopal powers, he declined his jurifdiStion by a paper under his hand, dated May 5, 1608. Thus did he commence that refiftance to the meafures of the king and epifcopal party, which uniformly dire&ted and influenced his future conduét. Accordingly, he did not affift at the general affembly held at Glafgow, June 8, 1610, in which lord Dunbar, the high-treafurer of Scotland, prefided as commiffioner ; and it appears from his writings, that he regarded all the tranf- ations of this affembly as null and void. He alfo excepted againft the proceedings of another general aflembly held in 1616, at Aberdeen. When a parliament was held by the king in the following year at Edinburgh, and the clergy met, at the fame time, in one of the churches, in order to confer with the bifhops, thus contriving an affembly which was intended to refemble the Englifh convocation; Mr. Calderwood, though he attended, publicly declared, that he did not confider any fuch meetings as-refembling a convoca- tion: and when he was informed that a bill was depending to empower the king, with the advice of the archbifhop, bifhops, and fuch a number of the miniftry as his majetty might think proper, to confider and conclude as to matters decent for the external policy of the church, not repugnant to the word of God ; and that fuch conclufions fhould have the force of ecclefiaftical laws; he concurred, with other mi- nifters, in a formal proteft againft the meafure, for reafons which were fubjoined. This proteft was prefented; and though the clerk-regifter refufed to read it before the ftates in parliament, it had its effet ; for although the bill had the confent of parliament, yet the king thought fit to fet it afide, and foon after called a general affembly at St. An- drew’s. In confequence of this proteft, Mr. Calderwood was fummoned before the high-commiffion court at St. An- drew’s, on the charge of mutinous and feditious behaviour. ‘The king was prefent, and examined him in perfon ; but Calderwood: defended himfelf with fuch fpirit and prefence of mind, perfifting in his refulal to acknowledge that he had been guilty of any crime, that he was firlt committed to prifon ; and then fentenced, by the privy council, to banifh himfelf out of the king’s dominions, and not to return with- out licence. All his efforts for mitigating this fentence proving ineffe@tual, he retired to Holland, where he fteadily maintained his former principles, and in 1623, publifhed his famous book, entitled “« Altare Damafcenum, feu Ecclefiz Anglicane Politia, Ecclefie Scoticane obtrufa, a Forma- lifta quodam deliveata, illuftrata et examinata.”” This work contams a clofe and rigorous examination of the polity of the Englifh church, under various heads, in which the ori- ‘gin and authority of epifcopacy, and all the other points of difference, between that and the Prefbyterian churches, are difeufled. King James is faid to have expreffed a high opi- nion of this‘work, though he was extremely difpleafed with CAL it; and it is certain, that it made a great’ impreffion in England, and was very much aémired by all avowed Puri- tans, and by fuch as were well-wifhers to their opinions. The modern diffenters, however, would not concur in many of the author’s fentiments ; nor would they contend for the “ Jus Divinum” of Prefbyterianifm. Soon after the publi- cation of this work, Mr. Calderwood returned to Scotland, and lived privately for feveral years. As his fituation was unknown, and he had been afflited in 1624, with a long and dangerous fit of ficknefs, a perfon, whofe name was Patrick Scot, taking it for granted that he was dead, wrote a recantation in his name, purporting, that before his de- ceafe, he had changed his fentiments ;. but when this impof- ture was detected, he went over to Holland, and made di- ligent fearch for him, with a defign, as Mr. Calderwood believed, to have difpatched him. During his retirement, it is not unlikely, fuch were his talents and temper, that he wrote feveral books againtt the proceedings of the cler- gy in Scotland. But it is more certain that he em- ployed himfelf in diligently colleéting all the memorials relative to the ecclefiaftical affairs of that kingdom, from the commencement of the reformation to his own time. Thefe he digefted and methodized with great care, and the whole is extant in MS. in the library of the Univerfity of Glafgow, in fix folio volumes. Of thefe, an extract has been pub- lithed, under the title of ‘* The true Hiltory of the Church of Scotland,”’ printed in 1615, which comes down to the death of king James. Although the perufal of this work, on account both of its fpirit and ityle, cannot be agreeable, and the reprefentations contained in it muft have acquired a {trong tinge from party ; it has, neverthelefs, been always regarded as a fource of much avthentic information. How much longer the author furvived is not known ; but it feems probable, from his mentioning the death of Robert Bruce, which happened in 1631, that he lived pretty far in the reign of Charles 1.; and we find that he was minifter of Pencaith-!and, near Edinburgh, in 1638. Biog. Brit. CALDONAZZO, in Geography, a lake of Germany, in the county of Tyrol; 8 miles E.S.E. of Trent. CALDRON, a large kitchen utenfil, commonly made of copper; having a moveable iron handle, whereby to hang it on the chimney-hook. The word is formed from the French chaudron, or rather the Latin ca/darium. Carprons, boiling in, caldariis decoquere, is a capital punifhment fpoken of in the middle age writers, decreed to divers forts of criminals, but chiefly to debafers of the coin. One of the torments inflitted on the ancient Chriftian, martyrs was boiling in caldrons of water, oil, &c. CALDUBA, in Ancient Geography, a town .of Spain, laced by Ptolemy in Bztica, in the territory of the Turdetani. CALDUENDO, in Geography, a town of Spain in the- province of Guipnfcoa ; 8 leagues eaft of Vittoria. CALDY, a {mall ifland in the great bay of Carmarthen, in South Wales; on its weft fide, at S.S.E. from Tenby, forming an inner limit on that fide to the bay, though it ftretches out circuitoufly to St. Gouan’s point. It is about 3 miles from Tenby, and 5 leagues almoft weft from Wormf- head, and has upon it a white tower appearing at a diftance like a white fail, and ferving to fhew where the land lies. Ships may anchor on every fide of this ifland, and be fheltered from all winds. N. lat. 51° 33’. W. long. 5° 19. CALE, or Kare, in Botany. See Brassica, BoRECOLE, and CramBE. Care, in Scripture Geography, See Caran. CALEA, in Botany, Linn. gen. g41. Schreb. 1277. Willd. 1466, Jufl. p. 185. Gert. 975. Clafs and order, Syngencfia CAL fongenefia polygamia equalis. Nat. ord. Compofite oppofitifolia, Linn. Corymbifcre, Juffien. Gen. Ch. Cal. imbricated; feales oblong, rather loofe. Cor. uniform ; florets hermaphrodite, numerous, equal, fun- nel-fhaped ; border five-cleft. Stam. filaments five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers forming a cylindric tube. Pi. germ alittle oblong; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the co- rolla ; ftigmas two, recurved, acute. Peric. the permanent calyx. Seeds folitary, oblong ; down fimple or none. Re- ceptacle chaffy ; fcales a little longer than the calyx, ftanding out confpicuoufly among the florets. Eff. Ch. Calyx imbricated. Receptacle chaffy. Sp. t. C. jamaicenfis, Linn. (Santolina fubhirfuta, &c. Brown. Jam. 315. 8. Conyza fruticofa, &c. Sloane Jam. 124. hift. 1. p. 257-t- 151. f. 3.) “ Flowers about three, pedun- cled; leaves ovate oblong, fomewhat ferrated, petioled.” Perennial. Stems fix or feven feet high, fhrubby, flender, round, flightly downy. Leaves oppofite, hairy, rugged, three-nerved. Flowers terminating, yellow with a red tinge: calyx coloured : chaffy feales of the receptacle co- loured, the length of the calyx ; down rugged, as long as the flower. A native of Jamaica; in woods. Obf. As feveral other fpecies are natives of Jamaica, the tri- vial name is a bad one. 2. C. a/pera, Willd. Jacq. ic. rar. 3. t. 583. Colleét. 2. p. 290. “ Flowers folitary, pedun- cled, axillary ; leaves oblong, trebly nerved, unequally fer- rated, rough.” Willd. Annual. Stem four-cornered ; leaves oppolite. A native of the warmer parts of America. 3. C. oppofitifolia, Linn. (Santolina ereéta foliis linearibus ; Brown. Jam. 315. 4- Acmella jamaicenfis ; Sloane hitt. 1. p. 256. Coipatlis, Hern. 36.) ‘Corymbs clofe; pe- duncles very long ; leaves lanceolate ; ftem herbaceous.” Stem two feet high, upright, rather ftiff, ftriated, pubef- cent ; branches oppofite. Leaves oppofite or ternate, nearly feffile, entire or flightly toothed, nerved, acuminate, foft. Flowers, white. Seed: without down, (with three or four very minute awns, Swartz). Inner {eales of the receptacle longer than the reft. A native of Jamaica. 4. C. Amellus. Linn. (Amellus ramofus, &c. Brown. Jam. 317-)‘ Flowers fomewhat panicled ; calyxes fhort; feeds naked ; leaves ovate-lanceolate, petiolated.” Stem fhrubby, branched. Leaves oppolite. Flowers yellow. A native of Jamaica. Wiildenow fufpeats that it does not differ from Bidens fcan- f Linnzus. This and the preceding were cultivated oy Mr. Miller in 1768. 5. C. /obata, halbert-weed, Willd. Gert. Tab. 174. fig. 5- (Conyza lobata; fp. pl. Conyza arborefcens, Plum. Spec. 9. ic. 96. Santolina ereéta fub- hirfuta floribus comofis, Brown Logs? Pe 2. Virga aurea major, five Doria ; Sloane Jam. 125. Hif. 1. 260. tab. 152. fig. 4) “ Corymbs clofe; leaves alternate; upper ones ovate-lanceolate ; lower ones halbert-fhaped, finuate-fer- rated.” Swartz. Perennial. Stem four or five feet high, leafy, branched. Flower: yellow. Sloane. Receptacle ra- ther convex ; fcales fimilar to thofe of the calyx. Seeds fmall, oblong, fmooth; down fimple, a little toothed, fhotter than the fcales of the receptacle, but equal in length to the flower, caducous. Gert. Brown {peaks of it as an excellent bitter, and fays that a fpirituous infufion of the tops is kept in molt plantations, and adminiltered as an ac- tive ftomachic. Introduced into England by Dr. Houflon before 1733- 6. C. pinifolia, Willd. Martyn. Fortt. prod. 288. “ Fiowers fomewhat umbellate, terminating, clofe ; leaves nearly {mooth, alternate, linear, revolute at the mar- in ; ftem fhrubby; branches ubefcent,’”? Willd. Perennial. Pedcacks fhort, one-flowered. A native of New Zealand. 7. C. leptophylla, Willd. Martyn. Forft. Prod. 257. « Flowers fomewhat umbellate, terminating ; leaves growing by fours, fpreading, linear, obtufe, revolute at the margin, CAL down underneath ; ftem fhruby ; branches downy.”? Willd. Perennial. Younger leaves imbricated, adult ones sua old ones rather refexed. A native of New Zealand. 8. C. feoparia. See Sercitus Scoparius. Obf. A feed witha fimple down forms part of the ge- neric chara@ler of Calea, as drawn up by Linneus ; and yet that charaGter is found in only one of his own fpecies. We have therefore found it neceflary to exclude it from the eflen- tial character, in order to admit the oppofitifolia and amel- lus ; as Martyn and La Marck had already in fome degree done ; though we confefs that, with the omiffion, the genus is not fufficiently difcriminated from fome others. The whole clafs fyngenefia certainly ftands in need of accurate inveftigation and cautious reform. But this is a tafk on which we have not leifure to enter. We apprehend that we difcharge our duty tothe public, if we lay before it the pre- fent ftate of the {cience, and point out fuch deficiencies as occur to our notice. The fcoparia, which Linnzus at firft made a chryfocoma, having a naked receptacle, cannot be a calea. As it differs from chryfocoma in the ftruéture of its down, we have adopted the genus formed for it by Gertner. Propagation and Culture. Thefe plants may be pro- pagated by feeds, treated like other natives of warm cli- mates. CALEAL, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro- vince of Aiderbeitzan, 142 miles S.E. of Tauris. CALEB, in Scripture Hiflory, the fon of Jephunneh, one of the meflengers deputed by Mofes to explore the land of Canaan. Caleb and Jofhua returned with a fa- vourable report, revived the dejected fpirits of the If raelites, and affured them of fuccefs in their projected inva- fion of the country. On this account it was predicted by Moles that they were the only two perfons of all the people that came out of Egypt, who fhould live to enter the land of Canaan. Caleb was at this time 40 years old. After the Ifraelites, under the command of Jofhua, had taken poffef- fion of Canaan, B. C. 1451, he divided the land in the year B.C. 14553 upon which Caleb obtained for his portion the mountains and city of Kirjath-Arba, or He- bron, a diltri@& poffeffed by the three fons of Anak. Finding it difficult to expel them from the town of Debir, he promifed his daughter Achfah as wife to any one who fhould take it. This was effected by Othniel, the fon of Kenaz, Caleb’s younger brother, who accordingly married Achfah. Caleb then fettled at Hebron, and is faid to have lived in peace to his 114th year. Numb. xiii. xiv. Jofhua xv. Judges 1. CALEB, in Scripture Geography, a diftri& of Judah, in which were the cities of Kirjatb-Sepher, and Hebron, be- longing to the family of Caleb. 1 Sam. xxx. 14. CALECASIA, in Geography, a market town of Cor- fica, in the diftri& of Niolo. CALED, or Kuacep, Estnw av Watip, in Biography and Hiflory, one of the moit valiant, fuccefsful, and fero- cious of Mahomet’s captains, belonged to the tribe of Ko- reifh, and began his military career with oppofing the pre- tended miffion of the prophet: and at the battle of Ohod, contributed by means of the wing which he commanded to the defeat of the Moflems. Being afterwards converted, he became a principal champion in the impoitor’s caufe, and obtained from Mahomet the honourable title of ‘ one of the {words of God.” This title was conferred upon him in con- fequence of the battle of Muta, A. D. 630, in which, after the fall of three [ucceflive commanders of the Moflems, he affumed the ftandard, and by his valour withftood and re- pulfed the fuperior numbers of the Chriftians. Upon theac- ceffion of Abubcker, he was deputed with a fmall army to countera&t the revolt of feveral Arabian tribes, whom he com- gCiz pletely C A'L pletely fubdued. He afterwards obtained a more important viGory over the impoftor Mofeilama, who fell in the battle, and whofe furviving followers were compelled to embrace the religion of Mahomet. In his fubfequent invafion of Ivak, the ancient province of Babylon, he was eminently fuccefsful, and terminated his expedition by the capture of the city Hira nearthe Euphrates, and the extinétion of the kingdom, which took its name from that capital. From thence he was fummoned into Syria to fupport the Mof- Jems under the command of Abu Obeidah, who had met with feveral checks from the Greeks ; and being appointed to fuperfede that general, he foon changed the afpeét of affairs. Having refcued the detachment that befieged Bof- tra, he invefted this place, and, aided by treachery, took it. To the inhabitants who fued for quarter, he fhewed himfelf unufually merciful, and reftrained the carnage which they were fuffeting. On his arrival before Damafcus, he van- quifhed by his perfonal valour two Chriltian commanders, and on their refufal to embrace iflamifm, put them to death in cold blood. Having collefted a powerful body of Mofleme at Aizaadin, in the year 633, he totally difcomtited Wrerdan, the general of Heraclius, and deftroyed the great- eft part of his army. During the progrefs of the fiege of Damafcus, many exploits of valour were performed by both parties; at length, however, the fiege having been prolonged 7o days, the inhabitants fought refuge-in the mild and generous difpofition of Abu Obeidah from the fury of Caled, and {tipulated to furrender the place on moderate terms. In the mean while Caled interpofed, prevented the execution of the treaty, and with favage ferocity, put to the {word all that came in his way; and meeting with Abu Obeidah, who was peaceably entering the city, a con- teft enfued ; one infifting on the right of the {word, and the other urging the facrednefs of a capitulation, Caled in the iffue yielded to the pleas of mercy and true policy ; and the {word was fheathed, on condition of admitting to tribute and toleration of religion thofe inhabitants who chofe to continue in the city. The adherents of Thomas, however, who had fought under his banner in the defence of the city, embraced the alternative of poverty and exile. Accordingly in an adjacent meadow they formed an encampment of prieits and laymen, of foldiers and citizens, of women and children; and being allowed to take with them their moft precious moveables, and arms neceflary for their defence, they pre- pared to abandon their native homes. Caled, whofe inflex- ible foul was not touched by the f{petacle of their dittrefs, haftened and incommoded their departure; and fternly declar- ed, that after a refpite of three days, they might be purfued and treated as the enemies of the Moflems. Unfated with blood and vengeance, and further urged by the intreaties of Jonas, a noble Damafcene, whofe, betrothed fpoufe had accom- panied the fugitives, Caled at the head of 4000 horfe, in the difguife of Chriftian Arabs, undertook the purfuit. Ac- cordingly he traced their march acrofs the mountains of Libanus, encountering incredible hardfhips, to the vicinity of Laodicea, and in a pleafant valley where they had pitched their tents, rufhed on the promifcuous multitude, infuffi- ciently provided with arms, and already vanquifhed by for- row and fatigue. In confequence of this furious onfet and indifcriminate flaughter, the Arabs emjoyed the fatisfaGtion of believing, that not a Chriftian of either fex efcaped the edge of their {cymetars ; and all the rich fpoils of the victims fell into the hands of the conquerors. In the tumult of the battle Jonas found the obje¢t of his purfuit; but her re- fentment was inflamed by the laft aé of his perfidy ; and as Eudocia ftruggled in his hateful embraces, fhe {truck a dag- ger to her heart. Caled had penetrated, on this occafion, about 150 miles into the Roman territory ; and having CAL completed this bloody. tragedy, which has afforded a ftriking fubje& both to hiftory and poetry, he returned to Damafcus with the fame fecrecy and fpeed. On the acceflion of Omar, who fucceeded Abubeker in the caliphate,- Caled was removed from the command; and it was again transferred to the more gentle and conciliatory Abu Obeidah. The army expreffed their diflatisfaGion with this change ; but Caled, notwithftanding the characteriftic ferocity of his temper, fubmitted to it with magnanimity ; and having caufed Omar to be proclaimed caliph at Damaf- cus, refigned his command without hefitation, declaring his readinefs to ferve the Muffulman caufe in any poft which it fhould pleafe the head of the religion to affign him. Sooa afterwards his aétivity and enterprife were of fignal fervice in relieving a party of the Moflems, who had incautioufly marched to plunder a famous monaftery in the neighbour- hood. of Abyla, and who were furrounded by a much fu- perior force. Caled himfelf had been relieved in fimilar cir- cumttances of danger, on a reconnoitering party, by a de- tachment fent by Abu Obeidah. Under this chief Ca- led ferved in Syria and Mefopotamia, and he always dif- tinguifhed himfelf in feafons of peculiar difficulty and penil. Of his fubfequent exploits the moft eminent was the victory obtained by him in the battle of Yermuk, A. D. 636; on which interefting occafion the public voice, and the modefty of Abu Obeidah reftored the command to him, who was elteemed the moit deferving of the Mofleras. The combat was ob{tinate and bloody ; 4039 of the Moflems were bu- ried in the field of battle ; and the fkill of the Armenian archers enabled 700 to boaft that they had loft an eye in that meritorious fervice. The Syrian veterans acknowledged that it was the hardeft and moft doubtful of the days which they had feen; but it was likewife the moft decifive. Many thoufands of the Greeks and Syrians fell by the {words of the Arabs ; many were flaughtered, after the de- feat, in the woods and mountains; many, by miftaking the fords, were drowned in the waters of the Yermuk; and however the lofs may be magnified, it was, undoubtedly very great. Abu Obeidah, in his letter to the caliph, ftates the number killed to have been 150,000, and the prifoners at 40,000. This computation exceeds all belief. Such was the fuccefs of the Saracens, that the Greek army durft no longer appear in the field ; and the conqueft of Jerufalem was the fpeedy refult. In 638, Caled took Aleppo, and he carried his vidtortous arms beyond the Euphrates. He f{urvived about three years the peftilence of 639, which prov- ed fatal to many Muffulman chiefs ; but no account remains of the time or manner of his death. His tomb is fhewn in the neighbourhood of Emefa. The valour of this cham- pion was fupported by fanaticifm; for as long as he wore a cap, which had been blefled by Mahomet, he deemed himfelf invulnerable. Mod. Un. Hift. vol. i. Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. ix. CALEDON, in Geography, a fmall town of Ireland, in the county of Tyrone, and province of Uliter, near the river Blackwater, 70 Irifh miles N. by E. from Dublin. CALEDONIA, in Ancient Geography, an appellation by . which that part of Great Britain now called Scotland was formerly diftinguifhed. See Scorranp. The etymology of this name, as well as the precife boundaries of the country to which it has been applied, have been varioufly afligned. According to Camden, the appellation of Caledonia is de- rived from the Celtic or Britifh Aaled or caled, hard ; whence Caledonii, fignifying a people, hardy, uncivilifed, and ruflic. Buchanan derives it from the old Scottifh word, calden, de- noting a hazle-tree. Others (See Preface to Offian’s Poems, vol. il. p. 4.) compound it of the two Britifh words cai/ and du, which fignity the Gauls or Britons of the moun- tains, CALEDONIA. tains.. Accordingly it is faid, that this was a very proper name for the real Caledonians of Badenoch, Braidalbin, and the adjacent tra&ts, which are the moft mountainous parts ef Scotland, and not very unfuitable to the other nations, to whom it was given by the Roman authors. Others again affirm, that Gacl-doch is the only appellation, which the Scots, who fpeak the Gaelic language, know for their own divilion of Britain: And Gael-doch is a com- pound of Gael or Cael, the firft colony of the ancient Gauls who tranfmigrated into Britain, and doch, a diftri& or divi- fion of a country. The Romans, by tranfpofing the letter Lin Cael, and foftening into a Latin termination the ch of doch, formed the well known name of Caledonia. The ancient Caledonia comprehended all thatcountry which lay to the north of the rivers Forth and Clyde; or, as others ftate its boundaries, from the wall of Severus, conneCing the caft coaft near Tinemouth with the Solway Firth, at Boulnefs, on the weft coaft, to the northern fhore. The Caledonii of Ptolemy poffeffed that extenfive tract of coun- try which reached from the Lelannonian bay, or Loch-fenn, on the weft, to the eftuary of Vara or Firth of Tayne on the eaft coait, and included Badenoch, Braidalbin, the in- land parts of the fhires of Murray, Banff, Aberdeen, and Perth. The Greek and Roman hiftorians and poets, who flourifhed in the firft, fecond, and third centuries, when they have occafion to mention the affairs of Britain, give the ge- neral name of Caledonii to all the Britifh nations without the limits of the Roman province, and that of Caledonia to their country. The reafon of this might be, that the Caledonii were the moft powerful or warlike of thofe na- tions, and maintained fome kind of fuperiority over the reft, who were contented to fight under their condué& againft their common enemies, the Romans and provincial Britons. Hence the name of the Caledonii, from being the proper name of one nation, became the common denomination of many. Caledonia feems to have been unknown to the Romans till Agricola entered it with his army, in his third campaign, A. D.80. Marching from fouth-weft towards the north- eaft, he traverfed the territories of feveral Britith tribes, and sedges to the river Tay, without oppofition. The Ca- onii feemed to have retired, hoping to recover in the winter, after the retreat of their enemies, what they had loft inthefummer. But Agricola difappointed their expec- tations by employing the remainder of the feafon in build- ing forts in the moft convenient fituations for keeping pof- feffion of the country. As foon as thefe forts were finifhed and ftored with provifions, he put his army into them for their winter-quarters, that his troops might be every where at hand to check the attempts of the natives to thake off the yoke. ‘Tacitus docs not inform us, whether Agricola fpent this winter in Caledonia, or in the more fouthern rts of Britain. See Acricova. When Adnan arrived in Britain A. D, 121, he atively employed himfelf in fecuring the frontiers of the Roman -fhons againft the incurfions of enemies. With this view ¢ erected his famous rampart or wall, as the boundary of the Roman province, from the mouth of the river Tine on the eaft, to the Solway firth on the weft, near the track where Agricola had built his firft chain of forts. See An- RIAN. nder the reign of Antoninus Pius, A. D. 138, Lollivs Urbicus was governor of Britain ; and in order to fecure the peace of the Roman province in this ifland, it was found neceffary to enlarge its limits. Accordingly Lollius Urbicus defeated the Mceatz in feveral engagements, and recovered the country as far as the iflhmus between the firths of Forth and Clyde. In order to fecure his con- 6 queft, and to keep the Caledonians at a greater diftance, Urbicus, by direétion of the emperor, raifed another flvong rampart, in imitation of that of Adrian, between thofe two friths, along the line of forts which had been conftruéted there by Agricola. This rampart, with its ditch and forts, was intended for the utmoft boundary of the Roman empire in Britain. In the year 180, the Cale- donians, having broke through the wall of Antoninus, and being joined by the Meeate, invaded the Roman province. To repel this invafion, the government of Britain was be- ftowed upon Ulpius Marcellus, who, having firft reftored the difcipline of the Roman troops, led them againft the ene- my, and defeated them in feveral battles. During the con- teit which took place on the acceflion of Septimus Severus to the imperial throne, Britain became a f{cene of great con- fufion, A. D.198. The Mceate and Caledonians, obferv- ing the defencelefs {tate of the Roman province, made in- curfions into it, and f{pread defolation in their progrefs. When Lupus was deputed by Severus to repeal thefe in- vaders, he found himfelf unable to accomplith this object by force, and therefore bribed the plunderers to retire, ‘by pur- chafing their prifoners with a fum of money. ‘Their incur~ fions, pee were renewed with greater violence for fe- veral years; and it was found neceflary for Severus him~ felf to vifit Britain in perfon. The news of his arrival, A.D. 207. alarmed the Mceate and Caledonians, and in- duced them to fend ambaffadors to promife fubmiffion, and fue for peace. Severus, however, difmiffed the ambafladors without any fatisfattory anfwer, and advanced northward at the head of a very large army. When he had paffed the wall of Adrian, he encountered many difficulties and dangers. His army was harafled with continual fkirmifhes, and decoyed into many ambuthes ; and in his progrefs, he was obliged to employ one part of his army in cutting down woods, drain- ing lakes and marfhes, making roads, and cafting bridges over rivers, whilft the other part defended the labourers from the enemy. In this expedition Severus loft no fewer than 50,000 men, though he fought no battle, and faw no enemies in a body. At length he penetrated into the very heart of Ca- ledonia, and ftruck fuch terror into its inhabitants, that they renewed their fupplications for peace, which was at lait granted them, on condition of relinquifhing a part of their country, and delivering up their arms. Having concluded a peace with the Caledonians, and conducted. his army back into the northern parts of the Roman pro- vince, he employed his troops for about two years in conftru@ing his famous wall. Towards the difaftrous decline of his life, A.D. 210, the Mceate and Cale- donians took advantage of his weaknefs and the diltrac- tion of his family, and renewed the war in hopes of recovering that part of their country which’ they had been obliged to refign. The aged emperor, who had retired to Yorh, be- come peevith by his complicated fufferings, was enraged by the news of this revolt, and iffued orders for exterminating thefe two nations, without fparing the very infants in their mothers’ wombs. ‘The execution of thefe cruel orders was prevented by the emperor’s death. His eldefl fon Caracalla, as foon as he heard of his father’s death, concluded a peace with the Mecatz and Caledonians, and foun. after left Britain. When the emperor Severus invaded Caledonia, A.D. 207, we are told (Xiphilin. ex Dio Nico in Sever.) “ that the Meeate and Caledonians (who poffeiled all the ifland beyond the well of Adrian), inhabited barren uncultivated mountains, and defert marfhy plains ; that they had neither walls, houfes, nor cultivated lands ; but lived on the milk and fiefh of their flocks and herds, on what they got by plunder, or ag y. CALEDONIA. by hunting, and on the fruits of their trees.” Having been obliged by Severus to furrender part of their country to the Romans, that induftrious people, in the courfe of the third century, built feveral towns and ftations, conftru&ed high- ways, cut down woods, drained marfhes, and introduced agriculture into the country between the walls, many parts of which are very level, fertile, and fit for tillage. Al- though the Romans never formed any large or lafting efta- blifhment to the north of the wall between the Forth and Clyde, yet many of them, and of the provincial Britons, re- tired into Caledonia at different times, and on various occa- fions, particularly about the end of the third century, in order to efcape from the Dioclefian perfecution. It is, therefore, highly probable, that thefe refugees inftru€ted the people among whom they fettled, not only in their re- ligion, but alfo in their arts, particularly agriculture. The eaftern coafts of Caledonia were remarkably fit for cultiva- tion, and the Pi&ts, who inhabited thefe coafts, were very early acquainted with agriculture, which they undoubtedly learned from the Romans, or the provincial Britons. The name which was given to the Caledonians on the eaft, by thofe of the weft, was ‘ Cruitnich,” which fignifies wheat or corn cakes ; a proof that they were hufbandmen, and ex- prefling the contempt or envy of the carnivorous highlander. There is alfo reafon to believe, that the Caledonians of the welt, who, in the fourth century, began to be called « Scots,” denoting, in the Celtic language, wanderers or vagrants, though they were of a more rettlefs and wander- ing difpofition than thofe of the ea{t, and their country was more mountainous, and not fo fit for cultivation, were not altogether ignorant of agriculture at this period. The vi- cinity of the Hebrides, profufely fcattered along the weft- ern coa{t of Scotland, tempted the curiofity of thefe weftern Caledonians or Scots, and improved their fkill; and they acquired, by flow degrees, the art, or rather the habit, of managing their boats in a tempeltuous fea, and of fteering their noéturnal courfe by the light of the well-known ftars. The ancient Caledonians, and other Britons, educated in the midit of arms, and accuftomed from their infancy to hear nothing admired or .celebrated but valiant deeds in war, looked upon every profeffion but that-of arms as difhonour- able ; and every employment but war as unworthy of a man of fpirit. To fuch an extravagant height did they carry thefe abfurd and pernicious notions of -honour, that they imagined that thofe who followed any other employment, except that of arms, not only lived defpifed, and died unla- mented,; but that their fouls, after death, hovered in the lower regions, among fens and marfhes, and never mounted the winds, nor mingled with the fouls of warriors in the airy halls. Dio and Herodian feem to intimate, that the Me- ate and Caledonians were naked in the beginning of the third cen's ry, when they were invaded by the emperor Severus. But thefe authors probably meant no more than that thefe people were very imperfe@ly clothed, or almoft naked; and they ufe expreflions which admit of this interpretation. As ‘the ‘Romans never conquered the Caledonians, or northern Britons, they cannot be fuppofed to have made any material change in their language ; which is ftill fpoken by their potterity, in the highlands, and weftern iflands of Scotland, with lefs variation from the original Celtic (if we may be- lieve fome of the beft judges in thefe matters,) than in any other part of Europe. As early as the reign of Conftantine, the inhabitants of Caledonia were divided between the two great tribes of the * Scots,’ and of the “ Pids ;’? the former poffefling, as we have obferved, the weftern; and the latter, the eaitern divifion of that country. ‘The power, and almoft the me- mory of the Piéts have been extinguifhed by their fuccefsful rivals ; and the Scots, after maintaining for ages the dignity of an independent kingdom, have multiplied, by an equal and voluntary union, the honours of the Englifh name. ‘I'a- citus Vit. Agric. Critical Differtations on the Origin, An- tiquities, &c. of the Caledonians, by Dr. J. Macpherfon, Lond. 1768. 4to. J. Macpherfon’s Introd. to the Hilt. of Great Britain and Ireland, Lond. 1773. 4to. Henry’s Hitt. vol. i. andii. Gibbon’s Hift. vol. iv. See Arracorri, Hicuianpers, Prers, and Scor.tanp. CALEDONIA, a town in the country above defcribed ; which, according to Buchanan, gave name to the country, the people, and adjacent ocean. CareponiASy/va,alarge foreft in the fame country, covered with lofty trees, and affording fhelter to wild ar d fierce beatts. Careponia, in Geography, a fea-port fettlement, on the north-welt fide of the ifthmus of Darien, near the gulf of Mexico, founded in 1698, by fome Scots families; but which, by the influence of the Eaft India Company, they were obliged to abandon, in the year 1700. N. lat. 9° 30’. W. long. 77° 36’. Ca eponia, a county of Vermont, in America, contain- ing 24 townfhips, and having to the S.E. Conneéticut river ; to the N.W. Orleans and Chittenden counties; to the N.E. Effex-county ; and to the S.W. Orange-county, of which, till of late, it formed a part. ; Careponia, New, a large ifland of Auftralafia, in the Southern Pacific Ocean, extending from 1y° 37’ to 22° 30’, S. lat. ; and from 163° 37° to 167° 14’, E. long. Its length from north-weft to fouth-ealt is about 80 leagues ; butits greateft breadth does not exceed ro leagues. It was difcovered by captain Cook, in 1774. He explored the north-weltern part of this ifland, and fays that this diftri& was called * Balade;’? but D’Entrecalteaux, who com- tianded the expedition fitted out by the Conftituent Af- fembly of France in fearch of La Peroufe, in 1791—1794, vifited its fouth-weftern coaft. The reefs by which this part is bounded, are generally from 25 to 30,000 toifes from the land; and it is rendered {ull more dangerous by the fouth-weft winds that blow in that quarter. Many moune- tainous iflands and detached rocks ftretch from N.N.E. to E.N.E. and render this extremity of the ifland more dan- gerous than the fouthern part. Some of thefe iflands are feveral hundred toifes in extent ; they are very numerous, and encircled with reefs. Thefe iflands feem to be a conti- nuation of the mountains of the large ifland; their bafes be- ing covered by the fea, and their fummits rifing above it, and forming fo many little iflands. The gradual diminution of the height of thefe mountains affords reafon to fuppofe, that in thefe feas, fhoals extending to a great diftance con- tribute to augment the dangers of navigation. The reefs that abound in the vicinity of this ifland, are coral rocks, the well-known work of polypi. The land of New Caledo- nia, which is low towards its fouthern extremity, rifes into mountains of moderate elevation, in a fouth-eait or north- weft dire€tion, inclining towards the north. Hills, almoft deftitute of vegetation, rife like an amphitheatre towards the principal chain of mountains, and appear to be at leaft goo toifes in perpendicular height, and direéted towards the north-weft. _D’Entrecafteaux and his companions ob= ferved three ranges of mountains of different degrees of clee vation, and hollows apparently formed by the fall of the rains, which were continued to the fummits of the molt arid mountains. Behind thefe high mountains they faw about 20,000 toifes within the land, which feemed to tower above all the reft, and to be at leaft 1200 toifes in perpendicular elevation. From the middle of one of thefe ravines or hol- lows CALEDONIA. lows iffued atorrent, which appeared at a confiderable dif- tance white with its foaming waters; and trees are found growing in the bottoms of the ravines with which the hills are furrowed. Thefe torrents are numerous, and, in fome places, form fine cafcades ; and they ferve alfo’ to fertilize the plains and valleys that are interfperfed among the barren mountains, and which exhibit traces of culture and popula- tion. The foil of the plains is a fandy black mould: the fides of the hills are yellow clay with mica ; and the higher rts confilt of quartz and mica, tinged red, or orange, with iron. Garnets are alfo found in petro-filex, and in feveral places white tranfparent quartz, with layers of gold, co- loured mica, blended with ferpentine, hornblende, talc, and rnets. New Caledonia differs from all the other iflands yet ifcovered in the South Sea, by being entirely deftitute of volcanic productions. Every part of the coaft feems to be inhabited ; and the plantations in the plains are cultivated with much labour. On the fides of the mountains {mall walls are raifed above one another to prevent the rolling down of the ground which was cultivated. But as the country is for the moft part rocky and barren, the inhabit- ants chiefly fubfift on roots and fifth. Some of them eat the earth called fteatite, which they probably make choice of to allay their hunger, becaufe it is foft and crumbles, and is eafy of digeftion. They alfo boil, and eat a {pecies of fpiders, which are found in the woods. Like many other favages, they feed on the flefh of their enemies, which they previ- oufly broil on a fire of charcoal. This horrible practice of eating human flefh is confirmed by feveral facts recited by D’Entrecafteaux ; notwithftanding the favourable accounts iven of thefe iflanders by captain Cook and Dr. Fortter. Phey preferred water to wine or brandy; and in drinking it, inclined their heads at about two feet diftance above the fur- face of the water, and then threw it up againft their faces with their hands, opening their mouths very wide, and catch- ing as much as they could. ¢ bread-fruit and cocoa-nut are fearce, and obtained with difficulty; although in fome of the interior vallies there are confiderable plantations of thefe, as well as of bana- nas, Caribbee cabbages (aram efculentum), yams, fugar- €anes, &c. but the ifland furnifhes feveral new plants, birds, and fifhes. The natives feem to be altogether unacquainted with goats, hogs, dogs, or cats, as they had not any nante by which to dittinguifh them. The inhabitants are {tout and tall, fome of them meafuring fix feet four inches, and enerally well proportioned ; their features mild ; their hair Black and woolly ; but many, who feemed to be defirous of having the appearance of long hair, faftened to their own locks two or three trefles, made with the leaves of fome plants of the grafs kind, and covered with the hair of the Vampyre bat, which hung down to the middle of’ their backs. Some of them cropped their hair fhort, and ufed a kind of comb, formed of a number of flicks of hard wood, ‘generally about 20, which they faftened together at one end, and parallel to, and nearly one tenth of an inch from one another; and thefe combs they always wore in their hair, on one fide of the head; on their heads they wore a kind of concave, cylindrical black cap, made of ftrong pa- per, which they feemed to confider as an ornament, and which, it was fuppofed, was worn only by the chiefs and warriors. The cultom of pulling out their beards by the root is very general, although fome of them let their beards We err fkin is nearly of as deep a black as that of the inhabitants of Diemen’s Cape, whom they very much refemble in the caft of their countenance. Thefe iflanders are wholly naked, except that they wore round the middle picces of coarfe ftuff, made of bark, or large leaves of trees. In fome cafes, pieces of this kind of cloth were faftened by a {tring round the neck, and to this {tring were hung fmall round beads of a pale green ftone. They were not deftitute of coarfe garments made of matting, but they never feemed to ufe them except in their canoes, and when unemployed. The women in this ifland feemed to be in a fubordinate and fervile ftate, and employed themfelves in various kinds of labour. Their colour is generally a dark chefnut, or a mahogany brown; their ftature is middle-fized, rather tall, and their whole form {tout and clumfy. They had no other garment betides a kind of fringe, made of the filaments of the bark of trees, which ferved them asa girdle and pafled’ feveral times round the waift. Their chara&ter of chattity is fuperior to that of the females in the other ifles of the Pacific; nor did any inftance occur of their permitting any indecent familiarity with an European during capt. Cook’s ftay at the ifland. But the account of their chaitity given by D’Entrecafteaux is not fo much to their reputation. The lower lobe of the ears, both of males and females, perforated with. a very large hole, hung down to their fhoulders; and into thefe holes fome introduced leaves of trees, others a piece of wood, in order to ftretch them bigger. Several had this lobe jagged; probably from having been torn either in battle, or in running through the woods. Their general ornaments are ear-rings of tortoife-fhells, necklaces, or amulets, made both of fhells and ftones, and fome of twilted threads, fuf- pended from which they ufually carried at the end of a itring a {mall piece of human bone, or hard ftore, indifferently carved ; and bracelets made of large fhells, which they wear above the elbows. By the account of Cook and Forfter, the Caledonians are reprefented as different from the other natives of the South Sea iflands, with regard to their honefty and the inoffenfivenefs of their difpofition and manners. This account is not confirmed by D’Entrecafteaux. He fays, that whilft they afked for fluffs and irom in exchange for their effects, they foon gave evidence of their being audacious thieves; and he mentions feveral inftances of the ferociouf- nefs of their difpofitions, fuch as their feeding on the fleth of children, &c. Of their being cannibals there is no doubt ; and they are furnifhed with an inflrument, made of ftone, with fharp edges, for cutting up the limbs of their enemies, which they divide among them after a battle. Their houfes or huts are circular, formed in the fhape of bee-hives, about 14 toife in height, and as nuch in breadth, clofe and {moky,. as there is no paflage for the {moke but through the door. Some of thefe huts are feattered at the diftance of three or four hundred paces from each other, and overfhadowed b a few cocoa-trees. Some of them are furrounded by pali- fades 14 yard high, and 34 feet from the borders of the hut, with a narrow walk before the door. The door, about a yard high and half a yard wide, is fometimes clofed by a piece of the limb of a cocoa tree, the leafy branches of which are interlaced. Of thefe doors fome had two potts, at the upper extremity of which a man’s head was rudely carved. ‘The lower part of thefe huts is ereéted perpendi- cularly to the height of a yard, and then tapered off ina pretty regular cone, and terminated by the upper end of a pott, fixed in the centre of the floor. The frame of the hut confilts of poles, bearing againft the upper end of the pott, which rifes from the middle of the floor, and is near three inches in diameter at the bottom. A few pieces of wood bent to an arch, render thefe little habitations fufficiently- ftrong. They are covered with ftraw to the thicknefs of two or three inches; and the floor, on which the natives are perfectly fheltered from the weather, is fpread with mats. Within the hut on one fide is a board, faltened with cords in an horizontal pofition, about a yard from the ground, on 4 which CAL which they depofit any thing out of the way. Themufqui- tocs. however, are fo troublefome in thefe huts, that they are obliged to light fires to drive them away when they go to fl-ep 3 and as there is no vent for the fmoke, except at the door, they muft be extremely incommoded by it. Near fome of thefe dwellings are little hillocks of earth, 12 or 14 juches high, with a very open trellis in the middle, of the height of two or three yards, called by the natives *“Nbouet,”” which are the graves in which they bury their dead. Thofe in which their chiefs, flain in battle, are interred, are decorated " with fpears, darts, paddles, &c. ftuck upright in the ground about them. ‘Their canoes are made of two trees, hollowed out, having a raifed gunnel about two inches high, and clofed at_each end with a-bulk-head of the fame height; fo that the whole refembles a long fquare trough about three feet fhorter than the body of the canoe. Two canoes thus Aitted are faltened-to each other about three feet afunder, by means of crofs-{pars, which proje& about a foot over each fide, and form a platform. ‘Their malt is fixed at an equal diftance from the two canoes, ard towards the fore- part of the platferm, by which they are joined together. On the platform they have a fire-hearth, and generally a fire -burning. They are navigated by .one or two latteen fails, extended to a {mall latteen yard, the end of which is fixed an a notch or hole in the deck. Each canoe has a large fione, faftened to a long rope, which ferves as an anchor. Thefe canoes, however, are not fo fkilfully conftracted as thofe of the Friendly iflands, to which they are mugh inferior in point of failing. As the Caleconians are a warlike people, they are furnifhed with a variety of offenfive weapons, as clubs, {pears, darts, and flings for throwing ftones. Mott of thefe iflanders are armed with {pears and clubs, and carry at their wwailt a little bag full of flones, cut into an oval fhape, which ‘they throw with flings. “Their clubs are of different forms ; and, as well as their darts and {pears, are curioufly carved, -neatly conftruéted, and highly polifhed. Their javelins, which are commonly 15 feet long, are not more than 24 inches in circumference at the middle. They are peculiarly -dextrous in their mode of throwing them, and of accelerating their motion. For this purpofe they employ a very elaftic cord, made of the covering of the cocoa-nut and fifh-fkin, -one extremity of which they fix to the end of the fore- finger, and the other which terminates in a fort of round button, is twifted round the end of the dart, but in fuch a manner as to quit its hold as foon as that weapon is thrown into the air. It is fomewhat furprifing that they are unac- .quainted with the ufe of bows and arrows. Their language is different from that of the Friendly iflands, though fome of their terms refemble thofe ufed by the inhabitants of the other iflands. D’Entrecafteaux has annexed a vocabulary of their language. Their vocal mufic, however agreeable to themfelves, is harfh and difcordant to the ears of Euro- peans. The only mufical inftrument, which they feem to poffefs, is a kind of whiftle, formed of a little polifhed piece of brown wood about two inches long, fhaped fomewhat Jike a bell, fufpended with a rope fixed at the {mall end; it has two holes near the bafe, and another near the infertion of the rope, all which communicate with one anothers by blowing in the uppermoft, a fhrill found, like whittling, is produced. ‘hele iflanders fet lefs value on nails and hatchets than any other inhabitants of the South fea iflands. They appeared, however, to be acquainted with iron, for they had a term for expreffing it; but as they ufed hard ftones for purpofes to which iron initruments might be ap- plied, this metal was lefs important to them than to fome of the other iflanders. ‘The variation of the needle in this ifland was g° 30! towards the eaft. The mercury in the ‘-bavometer never i. CAL “ve 28 inches, 2 lines, and 2-roths, and never fell below 28 inches, 1 line, and 4-10ths. Not- withftanding the exceflive heat which the French voyagers felt on the coait, Reaumur’s thermometer never exceeded 25°, and on board never rofe above 21°. The tides were not obfervable above once a day ; the flood taking place at half palt fix, and the waters, rifing in perpendicular height, 4 feet 7 inches. Ofthe government and religion of the Caledonians nothing is known, Labillardiere’s Voyage in fearch of La Peroufe. , CALEDONICA, in Ornithology, afpecies of Arpea, called by Latham the Caledonian night heron, from its -be- ing a native of New Caledonia. The general colour of the plumage is ferruginous, and beneath white: creft on the hind head of three feathers; frontlet black; eye-brews white. Obdf. This bird is an inhabitant of various parts of the Auttralafian regions as well as New Caledonia. Its length is 22 inches; bil black; area of the eyes green; legs ellow. CALEFACIENTIA, in Medicine, are thofe fubftances which, when taken internally, increafe the temperature of the body, or produce a fenfation of local or general warmth. In the language of the prefent day, they are denominated cordials or itimulants. ‘They may produce a fenfation of warmth by their immediate impreffion on the nerves, without any actual increafe of temperature; but they alfo tend to accelerate the circulation, and therefore to augment the a€tual heat. For it has been afcertained that the animal temperature is generated by the chemical changes which take place in the blood in the courfe of circulation, in con- fequence of the abforption and evolution of different gafeous fluids. Whenever, therefore, the rapidity of the circulation at large is increafed by general ftimulants; or the veflels of any particular part are, by a local ftimulus, excited to greater aciion, and tran{mit a larger proportion of blood ; the evolu- tion of heat will neceflarily be angmented ; there will be a fenfation of warmth in the general fyftem, or in the particular parts refpeQively, See Stimunant and Carnac. CALEFACTION, denotes the production of heat in a body by the action of fire; or the impulfe which the parti- cles of a hot body imprefs on other bodies around it. . The word is particularly ufed in pharmacy ; where cale- faction is diflinguifhed from coétion: the firlt being applied where the thing is only heated, without boiling. CALETTA, or Cacvetta, in Geography, a fifhing vil- lage of Catalonia in Spain, 4 leagues from Matara. Its population confifts of 886 perfons, and it employs near so fithing-boats. CALEMUT. See Savamanie. 3 CALENBERG, a principality of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, which takes its name from an ancient caftle, now in ruins, fituated on the Leine, about 11 miles S. from Hanover. Calenberg is divided into two parts bya portion of the principality of Wolfenbuttel ; of which the northern’ part is furrounded by the principality of Luneburg, the diocefe of Hildefheim, the principality of Wolfenbuttle, the counties of Pyrmont, Lippe, Schauenberg, and Hoya, and the principality of Minden; and the fouth part by the principalities of Wolfenbuttle and Grubenhagen, and the territories of Eichsfeld and Lower Heffe. This principality conititutes a part of the duchy of Brunfwick, and is chiefly formed of counties, lordfhips, and ecclefiattical ftates. The country is in fome parts mountainous, in fame marfhy, and in others fandy, but generally fertile; producing wheat, rye, barley, oats, lentils, peas, beans, vetches, buck-wheat, ex- cellent garden-ftuff, tobacco, hops, flax, and plenty of good Tut. % cic CALENDAR fruit. Tt has likewife forefts of oak, beech, alder, pine, birch, &c., which afford timber for the building of fhips and houfes, and a!lfo wood for fuel and other ufes. It alfo fapplies large breeds of horfes, black cattle, and fheep, to- gether with venifon and fifth. In feveral places are marl- pits, quarries of free-ftone, and mill-ftones, with brick- kilas, turf, and coal-pits, rich iron ore, and falt-fpriogs. It has alfo numerous manufa&tories of woollen and linen, cot- ton and fiik, oil-fkins and carpets, leather and paper, and ftone-ware, both for home confumption and for exportation. Its foreign trade is greatly facilitated by means of the Wefer, and the country where the Leine has been rend-r-d navigable. In this principality are 19 cities, the principal of which are Hanover and Gottingen; 17 market towns, 210 Lutheran parochial churches, 5 Calviniltic, 6 Catholic, 2 I.utheran abbies, one Catholic monaftery, 5 Lutheran convents for ladies, and 24,170 taxable hearths. Several of the cities poffefs both the civil and criminal jurifdition, butin ¢thefe appeals lie from the magiltrate to the upper courts of juftice. ‘Phe other cities are entirely dependent on the batliwick. The ftates of the country are compofed of the prelates and nobility, which are divided into three de- partments : viz. thofe of Hanover, Gottingen and Hameln, with the department of Lavenau. Thefe ttates have their fyndic and other officers, but of the nobility of each de- partment two provincial deputies are eleétcd. This prin- cipality has a vote both in the imperial college of princes and the diets of Lower Saxony. Its matricutar afleffment is 222 horfe and r40 foot; or 686 florins. All the rivers in this principality difcharge themlfelves, either into the cine or the Wefer. The bailiwick of Calenburgh is four German miles. in length, and three broad, extending as far as Hanover. The culture of grain and flax is the principal occupation _ of the inhabitants. In the whole bailiwick are one town, viz. Gehrien, and 60 villages. CALENDAR, Cavenparium, or Karenpar, a dif- tribution of time, accommodated to the ufes of life; or a table, or almanac, containing the order of days, wecks, months, feaits, &c. happening throughout the year. See Armawnac, Time, Montu, Year, &c. Itis called calendar from the word caiendz, anciently wrote in large charaters, at the head of each month. Sce Carenps. The days in calendars were originally divided into ofo- ades, or cighths ; but afterwards, in imitation of the Jews, into hebdomades, or fevenths ; which cuftom, Scaliger ob- ferves, was not introduced among the Romans till after the time of Theodofius. There are divers calendars, according to the different forms of the year, and diltributions of time, eltablifhed in different countries. Hence the Roman, the Jewifh, the Perfian, the Julian, the Gregorian, &c. calendars. The anctent Roman calendar is given by Ricciotus, Strovius, Daner, and others ; by which we fee the order and number of the Roman holy-days, and work-days: The three Chniftian calendars are given by Wolfius in his Elements of Chronology. The Jewihh calendar was fixed by rabbi Hillel, about the ear 360, from which tim~ the days of their year may be reduced to thofe of the Julian calendar. Cacexpar, the Roman, owed its origin to Romulus; but it has undergone various reformations fince his time. That legiflator diftributed time into feveral periods, for the ufe of the people under his command; but as he was much better verfed in matters of war than of altronomy, he only divided the year into ten months, making it begin in the fpring, to of March: imagining the fun made hia courfe OL. v. through all the feafons in three hundred and four days! According to Plutarch, (in Numa,) thefe months had no certain or equal number of days, fome confifting of 20, fome of 35, and fome of more. But Macrobius informs us, (Saturn, I. i. c. 12.) that Romulus fettled the number of days with greater equality, allotting to March, May, Quintiiis, and OGober, 31 days; and to April, June, Sextilis, Sep- tember, November, and December, 40; making up in alt 304 days. From a paffage in Plutarch, (ubi.fupra,) it appears, that two intercalary months were added to every year; for he fays, that the Latins, not underftanding the difference between the folar and Junar years, neverthelefs provided, that the year fhould contain 360 days. But thefe interca:ary mouths were not inferted in the calendar. To thefe no names were affixed until the fucceeding reign. The calendar of Romulus was reformed by Numa, who, at firft, intended to make a complete lunar ycar of 354, days. With this view, he added 50 days to the 304, which had been divided into 10 months. From every one of the months of 30 days, he borrowed one day, which he added to the goalready mentioned : of thefe 56 days he comoofed two months, calling the one January, and the other Febru- ary. Not long afterwards, he added one day to January ; and thus made his year to confitt of 355 days; adding one odd day more than he ought to have done, merely out of fuperftition, to make the number fortunate. However, he would not allow more than 28 days for February; and therefore, that month was always accounted unlucky. Moreover, he transferred the beginning of the year from March to fanuary, reckoning March the fecond, April the third, &c.; placing February in tie end of the calendar. (Ovid. Fatt. 1. ii, v.47.) In order to adjuft the lunar year to the folar, he added go days im eight years; becaufe the latter is 114 days greater than the former, and 113 x 8S=go,” OF thefe go days four months were compofed, confilting of 22 and 23 days alternately ; and one was intercalated every two years; 1. e. to the fecond year 22 days were added ; to the fourth 23 days; to the fixth 22 days; and to the eighth 23 days; in all go days. ‘The intercalar, month formed of thefe days was called ‘ Mercedinus,’’ or * Mercedonius,”? from the Latin word “ merces,’’ fignifying wages, pros bably, becaufe this time was appointed for the payment of workmen ard domeftics; and it was inferted after the 23d of February; and the remaining five days of that month were fubjoined. By thefe intercalations, the quantity of the year became too great; and the excefs in eight years amounted to 8d 1h 29! 56” nearly. To cut off this excefs, it was propofed, in every third oGtennial period, that ir, from 16 to 24 years, to infert not go, but 66 days, or three months of 22 days, a quantity flill too great by 4h 28! 20! ; but fufficiently accurate for all the purpofes of common life, The year of Numa admitted of no alteration until the ycar B.C. 452, when the decemviri changed the order of the months, reckoning January the firlt, February the fecond, March the third, &c. This arrangement has never been difturbed. However, the intercalations above-mentioned being ill obferved by the pontiffs, to whom Numa committed the care of them, occafioned great diforders in the conftitution of the year, which Julius Cxfar, with the advice and aflitt- ance of Sofigenes, a celebrated mathematician of Alexan- dria in Egypt, undertook to reify, A.U.C. 708. B.C, 46. He found that the months had conliderably receded trom the feafons to which they had been adjulled by Numa, and that-the difpenfation of time in the calendar could never be fettled on any fure footiny, without having regard to the anntial courfe of the fun. In order to bring forward the , 5D months CALENDAR, ssonths to their proper places, he took into the account go days which had been loft by the former method of reckon- ing, and formed a year of 15 months, or 445 days, which, on account of its quantity and defign, has been called “ the year of confufion.”’ This year terminated, and the Julian year commenced on the 1% day of January, B.C. 46. From this epoch, the civil year asd months were regulated by the eourfe of the fun. The year of Numa being fo days fhorter than the folar year, two days were added by Julius Cefar to each of the months of January. Auguft, and December, and one to April, June, September, and November. Mere- over, as the annual revolution of the fun is completed in 365 days, and about fix hours, he made the year to confit of 365 days for three years fucceffively, and every fourth year, of 366, in order to comprehend” the odd fix hours. Accordingly, he ordained, that an intercalary day fhould be added every fourth year, to the 23d of February; that js, the 24th day, or fixth of the calends of March, was to be twice reckoned; and hence this year was called DBifex- tile, which fee. It is alfo Ryled * Leap-year,” from its leaping a day more that year, thau in a common year. Hence it appears, that the Roman, called alfo the Julian Calendar, from its reformer Julius, 1s difpoled into quadrt- ennial periods; of which the firit three years, which he called communes or common, confit of 365 days; and the fourth biffextile. The regulations which Julius Czfar had eftablithed were mifapplied by thofe who had the direion of the calendar. They intercalated every third, inftead of every fourth year; fo that, in the interval of 36 years, three days more than the due number were inferted. his error, however, was foon perceived. For the correGion of it, Auguftus ordained, that the intercalations fhould be omitted in the following years; viz. in the 41, 45th, and 4gth of the Julian era. This form of the year, thus correéted, was adopted in Italy, and in feveral other provinces of the Roman empire. By fome nations, the lunar year was retained, and the days and months were reckoned by the courfe of the moon. Modern chronologers have ufed the Julian year, being a meafure of time extremely fimple, and fufficiently accurate: and to this ftandard they refer ail events that have happened from the beginning of the world. The Julian year, however, though admirably adapted to common ufe, was ftillimperfe&t: for as the time in which the fun performs his annual revolution is not exa&ly 365 days fix hours, but 355 days five hours, 48 minutes, and 45% feconds, the civil year muft therefore have exceeded the folar year by 11 minutes, 142 feconds; which, in the {pace of about 130 years, amounted to a whole day; and confe- quently, in 47450 years, the beginning of the year wonid have advanced forwards through all the feafons; and in half this interval’of time, the fummer folftice according to the calendar, would have fallen in the midft of winter, and the earth have been covered with froft, when the bloom of vegetation was expected. It cannot be imagined that Sofi- genes was totally unacquainted with this error: though he probably thought it much fmaller than it is, and therefore negleGted it. Among the firft of thofe who difcovered the imperfeGtions of the Julian calendar, were the venerable Bede; about the year 730, Johannes de Sacro Bofco, about 1232, and Friar Bacon, about 1255. Thefe great men had obferved, that the true equinox preceded the civil one by about aday in 130 years. Sofigenes, in the reign of Julius Czfar, had obferved the vernal equinox on the 25th day of March. Att the council of Nice, held in 325, it was fixed on the 21{t of March; and from that time to the year 359z, when the next reformation was effected, the error, accumulated by this means, amounted to about yo days; fo that the vernal equinox was now found te happen on the 11th of March, initead of the 2rft, as it ought to have done,. if the Julian accoust had agreed with the courfe of the fun. This conttant anticipation of the equinox, which, in the courfe of more than a thoufand years, had become too confiderable not to be noticed, was firft reprefented to the councils of Conftance and Lateran, by two cardinals, Petrus ab Alliaco, and Caf2, who fhowed the caufe of the error, and the means of correéting it. In the year 1474, pope Sixtus IV. being convinced of the neceflity of a refor- mation, fent for Regiomontanus, a celebrated mathematician. of that period, to Rome, and prefented him to the arch- bilhopric of Ratifbon, in order to engage him in this under- taking. But a premature death preventing his affiltance, and no one being thought worthy to be his fucceffor, the project was, for that time, fufpended. Although the neceflity of fome alteration was acknowledged, it was after the lapfe of 100 years, that pope Gregory XIII. had the honour of accomphihing what feveral preceding pontiffs and councils had attempted in vain. He invited to Rome a confiderable number of mathematicians and aflronomers, employed 10 years in the examination of their f{everal formulz, and, finally, gave the prefercnce to the plan pro- pofed by Aloifius and Antoninus Lilius, two brothers of Verona. He tran{mitted copies of this plan, A. D. 1577, to all catholic ftates, academies, Xe. A council of the moft learned prelates was convened by the pope, and the fubject being finally fettled, a brief was publifhed in the month of March, A. D. 1582, by which the ufe of the ancient calen- dar was entirely abrogated, and the new one fubftituted ia its ftead, called, trom the pope’s name, the Grecorian Catenpar, or New Sry te. The firft obje@& of the reformers was to correét the errors of the former method of reckoning, and to make the length of the year agree more exaGtly with the courfe of the fun. For this purpofe it was agreed, that the 10 days which had been gained by the old account, fhould be taken from the month of Ofober of the year ten current, and the equinox brought back to the 21ft of March, as it had been fettled by the council of Nice. And, in order to prevent the future recurrence of a fimilar variation, it was ordered, that, inftead of making every hundredth year a biffextile, as was the cafe in the former method, every four-hundredth year only fhould be confidered as a biflextiley. and the reft be reckoned es common years. The length of the fojar year, and the time of the vernal equinox, were by thefe means very accurately fettled ; for aga day was gained by the former method of reckoning, in every interval of 130 years, this was nearly equivalent to a gain of three days in every interval of 400 years; and, confequently, by making the years £700, 1$@9, and 1900, to be common years, initead of leap-years, the error arifing from the odd time would be properly corrected. The great difficulty, however, confilted in making the lunar year agree with the folar one, aad in fettling the true time for the obfervance of Eatter, and other moveable feaits, which had been fub- ject tono fixedrule. It had been ordered by the council of Nice, that Eafter fhould be celebrated upon the firft Sunday after the firft full moon, following the vernal equinox, And, in order to the due obfervance of this rule, it became ne- ceflary to know tbe days when the full moons would happen, in the courfe of every year. But this knowledge was not eafily obtained; for the period of Meton, which made 19 years exactly equal to 235 lunations, or revolutions of the moon, was found to be too long by about one hour and thirty-two minutes; and, confequently, after 16 of thefe periods, CALENDAR. periods, the true phafes of the moon would precede thofe {hewn by the calendar, by more than a whole day. At the time when the Gregorian Calendar was firft introduced, the error thus occafioned amounted to four days; and if the old method of computation had continued, the ca- lendar, in time, would have announced the full moon at the time of the change, and Ealter would have been celebraied at a period dire&ly oppofite to that eftablifhed by the church. It was neceflary, therefore, to devife fome method for correcting thefe errors; and Lilius was fo fortunate as to Gifcover, that the 19 years or cycle of Meton had a parti- cular property, which would render it fubfervient to the purpoles pies The new and full moons, which ac- ‘cording to Meton, were imagined to happen at the fame time precilely as they had occurred 19 years before, were ufu- “aly indicated in the following manner: they oblerved on what day cf each calendar month the néw moon fell in each year of this period, and againit thofe days they placed the number an{wering to that year, reckoning from 1 to 19, through all the years of the cycle. Thefe numbers were calied ** Primes,” or, “ Golden Numbers” (which fee); bat as Lilius found them to be erroneous and inconvenient, he rejeGted them from his fyftem, and made ufe of others, call- ed “ Epatts,’”’ in their ftead. See Epact. ‘Thefe epaéts, being placed againft the days of the month in the calendar, on which the new moors fell in each year, would have an- {wered the fame purpofe with the golden numbers; and if the Metonic cycle had been complete, the form wou'd have required no alteration: but this is not the cafe, for after about 16 of thefe periods, or 300 years, the new moons arriving fooner by 24 hours, would happen on the preced- ing day; and, theretore the epacts anfwering to thefe new moons ought to be augmented by unity. For, fuppofing that the fecond year of the lunar cycle had 11 for the epa@, then, becaufe the new moon, in the preceding year, arrived 11 days before the end of December, after 300 years, the fame new moon, of the firlt year of the cycle, would arrive 12 days before the end of the year; and, confequently, the fecond year ought now to have 12 for the epact. This number 12, therefore, will be the index of the new moons in that fecond year; and it is eafy to perceive, that all the new moons which happen fooner by a day will take place upon the day preceding that which in the former period was marked 11. After 300 years more, the epact will be 13, which will be a day ftill preceding that in the latter period: and the fame will happen with all the other epadts of the cycle. It was tMis kind of analyfis that fug- gefted to Lilius the idea of placing the epacts in their natural order again{t the days of the new moons in every year, for the firlt 300 years; and after that period, to place them in the order 1, 12, 23, 4, 15, 20, 7, 18, 29, 10, &c. inflead of the former one; and {fo on. This arrangement was fimple and ingenious; but the omiflion of 3 days in every 400 years was a circumitance that occafioned fome embarrafiment. hefe years having a day lefs than in the Julian account, the new moons would happen a day later, and confequently, the epact, at the end of the year, muft be diminifhed accordingly. But, as this order is only interrupted once in too years, Lilius ima- gined, that by fubtraéting unity from cach of the epacts belongiog to thofe new moons, they might be made to ferve for the fubfequent century. And as there are only 30 pollible feries of thefe numbers, it was fufficient to ihew by a table, what feriea belonged to every century, by which the times of the new moons might be readily difcovered. When pope Gregory had reformed the calendar in the man- per above ftated, he ordered all the ecclefiaftics under his jurif- di&tion to conform to this new method of reckoning, and ex« horted the Chrifiian princes to adopt it in their dominions. Accordingly it was immediately introduced into all catholic countries. In Spain, Portugal, and part of Italy, it was re- ceived on the fame day as at Rome; but it was not admitted ia France until the month of December, when the roth was reckoned the zoth day, according to letters patent of king Henry ILI. dated the 3d of November preceding. The ca tholic ftates in Germany adopted the Gregorian calendar, A.D. 1583. Bat the proteftant ftates at that time refufed it. The reformed religion was in its infancy ; the zeal of its pro- fc flors was violent, and theiroppotitionto the pope unbounded, Whatever bore the appearance of his authority wae rejeéted as an unwarrantable encroachment upon their newlysacguire ed liberties; and though the propriety of the alteration was acknowledged, it was condemned on account of its origi- nating with a party {fo extremely” obnoxious to them. Hence arofe a difference of to days between the methods of reckoning afterwards ufed: in Catholic and Proteftant countries. When a biffextile was {uppreffed, the difference amounted to 11 days, ‘This difference between the old and new ftyle, as the Julian and Gregorian accounts are generally catled, cccafioned great confulion in the commercial affairs of the different ftates of Europe; and therefore the Gregorian ftylewas, at length, generally received. "The Proteftant ftates in Germany reformed their calendar in Feb. A. D. 1700. The new fiyle was introduced into Denmaik about the fame time; and into Sweden, March 1753. In Great Biitain the inconvenience arifing from thefe two modes of reckoning was much felt, and feveral attempts were made to introduce the reformed calendar. But popular prejudices were for a long time too obftinate to be eafily overcome. The mathema- ticians, indeed, more influenced by fcientific confiderations than by cavils about points of religion, inceflantly urged the neccflity of fome correction, and propofed various me= thods of effeéting it, which might be adopted without in- ‘flam‘ng the minds of the multitude. Among others it was propofed, that an aé& fhould be pafled, declaring that there fhould be no leap-year for go years to come, by which means, the ro days that had been gained by the old ac- count would have been imperceptibly loft, and the old {tyle reduced to the new, without any fenfible variation in the fixed times of fealts and other obiervances. A pro- pofal of this kind was fent to Dr. Wallis, proteffor of geo- metry at Oxford, for his opinion; but the door, with a degree of prejudice altogether inconfillent with his cxten- five erudition, obferved, that the propofal was ipecious enough in appearance; but that the hand of Joab might be perceived in it. He imagined it to have originated with the papills; and though he acknowledged the propricty of it, he was afraid of its being adopted, left it fhould open the door to further encroachments. But though all propo- fals were at that time rejected, thofe who wifhed for a re- formation ftill renewed their applications ; and in 1752, an act of parliament, after much debate, was obtained for this purpofe. As 170 years had elapfed fince the Gregorian alteration took place, the old ftyle had confequently gained above a day more upon the courfe of the fun than it had at that time: it was therefore enaétcd, that, inflead of cancel-, ling 10 days, as the pope had done, 11 days fhould be left out of the month of September; and, accordingly, on the ad day of that month, the old flyle ceafed, and the next day; inftead of being the third, was called the 14th. Sce Styvs.- By the fame act, the beginning of the year was changed from the 25th of March to the 1ft- of January. Ruffia is the only civilized flate of Europe that now retains the old ftyle. ¥ D2 CALENDAR; CALENDAR. Carennar, Fulian Chriftian, is that wherein the days of the week are determined by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, by means of the folar cycle; and the new and full moons, efpecially the pafchal full moon, with the feaft of Ez ftcr, and the other moveable feafts depending thereon, by means of golden numbers, rightly difpofed through the Julian year. See the preceding article. See alfo Cycxe, and Golden NuMBER. CaLenpar, Gregorian, is that which, by means of epacts, rightly difpefed through the feveral months, determines the new and fuli moons, and the time of Ealter, -with the moveable feafts depending thereon, in the Gregorian year. Tue Gregortan calendar, therefore, differs from the Julian, both in the form of the year, and in that epadis are fubfti- tuted in lieu of golden numbers; for the ufe and difpofition whereof, fee Epacr. Though the Gregorian calendar be preferable to the Ju- Jian, yet it is not without its defe€ts (perhaps, as Tycho Brahe and Caffini imagine, it is impoffible ever to bring the thing to a perfeét jultnefs). For, firft, the Gregorian in- tercal does not hinder but that the equinox fometimes fucceeds the 21ft of Merch, as far asthe 23d; and fome- times anticipates it, falling on the 19th; and the full moon, which falls on the 20th of March, is fometimes the pafchal ; yet not fo accounted by the Gregorians. On the other hand, the Gregorians account the full moon of the 22d of March the pafchal; which yet, falling before the equinox, is not pafchal. In the firft cafe, therefore, Hafter is cele- brated in an irregular month; in the latter, there are two Eafters in the fame ecclefiaftical year. In hke manner, the cyclical computation being founded on mean full moons, which yet may precede or follow the true ones by fome hours, the pafchal full moon may fall on Saturday, which is yet referred by the cycle to Sunday ; whence, in the firft cafe, Eafter is celebrated eight days later than it fhould be, in the other, it is celebrated on the very day of the full moon, with the Jews and Quartodecimar heretics, contrary to the decree of the council of Nice. Meftlin, Viete, Sca- liger, Calvifius, and other mathematicians, fhew other faults in the Gregerian calendar, arifing from the negligence and inadvertency of the authors. Clavius, to whom the condu& of this bufinefs was af- figned, after the death of Lilius, compofed in 1603 a large work in vindication of it, and fuccefstully combated its ad- verfaries. DefeGts, it is acknowledged, are to be found in this calendar; but the reformers deferve praife for what they a€tually did, in an undertaking which does not admit of perfeGtion. Dr. Playfair, in his ‘ Syitem of Chrono- logy,”’ p. 19, obferves, that the method of intercalation ufed in the Gregorian calendar is not the moft accurate. Ninety- feven days, or 100-3, are inferted in the {pace of four cen- turies. This fuppofes the cropical year to confitt of 365%, 5", 49', 12”. On this fuppofition, the interpolation wonld be exa&t, and the error would fcarcely exceed one day in 268,000 years. But the reformers of the calendar made ufe of the Copernican year of 365%, 5", 49!, 20". Initead, therefore, of inferting 97 days in 400 years, they ought to have added, at proper intervals, 41 days in 169 years, or go days in 371 years, or 131 in 540 years, Kc. Recent obfervations have determined the quantity of the tropical year to be 365%, 5", 48’, 453”. Acmitting this to be the true quantity of it, the intercalations ought to be made as follows: fa a Sa af ar ci at ote 47, BR V8! 545) °679) Son ozgi)| F057 pe SE eet) Ch ee HN at cere erm oa eee | + 4 8 34° 3132 463 «3199 225 256 oe 4 - = a tig) Wish ieee 1185) 3313 T44t 2754 4067 9447 51302 — sO)? ? ? 3 287, 318 349 . 667 985 2288 “12425 orag 1728 eae pe cana that is, one day ought to be intercalated 14713° 41851 in the {pace of 4 years, or rather 4 days in 17 years, or § days in 33 years, &c. If 41,851 days were intercalated in 172,800 years, there would be no error. The figns + and — indicate, that the number of intercalary days above which they are placed is too great or too fmall. Every fucceeding number is more accurate than that which goes before. As this method of interpolation is different from that now in ufe, it is obvious that the Gregorian calendar mutt be corrected after a certain period of years. ‘I'he cors reétion, however, will be inconfiderable for many ages, as it will amount only to a day and a half, which is to be fup~ preffed in the {pace of 5000 years. Cavenpar, reformed or correded, is that which, fetting afide all apparatus of golden numbers, epaés, and domini- cal letters, retrenches 11 days from the calendar, and deter. mines the equinox, with the pafchal full moon, and the moveable fealts depending thereon, by aftronomical compu- tation, according to the Rudolphine tables of Kepler, azree~ ably to the fir& council of Nice. The perfon who projected this plan was Erhard Weigel. Upon the death of Weigel in 1699, the project was fub- mitted by the diet to the confideration of Sturmius, pro- feffor of mathematics at Altdorff ; Hamberger, profeffor at Jena ; and Meyer, profeffor at Ratifbon. In confequence of their report, this calendar was iniroduced among the proteftant ftates of Germany, in the year 1700, when 11 days were at once thrown out of the month of February ; fo that in 1700, February had but 18 days; by this means the correGed ftyle agrees with the Gregorian. This alte. ration in the form ef the year they admitted for a time, in expectation that the real quantity of the tropical year being at length more accurately determined by obfervation, the Romanifts would agree with them on fome more convenient intercalation. Carenpar, French or Republican. Soon after the govern- ment was changed in France, it was decreed on the 2d of January 1792, that this year fhould be denominated the fourth of hberty on their coins, and in their a@s. After the death of Louis XVI. in 1793, it was determined that this year fhou'd be called the firlt of the republic, and this fuggelted the idea of a republican calendar. Accordingly, on the r2th of January, 1793, the deputy Romme, prefi- dent of the committee of public inftruction under the con- vention, applicd to the Academy of Sciences for a commif- fion to deliberate on this fubje&t; but M. de la Lande pro- tefted apain't the change of the calendar. He was obliged, however, to acquiefce, and to prepare a new calendar. After the example of the Egyptians, he preferred 12 equal months, wiih five intercalary days, and he adapted their denominations to the climate of Paris, which Fabre d’Ev- lantine expreffed by the following terms, viz. Vendemiaire, or vintage month; Brumaire, or foggy month; Frimaire, or fleety month; Wivo/e, or fnowy month; Pluviofe, or rainy month; Vento/e, or windy month; Germinal, or bud- ding mouth ; FVereal, or flowery month; Prairial, or mea- dow month; MZeffidor, or harvett month; Thermidor, or hot month; and frudidor, or fruit month. The frft month begins September 23; the fecond, OGober 23; the third; November 22; the fourth, December 23; the fifth Jas nuary 21; the fixth, February 20; the feventh, March 22 ; the CALENDAR. the eighth, April 213 the ninth, May 21; the tenth, ‘June 20; theeleventh, July 20; and the twelfth, Auguit 39; making in all 360 days. The remaining five days are called the complementary days; of which the firit is the 15th of September; the fecond the nineteenth ; the third, the 20th ; the fourth the 21ft; and the fifth, the 22d of September, being the lait day of the French year. The firft cecree was iffued the fifth of OSober 1793; and it was followed by another on the 24th of November, or the 4th of Frimaire, in the fecond year of the republic, fettling the commencement and organization of the year, and the n2mes of the daysand months. The decree of the national conyeation comprehends four articles, viz. That the French zra fhould be reckoned from the foundation of the republic, September 22, 1792, of the vulgar zra, on the day when the fun arrived at the true autumnal equinox, in his entrance into the fien Libra, at 9" 18! 30” in the morning, according to the obfervatory at Paris; that the vulgar year fhould be abolifhed in all civil concerns: that each year fhould Commence at midnight, with the day on which the true autumnal! equinox falis, according to the obfervatory at Paris: and that the fir year of the French republic had aGually commenced at midnight of the 22d of September, 1792, and terminated at midnight, between the 21ft and 22d of September, 1793- The decree for adopting a rule of intercalation, in order to preferve the feafons at the fame epochas of rhe year, comprifes the following four articles: viz. that the fourth year of the republican zra fhould be the Grft fextile; that it fhould receive a fixth complementary day; and that it fhould terminate thejfirft franciade: that the fextile, or leap years, fhould fucceed one another every four years, and mark the ecd of each franciade: that the four following fecular years in fucceffion fhou'd be excepted from the lait article; namely, the firft, fecond, and third, fecular years 100, 200, 300, which fhou!ld be common; and that the fourth fhould be fextile ; and that this fhould he the cafe every four centuries until the goth, which fhovld clofe with a common year, the year 4090. Tn this ncw calendar or almanac, the months confifl of 30 days cach, and are divided into three decades. The days of each decade are known by the names of Primidi, Duodi, Tridi, Quartidi, Quintidi, Sextidi, Septidi, OBodt, Nonodi, and Decadi. The day, which begins at midnight, is diftmbuted into ten .parts, and thefe are decimally divided and fub- divided. To the five fuperoumerary days in common years, and fix in leap years, was applied the ‘abfurd ap- pellation of Sans Cu/ottides, borrowed from aterm of re- proach (Sans Cu/otte), which had been originally beftowed on the republican party, on acconnt of the meannefs of thetr rank and fortune; but which the fame party afterwards attempted to render honourable and popular; and this appellation alfo ferves to diftinguifh the leap years, TABLES for reducing the Dates of the new French Calendar to the Dates of the Gregorian Calendar. TABLE I. Of the new French Calendar compared with the Gregorian Calendar for 40 years ; that is, from 1802 to 18420 — eae Commencement of the French Year. Re. |Gregorian Year Franciade. public Ir | 1802-03 12 | 1803-046 ; 13 | 1804-05 - 14 | 1805-06 e 15 | 1806-07 6 16 | 1807-08b 5 17 | 1808-09 6 18 | 1809-10 An 19 | 1810-11 5 20 | 18r1-12b 1I 21 | 1812-13 5 22 | 1813-14 i. 23 | 1814-15 5 24 | 1815-16b AS 25 | 1816-17 4 26 | 1817-38 a 27 | 1818-19 4 28 | 1819-20b a 29 | 1820-21 3 39 | 1821-22 9 | 3% 1822-23 3 | 32 | 1823-24b 9 | 33 | 1824-25 3 34 | 1825-26 8 35 | 1826-27 2 36 | 1827-28b 8 | 37 | 1828-29 a 38 | 1829-30 8 39 1830-31 r 40 | 1831-32b 7 41 | 1832-33 I 42 | 1833-34 7 43 | 1834-35 1 44 | 1835-36 ; 45 | 1836-37 ° 46 | 1837-38 6 47 | 1838-3¢ 0 48 | 1839-40 6 49 | 1840-41 a 5O | 1841-42 5 St | 1842-43 Il Se. or leap-year—s /extile, or French leap-year —c common year of 365 days— m morning —a afternoon, The French decree does not determine the proper rule b fignifies Lifextile, for fixing the leap-year : the neceffity for determining this rule will happen in 1811. The moft convenient method appears to be the conimon one, when after 7 Franciades of 4 years, a Franciade of § years occurs: according to this regulation, the 5th and 13th Francisdes are of § years each. The Bureau des Longitudes will doubtlefs afcertain this point with more accuracy, 6 TABLE II, called ; Perfian wra, ta N D A R. is founded on the CALE Rr, Perfian, is CALENDA ? . its name E erives 1 > degerd,” which d r 5th dynatty, > 6 Jez ee {fanians, o £ flan ” or f Saffa t Per d cerd, he race o he ancien : rar From theaft king of the sete ana aie ae we We 3/2 from the od 58 ams ieaue ae era the fun 2 Tau Biles reigne blithe he day ints x * x Sous at 5 fta th s te z.|** eel E15 Pa kee piers NO pari ee she ely labh ee o ra : a : ve 2 ave Ps a sata 0° jadian kings, is faid to have and to fun a=) aa | | os | eee aa Aries, he is juft finithed, of the 2 a v =e = rres, d juft ; in honour 4 Ee ier) 2 op |e entered 4 ich he had j time, In h ital city. 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A * Some a ~1On8 £ S | 2 | S 3 By this “tiladomed in many fae eee virneds bh reign, S Sy FE] lle hich is ftill adept spocha of its f Yezdeg f ~ peer eres atel lie wiric in the ep inning © ith year o iS & a5 B. iS = not agree it to the beg in the 1 lugh = SEC Mil Sepe elses}s oe ‘the date of it 27 Pin vegiaten nee IIE : Saee oS We wt Bu lies fer the the 16t is Opinio from = is | | "2 BS f Site 5 reter , place on OF this A mpute fr é S | Pe re 2s | “Sipe a) ee hey a AT). 5 ee ) oe PG 636. — a Lali 3 3 3 8 “. Hesira, Bib. ‘ Cad< lay 2 ae SETS eS as 2 the Heg \ elot ( bs at C among S x Suns Sel cas 5 3 d Herb he Ara or 652, & at i eH he = eS 3 igh and H at by t -D. 651 dera & eho ees S212) 2/24 | a) eee ee ie ru ey inp cies 3 Side f1j4 Pl2ig a eane a) Bouvieg sAGagation Soi ad of thefe each iter s e41g BE SIFl 2 ec are /A\trag ted the f the eaftern d z Se seas ee ey) Be! E whom ave adop imony © ezdeger s mn er 2 ssle | sae tla oF aallteratslenaeld ate aes cbterea ees done, S AN $ ce S 2 ; { conformable | it may be: ather ha he a Fig we |e g z mot con! hich 1 father | ad tot iS ae Gets ye S| 2! 3 S Ho he ie indication of w erfon, as ei a title he had his = ro Sas In vit te pertor u fay, t a BE Aha yl 8 yh 2 ss 3 an 4: d as a priva ding how j Arabs fay, & S @ Shite 3 Phos a) wi fians, underftan Her siitorte a ho therefore ‘ha Ry Oi dee Wg gd 213 ~ —— till the Perfia im upon th ir caliph, id f Perfia 3s SNES a ales 3 cy fet, him f their kingdom o = oe iia STS es |S ae a ingdom, onfent o ing the king onfi- ws Lok € 5 |¢ a [s = kingd vith the c eckoning is time, andc S skp gS 6} S 5 3 done w is tributary, re m this time, asa S S| Bee | a 2 sl Whee im as his trit inions fro mero Lad si Do wv] 8 g rded hin f his dom : fF that co is empire "s ‘Ey & hal a2 Seilune a) ga he reft o eduction of rt of his e I S a Baws S e . s ther du art oO : blue w Pail aoa |S E| theses Soe the Tublegnent re6stion paveate 8 plainly alice LE oh fis} ering the re- . a rebel, = ugbt Is, Ons, Sher te S lte| & sl 3 deris ra ones from it by cf is and ought t: ny a aS | Slee =) B onquelt, levered fro f this era f this ~ a 2) & 3 io) cong betn fev ement o ry. ears O e) aS El ie >15 | | S which had ‘ raid oF Yoda. Coa days, or s eye! la Sigis| els ee | See ae ae ich the aahiean Ge GE 8 O75 lel = Seine fixed a : ; for ea ith the addi f the = 1s # | e| 3 aeons a an h the o > 3 | a. 5 £21\| 3 = g 2 are Naboflare ae s each, wit or to the end O) Ee re |= |"8 3 3 wera of 30 af h Aban, < men ES g sie) Aas to the mont era ufe the 4 St] 5 & 3 Si s nom S ~ 3 $ | > Fal (Pesan ay < tercalary day he year, Perfian autre “ Gelaled- “S$ S| rite te | 2 5] als = eae his form of the y ccount of the fultan of Kho- 8 =| 5 pam a iad Be Sete hs FICE ALATA Malek{chah, mbled the moft 2 S| 5S ors 7 e ne SS S é ao e 5 = = Gelalxan year oa conferred ._D 1074, affem reform the =| ~ bees 8 Sz] 2 =) 42 ain se bal Por alle Woes ole aia hence = ee So (| 5) Ss s This g of his 2 afcertain ion of | ein a a rs | | x=) raim. ftrouomers imperfet, to 2 gulation > < eas te e | 8 43 lebrated a found imp d for the reg e S ] oe . : n chang’ & E GS a a iy e cele hich he ; rpofes, a and to” 34 Ss] ell m3 |S Bo o E calendar, # Stiecmouieal Deets ioe Sera reftoring the = S a. 8 |S Sl 18 inox for aftre 1 « Neuruz, idea o med R: HS | es) eS |e "2 equi Kalenmitenioa hes under the ar, as he reform S BN Sie Pfc ¥ Z ir fo onths, un e year, | me S|. = laasis Se BLS {Mae ander tae fixed by Gemihid. a) "Tle ned th bs zo) Ei nel |= E{211/* ae t mode fixed t d alronomi the {eefon of t hor = & & 6 f/e8 5 |= =| ancient o fold, civil an March, the F wifh author, 3 o { wo 1s or a : vas twolold, 14th of cull, a Je five 2 8 Ss | nu. YS ku Soe It, was h on the 4 ding to Za Aa ar, befides 8 = Zz “F that 2 SS ° of bot r, accor 2 he civil year, feven = = Oo x = = ning 1074, OF, ion of t fix or i x | SESE Feo Pes nox, A. D. a the pean Seay, Apes aby > a Oa ices % O79. 5 » (a) lo 5 & as 2 = 2 | | A. D. cae in pee day; alate o in five ae f Raa aes mls ail oce interca Mion, a fi otly than form, a ; I S15 s 3 a 7s : in fucce freque f the fame it = S jo Hed | & a |< & times in r more was o eee Tia: rea] § | é zeta lea ya! sete was not a Ratesnamiel SN folar open as reforma- e = | Ais = The Perfian uantity wi m thefe frequ {mall dife rQ Q x le & o ly of the fame a ee 53. Fro rifen no fons oh : Sears 403 here has a he feafo << H cee. ¢ | nearly d of 365" 5 lendar, there ard to t ¢ ba Yes 7] | confitte rfian calen . with reg = Blade acs ga] 2 ions of the Pe different writers Boe SA a ga | t ent among _ = = & uw teem 2 i) a ag Bsa i338 a Sean ee |e | 3 < 188 a a ie < Sie aS 3 and CAL ‘and: days when feveral feitivals were to be celebrated, which it would be difficult to reconcile. Piayfair’s Chronology, P. 55: See Epocwd and Year. CALENDAR, con/Irudion of a, or almanac. See AuMANAC. Cacenpar is aifo applied to divers other compofitions re- fpecting the twelve months of the year, In this fenfe, Spencer has given the fhepherd’s calendar, Evelyn and Miller the gardener’s calendar, &c. Cavenpar is ufed tor the catalogue, or fafti, anciently kept in each church, of the faints, both univerfal, and thofe particularly honoured in each church 5 with their bifltops, martyrs, &c. Calendars are not to be confounded with martyrologies, for each church had its peculiar calendar; whereas the martyrologies regarded the whele church in general; containing the martyrs and confeflors of all the churches. From all the feveral calendars were formed one martyrology; fo that martyrologies-are. pofterior, to calens dars. See Martryrovocy. Cavenpar is alfo extended to an orderly table,-or enw meretion of perfons or things. Lord Bacon wifhes for aca- lendar of doubts. A late writer has given a calendar of the perfons who may inheric eftates in fee-fimple. Carenpar, Kalerdarium, originally denoted amcng the Romans a book containing an account of monies at intereft, which became due on the calends of January; the uiual time when the Roman ufurers let out their money. Senec. de Benef. lib. vii. c. 10. Idem. lib.i. c. 2, Ejufd. Epift. 14. Idem. Ep. 87. Fab. Thef. p.-413. Cavenpar months, the folar months as they ftand in the calendar, viz. January 31 days, &c. The number of days in each month may be fuggefted to the memory by the following canon: “© Thirty days hath September, Apni, June, and November, February has twenty-eight alone, Atnd all the reft bave thirty-one.” Cavenpar, affronomical, an inftrument engraved upon copper-piates printed upon papsr, and pafted on board, with a brafs flider which carries a hair, and fhews by infpe@ion the fun’s meridian altitude, right afcerfion, declinatior, rifing, fetting, amplitude, &c. to a greater exatinels than our com- mon globes will thew. CALENDAR of fri oners, isa lift of all.their names, with their feparate judgments in the matgin, which the judge figns, and the execution of which ts committed tothe re{pec- tive fheriff. In the cafe of a capital felony, the words ** hang by the neck’? are annexed to the prifoner’s name, inftead of * fuf. per col.” for fufpendatur per collum, which was the ancient form. Judge Blackitone well obferves, that the execution of a man feems to be too important and terrible a talk a depend on a marginal note, Bilackft. Com. vol. iv. - 396. , CarenvAr-glafs, vitrum calendare, a name formerly given by fome writers to a thermometer, or graduated tube, where- by to meafure the degrees of heat. Carenvar-brothers, fratres calendarii, a fort of devout fra- ternitics, compofed of ecclcfiaftics as weil as laymen; whofe chief bufinefs was to procure maffes to be faid, and alms diftributed, for the fouls of fuch members as were deceafed. They were alfo denominated calend brothers, becaufe they ufually met on the calends of cach month, though in fome places only once a quarter. CALENDARIO, Puitip, in Biography, a celebrated archite& and {culptor, flourifhed at Venice in the time of Martin Faletri, doge of that republic in 1354. He con- ftruGed thofe beautiful porticos fupported by marble co- lumns, which furround the place of St. Mark, above which CAL are feen fuperb buildings ornamented with bas-reliefs and rich paintings. By thefe works he eftablifhed both his fame and fortune. Moreri. CALENDARIUM feflum. The Chriftians retained much of the ceremony and wantonone(s of the calends of Ja- nuary, which for many ages was held a-featt, and celebrated by the clergy with great indecencies, under the names felum halendarum, or Aypodiaconorum, or flulterum, that is, the feaft of fools: fometimes alfo /idertas decembrica, The people met mafxed in the church, and in a Indicrous way proceeded tothe eleGtion of a:mock pops, or bifhop,-who exércifed a jurifdiGion over them fuitable to the feltivity of the occa- fion: fathers, councils, and popes long laboured to reftraia this-licence, to little purpofe. We find the fealt of the calends in ufe as low as the clofe of the fifteenth century. Du-Cange. CALENDER, a machine ufed, in the manufafories, for prefling certain fluffs, filks, callicoes, and even linens; to make them fmooth, even and glofly. It is alfo ufed for watering, or giving the waves to tabbies-and mohairs. "The word is formed from the French calandre, or Spaniftt calandra, which fignify the fame; and which fome derive further from the Latin cylindrus ;.becaule the whole effect of the machine depends upon a cylinder. Borel derives the name from that ef alittle bird, of the {wallow kind ; on ac- count of the agreement between the feathers of the bird, and the imprefiion of the machines The calender confilts of two large wooden rollers, round which the pieces of ftuff-are wound; thefe are put between two large, clofe, polifhed planks of wood, or plates of iron, the lower ferving. as a fixed bafe, and the upper moveable, by means of a wheel like that of a crane; with a rope, faftened to a fpindle,-which makes its axis: this upper part is of a prodigious weight, fometimes twenty or thirty thoufand pounds.. It is the weight of this part, together with its alternate motion, that gives the polifh, and makes the waves on the ftuffs, by cauling the cylinders on which they are put to roll with great force over the lowelt board. The rollers-are taken off, and.put on again by inclining the machine. At Paris they have an extraordinary machine of this kind, called the reyal calender, made by order of M. Colbert; the lower table or plank of which is made of a block of f{mooth marble, and the upper lined at bottom with a plate of polithed copper. This is called the yreat calender; they have alfo a {mall one with two tables of polifhed iron or fteel. There are alfo calenders without wheels, which are wrought by a horle harneffed to a wooden bar, which turns.a large arbor placed upright; at the top of which, on a kiod of drum, is wound a rope,-the two ends of which being faltcned to the two extremitics of the upp-r plank of the engine, give 1t motion. But the horfe calendar is in lefs efteem than the wheel kind, as the motion of this latter ia more cquable and certain. We read of calendering worfteds. To improve linen far- ther, the drapers get feveral forts of their cloths calen- dered: whereby their threads are made to lie flat‘er and fmoother. : Cacenpver alfo denotes the workman who manages the machine above defcribed ; applying the cloth or fluff under neath, after having firft wound it on the rollers. Cavenvers is alfo the name of a fort of dervifes {pread through Turkey and Perfia, whofe order is not in. general cfteem among the Mahometans, as being reputed lefe abs ftemious and ftriét in morals than fome other orderg. ‘They derive their name from Calenderi, their founder, who went bareheaded, CAL bareheaded, without a fhirt, and with the fkin of a wild beait thrown over his fhouldera. Before, he wore a kind of apron, the ftrings of which were adorned with counterfeit recious ftones. In Perfia and Arabia thefe dervifes were called Abdals or Abdallat, i. e. Perfons confecrated to the fervice or honour of God. They preach in the market- laces, and livenpon aims. See Dervis. CALENDS, Catenpe#, in the Roman Chronology, the firft day of every month. The word is formed from xaAew, J call, or proclaim; be- caufe, before the publication of the Roman Fatti, it was one of the offices of the pontifices to watch the appearance of the new moon, and give notice thereof to the Rex Sacri Jrculus ; upon which a facrifice being offered, the pontiff fummoned the people together in the capitol, and there, with a loud voice, proclaimed the number of calends, or the day whereon the nones would be; which he did by repeat- ing this formula, as often as there were davs of calends : Calo Juno Novella. Whence the name calende was given there- to, from calo, calare. This is the account given by Varro. Plutarch, and after him Gaza, derive the word from ciam ; Quia luna calendis clam fit : but this is far fetched. Others derive the appellation hence: that the people being con- vened on this day, the pontifex called or proclaimed the feveral feafts or holidays in the month; a cuftom which con- tinued no longer than the year of Rome 450, when C. Flavius, the curule edile, ordered the fafti, or calendar, to be fet up in public places, that every body might know the dif- ference of times, and the return of the feltivals. The calends were reckoned backwards, or in a retrograde order: thus, v.g. the firlt of May being the calends of May; the laft, or thirtieth of April, was the pridie calen- darum, or fecond of the calends of May; the twenty-ninth of April, the third of the calends, or betore the calends: and fo back to the thirteenth, where the ides commence 3 which are, likewife, numbered invertedly to the fitth, where the nones begin; which are numbered after the fame man- ner to the firft day of the month, which is the calends of April. See Ipes and Nongs. The rules of computation by calends are included in the following verfes : * Prima dies menfis cujufque eft didta calendz : Sex Maius nonas, Ottober, Julius, & Mars; Quatuor at reliqui: habet idus quilbet céto. Inde dies reliquos omnes dic effe calendas ; Quas retro numerans dices a menfe fequente.”” To find the day of the calends anfwering to any day of the month we are in; fee how many days there are yet re- maining of the month, and to that number add two: for example; fuppofe it the 22d of April; it is then the roth of the calends of May. For April contains 30 days; and 22 taken from 30, there remains 8; to which 2 being ad- ded, the fum is ro. The reafon of adding ¢wo is, becaufe the laft day of the month is called /ecundo calendas, the latt but one tertio ca- lendas, &c. The Roman writers themfelves are at a lofs for the reafon of this abfurd and whimfical manner of computing the days of the month: yet it is ftill kept up in the Roman chancery; and by fome authors, out of a vain affeCtation .of learning, preferred to the common, more natural, and ealy'manner. Carenps, Kalende, are alfo ufed in Church Hiflory to de- note conferences anciently held by the clergy of each dean= ery, on the firft day of every month, concerning their duty £AatL and condué, efpecially in what related to the impofition © penance. Du-Cange. e Caxenns of Fanuary, in Roman Antiquity, was.2 folemn feftival confecrated to Juno and Janus; wherein the Ro- mans offered vows and facrifices to thofe deities, and ex- ree prefents among themfelves, as a token of friend- ip. 7 It was only a melancholy day to debtors, who were then obliged to pay their interefts, &c. Hence Horace calls it #ri/- tes calende. Lib.i. Serm. Sat. 3. CALENDULA, in Botany, (according to Martyn, a diminutive from Caltha, the name of the moft common fpe- cies in old authors; Ventenat derives it from Calende, the Latin term for the firft day of every month, becaufe it con- tinues long in flower, whence one of iis Italiansames Fiore d’ogni Mets.) Linn. gen. g90. Schreb. 1339. Willd. 1559. Gert. ggt. Ju p. 183. Vent. v. 2. p. 545. Marigold, Ciafs and order, /yngencfia polygamia neceffaria Nat. ord, Compofite difcoidee. inn. Corymbifere, Jull. Vent. Gen. Ch. Calyx fimple, nearly upright, with numerous linear-lanceolate, nearly equal divifions. Cor. radiate : florets of the di/é numerous, tubuiar, femiquinquefd, the lengthof the calyx ; the ray ftrap-fhaped, very long, three-toothed, hairy at the bafe, without nerves, with piftils only. Stamens of the difk: filaments five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers the length of the floret, united in a hollow cylinder. Pi, of the di/t: germ oblong; ftyle thread-fhaped, fearcely the length of the ftamens: ftigma obtufe, biiid, fira'ght. Pif- il of the ray: germ oblong, three-cornered; ftyle thread- fhaped ; ftigmas two, oblong, acuminate, reflexed. Peris carp, the permanent calyx converging and depreffed. Seeds in the centre of the diff none; in the circumference, fometimes but rarely folitary, membranous, invericly heart-fhaped, comprefled ; in the ray, folitary, larger, oblong, incurved, triangular, with membranous angles, marked on the out- fide longitudinally with the figure of a vegetable. Dawu none. Recep. naked, flat. Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Down none. Calyx with many divifions. Seeds in the circumference of the difk membranous. Obf. As the feeds in the eircumference of the difk are very different in form from thofe of the ray, Linnzus was in doubt whether they were not abortive; but Gertner af- ferts that both kinds are fertile. ” ‘ Sp. 1. C. arvenfis, Linn, Sp. Pl. (Caltha arvenfis, Bauh. Pin. 275. minima, Bavh. Hit. 3. p. 105: officinalis, Scop. Carn. 1040.) ** Seeds boat-fhaped, muricated, incurved, outer ones ereét, lengthened, and flanding out,” Linn. (lan- ceolate-awl-fhaped, muricated on the back, Willd.) Annual. Siem flender, branching, {preading nearthe ground. Leavesnar- row, {pear-fhaped, hairy, half furrounding the ftem at their bafe. Flowers pale yellow, {mall, terminating the branches, on long peduncles. La Marck. Seeds of the di/é curved inwards, fo as to form a femi-circle ; by no means boat-fhaped or mars gined, but roundifh ; compreffed in the belly part to a fharp edge, convex on the back, and muricated with fhort, harm- lefs prickles: of the ray longer, upright, crooked, leflened upward, and lengthened into a lameliate, two-lobed beak, with little prickles on the outfide, fmooth within, and aug- mented near the bafe with a lamellate procefs. Gert. Tab. 168. fig. 4. A native of cultivated fields in the South of Europe. 2. C. Ste//ata, Willd, Cav. ic. 1. p. 3. tab. 5. Desf. atl. 2, p. 304. * Seeds boat-fhaped, incurved, muricated ; five outer ones ovate-lanceolate, membranous, and toothed at the margin, muricated oa the back.’? Willd. Annual, Stem, a3 well as the whole plant, rugged; three feet high, herbaceous CAL herbaceous, ftriated, much branched. Leaves ovate-oblong, toothed in a finuate manner, fomewhat ciliate, thick, bright green. Flowers yellow, terminating: florets of the ray about fixteen, equal in number to the divifions of the calyx : of the diff few, barren. A native of Barbary, cultivated by Cavanilles in the garden of the Duke del Infantado, near Madrid, from feeds fent by Lemonier. It flowers and per- feéts its feeds there from June to Augult. 3.C. /an@a, Lion. Sp. Pl. “ Seeds pitcher-fhaped, inverfely egg-fhaped, even; calyxes a little muricated.”” Annual. Whole plant fmooth. Leaves rugged at the edge. Similar to the arven- fis, but the calyx is muricated on the outfide, the feeds belly out more, and are not at all muricated ; nor are the feeds of the ray prickly. Linn. A native of Paleftine. 4. C. officinalis, Linn. Sp. Plant. (Caltha vulgaris : Bauh. Pin. 275. ‘ All the feeds boat-fhaped, incurved, muricated.”” Annual. Stem loftier, and more divaricated than that of C. arvenfis, angular, downy. Leaves feffile ; lower ones fpa- tula-fhaped ; upper ones lanceolate. La Marck. Seeds of the difk boat-fhaped ; divided on their concave fide by a longi- tudinal partition, and marked on the middle of their convex fide with an elevated muricated furrow: thofe of the ray roundifh, bent in a femicircular manner, muricated on the outfide, fmooth within, and often furnifhed near the bafe with an ereét, lamellated procefs. Gert. tab. 168. fig. 4. A native of cultivated ground in the fouth of Europe. Flowering moft part of the fummer. It was cultivated by Gerard in 1597, and is till one of the moft common annuals in our gardens, where numerous varieties have been produc- ed in the colour and luxuriance of its flowers. The florets of the ray are in many parts of England boiled in broth ; and numerous medical virtues were formerly attributed to it, which have now loft their credit. 5. C. fuffruticofa, Willd. Vahl. Symb. 2. p- 94- “ Seeds boat-fhaped, incurvated, muricated ; outer ones lanceolate-awl-fhaped, muricated, ereét: leaves lanceolate, toothed in rather a finuate manner, rough. Stem fomewhat fhrubby.”? Perennial. Branches af- cending, terminated by a fingle flower ona long peduncle. Flower: and Seeds like thofe of C. arvenfis. A native of the coaft of Barbary. 6. C. mcana, Willd. (C. tomentofa, Desf. atl. 2. p. 305. tab. 245. Caltha maritima lufitanica la- puginofa. Tourn. Init. 499. Vail. a&t. 1720. p. 289.) “ Seeds boat-fhaped, even; outer ones awl-fhaped, erect, a little muricated ; leaves oblong-fpatula-fhaped, downy on both fides.” Willd. Anaual. Whole plant white with down. Flowers yellow. A native of Morocco and Portu- gal on the fea coalt. 7. Se Linn. Sp. Pl. (Caltha africana, Morif. tab. 3. fig. 8. Tourn. Inft. 499.) ‘* Leaves lanceolate, toothed in a finuated manner; {tem leafy ; pe- duncles thread-fhaped.”” Annual. Stems declining, from fix to eight inches long; upper part very flender. Flowers fingle, terminating ; difk purple ; ray of a violet colour on the outlide, and a pure white within, opening when the fun fhines, and fhutting in cloudy weather and in the evening. Seeds of the difk roundifh, heart-fhaped, compreffed, furrounded with a {welling rim of a pale ftraw colour: of the ray ob- long, inverfely pyramidal, three or four-cornered, muricated with tubercles on the fides and angles. Gert. Tab. 168. fig. 4. Acnative of the Cape of Good Hope, cultivated Mr. Miller in 1726. 8. C. bybrida, Linn. Sp. Pl. altha africana femine majore, ob’ ongo Breyn. tab. 14. 2. Cardifpermum af. pubefcens: Att. Panf. 1724. 39- tab. 2.) “ Leaves oblong-lanccolate, toothed ; ftem leafy ; eduncles thickened at the top.’ Annual. Leaves much eaer than thofe of C. pluvialis and broader at the end. Flowers {maller, but of the fame colour. Miller. Seeds o the difk alfo fimilar, but a little larger, elliptic heart-fhaped, Vor. V. CAL and not tumid at the edge; of the ray three-cornered ; the fides rather convex and fmooth; the angles comprefled and toothed in-a ferrated manner. Gert. 0. C. amplexicaulis, Willd. Thunb. prod. 164. Leaves embracing the ftem, oblong-halbert-fhaped, toothed ; flem herbaceous, ereét.’? 10. C. pinnata; Willd. Thunb. prod. 164. “« Leaves winged.” 11. C. /cabra, Willd. Thunb. ‘ Leaves ellip- tic-lanceolate, toothed, rugged; ftem herbaceous, erect.” 12. C. parviflora, Willd. Thunb. ‘* Leaves feffile, lance- olate, toothed; ftem herbaceous, rough with hairs.” 13. C. decurrens, Willd. Thunb. ‘ Leaves lanceolate, decur- rent, very entire, {mooth; flemherbaceous.”” 14. C. nudi- caulis, Linn. Sp. Pl. (Bellis, Comm. hort. 2. 66. ta>. 33. Caltha afr. femine plano cordato, Boerh. Lugd. 1. 113.) ‘* Leaves lanceolate, toothed in a finuate manner; ftem nearly naked.” Annual. Stem perfe&tly fimple, ereét, leafy near the bottom. eaves f{patula-fhaped, entire, or rarely furnifhed with a tooth, rugged. Seeds orbiculate, Linn. 15. C. tomentofa, Linn, Sup. Thunb. ** Leaves inverfely egg-(haped, downy; fcape with a fingle flower.” The lalt nine are all natives of the Cape of Good Hope. 16. C. pumila, Willd. Thunb. “ Leaves orbiculate, tocthed; pe- tioles ciliated; feape with one flower.”? Willd. Perennial. Leaves half an inch long. Petioles twice as long as the leaf. Flower refembling that of the common daify, but four times fmaller. Seeds oblong, incurved. A native of New Zea- land. 17. C. magellanica, Willd. (C. pumila 8. Forft. Com- ment. Goett. 9. p. 40. After nudicaulis, Lam. encyc. 1. 305. Illuft. tab. 681. fig. 4.) ‘ Leaves wedge-fhaped, toothed near the end; fcape with one flower.” peetnial Root thread-fhaped, creeping. Leaves narrowed at the bafe into a petiole, not ciliated. Scape furnifhed with one or two thread fhaped braétes. A native of the ftraits of Magellan. 18. C. graminifolia, Linn. Sp. Pl. (C. africana furre@ta. Pluk. mant. 35. tab. 370. fig. 7. Caltha africana foliis croci, Boerh. Lugd, 1. p. 113. Dimorphotheca, Vail. a&t. 1720. p. 280. Bellis africana foliis anguftis, Comm. hort. 2. p. 67. tab. 34.) ‘* Leaves linear, nearly entire ; {tem almoft naked.” Perennial. Stem dividing near the root into feveral tufted heads with long grafly leaves coming ovt ou every fide without order. Peduncles one-flowered, axil- lary, about nine inches long. Florets of the difk purple; of the ray purple without, pure white within. It is in the greatelt beauty in April and May, but continues to flower late in the autumn. A native of the Cape, whence it was brought to Holland in 1698. It has been long in the Eng- lith gardens, but is not fo common as it deferves. Miller. 19. C. Tragus, Willden. Ait. hort. Kew. 3. 271. Jacq. hort. Schanb. 2. p. 14. tab. 153. ‘ Leaves linear, fome- what toothed, muricated with {mall points beneath ; feeds nearly orbiculate; flem fomewhat fhrubby.” Perennial. Leaves alternate. Ray of the corolla large, purple without, white within. 20. C. oppofitifoha, Willd. Ait. hort. Kew. “ Leaves oppofite, linear, entire, fomewhat flefhy, fmooth.’” Perennial. 21. C. glabrata, Willd. Thunb. * Leaves cllip- tic, entire, fmooth ; flem fhrubby, ercét.’? Perennial. 22. C. fruticofa, Linn. Sp. Pl.“ Leaves inverfely egg-fhaped, fomewhat toothed ; ftem fhrubby, decumbent.” Perennial. Stem feven or eight fect high, lender, and requiring fup- port ; branches numerous, hanging downwards. Leaves on fhort petioles of a fhining green colour on their upper furface. Flowers terminating the branches on fhort naked peduncles. Seeds heart-fhaped, flat. Sent to Mr. Miller by Dr. Van Royen about 1759. 23. C. arborefcens, Willd. Jacq. ic. rar. 3. tab. 596. (C. rigida, Ait. Martyn. C. afpera, Thunb.) “ Leaves oblong, toothed, rugged ; feeds nearly orbiculate; ftem fhrubby, panicled.” Perennial. 2/oqwers 5E yellow, CAL yellow, ere; in fruit nodding. Rims of the feeds femior- biculate.”? 24. C. muricata, Willd. Thunb. ‘ Leaves ob- long, rugged with papillary tubercles; the lower ones toothed, wpper ones entire ;. {tem fhrubby.” Perennial. 25. C. cuneata, Willd. Thunb. ‘ Leaves wedge-fhaped, flethy, toothed.”? Pereanial. The laft eight are all natives of the Cape of Good Hope. Propagation and Culture. —The feeds of the arvenfis, fanc- ta, officinalis, pluvialis, hybrida, and nndicaulis, fhould be fown in the fpring, and will afterwards fow themfelves without farther trouble. The laft three fhould not be tranf- planted. he graminifolia does not often produce good feeds in Europe, but is eafily propagated by flips taken off from the head, in the fame manner as is praétifed for thrift. They may be planted any time iu fummer, in pots filled with light frcfh earth, and plunged in a moderate hot-bed, or placed in the common earth under a melon frame, and occafonally, but not plentifully watered. When they have taken root, they fhould be tran{planted and kept during the fummer in the open air, and in a fhady fituation. In winter they require proteCtion from froitand heat, but do not thrive in artificial heat. The fruticofa is alfo eafily propa- gated by cuttings in light poor earth, and muft be treated in the fame manner as the graminifolia, Miller. Carenpuva, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Moracirra that inhabits North America, the Ruby crowned wren of Latham, roitelet rubis of Buffon, and calendula penfilvanica of Briffon. The colour is greenifh-afh ; crown with a ruby (fometimes deep yellow) line; abdomen and wings bencath yellowifh. Gmel. &c. : This is a fmall bird. 'The female has no ruby line on the crown, but has a fcarlet lunule molt commonly on the nape, which is not obfervable 1n the male. Canenputa, in Zoology, according to Gmelin, a fort of Hypra, called by Hughes in his * Natural Hiftory of Bar- badoes,” the animal flower. Authors are divided in opinion as to the genus to which this animal. flower ought to be re- ferred. Gmelin expreffes a doubt of its being truly of the hydra kind, although he places it in that genus. Ellis con- fiders it as an aCtinia; and later writers entertaining the fame idea, it ftands at prefent as adinia calendula. Notwithftand- ing this, we have, however, no hefitation in believing it to be neither of the genus Aydra, nor aéinia, but a fpecies of tubularia. ‘This we mutt prefume from its analogy to the tubularia magnifica, and fome other accurately defined fpe- cies of that genus. The original figure of this animal is that which appears in the ‘* Natural Hittory of Barbadoes”’ by Hughes. Ellis and Solander have a figure of it in their work on zoophytes, but which is copied from the above mentioned publication, as is alfo the defcription that accom. panies it. We mult therefore have recourfe to the account given of it by Hughes, as being the belt to be obtained at prefent of this curious animal. This writer defcribes it as having the appearance of fine radiated flowers, of a pale yellow, or bright ftraw colour, flightly tinged with green ; each furrounded by a circular border of thick-fet petals about the fize of, and much refembling, thofe of a fingle garden marigold; except that the whole of this feeming flower is narrower at the difcus, or fetting on of the leaves (petals) than any flower of that kind. Mr. Hughes obferves, that thefe animals, on being dilturbed, fink into holes; he alfo remarked four dark coloured threads, fomewhat like the legs of a fpider, rife out from the centre of what he calls the flower, with a quick {pontaneous motion from one fide to the other of the circular border of leaves (petals) ; and thefe in reality, he fays, were fo many arms or feclers, clofing together in imitation of a forceps, as if they had CAL hemmed ia their prey, which the yellow border foon fur- rounded, and clofed to fecure. He attempted to pluck one of thefe from the rock to which they were affixed, but never could effect his defign, for as foon as his fingers came within-two or three inches of it, the animal would immedi- ately contract its border of tentacula, and fhrink back into the hole of the rock; but if left undifturbed for about four minutes, it would come gradually into fight, expanding, though at firlt very cautioufly, its petals or tentacula, till it would at length appear again as before, like a flower in full blofiom. As often as his hand came within a certain dillance of it, the animal would again recoil from his approach in the fame manner. He alfo tried the fame experiment by attempting to touch it with his cane, and a imall ‘flender rod, but the effect produced was the fame. Ellis calls this the fea marigold, from its near refemblance, when the tentacula are expanded, to the flower of the com- mon marigold. 1t may be fpecifically defined in the words of Gmelin: ftem fomewhat turbinated: dif furrounded by petal-fhaped tentacula, or rays. CALENS, in L£ntomology, a Siberian fpecies of Cury- sts of a large fize, deferibed by Fabricius. he prevailing colour is gloffy blue ; abdomen golden ; tail blue and armed with four teeth. Of. The legs and tip of the antennz are fufcous. Caens, a fpecies of Cimex foundin India. The head, thorax, and wing-cafes are black, with a fulvous feutel. Gronovius, &c. CALENTES, in Logic, a fort of fyllogifm in the fourth, commonly called Galenical, FIGURE, wherein the major pro- pofition is univerfal and affirmative; and the fecond or mi- nor, as well as the conclulion, univerfal and negative. This is intimated by the letters it is compofed of, where the A fignifies an univerfal affirmative, and the two E’s as many univerfal negatives. E. gr. CA LEN Lvery affliéion in ikis world is only for a time, No affliction, which is only for a time, ought to dif- turd use TES No affidion ought to diflurb us, which happens in this world. The Ariftotelians not allowing the fourth figure of fyllo- gifms, turned this word into cELanTes, and make it only an indirect mood of the firlt figure. CALENTIUS, Exisius, in Biography, an ingenious writer both in profe and verfe, was born in Apulia, and be- came preceptor to prince Frederick, the fon of Ferdinand I. king of Naples, whom he endeavoured to infpire with fentiments of juftice and humanity, congenial to his own. He was an enemy to capital puniiiments, and propofed va- rious fubftitutes for them in different cafes. He was much addi&ted to agriculture, and praétifed it with fkill. Al- though his circumftances were narrow, he lived on terms of intimate fricndihip with the moft eminent feholars of his time, and was a member of the Neapolitan academy. He was the author of feveral works, both in profe and verfe, which were printed in 1503, about the time of his death; the principal of thefe was his poem on the * Battle of the Frogs and Mice,”? imitated from Homer. He declined writing the hiftory of the war carried on by Charles the Bold againft the Swifs, alleging, that it was not fafe to. {peak ill of princes, and that an honeft man ought not to publifh falfehoods. CALENTUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, on the other fide of the Ebrus. Pliny fays, that bricks were made in this place of an earth refembling pumice-ftone,, which would not fink in water.. CALEN- GA E CALENTURE, from calere, to be hot, in Medicine, a {pe- ies of difeafe, formerly faid to be common to feamen during pvc a ame in peace climates, and to be characterifed by a peculiar delirium, in which the patient imagined that he faw green fields and groves in the fea, and was defirous of leap- ing over-board in order to walk in them. ‘This affection is not mentioned by recent authors, who have written on the difeafes of feamen in hot climates; and the accounts which have been tranfmitted to us, leave the caufe of this hailuci- nation in fome obfcurity. According to Dr. Stubbs, who has briefly related two cafes, which occurred during a voyage to jamaica, it was a tranfient delirium, independent of fe- ver, and prodaced by fordes in the ftomach azd bowels, and was therefore quickly removed by an emetic. (Philofoph. Tranfaé&t. N° 36.) Other writers deferibe the calenture as a febrile difeafe, attended with a furious delirium, infomuch, that fix men could fearcely reitrain the patient from leaping into the fea: and bleeding and other evacuations ave faid to be the proper remedies by thefe authors. (Shaw's Practice. Allen’s Synopfis.) In confequence of thefe different ac- counts of the diforder, Sanvages has defcribed two genera of the calenture ; one of which he claffes with the fimple hal- lucinations, under the title of Paraphrofyne Calentura ; and the other he confiders as a {pecies of Prenitis, or inflamma- tion of the brain. (Nofolog. Method. Ciafs ii. Ord. 2. and Clafs vitiwOrd. 3.) It is probable that the difeafe in all in- ftances depended uo fome degree of inflammation in the head, excited by the heat of a vertical fun ; and the inflinc- tive feelings, which, in many cafes of febrile delirium, rompt the patient to plunge into cold water, to relieve his Eiferings from inordinate heat, may poflibly have been mif- taken for a conception, that the fea was a plain or an orange Lan . . S°CALEPINO, or Da Cacerio, Amsrose, in Biography, acelebrated grammarian, defcended from the counts of Ca- lepio, was born at Bergamo about the year 1435. He entered into the convent of Auguftins in his mative place, and chiefly devoted himfelf to the ftudy of languages. His “Vocabulary of the Latin Tongue” became fo famous, that books of a fimilar nature were long familiarly termed « Calepines.” After many additions and improvements by Pafferat, Lacerda, Chiffet, and others, this work, firft printed jn 1503, has become a_polyglott ditionary, of which the beft editions are that of Chifflet at Lyons in 1681, 2 vols, fel. and a later one by Facciolati of Padua. Calepino be- came blind before his death, which happened in 1511. 7. Did. Hilt. é NOALEPIO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Ber- Bae ERES, in Modern Hiflory, the denomination of a kind of banditti in India, who inhabit the thick forelts of Tundeman, between Tanjore and Madura. f They are dif- tinguifhed from other Tadians by their ferocious afpeét and manners, as well ds by the dingy colour of their ficin, which is covered with duft, and feldom wafhed. T heir common arms are long pikes, cudgels, and fabres. They are faid to maffacre all who fall into their hands, and particularly Eu- ropeans. Set cas in Geography, . Eo vi. wm CALES, in Ancient RO ah a fmall river of Dithynia, between the Elzus on the weit, and the Lycus on the eaft, fouth-eaft of Heraclea. The emporium at its mouth, men- tioned by Arrian, is called by Marcian of Heraclea, Caleps. Cares, Carvi, atown of Italy, in Campania, upon the Appian way, S. E, of Theanum, and N. W. of Cazma. atown of Corfica; fix CAL Tt was celebrated for its wire, calied “ Calenum.” ruins are difcerned a theatre and amphitheatre. Cares, in Geography. See Canviz. CALETA, or Caceres, in dacient Geography, a peo- ple placed by Cefar, and alfo by Strabo, in Belsic Gaul ; but Anguitus comprifes them in Celtic Gaul, or Gallia Lyonnenfis ; their chief town was “ Juliobona2? M. @ Anville fuggetls that they probably occupied the dioccfe of “ Caux.”” ‘Lhe promontory “ Caletorum,”? was ftuated in Lyonnenfis Secunda, at the mouth of the Seine; now called * Cape Caux.” CALETURE, in Geography. See Cartura. Cacerure lies alfo on the coalt of Coromandel, north. cafterly from Pullicat or Palliakate. CALT, one of the fmaller Orkney iflands, about one mile to the north of Eda. Alfo, another {mail ifland of the fame groupe, about a mile north of Fata. Catr, a rock near the coalt of Ireland, about half a mile from the fouth-weit end of Dur‘ey ifle in the county of Cork, at the entrance into Bantry bay. N. lat. 51° 31’. W. long. 10° 6'. Catr of Mun, a {mall ifland in the Ivith fea, near the fouth-welt coat of the Ifle of Man. N. lat. 54° a’. W- long. 4° 43’. Cater Sound, lies on the coaft of Sweden, four leagues fouth from Mael{trand, and as much north from Wingo ifland. It abounds with dangerous rocks. . Carr, in Rural Economy, the young of the cattle kind of animals. Calves are diftinguifhed, according to the dif- ference of fex, into male and female, or du// and cow, why, or guicalyes. There are confiderable differences in the manage- ment of thefe animals in different diftri&s of the kingdom, both in the rearing and fattening; the advantages of which {till remain to be decided by the teft of experiment. Catves, Rearing of. It is by this praGtice that the farmer is to raife his cattle ftock ; it fhould, of courfe, be attended to with a great degree of care. Where he is anxious to have a good cow ftock, the beft cow calves fhould be care- fully feleéted from fuch cows as are the moft tra@able, af- ford the beft milk, are the molt hardy, and beft fuited to the ftate of the farm; afterwards rearing them with the mott careful attention to the nature and quantity of food, as well as other circumftances. ‘There can be little doubt but that the beft and moft na- tural mode of rearing the young of this, as well as moft other kinds of animals, is, that of allowing them to fuck their dams at leaft for fome length of time after they are brought forth. ‘The ufual method in Yorkhhire is, however, that of giving them milk to drink, there being few inflances where they are allowed to fuck. For the firlt two or three weeks, they moflly get milk warm from the cow ; but for the next two or three weeks, half the new milk is withdrawn, and fkimmed milk fubftituted in its ftead : and at the end of that period of time, the new milk is wholly withdrawn ; they are then fed on fkimmed milk alone, or fometimes mixed with water, till they are able to fupport themfelves by eating grafs, or other food of that, or other forts which are pro- vided for them. But in Chehire, the practice is to allow the calves to fuck for the firfl three weeks. They are then fed on warm green whey, or fcalded cy and butter-milk mixed; with the green whey, water is frequently mixed, and either oatmeal, or wheat and bean-flour added. A quart of meal or flour is thought fuflicient to mix with forty or fifty quarts of liquid. Oat-meal grucl and butter-milk, with an addition of fkimmed milk, are alfo uled for the ipa purpofe. Some one of 5E2 lit its CAL thefe prepared kinds of food is given night and morning for a few weeks after the calves are put on that diet, but after- wards, only once a day, till they are three months old or more, and become perfeétly ftrong. The calves in Gloucefterfhire are not allowed to fuck above two or three days; they are then fed on fkimmed milk, which is previoufly heated over the fire. When they arrive at fuch an age as to be able to eat a little, they are al- lowed fplit beans or oats, and cut hay, water being mixed with the milk at the time of giving it. And the method praétifed in Suffex differs materially from any of thefe. It is common, in that diftrict, to allow the calves either to fuck for ten or twelve weeks, or to wean them at the end of three or four, and to give them a liberal allowance of fkimmed milk for fix or eight weeks longer when neceflary. The Suffolk farmers adopt the practice of letting the calves fuck the cows a month, fix weeks, or more, coarfe pollard and oats being then given in mixture with fkimmed milk and water: fome nice green hay being conftantly placed before them, till the period of their being turned out intothe paftures. In this method, carrots would probably fupply the place of the oats, and greatly leffen the expence. The method purfued by the farmers in Scotland for rearing calves feems well adapted to the purpofe: they are two. The firft is, by giving them a pailful, containing about a gallon, of milk, warm from the teat of the cow, morning and evening, for eight or ten weeks. The feeond, which is certaimly the mot agreeable to nature, and therefore to be preferred to any other that can be adopted, is, te allow the calf to fuck its dam, as is fometimes done in the county of Suffex, and fome other diftri€ts, as in fome parts of Lan- cafhire. The Norfolk hufbandmen permit their early calves to fuck twice in the day for about a fortnight, and afterwards to have the pail in the fame manner for an equal length of time; then once a day fora month or more, accordmg to circumftances ; turnips, cut hay, &c. being placed in the mangers before them, at the time. Where it is the cuftom to rear calves with fkim-milk, it fhould always be boiled, and fuffered to ftand untik it cools to the temperature of that firft given by the cow, or in a trifling degree more warm, and in that ftate be given to the calf, Milk is frequently given to calves when warmed only ; but that method will not fucceed fo well as boiling it. If the milk be given over-cold, it will caufe the calf to {kit or purge. When this is the cafe, put two or three fpoonfuls of rennet in the milk, and it will foon ftop the loofenefs. If, on the contrary, the calf is bound, bacon- broth is a very good and fafe thing to put into the milk. One gallon, or rather more, of milk per day will keep a calf well till it be thirteen weeks old. A calf may then be fupported without milk, by giving it hay, and a little wheat bran, once a day, with about a pint of oats. The oats will be found of great fervice, as foon as the calf is capable of eating them, in promoting its growth. The bran and oats should be given about mid-day: the milk in equal portions, at eight o’clock in the morning, and four in the afternoon. But whatever hours are chofen to fet apart for feeding the calf, it is beft to adhere to the particular times, as regula- rity is of more confequence than is generally fuppofed. If the calf goes but an hour or two beyondiits ufual time of feeding, it will find itfelf uneafy, and pine for food. It is always to be confidered, that calves, reared in this manner, are to be enticed to eat hay, or fome other fimilar material, as early as poffible ; and the beft way of doing this, CAL is, to give them the fweeteft hay in your poffeffion, and but little at a time. ‘l'urnips or potatoes are very good food, as foon as they can eat them ; and they are be{t cut fmall, and mixed with the hay, oats, bran, and fuch articles, at the time of their being given. It may be obferved, that it is not abfolutely neceflary to give milk to calves after they are one month old; and to- wean them gradually, two quarts of milk, with the addi tion of linfeed boiled in water to make a gruel, and given together, will anfwer the purpofe, until, by diminifting the milk gradually, the calf will foon do entirely without. Hay- tea will anfwer the purpofe, with the like addition of twe. quarts of milk, butis not fo nutritious as linfeed. It isa good method of making this, to put fuch a proportion of hay as- will be neceffary into a tub, then to pour ona fufficient quantity of-boiling water, covering up the veffel, and letting the water remain long’ enough to extract the virtues-of the. hay. When bacon or pork 1s boiled, it is alfo a good way. aca the liquor or broth, and mixit.with milk for the calves. In fummer, calves may fometimes be reared on whey: only. But when reared in winter, they muft be fed with. hay ; and clover-hay is probably the beft of any fort for this ufe. Calves may alfo be raifed with porridge of different kinds, without any mixture of milk at all. It has been fuggeited to be fometimes a good ‘eonvenient: plan, to bring up calves under a fort-of fofter mother; an old cow, with a tolerable ftock of milk, will fuckle two calves, or more, either turned off with her, or at homey keeping them in good condition, until they are old enough to fhift for themfelves:: they ought to fuck the firft of their mother’s milk, for two or three days, although many are weaned without ever being fuffered to fuck at all. Calves, whether rearing or fattening, fhould always fuck before milking, the cow being milked afterwards, as the firft and thinneft of the milk is fufficiently rich for them. Old milk often fcours: very young calves; but the effect generally goes off without any ill confequence. Skimmed milk and fecond flour are fometimes made ufe of. The large, fhort- horned breed of calves moftly confume daily, at three meals, three quarters of a pound of flour each, boiled up in fkimmed milk or other liquid. The proper degree of warmth for the fkimmed milk, on which calves are weaned, is a little above that frefh from the cow. In the Rural Economy of Norfolk, it is remarked, by Mr. Marfhall, that fome farmers bring up al! the year round, rearing every calf they havedropped. Others rear in winter only, fattening their fummer calves for the pea-markets; or at.a diftance from them. for the butcher. Norfolk farmers, in general, begin early in winter to rear their calves, fome fo early as Michaelmas ; in common, if their cows come in be- fore Chriftmas, not only as being fully aware of the advan- tage of rearing early, but in order that they may rear as many of their own calves as poffible, drove calves beivg al- ways hazardous, and fometimes fcarce. No diftin¢tion is made as to fex; males and females are equally objeéts of rearing, and are both occafionally fubje& to caftration, it being a prevailing cuftom to {pay all heifers intended to be fatted at three years old, but fuch as are intended to be finifhed at two years old are, it is.believed, pretty generally left ‘* open,’’ as are, of courfe, fuch as are intended for the dairy. There are two reafons for this praGtice; they are prevented from taking the bull too early, and thereby fru{trating the main intention ; and by this precaution may be more quiet, and are kept from roving at the time of fattening. This CAL. This may be one reafon why {payed heifers are thought to fatten more kindly at three years old, and to be better fiefhed than open heifers. The method of treatment de- pends, in fome meafure, on the time of rearing ; the winter calves require more milk than the later-dropt ones. * Here the general treatment of a calf dropt at Chriftmas may be faid to be this; fucks twiceaday the firft fortnight, has the pail twice a day for the next month or fix weeks, and once a dsy fora month or fix weeks longer, with hay in a rack and turnips in a manger, and fometimes with oats and beans among the turnips, which laft, after a calf has taken freely to them, ferve as both meat and drink. In this confilts the chief peculiarity of the Norfolk method of rearing calves, which may be faid to be with milk and tur- nips; the laft a fpecies of food, which, in every other part oP thé kingdom is, it is believed, entirely negle€ted or un- thought oe As foon as the weather gets warm enough, the calves are turned out in the day among the fattening bullocks, or on to a patch of turnips, or upon a piece of wheat, or a forward grafs-piece, and houfed again at night, until the days growing long and the nights warm, and the clover and darnel have rifen to a full bite, when they are turned out altogether, and continue to have the firit bite of every thing which is good and palatable to them throughout the fummer. This may be called the general treatment of calves dropt at Chriftmas; but the management of no two farmers is exa€tly the fame.” . Catves, weaning of. The moft fuitable feafon for this bufinefs is the early part of the fpring, as fuch calves as are weaned at a late period feldom attain any great fize. The beft means of accomplifhing this is by gradually taking them from the cow, and afterwards diminifhing the quantity and quality of the miik, or other liquid with which they are fed, until they become capable of being fupported on grafs alone, or with fome fort of cut food. ‘The method of management in thefe cafes is thus ftated by the author of the “ Synopfis of Hufbandry ;” “ having a cow fuited to the purpofe which drops a calf, let it be fuckled in the ufual mode, till it hath completed the third week of its age; when, inflead of turning it to the cow, it is to be fuckled by thrufting its head into a pail of new milk, and the finger of the perfon who directs the bufinefs is to fupply the place of ateat. At firft the calf may be rather awkward at fucking the finger, but this will foon become familiar, and after a while a lock of hay may be fubftituted for the teat ; and as the calf advances in age it will fuck the milk out of the pail without any affiftance. The milk fhould at firlt be given, as obferved before, free of adulteration; but, at the end of the firit month, a little milk pottage may be added to each ferving. This method fhould be continued till the calf is twelve or fourteen weeks old, lowering the milk pottage by degrees, till at length it will be brought to fimple water only. At the feafon when the calf is thus weaned from the teat, it ought to be turned abroad in the day-time into a {mall clofe or orchard near the yard, where there isa good bite of grafs, which may be expected at the time of the year when the weaning calves are of this age; and as there will pescrally be more than one calf weaned in a feafon, they will each be company for the other, and become in a fhort time reconciled to their fituation. It is to be obferved, that this pafture fhould be at fome diftance from that whereon the dams are turned, and that there be neither ponds nor ditches, nor any annoyance which might endanger the lives of thefe youthful animals ; and in order to habituate them {till more to their pafture, the milk-pottage fhould be carried clean to them at each of their feeding hours. For the firft month or fix weeks the calves. ought every night to be brought out of the CA T.. meadow and lodged in the pens; but, afterthis time, they may be left in the pafture as well in the night feafon as in the day, and at this time their food may be lowered by de- grees, till, as was before obferved, it be at length reduced to fimple water only, for when the calves get to the age of twelve or fourteen weeks, they will no longer require the aid of this fuftenance, but will be able to fatisfy their appetites: by grafs. Care, however, muft be taken throughout the fummer, that they be freqxently fhifted from one pature to. another, in order that they may be kept up in good fleth, and enabled to grow away with the utmott celerity. At Michaelmas, or foon after, the calves fhould be taken into the yard; and if they were allowed the indulgence of a {mali clofe to themfelves, it would be {till better. And here their talle muft be gratified with the beit and fweetelt hay that can be procured, with an outlet ona dry pafture, where in fine open weather they may be fu‘Tered to enjoy them~ felves; and it would redound greatly to their welfare, if, on the approach ef winter, a fhed was to be ere&ed for them to repofe in during the night, and for fhelter in tempeituous days. So effential are warmth and good living to young animals of every denomination, that the care which has been taken of them in their early days will be manifett in every fate of their future growth. Nor is there any {tock which will pay better for this cautious management in their youth than thofe of the cow kind: for if they are ttinted in their feed, or carelefsly attended whilft in their growing itate, they will never arrive to that fize which they would other- wife have done, and confequently the lofs will be perpetually felt by the farmer who attempts to raife milch kine of his own breed, without giving them a due attendance in the firtt year. When the calves have atttained their firtt year, they are called duds, or yearlings; and though at this time they may be able to mix with the herd, yet he thinksit would be moft prudent, if not attended with too great an inconvenience, to {uffer them to remain in a pafture by themfelves. But if! this cannot be done, let them be turned eut with the dry ftock, and not permitted to run with the cows, as this might probably be the occalion of their taking bull; a mealure which fhouldat thistime be cautioufly guarded azaintt, as fuch buds which propagate at this early age will receive a check in their growth on this account ; and if, during the fucceed- ing winter, they were to be managed as before direéted, he is of opinion that their future growth would be found to pay ample intereft for the fodder that is now given them; only this is to be obferved, that as their ftrength is now con- fiderably augmented, a lefs valuable fodder may fuffice, and good pea-ftraw may well fupply the place of hay. Such farmers who have low rufhy meadows, where there is fre- quently a length of ¢ri/ in the winter, may in this fecond year turn the calves into them, and here they will meet with plenty of nourifhing food, whillt the weather is fair and. open. At two years old the heifer may be fuffered to take bull; but it would in his opinion be {till better for the cow, and more to the intere(t of the farmer, if he were to wait a year longer ere the bufinefs be completed.” From the great fearcity of milk, various fubfitutes have been propofed for the early periods of weaning, fome of which feem well calculated for the ufe they are defigned. The method propofed by the duke of Northumberland is to take one gallon of fkimmed milk, and to about a pint of it add half an ounce of common treacle, ftirring it until it is well mixed; then to take one ounce of linfeed-oil cake, finely pulverized, and with the hand Jet it fall gradually in very {mall quantities into the milk, ftirring it in the mean time with a {poon or ladle, until it be thoroughly incorpo- rated; then let the mixture be put into the other part of the milk, , GPA: milk, and the whole be made nearly as warm as new milk when it is firlt taken from the cow, and in that ftate it is fit for ufe. The quantity of oil-cake powder may, from time to time, be increafed, as occafion may require, and as the calf becomes inured to the favour of it. But Mr. Crook’s method is to make a jelly of one qnart of infeed, boiled ten minutes in fix quarts of water, which jeily is afterwards mixed with a imall quantity of the belt hay-tea; on this he rears many calves without milk. Mr. Donaldfon obferves, that calves when dropt during the grafs-feafon fhould be put into fome {mall home-clofe of fweet rich palture, after they are eight or ten days old, not only for the fake cf exercife, but allo that they may-the_ feoncr take to the cating of grafs. When they happen to be dropt during winter, or before the return of the grafs- feafon, a little fhort [oft hay, ftraw, or fliced turnips, fhould be laid in the trough or ftall before them. By means of Iin- feed made into a jelly by boiling in water, calves have been weaned without any milk at all, in the trials of Mr. Crook. The author of PraGical Agriculture fuggefts that potatoe meal has been found to be ufeful in this intention, ‘‘ as it mixes well with milk, water, or weak broth, and is highly nutritious.” Male calves that are intended to be kept fhould conftantly be caitrated or cut at an early period, as in the firflt week or fortnight, the danger being confiderably Icfs when done early. Catves, fuckling of. In this practice the produce of the cow can in many fituations be brought to great advantage ; as in the vicinity of large towns. The method moft com- monly employed in fattening calves, isto allow them to fuck; as by this method the objeét is probably not coly fooner, but more effeGually attained than by any other means. The period which is neceflary for fattening calves mutt be differ- ent, according to circumltances, but it is generally from feven to nine weeks; however, in the dairy diftricts, where milk is confidered a valuable article, fcarcely haif that time is allowed. There is another method, which is to give them the milk to drink; and when that is done, it is given them morming and evening warm from the cow, and the quantity increafed according to their age and ftrength. In whatever way they may be managed, they fhould be kept in pens in a clofe well aired houfe, and well littered. The author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry obferves, “¢that as it is neceflary that the calves fhould lie always quiet, in order that they may indulge in fleep at thofe times when they are not employed in fucking ; it feems proper that the cow-houfe fhould be fituated in the moft retired part of the yard, and that the pens thould be kept as dark as poffidle. But notwithflanding this caution, the calves fhould by no means be fuffered to lie too hot in the fummer time, which would be apt to induce a ficknefs amongft them. To adm't, therefore, an occafional draught of frefh air, let a window be eut in each pen, with fhutters adapted to the fame, and let thefe windows be opened whenever the clofenefs of the at- mofphere indicates it to be neceffary. In the fummer fea- fon they fhould rarely, if ever, be clofely fhut, and when it is required, the ftream of air may be increafed by opening the cow-honfe door at the oppofite end of the building. Each ealf fhould have a collar round his neck, to direct him in his fuckling, but fhould never be faflened up in the pen. It is neceflary that the pens be conftantly well littered with the cleaneft wheat ftraw, a proportion of which fhould be thrown in to them every day ; cleanlinefs being a moft effential article in the fattening of every animal, and not more neceffary to any than the calf, which, but for this precaution, would ina fhort time demonftrate the ill effccts of lying on his accu- CAL mulated dung, which of all other animals is the moft offen- five, and of a quality highly feptic. Still as the calves are yeaned, they are to be taken into the pens, and fuckled on their own dams, which at firft will yield a far greater quan- tity of milk than is neceffary for their offspring, fo that another calf may be fuckled thereon; or the cow may be milked, and the cream be referved for butter, or applied to any other ufe that the owner may think proper. “As the calf increafes in fize it will require a larger quantity of milk ; but whilft they are young, one good cow will yicld a noble fupply for two calves; and when the produce ts demanded for one calif, another new milch cow fhould be provided, and thefe two cows will abundantly fupply the three calves with milk till the oideft is fit for the butcher; after which, if neceflary, a freth feckler may be bought in, and the bufinefs be carried on progrefiively by keeping the heufe conftantly fupplied with calves, fo that the whole milk may be fucked ; as the different branches of the fatted calf and the dairy can- not be fo conveniently united.”’ «¢ For many of the fouthera parts of the kingdom, Smith- field market is the moft convenient place to apply for fuck- lers, fo as to be on a certainty of procuring them, this being the general receptacle where the milk-men vend their calves ; and thefe having been bred from the larger Stafford- fhire or Holdernefs cows. do generally turn out to good account for the fuckler, fuch large boned calves, when fattened, arifing to a weight much more centiderable than the ordinary produce of the country dairy-men; and as to the fuperior quaatity of milk required in fattening the larger breed of calves, this is amply recompenfed by the veater increafe of weight. The only hazard attending this Smithfield bargain is, the accident which may happen to the creature on the road, if the drift has been of any length; for, befides the cow-men above-mentioned, many fucklers are fent to this market from the vale of Aylefbury, and thefe fometimes meet with accidents, either from the lengthened journey, or want of milk. From the former, the quiet of the pens generally recovers them, and the ill confequences of inanition may be obviated by {tinting the creature to a fhort allowance for a few meals, till the caufe is removed. With thefe precautions, it will, he believes, very rarely be found that any fatal confequences fucceed either of thefe evils. However it fometimes happens that, in f{pite of all our care, the fuckler dies in confequence of imprudent management in the vender; but as thefe acci- dents are not frequent, they ought not to deter the farmer from replenifhing his pen by the London markets, where his vicinity to the metropolis will allow of the pra@iice. “ Young calves,” he fays, “* when permitted to fuck their fill, are often feized with a lax or fcouring. To prevent which, the calves for the firft fortnight or three weeks may be flinted in their allowance; at the fame time due regard fhould be taken that they do not pine or decreafe in flefh for want of milk. But after this age, they fhould be al- lowed to fuck as long as they choofe, and every means ovght to be made ule of to increafe their appetite, and render them more eager after their food. Chalk may be given for this purpoie, as well as for giving to the flehh'a delicate whitenefs. Salt fprinkled in the troughs will like- wife a& as a ftimulus to the appetite; befides which, it is a common praétice with fome people to cram their calves with balls compounded cf flour, pounded chalk, and milk, with’ the addition of a fmall quantity of common gin. Of thefe they give two, about the fize of a walnut, once a day, or oftener, to each calf. Thefe balls being very nutritious, in fome degree, fupply the place of milk, and at the fame time the fpirituous mixture operates on the creature as a fopo- rific 5 CAL rific ; and thus, by compofing them to fleep, increafes their difpofition to Fitton. But where milk can be had in fuf- ficient abundance, it is never worth while to have recourfe to thefe faGtitious aids) When the demands of the calf, however, are beyond the ability of the cow, thefe balls come feafonably to their relief. In order that the calves may be provided with fufficient ftore of milk, the pattures fhould fill be changed, whenever the cows are found to be deficient in this particular; and in the winter time, fuch food as is of a fucculent nature, as grains, turnips, &c. fhould be always at hand to fupply the want of grafs: and thefe, with a due allowance of the fweetelt hay, fhould be their conftant aliment during the time that the cows are confined to the yard. “ The prices of fuckling calves vary according to the goodnefs of the young animal, and the time of year wherein the purchafe is made. In general, fucklers fetch the largeft price in fummer, when veal fells the cheapelt; and the reafon of this arifes from the fmaller number to be met with at that time than in the fpring. A good fuckler in Lon- don can feldom be bought for less than 20s., and is often fold for 25s. or gos. The bufinefs of fuckling was formerly reckoned to turn out to good advantage, when each calf throughout its fattening brought a profit to the farmer of three fhillings a week; but now F206) fo confiderably have provifions of every kind been advanced in price within thefe few years, the profit on the article of fuckling is much ter. «© When calves-are flaughtered at fix weeks or two months old, the veal is fcldom of a good colour; nei- ther has the fichh of thefe young calves a talte equal to that where the animal has been fuffered to live a few weeks longer. To attain both the ends of colour and flavour it is neceflary that the calves fhould be maintained with plenty of milk, and regulated under fuch management as before direéted, till they arrive to the age of cight or ten weeks, according to the feafon of the year, the more or lefs kindly ftate of the calf, the particular demand of the markets, or other eventual circumftances. In the fummer feafon, it may be proper to difpofe of them at an earlier pericd than in the winter; not only on account of their growing away with greater celerity in warm weather, but likewife becaufe of the increafed demand for {mall veal, which is then moft faleable. During the laft three or four weeks, blood fhould frequently be drawn from the calf, which will be a likely means towards rendering the veal of a colour delicately white ; a circumftance fo much attended to by the butcher, that he will commonly depreciate fuch calves, which from the appearance of their eyes are likely to die lack, as they term it, though in other refpects not to be defpifed. * Such calves as are fuckled on their own dams will, ge- nerally {peaking, fatten in a fhorter time than thofe which are afterwards bought in to fupply their places. The firlt obyious reafon for this difference in their favour is their not having been removed from the places where they were firft dropped, and having always continued to fuck the milk of their parent animal, which muft in all reafon be fuppofed of a more nutritious quality to them than that of any other cow. Secondly, the cow having fo latcly calved, the ali- ment nourifhes and fattens in a higher degree than when the becomes stale milched. Cow calves are ob- fers Totten more kindly than the male or bull calves ; and thefe laft are much more coarfe grained, and their fic lefs delicate in tafte than the former. Calves of the largeft fize are fattened in Effex, where the bufinefs of fuckling feems to be better underftood, and more properly conduét- _ed than in any other county, and where the farmer keeps ? CA L the calves to a greater age than in any other part of the kingdom.” i Mr. Marfhall is clearly of opinion, that to fuckle calves in general after they are ten weeks old is bad management ; for his account in this refpe&t is uniform—thole i or ten having paid as much a week as thofe of twelve or thir- teen, and although a calf of fix weeks old may fuck nearly as much milk as a calf of twelve weeks old, yet the firlt month or five weeks the quantity is confiderably lefs, and this advantage of their infancy is doubly as valuable to nine as it is to twelve weeks”? In fome diftriéts, barley-meal, linfeed boiled into a kind of jelly, and fuch-like articles, are given to calves in the courfe of fattening; but the methods above decribed are greatly fuperior, although it mutt be allowed that they may fometimes be confiderably more expentive. It is of the greateft importance in this praétice to have good breeds of cows, to keep them conftantly well fed, and the fuckling houfes airy, {pacious, and perfe@tly clean from all forts of filth. Caxr-pen, a place formed for the purpofe of receiving calves for the practice of fattening them. In moft places it is the cultom to have the calf pens an- nexed to the cow-houfes. The only reafon, Mr. Beatfon obferves, in his ufeful paper in the communications to the Board of Agriculture, “that he can aflign why calf-pens fhould be within the cow-houfe is, that it faves a little trouble to the dairy-maid, by having a fhorter diftance to- carry the milk. In general, however, it is a plan not to be recommended, as every perfon who has had any experience among cows muft know how naturally and how forcibly a new calved cow expreffes her attachment to her calf ; with what care and anxiety, if permitted, fhe licks it all over, and ufes every exertion to prote& it from injury ; how the tender calf clings to its affeCtionate mother, as if fenfible that to her alone it can truft for proteCtion: and yet the poor helplefs creature (fays he) is dragged away, and placed perhaps within its mother’s view, or at leaft withia her hearing, as if on purpofe to augment the pain of her fuf- ferings. Its doleful cries keep alive the pangs of the un- happy cow; fhe ftruggles to break the chain that binds her falt, and feems reftlels and uneafy whenever approached. In fuch a ftate of agitation it is impoffible fhe can either feed well, or give that quantity and quality of milk fhe would otherwife furnifh, Where there are many cows kept, and perhaps feveral of them lately calved, a fingle calf may keep them all in this reftlefs flate: to remedy which, the beft way (fays he) is to have the calves at fuch a diftance, or at leaft fo thick a wall betwixt them, that the cows cannot hear their cries. The cow will then foon forget her calf, and will both feed and milk the better for it; therefore they fhould be as near as conveniently may be, without being liable to the above objetions. ** To lie dry and warm is of the greateft confequence in the rearing Af calves, as is evident from what has been al- ready advanced on the fubjeé&t. Some think it neceffary to accultom a calf to be bound with a halter from the hour of its being calved ; others again turn them quite loofe into the pen, and allay them to range and run about as much as they pleafe. Which of thefe is the bett method is here of little confequence. The principal thing to be obferved in the conftruétion of calf-pens is the laying of the floor, which fhould be made of laths or fpars, about two inches broad, laid at the diftance of an inch from each other upon joilts, fo as to make the floor above one, two, or three fect from the ground, as the fituation will admit. ‘This not ouly keeps them quite dry, by allowing all the moifture 2 7 pals CAL pals immediately away, but has the advantage of admitting frefh air below the bedding, and thereby preventing that unwholefome difagreeable {mell too often found among calves; for, it isto be underftood, that this place below the floor fhould frequently be cleaned, as well as the floor it- felf, whenever it becomes wet or dirty ; but it is not right to allow the litter to increafe to a great thicknefs, other- wife the moilture will not fo eafily pals through. Calf-pens ere, however, too often made without this fparred floor, and the frefh litter always laid on the old, till the calves are xemoved, which is a flovenly praétice, and not by any means to be recommended. « Stalls, or divifions, are but feldom made in calf-pens: at the fame time it would certainly be much better to keep the calves feparate from each other; by which means they will be more eafily fed, and lefs liable to accidents. Parti- tions, about three feet high, of thin deal nailed on fmall pofts, might be fo contrived as to be moveable at pleafure, to increafe or diminifh the flall if neceffary, according to the age and fize of the calf. This may be done as repre- fented in the plate on calf-pens, fig. 4. which is the ground- plan of a double calf-pen for ten calves; a is the door; 4 the paflage betwixt the pens; ccc, &c. are the pens, fhewing the fituation of the partitions; dddd are four joifts, in which are feveral holes, as fhewn on the plan, for receiving iron pins, at the bottom of the partitions, to keep them in their place ; e is a window or door, befides which there fhould be fome other windows or air-holes as high up as poflible. If it be thought unneceffary to make the partitions, there might be a {mall round trough, in a circular frame, fixed in the corner of each pen, as at f, for holding the milk, and a door in the next adjoining corner. A {mall flight fack for holding a little hay, placed at the upper part of the pen, might alfo be ufeful. The troughs fhould be round, that the calves may not hurt themfelves upon them, which they might probably do on the angles if they were fquare. Fig. 2. is a feétion of thefe pens, in which rr fhews the polition of the racks. The advantages of this kind of calf- pens are, that the calves are all kept feparate in a {mall compafs, and cannot hurt each other, as the ftronger ones fometimes do the weaker, when confined promifcuoufly ; and their food may be much more eafily and equally diftri- buted when they are not fuckled. “ Tf a great number of calves are feeding, as thirty or forty, or more, it might be fo contrived in fuck pens, by pipes communicating with the troughs, that one perfon might give all the calves their milk at the fame inftant of time; and that any given quantity of milk, and no more, can go into each trough; but as this method would pro- bably be but rarely required by the farmer, it is unneceflary, in a general point of view, to enter into an explanation of it.” In Gloucefterfhire, Mr. Marfhall fays, “¢ the calf-pens are of an admirable con{truétion ; extremely fimple, yet fingu- larly well adapted to that intention. Young calves, fat- tening calves more efpecially, require to be kept narrowly confined : quietnefs is, in a degree, effential to their thriv- ing. A loofe pen, ora long halter, gives freedom to their natural fears, and a loofe to their playfulnefs. Cleanlinefs, and a due degree of warmth, are likewife requifite in the right management of calves. A pen which holds feven, or occafionally eight calves, is of the following defcription :— The houfe, or roomftead, in which it is placed, meafures twelve feet by eight : four feet of its width are occupied by the ftage, and one foot by a trough placed in its front ; leaving three fect as a gangway, into the middle of which the door opens. The floor of the ftage is formed of laths, CAL about two inches fquare, lying lengthways-of the ftage, and one inch afunder. The front fence is made of ftaves, an inch and a half in diameter, nine inches from middle to middle, and three feet high: entered at the bottom into the front bearer of the Hoor (from which crofs joifts pafs into the back wall), and fteadied at the top by a rail; which as well as the bottom piece, is entered at each end into the end -wall. The holes in the upper rail are wide enough to permit the faves to be lifted up and taken out to give admiffion to the calves; one of which is faftened every fecond ftare, by means of two rings of iron joined by a fwivel; one ring playing upon the ftave, the other re- ceiving a broad leathern collar, buckled round the neck of the calf. ‘The trough is for barley-meal, chalk, &c. and to reft the pails on. Two calves drink out of one pail, put- ting their heads through between the ftaves. The height of the floor of the ftage, from the floor of the room, is about one foot. It is thought to be wrong to hang it higher, left, by the wind drawing under it, the calves fhould be too cold in fevere weather. This, however, might be eafily prevented by litter, or long ftrawy dung thruft beneath it.” It is obfervable, that thefe ftages are fit only for calves which are fed with the pail, not for calves which fuck the cows. _Carr-fage, in Rural Economy, a term employed in fome diftri€ts to fignify the fame as pen, probably from the floor pene fomewhat raifed. ALF fkins, in the leather manufadure, are prepared a drefled by the tanners, fees and ee ee = them for the ufe of the fhoe-makers, fadlers, bookbind- ers, and other artificers, who employ them in their feveral manufactures, Catr-/ein dreffed in fumach, denotes the fkin of this ani- mal curried black on the hair fide, and dyed of an orange colour on the flefh fide by means of fumach, chiefly ufed in the making of belts. The Englifh calf-fkin is much valued abroad, and the commerce thereof very confiderable in France and other countries; where divers attempts have been made to imitate it, but hitherto in vain. What is likely to baffle all endeavours for imitating the Englifh calf in France is, the {mallnefs and weaknefs of the calves about Paris; which, at fifteen days old, are not fo big as the Englith ones when they come into the world. Caur, Golden, in Scripture Hiflory. See Gorpen Carr. P Catr, Sea, in Zoology. See Poca Virutina, and SEa- ALF. Ca r alfo denotes the young of the WHALE. Car, among Sfort/men, is ufed for a male hart or hind of the firit year. Cavrs-/nout, in Botany. See ANTIRRHINUM ORONTIUM. Carrar, in Ornithology, afpecies of Emperiza, the red- eyed bunting of Latham, a bird that inhabits the ifle of France. This is {maller than the common fparrow : colour hoary : beneath vinaceous : head, throat, and margin of the tail, black: bill, legs, and orbits roly. Gmel. &c. Obf, ee Calfat of Buffon. HETA, in Geography, a {mall to i fn ehe-diide? oF Fast’ *° Sea: CALI. See Kati. Cat, in Geography,.a town of South America, in a de- partment of the fame name, in the province of Quito, and overament of Popayan, built by Sebaltian de Belaleazar. “‘CALTACH Hear’ eape o -Heap, a cape of Scotl - a coaft of the ifland of Mull. Kishk § ALIAVARI, Luca, in Biography, a painter, was born at Udine, in Italy, in 1665, Egan oA his fkill by 4 ftudying CAL fludying and copying the works of eminent matters. His chofen fubje&s were fea-ports and land{capes, efpecially views about Rome and Venice, which he defigned and exe- cuted with truth, nature, and elegance. His volume of perfpetive views of Venice, etched with aqua-fortis, evince his tafe and abilities. Hediedin 1715. Pilkington. CALIBER, or Catutper, in a general fenfe, denotes the extent of any round thing in thickuefs, or diameter. In which fenfe we fay,.a column is of the fame caliber as another, when they are both of the fame diameter. Caiper more particularly denotes the bore, or width of a piece of ordnance, or other fire-arms; or the diameter of the mouth thereof; or the bail it carries. The caliber isthe rule by which ail the parts of a cannon, or mortar, as well as of its carriage, are proportioned. CaviBer-compafes, a fort of compafles made with arched legs, to take the diameter of convex or concave bodies. Caliber-compaffes are chiefly ufed by gunners, for taking the diameters of the feveral parts of a piece of ordnance, or of bombs, bullets, &c. Their legs are therefore circular, and move on an arch of brafs, whereon are marked the in- ches and half-inches; to fhew how far the points of the compafles are opened afunder. Some are alfo made for taking the diameter of the bore of a gun or mortar. The gaugers alfo fometimes ufe calibers to embrace the two heads of any cafk, in order to find its length. The caliber, ufed by carpenters and joiners, is a piece of board notched triangular-wile in the middle, for the taking of meafure. . Cacizer, Cariser-rule, or Gunner’s CALLIPERS, is an inftrument, whercin a right line is fo divided, as that the firft part being equal to the diameter of an iron or leaden ball of one pound weiyht, the other parts are to the firft as the diameters of bails of two, three, four, &c. pounds, are to the diameter of a ba/l of one pound. The caliber is ufed by engineers, from the weight of the ball given to determine its diameter, or caliber ; or vice ver/a. The gunner’s callipers confitt of two thin plates of brais joined by a rivet, fo as to move quite round each other: its Seah from the centre of the joint is between fix inches and a foot, and its breadth from one to two inches: that of the moft convenient fize is about nine inches long. Many {cales, tables, and proportions, &c. may be introduced on this inftrument; but none are efleptial to it, except thofe for taking the caliber of fhot and cannon, and for meafuring the magnitude of faliant and entering angles. The mott complete callipers is exhibited Tab. Gunnery, fig. 2. the fur- niture and ufe of which we fhall now briefly defcribe. Let the four faces of this inflrament be diftinguifhed by the let- ters A, B,C, D; A and D confift of a circular head and leg ; B and C confit only of a leg. On the circular head adjoining to the leg of the face A are divilions denominated /bot diameters, which fhew the dif- tance in inches and tenths of an inch of the points of the callipers when they are opened ; fo that if a ball not exceed- ing ten inches be introduced between thems the bevil edge E marks its diameter among thefe divifions. On the circular bevil part E of the face B is a {cale of divifions diftinguithed by /J. weight of iron fhot. When the diameter of any fhot is taken between the points of the cal- lipers, the inner edge of the leg A thews its weight in avoirdupoile pounds, provided it be Ib. 4, 1, 14, 2) 3s 4, 54 6, 8,9, 125 16, 18, 24, 26, 325 36, or 42; the figures neareft the bevil edge anfwering to the fhort lines in the feale, and thofe behind them to the longer ftrokes. This ar is go on the following geometrical theorem, ou. V. CAL viz. that the weights of [pieres are as the cubes of their diameters. On the lower part of the circular head of the face A isa {cale of divifions marked bores of guns ; for the ule of which, the legs of the callipers are flipped acrofs each other, till the feel points touch the concave furface of the gun in its greateft breadth; then the bevil edge F of the face B will cut a divilion in the fcale fhewing the diameter of the bore in inches and tenths. Within the {cales of /Zot and dore diameters on the circu- Jar part of A, are divilions marked pounders: the inner figures 4, 13, 3, 5%, 8, 12, 18, 26, 36, correfpond to the longeft lines; and the figures 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 16, 24, 32, 42, to the fhart ttrokes. When the bore of a gun is taken between the points of the cailipers, the bevil edge F will either cut or be near one of thefe divifions, and fhew the weight of iron fhot proper for that gun. On the upper half of the circular head of the face A are three concentric f{cales of degrees ; the outer fcale confifting of 180 degrees numbered from right to left, 10, 20, &c. tke middle numbered the contrary way, and the outer fcale beginning at the middle with o, and numbered on cach fide to 90 degrees. Thefe feales ferve to take the quantity of an angle, either entering or faliant. For an entering, or internal angle, apply the legs of the callipers fo that its out« ward edges coincide with the legs of the given angle, the degree cut by the bevil edge F in the outer fcale fhews the meafure of the angle fought: for a faliant, or external angle, flip the legs of the callipers acrofs each other, fo that their outward edges may coincide with the legs forming the angle, and the degree marked on the middle feale by the bevil edge E will thew the meafure of the angle required. The inner feale will ferve to determine the elevation of can- non and mortars, or of any oblique plane. Let one end of a thread be fixed into the notch on the plate B, and any weight tied to the other end: apply the ftraight fide ot the plate A to the fide of the body whofe inclination is fought, hold it in this pofition, and move the plate B, till the thread falls upon the line near the centre marked Perp. Then will the bevil edge F cut the degrees on the inner fcale, fhewing the inclination of that body to the horizon. On the face C near the point of the callipers isa little table fhewing the proportion of troy and avoirdupoife weights, by which one kind of weight may be eafily reduced into another. Near the extreme of the face D of the callipers, are two tables fhewing the proportion between the pounds weight of London and Paris, and alfo between the lengths of the foot meafure of England and France. Near the extreme on the face A is a table containing four rules of the circle and fphere; and geometrical figures with numbers annexed to them: the firft is a circle includ« ing the proportion in round numbers of the diameter to its circumference ; the fecond is a circle inferibed in a fquare, anda fquare within that circle, and another circle in the inner fquare : the numbers, 28, 22, above this figure, exhibit the proportion of the outward fquare to the area of the infcribed circle ; and the numbers 14, 11, belowit, fhew the proportion between the area of the infcribed {quare and the area of its infcribed circle, The third is a cube infcribed in a {phere ; and the number 894 fhews that a cube of iron, infenbed in a {phere of 12 inches in diameter, weighs 894. The fourth is a {phere in a cube, and the number 243, exprefles the weight in pounds of a {phere infcribed in a cube whofe fize is 12 inches: the fifth reprefents a cylinder and cone of one foot diameter and height: the number ia the cylinder fhews, that an iron cylinder of that diameter e and CAL and height weighs 364.5!b. end the number 121.5. in the cone expreff-s the weizht of a cone, the diameter of whofe bafeis 12 inches, and of the fame height: the fixth figure fhews that an iron cube, whofe fide is 12 inches, weighs 4641b. and that a fquare pyramid of iron, whole bafe is a iquare foot and height 12 inches, weighs 1542lb. The numbers which have been hitherto fixed to the four Jaft figures were not ftriG@ly true; and therefore they have been correéted in the figure here referred to; and by thefe the figures on any inftrument of this kind fhould be-corre€ted hkewife. - On the leg B of the éallipers, in a table fhewing the weights of a cubic inch or foot of various bodies in pounds avoirdupoife, On the face D of the circular head of the callipers is a table contained between five concentric fegments of rings: the inner one marked Guns fhews the nature of the gun, or the weight of ball it carries; the two next rings con- tain the quantity of powder ufed for proof and fervice to brafs guns, and the two outermoft rings fhew the quantity for pioof and fervice in an iron cannon. On the face A is a table exhibiting the method of com- puting the number of fhot or fbells in a triangular, fquare, or reGtangular pile. principal rules relative to the fall of bodies, expreffed in an algebraic manner: nearer the centre we have another table of rules for raifing water, calculated on the fuppofition, that one horfe is equal in this kind of labour to five men, and that one man will r ife a hogfhead of water to eight feet of height in one minute, and work at that rate for fome hours. N.B. Hogtheads are-reckoned at fixty gallons. Some of the leading principles in gunnery, relating to Jhooling in cannon and mortars, are exprefled on the face B of the callipers. Befides the articles already enumerated, the fcales ufually marked on the secror are laid down on this inftrument: thus, the line of inches is placed on the edge of the callipers, or on the ftraight borders of the faces C, D: the logarithmic {cales of numbers, fines, verfed fines, and tangents, are placed along thefe faces near the ftraight edges: the line of lines is placed on the fame faces in an angular pofition, and marked Lin. The lines of plans or fuperficies are alfo exhibited on the faces C and D, tending towards the centre, and marked Plan. Finaliy, the lines of folids are laid on the fame faces tending towards the centre, and diftinguifhed by So/. Sce farther on the conftru€ion and ufe of this inftrument, Robertfon’s Treatife of Mathe- matical Inftruments, &c. Appendix. CALIBOGIE River and Sound, in Geography, lie on the coaft of S. Carolina in America, and form the outlet of May and New Rivers. CALICA, in Mythology, an Indian goddefs, which feems to have poffeffed the attributes of the Grecian Hecate. Mr. Blaquiere, with a view of afcertaining the fa&, that human facrifices were offered to this horrible deity, examined the Purana which bears her name. Birds, tortoifes, alligators, fifh, nine {pecies of wild animals, buffaloes, bulls, he-goata, ichneumons, wild boars, rhinocerofes, antelopes, guanas, rein-deers, lions, tygers, men, and blood drawn from the offerer’s own body, are looked upon as proper oblations to the goddefs Chandica, &c. The following injunGtion after- wards occurs: when the facrifice of lions, of tygers, or of the human fpecies is requefted, let the three firft claffes a& tnus: having formed the image of the lion, tyger, or hu- man fhape, with butter, paltry, or. barley meal, let them facrifice the fame as if a living vi€lim, the axe being firft invoked by the text ‘¢ Nomo;”? that text is as follows: * Cali} Cali! O horrid-toothed goddefs: eat, cut, deftroy Near this is placed a table containing the © CAL all the malignant: cut with this axe; bind, bind, feize, feize ; drink blood, tear, tear: fecure, fecure; falutations to Cali!’ Among other exceptions, with regard to human victims, thofe that are unwilling are expre{sly prohibited, Afiatic Refearches, vol. v. p. 371, &c. CAL l-catic, in Ornithology, the Madagafcar Shrike, Lanius Madagafcarienfis, ttands uader this name in Buffon’s Natura! Hiftory of Birds. CALICO, in Geography, ariverof European Turkey, which runs into the gulf ot Saloriki; 14 miles S.W. of Saloniki. CALICOULAN, Coyran, or Qutron, a Dutch fac- tory on the weftern coaft of Malabar, about 14 geographical miles to the N.N.W. or N W. of Anjengo, or Anjenga, placed by major Rennell in N. lat. 8° 39/. E.long. 76°40!, CALICULA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, placed by Ptolemy in the Tarragonertis, and affizned to the Turduli.—Alfo, another town of Spain, which Ptolemy places in the territory of the Turdetant. CALICUT, in Geography, a country of Afta, and a very extenfive ftate on the coatt of Malabar. Its chief aflumed the title of king of kings. The laft of thefe princes, called Sarana Parimal, having embraced Mahometanifm, retired to end his days at Mecca, and dividing his dominions between the princes of his own blood, referved, as it is faid, a {pace of 12 leagues for one of thefe princes, or a favourite page, who was to have the title of Samorin, and to whom the others were torender homage. The Samorin built acity on the {pot whence Parimal took his departure, and called it ** Ca- licut.”” He who afterwards governed Calicut, inhabited a palace of ftone, and annexed fome appearance of grandeur to his court. In former times, the inhabitants of this diltriét had feveral ftrange cuftoms, fome of which are ftill retained. Accordingly it is faid, that the Samorin’s wife muft be firft enjoyed, for three nights if he pleafes, by the high prieft.. Tue nobles permit the other priefts to take the fame li- betty ; but the lower people are debarred from this honour. A woman may marry a number of hufbands ; each of whom has her by turns for ten days or more, as they agree among themfelyes ; and during that time he provides for her all neceffaries. When fhe proves pregnant, fhe names the father of the child, who, after it is weaned, takes care of its education. The “ Naires’? of Calicut form a band of nobles, whofe only profeffion is that of arms. Thefe men, though of an olive cotour, are comely and handfome; they are tall and hardy, very valiant, and dextrous in the ufe of their weapons. ‘They lengthen their ears to {uch an extent, that they hang down on their fhoulders, and fometimes lower. Thefe Naires are allowed only one wife, but the women of rank may have as many hufbands as they chufe, whom they regard as flaves fubjeét-d to their beauty. Wo- men of inferior condition fupply the defe& of the privilege appropriated to ladies of rank, by indifcriminate commerce with ftrangers, from which their hufbands cannot reftri& them. The mothers proftitute their daughters even before they arrive at a proper age. The “ Naires,’’ or nobles of Calicut, feem to be of a different race from the burgeffes ; for the latter, both males and females, are of a fmaller fta- ture, and are worfe fhaped, and more ugly. Among the « Naites”’ there are fome men, as well as women, whofe legs are as thick as the body of an ordinary man. This defor- mity is not the effeét of difeafe, but comaences from their birth. The fkin of thefe legs is hard and rough likea wart ; and, neverthelefs, the perfons affeGed with it are nimble and aétive. This race of men with thick legs, has not multiplied greatly ; either among the ‘* Naires,” or the other Indians. However, they appear in other places, and efpecially in Ceylon, where they are faid to be of adicgene t. CAL St. Thomas. Du Buffon’s Nat. Hif. vol. iii. p. 99, Eng. Ed. The people of this country have no pens, ink, or pores but write with a bodkin on flags that grow by the des of the rivers, which are fo ftrong as to be durable for many years. The diftri&t called Calicut is about 63 miles long, and nearly as many broad. The air is falubrious, though it has many woods, rivers, and marthes ; the foil is fertile, but it does not produce much grain ; it is fubject to inundations from the fudden defcent of the mountain-rivers ; and the fea alfo has made fuch ravages on the coaft as to oblige the Samorin to transfer his refidence from Calicut to Paniany. Along the fea-coaft, the land is low and fandy, and produces a number of cocoa-trees. The higher grounds produce pepper and cardamoms of a good quality. The country alfo fupp'ies timber for building, white and yellow fanders, caffia lignea and fiftula, nux vomica, and cocculus indicus. The forefts abound with parrots and monkeys, and various forts of game: they have pleuty of fifh, and their mountains yield iron. The Samorin is faid to be able to raife an army of 100.000 men. Caticur, the capital of the country above defcribed, is ficuate on the coaft of Malabar. This city is remarkable for being the firft Indian port vifited by European fhippiny. Vafco de Gama, having doubled the Cape of Good Hope,’ and purfuing his navigation along the fouth-eaft of Africa, arrived at the city of Melinda ; and conducted by the pilots of this civilized and commercial city, he failed acrofs the Indian Ocean, and landed at Calicut, on the 22d of May 1498. This was at that time the moft flourithing place on the Malabar coaft. The Samorin, or monarch of the cour- try, aftonifhed at this unexpeted vifit of an unknown people, whofe afpe&, arms, and manners, bore no refemblance to any of the nations accuftomed to frequent his harbours, and who arrived in his dominions by a route hitherto deemed im- practicable, received them at firft, with that fond admiration which is often excited by vovelty. But in a fhort time, a3 if he had been infpired with forefizht of all the calamities now approaching India by this fatal communication opened with the inhabitants of Europe, he formed various {chemes to cut off Gama and his followers. But from every danger to which he was expofed, either by the open attacks, or fe- cret machinations of the Indians, the Portuguefe admiral extricated himfelf with fingular prudence and intrepidity, and at lait failed from Calicut with his fhips load-d, not only with the commodities peculiar to that coaft, but with many of the rich produdtions of the eaftern part of India. Calicut, though much fallen in its confequence, is ftil a large town, containing about five or fix hundred houfes, built of wuod, or bricks baked in the fun, in the midft of which are beautiful gardens. Thus circumftanced, it is three leagues in circumference, including a large village or fuburb, inha- bited by ifh-rmen. It is governed by a viceroy, but wants a regular police ; and its commerce, which is ftill not incon- fid-rable, on account of a convenient river by which teak- wood is brought down from the neighbouring mountains, is much opprefled by burdenfome duties, generally farmed by Mahometans, The coaft ia low, and affords no hhelter, and the only accefs to it is im {mall flat-bottomed boats. But though tt has no harbour, it affords to the fhips that vifit it good riding in the open fea, at the diftance of three leagues from the fhore. The Englith factory, which for- merly fabfifted in this place, is removed to Tellicherry. N. Jat. 11°18’. E. long. 76° 4'. CALIDRIS, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Scoropax that inhabits Europe and America, and well-known in this coun- try by the name of red-fhank. ‘he bill is ftraight and red ; legs {carlet; fecondary quill feathers white. Kramer. This CAL isthe totanusof Briffon, fcolopax tetanus of the Fauna Su- ecica, rotbien of F-fch, &c. . Ob/. A variety of this {pecies is found in Chiaa, the body of whichis grey above, anst beneath white; lower part of the neck, and fide of the brevtt, {potted with bleckifh ; rump and tail barred with black and shite. Latham, &c. Cauinats, a fpecies of Trinca, the bil and legs of which are blackifh; body beneath olivaceous ; tmp vart- ezated. Gmel. This is che dufky fandpiper of Latham; cali» dris of Briffon; ruftico!afylvatica of Gefner and Alfrovandus 5 and maubeche of Buffon. Inhabits the maritime parts ot France end Germany. Length nine inches and an half, Cacipris, a [pecies of Moractrxa, called by Latham the hang-nelt warbler; and American nightingale of Ed~ wards. The plumage is greenifh brown above ; beneath, fulvous; ocular line, and another beneath it, black. Gmcl. This is ficedula Jamaicenfis major of Briffon; and grand fiquier de la Jamaique of Buffon. Thisbird isof the fize of arobin, and builds a hanging-reft ; it inhabits Jamaica, and is fuppofed to be the watchy picket, Spanifh nightingale, or American hang-nelt of Sloane. Cauipris nigra, the name und.r which Aldrovandus defcribes Trinca gambctta, the red-legged horfeman of Aibin, and gambet of other Enylith writers. Cauipris grifea of Briffon is the Gmelician TrinG4 gri- fea; aod Caxipris grifea minor of the fame author: Trin- GA arenaria of Gmelin. Briffon alfo defcribes tringa nvia of Gmelin under the name of calidris nevia. Calidris bel- lonii of Aldrovandus is fcolopax calidris of Kramer, &c. Cacipris, a fpecies of Cuaraprius, called in England the fanderling or curwillet. The bill and legs of this bird are black ; lores and rump greyifh ; body beneath white, without fpots. Georg. It inhabits the fandy coalts of England and North America. Length eight inches. Of. There is a varicty of this {pecies in which the front, and body beneath are cinereous white. CALIDUCTS, from calor, heat, and duco, I lead; a kind of pipes, or canals, difpofed along the walls of houfes and apartments ; ufed by the ancients for the conveyance of heat to feveral remote parts of the houfe, from one common furnace. The ancient caliduéts feem both for thrift and ufe prefer- able to the German ftoves ; and might even challenge the advantage over our own fafhion, were it not that the very fight of a fire adds fomething of lultre to a room, CALIDUS, ia Entomology, a {pecies of Cimex of the middle fize, found in Africa. The colour above is fufcous; beneath, teftaceous, with black antenne. Fabricius. Caties, in Geography, a{mall town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and New Mark of Brandenburg, chicfly inhabited by weavers of woollen eloth; 16 miles E. of Ree:z. CALIFORNIA, a tra& of country, formerly thought to be an ifland, but now afcertained to bea peninfula, on the weftern coaft of North America, bounded on the north by the continent, with which it is conneéted, on the eaft by the province of New Mexico andthe gulf of California, or the Vermilion Sea, which fepsrates it towards the fouthern part from the continent, and on the fouth and weft by the gee Pacific Ocean. his peninfula terminates on the outh at Cape Lucar or Lucas, in N, lat. 22° 1o!, and W. long. 110°, and extends northward to limits that have not been precifely afcertained. Some have fixed its northern extremity at Cape St. Scbaftian, in N. lat. 43° 30’; whillt others have extended it to 46°, and have made its length 600 leagues, and its breadth at different places, 10, 20, 30, and 40 leaguee, North California, indeed, of which the a Fa mo CALIFORNIA. moft northern fettlement is San Francefco, in N. lat. 37° 58’, has no other bounds, according to ‘ie itatement of La Péroufe, founded on the opinion o% the governor of Mon- terrey, than thofe of Americz itfelf, To the enterprifing {Sint of Cortes, the Spaniards, were firft indebted for the difcovery ot the extenfive peninfula of California. Having Stted out feveral {mail fquadrons for the purpofe of profecuting fuch voyages of difcovery as he could make, from the ports of New Spain in the South Sea, which either perifhed in the attempt, or returned with- out any fuccefs of importance; this adventurous conqueror of Mexico determined to take the command of a new arma- ment in perfon; and, after enduring incredible hardfhips, and encountering every kind of danger, he at length, viz. in 1536, difcovered this peninfula, and furveyed the greater part of the gulf which feparates it from New Mexico. During a long period, however, this country was fo little frequented, that even its form was unknown, and in mot charts it was reprefented as anifland, and not asa peninfula. In 1540, Mendoga, viceroy of Mexico, difpatched Fran- cifco Alargon to fearch towards the weft for the pretended ftrait of Anian; but he advanced no higher than the lati- tude of 36°, and made no difcovery. This fame proje& was renewed in 1542, by Rodrigues de Cabrillo: but this whole expedition ferved only to explore a cape in the lati- tude of 41° 30!, which was denominated Capo Mendocino, in honour of the Mexican viceroy. In 1578, fir Francis Drake found, that in the latitude of 48°, there exifted lands and men; and after having reconnoitred the coait through an extent of 220 leagues, which terminates in 37°, he called the country which he had difcovered ** New Al- bion,”’ and took pofleffion of it in the name of Elizabeth, queen of England. In the lat. of 38° 30!, he difco- vered the harbour where he made fome ftay, and which has preferved his name. From an account of Drake’s voyage, publifhed in a treatife entitled “* The World encompaffed by Fletcher,’ London, 1653, 4to. it appears, that he gave to the country which he difcovered the name of ** New Al- bion,”’ for two reafons; firft, becaufe from the nature of the rocks and fhoals with which the coaft is fkirted, it pre- fents the fame afpe& as that of England; and fecondly, becaufe it was reafonable and juit, that this land, till then unknown, fhould bear the name of the country of the firft navizator who landed there. In 1592, a Greek of the ifland of Cephalonia, Juan de Fuca, in the fervice cf Spain, difcovered towards the 48th parallel, a large ftrait by which he pretended to have reached the Atlantic Ocean. Fuca’s itrait, or inlet, has been found again in our days; but the communication of the two oceans is neither better proved, nor more probable, and might perhaps exift only in his ac- count. See Fuca’s Strait. In 1595, a galleon was fent to make difcoveries on the fhore of California; but the vef- fel was unfortunately loft in Port des los Reyes. In 1602, the Spanifh admiral, Sebaftian Vifcaino, or Bifcaino, was charged by count de Monterrey, viceroy of New Spain, to explore, to the north of California, a harbour that might atford an afylum to the galleons on their return from Ma- nilla: he difcovered a commodious one, fafe and well fitu- ated, in the latitude of 36° 40!, to which he gave the name of the viceroy Monterrey, and which is fince become the principal fertlement of the Spaniards on the N. W. coait. it is aiferted, that a {mall veffel belonging to his {quadron, commanded by Martin de Aguilar, found between 40 and 44 degrees, the mouth of a great river which bears his name on the geographical maps. It is added, that, having fuc- ceeded in doubling cape Mendocino, which, till then, had only been perceived, he oo on the 13th of January 1603, 30 leagues more to the northward than this cape, in the latitude of 43°, a fecond cape or point, to which he gave the name of Capo Blanco, and that the navigable in- let or large river which he difcovered is near this cape, and that it is a ftrait which leads to a great city, named “ Qui- vira;” but that he was prevented by the rapidity of the current from afcending the river. The navigators of later times have. procured no information re{pecting either this inlet of Aguilar, orthe great city of Quivira. La Péroufe, who, in 1786, got a diltant view of Capo Blanco, and of the parts of the coaft which are reareft to it to the north- ward and fouthward, faw nothing of Aguilar’s inlet ; but as he was then at a confiderable diftance from the land, and as he did not make a particular fearch for this inlet, no conclufion can be drawn from his account againft its exilt- ence. Moft of the geographical and hydrographical charts place Aguilar’s inlet or river to the fouthward of Capo Blanco; but Thomas Lopez, in his general chart of Ame- rica, publifhed in 1772, lays it down 20 leagues to the northward of that cape, in the latitude of 44°, with this fim- ple indication, ‘* Rio que corre a Poette,” river that runs to the weft ; and he makes no mention of the great city Qui- vira. In 1640, admiral Bartolomeo de Fuente, or De Fonte, is faid to have difcovered, towards the parallel of 53°, the archipelago of San Lazaro, the river of Los Reyes, fome great lakes, &c. and an eafy paflage of communication be- tween the Great Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean. This difcovery, inferted in an account, the authenticity of which has been contefted, and in which truth is blended with falfehood, has been confirmed by modern navigators, as to what regards the archipelago of San Lazaro, and per- haps an interior fea; but the communication of the two oceans is not better eftablifhed than that which had been opened by Juan de Fuca. About the middle of the laft century, Jofeph Nicolas de Lifle, and Phillippe Buache, publifhed learned differtations and ingenious fyltems for the purpofe of reconciling the difcoveries of De Fuente on the N.W. coaft of America with what is known befides of that northern part of the new continent. Other geographers and learned perfons have confidered the account of De Fuente as counterfeit and apocryphal ; and among the latter is Dr. Reinhold Forfter, who, with his fon George Forlter, accompanied captain Cook in his fecond voyage, and to whom we are indebted for an excellent ‘‘ Hiltory of the Voyages and Difcoveries, made in the North.’ M. de Ja Peéroufe alfo expreffles his thorough difbelief of the narra- tive afcribed to admiral le Fuente, andof the reality of any difcoveries in the contefted channel of San Lazaro, or St. Lazarus. Mr. Milet Mureav, on the contrary, acknow- ledges himfelf one of the ftrongeft partifans for the exift. ence of a north-weft peflage. Indeed, when we contider, that fince the queftion firit arofe concerning a north-wett paf. fage from Europe into the Pacific Ocean, many {cientitic and capable men have been conftantly on the watch, and eager to purfue the inquiry, it is not at all probable tnat fuch voyeges as are related by Mureau, if really made, fhould not have been fully verified ; and that there fhould remain no other traces of them than a kind of vague tradition. During almoft a whole century, if we except the con- tefted voyage of De Fuente, the weft coaft of North Ame- rica was not vifited by any of the nations by which it was conquered, or by any of thofe which have been fince called thither by the allurements of commerce. But although Spain made no maritime expedition, fhe did not negle& to push by land her difcoveries towards the north ; and the ex« curfions which fhe planned and ordered, at different periods, led to a difcovery, to the eaftward of California, of oF Ne CALIFORNIA, rich provinces of Sonora and Cinaloa, which fee. In 1684, the marquis de la Laguna, viceroy of Mexico, difpatched two fhips with a tender, to make difcoveries of the lake of California, of which he brought back but an indifferent ac- count; though he was among the firft who afcertained its being joined to the continent of America, and contiguous to thatof Afia. It is faid, however, that we owe to fa- ther Caino, a German jefuit, the abfolute certainty that California is a peninfula, joining to the continent of New Mexico, and the more northern parts of South America. He landed on the former from the ifland of Sumatra, and pafled to the latter without crofling any other water than the river Azal, into which the Rio Colorado falls, in about the 35th cegree of north latitude. Dr. Robertfon obferves, that the uncertainty of geographers with refpe& to this point is remarkable, as Cortes feemed to have furveyed its coaft with great accuracy. The arenbitee of Toledo has publifhed from the original, in the poffeflion of the mar- quis del Valle, the defcendant of Cortes, a map drawn in 3541, by the pilot Domingo Cajtiilo, in which California is laid down as a peninfula, ftretchiog out nearly in the fame direétion which is now given to it in the belt maps, and the point where Rio Colorado enters the gulf is marked with precifion. Towards the clofe of the 17th century, the Jefuits, who had great merit in exploring the negletted province of California, and in civilizing its rude inhabitants, imperceptibly acquired a dominion over it 2s complete as that which they pofleffed in their miffions in Paraguay, and they laboured to introduce into it the fame policy, and to govern the natives by the fame maxims. In order to pre- vent the court of Spain from conceiving any jealoufy of their defigns and operations, they feem {tudioufly to have depreciated the country, by reprefenting the climate as fo difagreeable and infalubrions, and the foil as fo barren, that nothing but a zealous defire of converting the natives could have induced them to fettle there. Several public-fpirited citizens endeavoured to undeceive their fovereigns, aud to give them a better view of California; but without effec. At length, on the expulfion of the Jefuits from the Spanifh dominions, the court of Madrid, as prone at that junGure to fufpect the purity of the order’s intentions, as formerly to confide in them with implicit truft, appointed don Jofeph Galvez, whofe abilities afterwards raifed bim to the high rauk of minilter for the Indies, to vifitthat peninfula. His account of the country was favourable ; he found the pearl- filhery on its coalts to be valuable, and difcovered mines of gold of avery promifing appearance. From its vicinity to Cinaloa and Sonora, it 13 probable, that if the population of thefe provinces fhould increafe to the degree that may reafonably be expeéted, California may, by degrees, receive from them fuch a recruit of inhabitants, as to be no longer reckoned among the defolate and ufelefa diltn&s of the Spa- nifh empire. To thisintelligent minifter, Spain is indebted for a new diftribution of government in its American pro- vioces, and for feveral important alterations in the {tate of their police and revenue, as well as a general reformation of the tribunals of juftice in America. Since the limits of the viceroyalty of New Spain have been confiderably circum- feribed, four of its moft remote provinces, viz. Sonora, Ci- naloa, California, and New Navarre, have been formed into a feparate government ; and in time, the beneficial effects of this arrangement may be very confiderable. Under the im- mediate infpection of a governor, to whom thefe rich pro- vinces are {pecially committed, they muft rife into importance aod profperity : and in common with many other diltriéts of America, long depreffled by the languor and feeblenefs na- tural to provinces which compofe the extremitics of an over-grown empire, they may be animated with vigour and activity, when brought fo near the feat of power as to feel its invigorating influence. By Tt was not tillthe year1741, that Beering and Tchirikow, inthe fervice of Ruffia, difcovered the north-welt coaft of Ame- rica; the former, towards the 5Sth parallel; the latter, towards the 56ch. Since that period, the difcoveries of the Ruffians have extended from the parallel of 56° to the molt north- ern part of the weft coaft ; and they have comprifed, in the furveys which they have made of it, the peninfula of Alafka, and the long chain of the Aleutian iflands, both belonging to the continent of America. After a period of 167 years of lethargy, the f{pirit of dif- covery, and the tafte for expeditions to the north, revived among the Spaniards. Accordingly, in 1769, veffels were difpatched from the port of San Blas, under the command of don Vincente Vila, in order to eftablifh a prefidio at the harbour of San Diego, in N. lat. 33° 40/, off the ifthmus of California; and another at that of Monterrey in N. lat. 36° 38/25”; but this expedition afforded no difcovery; however, after a whole year of refearches and fatigue, the Spaniards fucceeded in find= ing again the harbour of Monterrey, the latitude of which had been indicated to them by Vifcaino in 1602. Difcoveries in higher latitudes were fufpended at thistime; becaufe an ob- jet of greater importance, and for the accomplifhment of which, Don Jofeph Galvez had been commiffioned from Spain, occupied the whole attention, and al! the efforts of government. In 1775, a fecond expedition, under the di- rection of Don Juan de Ayala, and of his pilot Don Fran- cifco Antonio Manrelle, eff-S&ed the difcovery of fome capes, and of fome bays and harbours between the 47th and 57th parallels. This voyage made known the harbour of ‘Trinidad in N. Jat. 41° 7; Cape Mefari, in 45° 50'; Cape St. Augultin, in 55°; port Bucarelli, in 55° 17!; mount San Jacinto, and Cape del Engano, in 57° 2!; Guadalupa bay, in 57°41’, in its north part; the harbour of Los Re- medios, in 57° 18/; and fir Francis Drake’s harbour of Francifco, in 38° 18. A third and a fourth voyage in 1778 and 1779, made no additional difcovery ; and the fe- cond merely afforded the affurance that the Ruffians had formed fixed {ettlements on feveral points of the high lati- tudes. But as far back as 1778, while the Spaniards were employed in a minute furvey ot their port Bucarelli (fee Bu- CARELLI), the fir of navigators, as he is defervedly devo- minated by M. Fleurieu, Captain Cook, carried his talente, experience, and information, towards the north-weft coatt of America; and Europe owes to his laborious refearches the firlt certain knowledge that fhe has had of the weft part of the new world. He made the land onthe 7th of March 1778, in the latitude of 44°. Thwarted by the winds, he could only diftinguifh a few capes or points of land, called Cape Gregory, Cape Perpetua, and Cape Foulweather : the firlt of the three, or Cape Gregory, which he places in 43° 10’, appears to be Aguilar’s Capo Blanco, fo called by him in 1603. He loft the land again till he reached it in 45°, where he perceived, at a diltance, in 48° 15', a cape which he named Cape Fiattery. At length, after long ftruggling with adverfe winds, he ran in tor the land, in the latitude of 49° 36’, and anchored in a bay which he firit called King George’s Sound, aud known among the inhas bitants of the country by the name of “ Nootka.” »This Nootka Spain claimed in 1790, as an integral part of her American dominions. Having examined a few pointe above the 56th parallel, he dilcovered, in 60°, Prince William’s Sound, and Cook’s river; and having rounded the penin« fula of Alafka, he vifited fome of the Aleutian iflands (fee AvevuTian), and thence advancing to the higheft latitudes which CALIFORNIA. / which the ice permits navigatora to reach, he blended his difcoveries with thofe which the Ruffiane had made fince the ycar 1745. Cook’s voyage made known to England the new and valuable articles which thofe lands offered to her commerce ; it fhewed the poffibility of rivalling the Rvuffians in the fur trade, and of fharing with them the great profits that may be obtained in barter with the empire of China, by the fkins of animals, wh'ch are the treafures of the forefts of north-weft America; in fhert, ‘* he opened a new career to the ever-increafing aétivity of a nation, whofe commercial operations embrace the two hemifpheres throughout the whole circumference of the globe.”” In 1786, La Peroufe dire&ted his courfe towards the N.W. coait of America, and mace the land on Beering’s mount St. E ias, in the latitude of 60°; he ranged along the lands of the continent for an extent of 470 leagues from that parallel to the harbour of Monterrey, and particularly applied himfelf to the examina- tion of thofe parts of the coaft trom which captain Cook had been repelled by contrary winds; he difcovered a fine har- bour in N. lat. 58° 37!, which he called ‘* Port des Frangais,”” (which fee); and in the courfe of his furveys, which were both minute and accurate, he verified and confirmed fome of the difcoveries of 1775, which the Spaniards had fcarcely indicated, Of Monterrey, and the adjacent country, La Péroufe has given a particular account, of which we fhall avail ourfelves under that article. This is the place of refidence of the go- vernor of the two Californias, the northern and fouthern, or the New and Old, This government is fubordinate to the vice-royalty of Mexico; and La Péroufe informs us, that it extends to more than 800 leagues in circumference, for the maintenance of which 282 foldiers of cavalry are found fufficient. Thefe garrifon five {mall forts, and furnifh de- tachments of four or five men to each of the 25 miffions, or parifhes, into which the provinces «f Old and New Califor- nia are divided. Thefe {mall guards fuffice to keep in fub- jection about 50,000 wandering Indians, who often change their refidence according to the fifhing and hunting feafons, and who are {pread over this vaft extent of the American continent. Of thefe, about 10,00 have embraced Chrifti- anity. Thefe Indians are generally little and feeble, and evince no figns of that love of independence and liberty, which characterifes the northern nations, to whofe arts and induftry they ate ftrangers. Their complexion very nearly refembles that of thofe negroes, whofe hair is not woolly : that of this nation is long, and very ftrong, and they cut it feur or five inches from the roots. Several of them have beards, while others, according to the miffionaries, never had avy ; though this is a point not decided in the country itfelf. The governor who had travelled much in the in- terior part of the country, and had lived with the favages during 15 years, aflured La Péroufe that thofe who had no beard, had extra¢ted it with bivalve fhells, ufed as pincers. The prefident of the mifflions, however, who had refided as long in California, maintained the contrary. hele In- dians are very expert in the ufe of the bow, but they rarely ull the bow till they creep within 15 paces of their prey. im hunting, they crawl on the ground, with ftags’ heads fixed on their own, and thus approach a herd cf ttags, till being withia reach of them, they kill them with their ar- rows, Loretto is the only prefidio or military fort of Old Calitornia, on the eaftern coaft of that peninfula. Its gar- nifon confills of 54 cavalry men, and furnifhes detachments to the 15. following miffions, of which the funGions are performed by the Dominican monks, who have fucceeded the Jefuits and Francifcans. ‘Thefe laft, however, remain in unditturbed poffcffion of the ten miffions of New Califor- nia. The 1§ miffions of the department of Loretto ares San Vincente, S. Domingo, El Rofario, S. Fernandez, S. Francifco de Borgia, S, Gertrude, S. Ignacio, La Gua- dalupe, Santa RofaJia, La Conception, S. Jofef, S. Fran- cefco Xavier, Loretto, S. Jofef de Cabo Lucar, and To- dos los Sanétos. About 400 Jndian converts, colleéted round thefe 15 parifhes, are the only fruit of the long apoftlefhip of the various religious orders, who have fuc- ceffively undertaken this painful duty. As yet there is only one Spanifh village. Indeed the climate is unhealthy, and the province of Sonora, which forms the boundary of the Ver- milion fea to the weltward, and California to the northward, is much more attraétive to the Spaniards, who find there a fertile foil, and abundance of mines; which are, in their eftimation, more important obje&s than the pearl fifhery of the peninfula, which requires a confiderable number of flaves who can dive, and whom it is difficult to procure. Yet North Californie, notwichftanding its great diftance fram Mexico, appears to combine much greater advantages. For an ac- count of its prefidios, fee New Atsion. The Francifcans eftablifhed their firft miffion here in 1770: and they have now ten, comprebending 5143 converted Indians. The piety of the Spaniards has kept up the prefidios at a great expence, apparent!y from no other motive than that of converting and civilizing the Indians cf thefe countries. But from later difcoveries, a new branch of commerce may pro- cure to Spain more folid advantages than the richeft mines of Mexico ; and the falubrity of the air, the fertility of the foil, and the abundance of furs, for which they have a cer- tain market in China, give to this part ot America the moft important advantages over Old California, whofe unwhole- fomenefs and flerility cannot be compenfated by a few pearls colleGed from the bottom of the fea. Before the Spaniards fettled in this country, the Indians of California only cultivated a little maize, and almoft en- tirely fubfifted on fifhing and hunting. Nocountry abounda more with all forts of ffh and game. Hares, rabbits, and flags, are very common; otters and fea-wolves abound te- wards the north ; and in winter they kill a great number of bears, foxes, wolves, and wild cats. The coppices and plains are fuil of {mall, crefted patridges, which flock to- gether in covies of 3 or 400: they are fat and well fla- voured; and the trees afford lodgment to a vaft variety of birds and fowl. As to the fertility of the foil in the coun- try adjoining to the prefidio of Monterrey, it exceeds con- ception. The harveits of maize, barley, wheat, and peas, can only be compared to thofe of Chili; and the average produce of corn is from 70 to 8o fold. Fruit trees are hi- therto fearce ; but the climate is well adapted to them, be- ing nearly that of the fouthernmoft provinces of France. The cold is never more fevere, and the heats of fummer are much more moderate, in confequence of the perpetual mifts, which fecundate the earth with conftant moifture. The fo- - refts contain the pine-apple fir, cyprefs, ever green oak, and weftern plane-tree. La Péroufe pays a tribute of fingular refpe&t to the monks of this prefidio; and contrafts the'r difpofition and condu€, very much to their advantage, againft thofe of the monks of Chili. The huts of the Indian villages, in both Californias, are the moft miferable that can be conceived. Their form is circular, and fix feet in diameter by four feet high. Some ftakes about the fize of the arm being fixed in the ground, and brought together in an arch at top, compofe their frame, and eight or ten truffles of ftraw, badly arranged upon thefe flakes, defend the inhabitants more or lefs from the rain and wind. The Indians adhere to this mode of con- {truGting their habitations, notwithftanding the ere oe esc CALIFORNIA. of the miffionaries, alledging that they Jove the open air, and that they can eafily fet fire to their houfes when they are too much annoyed by fleas, to which vermin they are fub- je&, and then rebuild them in an hour or two. Befides, thefe habitations are moft fuitable to thofe independent In- éians who are perpetually changing their abode. The co- lour of thefe Indians, the houfe of the monks, their ma- gazines built of brick and plailtered, the threfhing floor on which they tread out their corn, the cattle, the horfes, and in fhort, every thing prefented the appearance of a planta- tion in St. Domingo. or any other colony. The men and women are aflembled by the found of a bell, and a monk leads them to work, to church, and to all their employments. The monks are the temporal, as well as {piritual fuperiors, and the whole proiuce of the earth is committed to their management. The day is divided into feven hours of work and two of prayer; but four or five on Sundays and featt- days, which are wholly devoted to reft and religious wor- fhip. both fexes, who neglect their pious exercifes; and many crimes, which in Europe are referred to divine juflice, are puoifhed with chains or the ftocks. As foon as a new con- vert is baptized, he is under the obligation of a perpetual vow; andif he defert the religious fociety, and return to. his relations, he is {ummoned three times to come back; and if he refufe, a party of foldiersis fent by the authority of the governor, to force him away from his family, and condu& bim to the miffions, where he is condemned to re- ceive a certain number of lathes. The Indians, like the mif- fionaries, rife with the fun, and then go to prayer and to mafs. During this time, barley-meal is boiled in a cauldron, and the mefs, which the Indians cail ‘ atole,’? and which they much like, is feafoned neither with butter nor fait. This repaft occupies about three-quarters of an hour, after which all go to their r-{peétive occupations, und-r the fuperintend- ance of one or two monks. The employment of the wo- men, befrdes that of condu@ing their houfchold affairs, is the management of their children, and the roafting and grind- ing of their grain; they aifo {pin their wool, and manufac- ture fome coarfe ftuffs. At noon the bells ring for dinner, and the Indians partake of a mefs fimilar to that of their breakfaft, called “ pouffole,”? except that it is thicker, and cootains, befides the corn and maize, peas and beans. From two o’clock they returo to work till four or five, and clofe the day with prayers, and with another mels of atole. The difinbution of thefe mefles is faithfully made; and the leaft d-thonefty is punifhed by the lath, which is ordered by In- dian magiftrates, called ‘‘Caciques.”” The punifhment in- fired on the women is private; but that of the men is public, that it may ferve as an example. Their’rewards confit in fmall diftributions of grain; and on feaft-days, their mefs is beef, which many eat raw. Such is their honefty, that no example occurs of their robbing one another, though they have no other door than atrufsof firaw laid acrofs the entrance when the whole fa- mily is abfent. The men in thefe miffions have facrificed more to Chriftianity than the women; for to them poly- gamy was allowed, and it was even the cuftom to marry all the fifters of a family. The monks made themfelves the guardians of female virtue: for, about an hour after fupper, they lock up all thofe whofe hufbands are abfent, as well as ali girlsabove nine years old, and place them under the care of matrons during the day ; but all thefe precautions are in fome cafes jafuficient. The converted Indians retain all their ancient cuftoms, that are not forbidden by their new religion; the fame huts, the fame games, and the fame drefles, The richeft wear a cloak sritstendkin, covering Corporal punifhments are infliGed on the Indians of the loins, and reaching below the middle; others wear only a piece of cloth to cover their nakednefs, and a little cloak of rabbit-fkit, covering the fhoulders, and reaching to the loins, and tied with a pack-thread under the chin. The women’s drefs confifts of a cloak of flag’s fkin badly tanned. Young girls under nine years old, have only a girdle round the loins, and the boys are wholly naked. The hair of both men and women js cut four or five inches from the roots. The Indians of the ** Rancherias,”’ or villages of indcpend- ent Indians, having no iron utenfils, perform this opera- tion with fire-brands, and paint their bodies red, which they change into black when in mourning. They retain an affeAionate remembrance of their deceafed friends, and are eafily melted into tears by the mention of them: neverthe- lefs, children fcarcely know their own father, becaufe they defert his hut as foon as they are able to provide for them- {elves ; but they are more durably attached to their mother, who brings them up with care and tendernefs. The old men of the Rancherias, who are no longer abl: to hunt, live at the joint expence of the whole village, and are treated with general refpe&t. Their arms are the bow and arrow, pointed curioufly with a flint. Thefe Indians neither eat their prifoners, nor their enemies killed in war: al- though when they have conquered, and put to death fome chiefs, and very brave men in the field of battle, they eat fome morfels of their bodies, thus doing homage to their valour, and apprehending that fuch food would increafe their courage. They are accuftomed, like the Canadians, to take off the fcalp of the vanquifhed, and to tear out their eyes, which they have the art of preferving from cor- ruption ; and it is their pra€tice to burn the dead, “and to depofit their afhes in a morai, The mixed government ex- ercifed in the miffions of California is, with regard to the Indians, a real theocracy ; for they are taught to believe that their fuperiors hold an immediate and conftant inter- courfe with God, and that they bring him down each day upon the altar. Under favour of this opinion, the fathers live in the midft of the villages in per‘eét fecurity, nor do they fhut their doors during the night. Murder is very uncommon even among the independent tribes, and is pu- nifhed only by general contempt; but if a man falls under the united attack of feveral affailants, he is fuppofed to have deferved his fate, as he had drawn upon him fo many enemies. M. la Péroufe obferves, that the fenfe of talte is that which thefe people moft delight in gratifying ; and the werd * Miffich,” which in their language fignifies a good man, likewife denotes favoury food. Among other peculiarities of thefe people is their gaming; lefs remark- able for the ingenuity of their games than for the nature of the ftakes. Among the Indians of the miffions, the com- mon ftake is beads; but among the independent Indians, the favours of their women are the prizes. New Califor. nia, we are told, cannot yet reckon a fingle fettler, not- withftanding its fertility ; except a few foldiers who are married to indian women. La Péroufe obferves, that the adminiftration of the villages converted to Chritlianity would be more favourable to population, if property and a certain degree of liberty formed its bafis, However, fince the eftablithment of the ten different miflions of North California, the holy fathers have baptized 7701 Indiana of both fexes, and have buried only 2388. Almoft all the Francifcan miffionaries are Europeans, and they have acol- lege and monaftery at Mexico, whofe guardian is, in Ame- rica, the general of his order; and this houfe has its fuperior in Europe. The faceted {kins are a8 common in the northern parte of California, ag ia any other part of America; they are he c. CALIFORNIA. be found as far to the fouthward as 28° N. lat. ; but the fouthern fkins are inferior in quality to. thofe in the feas that are frequented by the Ruffians. The eaftern and fouthern coafts of Old California are much richer in the varieties of its fhells than the New, and furnifh oytters, whofe pearls are equal in beauty and fize to thofe of Ceylon, or the Perfian gulf. There is, perhaps, no country where the various Jan- guages of the inhabitants are fo extremely multiplied as in North California. The numerous tribes that divide that country live in an infulated manner, although fituate very near each o her, and haveeach a feparate language. Mon- terrey, and the miffion of San Carlos, which is dependent upon it, c mprehend the country of the Achaftlians, and the Ecclemachs. The languages of thefe people, partly, united in the fame miffion, would foon form a third, if the converted Indians difcontinued their intercourfe with thofe of the Racherias, As the Achaftlians have few abftract ideas, they have very few words to exprefs them; nor do they appear to diftinguifh by different names all the fpecies of animals, or of common vegetables. They diftinguifh the plural from the fingular, and conjugate fome tenfes of verbs; but they have no declenfions, and their fubftantives are much more numerous than their adjeGtives. ‘They never ufe the labials Pand B, nor the letter X. The moft com- mon initial confonants are T and K; but their terminations are very various. hey ufe their fingers in counting as far as ten; few of them being able to do it by memory, or without the affitance of fome external fign. The country ofthe Ecclemachs extends above twenty leagues to the eaftward of Monterrey. Their language is totally different from all thofe of their neighbours, and has even a greater refemblance to the ianguages of Europe than to thofe of America. The diale& of this tribe, however, is more co- pious than that of the other nations of California, though it cannot be compared with the languages of civilized nations. Should it be inferred from hence, that the Ecclemachs are foreigners in this part of America, it muft be at leaft ad- mitted that they have inhabited it for along time; fince they*differ neither in colour, in countenance, nor in their . general form, and external appearance, from the other na- tions of that country. La Péroufe inftituted a comparifon between the Aborigines of California, and thofe of Chili, fituate at the fame diflance from the line in the fouthera with that of the othersin the northern hemifphere ; and he obferves that the Californians are taller, and the mufcles more itrongly marked; but they are not fo courageous or iotelligent. They haye low foreheads, black and thick eye-brows, black and hollow eyes, a fhort nofe depreffed at ihe root, and their cheek-bones projeGting. They have a mouth rather large, thick lips, ftrong and fine teeth, and a chin and ears of the common form. They-are extremely indolent and incurious, and almoft ftupid. In walking they turn in their toes, and even their ftep, aud by their infirm and tottering gait indicate their chara¢teriltic pufillanimity. The women have fome qualities peculiar to themfelves, and not obfervable in thofe of Chili. They are taller, and their limbs are more regularly formed ; their figure is generally better defined, and their countenance lefs forbidding. The hair of the people of both thefe countries is nearly fimilar ; but the Californians have it in greater abundance than the natives of Chili. Many of the men, however, are devoid of beard, and the women haye very little hair on any part of the body; but this is faid to be the efle& of art, as both the men and women pluck: off the hair with bivalved fhells ora cleft ftick. Thefe Americans paint their fkin by way of ornament. They alfo pierce their ears, and wearin them trinkets of various kinds and fafhions. Their fkin is tawny, and their nails of a lighter colour than thofe of the inhabitants of Chili. At Chili and California the appearance of the beard ang the change of the voice announce the age of puberty in males about their 13th year. The girls attain to puberty about the age of eleven or twelve. Thefe nations have nearly the fame paffions, the fame {porta, and the fame mode of living ; and they are equally vielent in the expreffion of joy and anger, which the flightelt occafion is fufficient to excite. Their food is commonly game or fifh; and their times of eating are fometimes determined by their appetite ; but in general each family aflembles at the clofe of the day to their common repaft. The Californians make no ufe of vegetables, except a few pine-nuts, and other fummer fruits, which, however, conititute no effential part of their food. Idlenefs makes them abftemious, but an abundance tempts, and they become voracious gluttons. Thefe nations are divided into hordes, each of which commonly forms a little hamlet ; and their habitations are huts or cabins of different fhapes, and conftru&ted of different materials. Polygamy is allowed among them, and their marriages laft no long- er than is agreeable to both parties. To the exclufive pofcffion of their women they attach little importance, often endeaveuring to make a market of their favours, which they fell for a piece of old iron, or a few glafe beads. Each family feems to poffefsa government peculiar to it- felf; and has its chief, its huts, its canoes, its implemente for the chace and for fifhing, and, indeed, all the various means of defence or fubfiflence. Some chiefs feem to have the command of feveral families. ‘Thefe chiefs excel the other inhabitants in ftature, ftrength and courage; they are generally covered with large {cars, as tokens of their valour, and diftinguifhed by a kind of extraordinary decora- tion in their head-drefs and habiliments. The drefs of the women confilts ofaleathern fhift, defcending to the middle of the leg, anda mantle of fkins, which covers them from the fhoulders tothe knees. The men wear a fimilar mantle, and have a fhirt of leather, and bufkins of feal’s fkin; but their feet are commonly naked. As great changes of tem- perature are experienced in California at different feafons of the year, the inhabitants are fubje& to difeafes peculiar to the country. Sore throats, catarrhs, pleurifies, and peri- pneumonies, are the ordinary difeafes of the winter feafon ; for which they recur to decoétions made of plants, and ap- plied to the parts affected. Ephemeral and intermittent fevers, and dyfpepfia, are chiefly prevalent in {pring and au- tumn ; and as remedies they excite vomiting by forcing the finger down the throat, and procure copious fweats by a kind of ftove baths. The difeafes moft general in f{ummer are fevers of various kinds, putrid, petechial, inflammatory and bilious, together with the dyfentery. To one or other of thefe the patient generally fails a viciim, unlefs the ef- forts of nature are fufficient to produce a falutary evacua- tion, by ftool, urine, or perfpiration. Befides thefe difeafes, the inhabitants of California are liable to nervous fever, rheumatifm, prutient eruptions, ophthalmia, fyphilis, and epilepfy. Syphilis feems never to have been introduced among the natives of California till after their communica- tion with the Europeans, who fettled in that part -of the continent. The means of cure in which they moft confide are the fand-bath, which they call ‘*tamafeul,’? anda de- coGtion of fudorific plants taken alternately. The women, though liable to fimilar maladies with thofe of the men, fuffer little inconvenience during the time of geftation, and are almoft always delivered with cafe. As foon as the in- fant is born, the midwives tie the umbilical cord, plunge rid chi CAL child into cold water, and cleanfe it from the vifcid humour with which its body is covered. The moment the mother is delivered, fhe bathes in the fea or a neighbouring river, and is then feated on a hot ftove, and covered with fyrs. When the fweats fubfide, and the ftove cools, fhe plunges herfelf again in cold water, and fometimes repeats this procefs for feveral fucceffive days. The time of fuckling is unlimited ; but it commonly extends to eighteen or twenty months ; and the infants are fwaddled by wrapping them up in furs, after having previoufly ftretched out their arms and legs at full length, and fixed them in that fituation by feveral bandages of leather. They then place the infant in a piece of bark, proportioned to its fize, and of the form of a hollow tile, to which he is faitened by {traps or bandages of leather. As to the religion of the Californians it is not eafy to determine concerning it; but it feems mofl probable that before their intercourfe with the Europeans they had no temples, altars, oratories, nor any other place fet apart for religious exercifes. No outward profeffion of religion ap- peared in feftivals, prayers, vows, or expiations. It is pro- bable, however, that they had fome confufed notion of an invifible being ; but to what extent their {peculations car- ried them, it is impoffible to fay, as all our firft relations concerning them have been tran{mitted to us by the jefuits and other miffionaries. In a country fo extenfive, and comprehending fo many degrees of latitude, the climate mult be very various ; and the foil and its produ@tions mult depend on collateral circumftances connected with their fituation, as it is nearer to the fea and to rivers, or more re- mote from them. In California, there falls in the morning a great quantity of dew, which, fettling on the rofe-leaves, candies, and becomes hard like manna, having all the {weet- nels of refined fugar, without its whitenefs. In the heart of the country, there are alfo plains of falt, quite firm, and clear as cryftal, which, confidering the vaft quantities of fifh on its coafts, might render it an invaluable acquifition to an induftrious nation. The pearl-fifhery on its coalts, and its interior mines of gold, pet alfo fupply materials for a profitable commerce. The chief town oF California is St. Juan; and the number of its inhabitants has been eftimated at 300,000; but every calculation of this kind muft be very vague and uncertain. For a further account of this coun- try, and of the weftern coaft of North America, fee Nrw Axsion. See alfo Francais, Francesco, Fur-trade, Moxrerrer, Nootka, Norrork Sound, kc. Marchand’s Voyage by Fleuricu, vol.i. La Péroufe’s Voyage, vol. i. and ii. Catiroania, gulf of, called alfo purple, vermilion, or red Joa, {eems to be an eftuary of two large rivers, and feparates California in part from Mexico. The coafts of the penin- fula, towards this gulf, are covered with inhabited iflands ; fuch as thofe of St. Clement, Paxaros, St. Anne of Cedars, fo called from the number of thefe trees of a large fize which it produces, St. Jofeph, and a multitude of others. But the iflands beft known are three lying off cape St. Lucas, towards the Mexican coaft, which are called Les ‘T'res Marias, or the “ Three Maries.” Thefe are fmall, but fupply good wood and water, falt-pits, and abundance of game; and therefore the Englith and French pirates have fometimes wintered there, when they have been bound on cruifes in the South feas. CALIGA, in Roman Antiquity, was the proper foldier’s fhoe, made in the fandal fathion, without upper Icather to cover the fuperior part of the foot, though otherwife reaching to the middle of the leg, and faftencd with thongs. The fole of the caliga was of wood, like the Sa- bot of the French peafants, and its bottom ftuck full of a ; ir clavi are fuppofed to have been very long or. V. CAL in the fhoes ot the fcouts and fentinels; whence thefe were called by way of diftin&tion, ‘* calige {peculatorie ;” as if by mounting the wearer to a higher pitch, they gave a greater advantage to the fight: though others will have the “calige fpeculatoriz’” to have been made foft and woolly, to prevent their making a noife. Plin. Nat. Hift. lib. ix. cap. 18, lib.xxxiv. cap.14. Hard. Suet. in Calig. cap. 9. and cap. §2. From thefe calige it was that the emperor Caligula took his name, as having been born in the army, and afterwards bred up in the habit of a common foldier; hence called “ Caligatus.” A fort of calige was alfo worn by monks and bifhops, when they celebrated mafs pontifically. Du-Cange. St. Jerome (Ad Euftochium, de Cuttod. Virg. t.i. p. 140.) ufesthe word “ caliga” to exprefs that covering for the feet which Chrift forbade his difciples to wear, when he fent them to preach the gofpel in his life-time, and which is oppofed to ‘ fandals,” Mark vi. 9.; though St. Jerome, in the im- petuofity of his zeal, fuppofes the apoltles were to walk at times abfolutely barefoot. Thefe calige then feem to mean bufkins, or rather fhort boots, defigned to cover the feet fo entirely, as to guard them, as well as the lower part of the leg, from injury by ftones, thorns, &c.; whereas fandals confifted merely of foles at the bottom of the feet, faftened by leathern thongs, which left the foot very much uncovered, and expofed to injuries.’ St. Jerome annexes to thefe “ calige” the epithet ‘‘ latz,” broad, which does not feem to be appropriate; and, therefore, fome have fuppofed a corruption in the prefent reading of /ate for lutea, yellow; and this is the colour of the leather of which the Arabs make their boots. . CALIGATI, an appellation given by fome ancient writers to the common {foldiers in the Roman armies, by reafon of the caliga which they wore. The caliga was the badge, or fymbol of a foldier ; whence to take away the caliga and belt, imported a difmiffion or cafhiering. CALIGINOSUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Caranus that inhabits America, the colour of which is black ; thorax fquare and fmooth; antenne pitchy. VFabr.&c. Obf. This infect is further diftinguifhed by having two imprefled dots on the head. CALIGO, or Caticario, in Medicine, an opacity, or cloudinefs of the anterior furface of the cryftalline, caufing a dimnefs or fuffufion of fight. The caligo is the fame with what the Greeks call «xv;, achlys. CALIGULA, Catus Czsar, in Biography, the fourth Roman emperor, was the fon of Germanicus and Agrippina, born A.U.C. 765, A.D. 12; and derived his furname from * caliga,” a kind of military boot, which he wore in con- formity to thofe of the common foldiers, and with a view of engaging their affections. At an carly period he was a com- plete matter of diffimulation ; he concealed his natural fero- city under an aflumed modefty; nor did he manifeft any figns of forrow or refentment, when his mother was con- demned, and his brothers were exiled and imprifoned. In his 20th year he was the favourite of the people from the refpect they entertained for the memory of his father; and on this account he was hated by Tiberius. Of this he was well apprized ; and, therefore, during his refidence with him at Caprex, he had recourfe to every art for vanquifhing the prejudme which the emperor had conceived againit him, and for conciliating his favour. With this view he ftudied the tafte, the humours, the language, and even the tone of voice of Tiberins, changing, as occafions feemed to require, both his countenance and conduét, in order to fix his attach- 5G ment; QaAat ment; nor was he wanting in his endeavours to fecure the intereft of all who had accefs to his grandfather. As a counterbalance to the power of Sejanus, who had funk in the eltimation of Tiberius, and whom he determined to dif- grace, he refolved to advance his obfequious grandfon ; and having allowed him to affume the ‘toga virilis,” he in- vetted him with the dignity of pontiff, and intimated to the fenate his defigw of appointing him his fucceflor to the em- pire. Tiberius, however, well knew the natural ferociou(- nefs of his temper; but he hoped that his paflion for mufic and dancing, and the debauchery to which he was addi&ted, would be the means of foftening his favage difpofition. His hopes indeed were delufive ; and he therefore augured the injuries he would commit, and called him a public peft, that lived to plague him and mankind. To this purpofe he de- {cribed him as ‘a ferpent that would be fatal to the Ro- mans, and a Phaeton that would fet fire to the univerfe.” In a converfation about Sylla, when young Caius ridiculed his charaéter, Tiberius, whofe natural penetration led him into a thorough acquaintance with his chara@ter, obferved to him; ‘“ You will have all Sylla’s vices, and not one of his virtues.”? And, on another occafion, wnen he had his two grandfons before him, he embraced Gemellus, with tears in his eyes, and faid to Caius, whofe countenance manifefted difpleafure, ‘ You will flay him, and another fhall flay you.” The firft wife of Caius was Claudia, the daughter of Marcus Silanus, a fenator of diftin@tion ; but his debauchery in his youth was fuch, that he was detected by his grandmother ‘Antonia, in fceandalous familiarities with his own fitter Dru- filla. Upon the death of Claudia, he intrigued with Ennia, the wife of Macro the pratorian prefect, who cencurred in this infamous bufinefs, and, in confequence of it, affitted him by his infleence in fecuring the fucceffion. Although ‘Tibe- rius, notwithftanding his declared intention, hefitated about the appointment of a fucceffor, infomuch that he is faid by will to have joined with Caius his other grandfon Tiberius Gemellus, as co-heir; Caus was acknowledged and pro- claimed emperor immediately on the death of his grandfather by the Pretorian guards, and Macro was fent to the fenate with Piberius’s will in order to have it annulled. In order to accomplifh this purpofe, he reprefented, on the part of Cains, that Tiberius was not found in his underftanding when he made it, and that this plainly appeared by his ap- pointing a child to govern them, who was not yet old enough ro fit among them. The fenators who hated Tiberius thought thefe reafons fufficient, and accordingly fet alide the will. This event happened A. U.C. 790, A.D. 37. The fequel of this reign was marked with a variety of tranfac- tions, which indicated abfolute infanity. At its commence- ment, indeed, it was the occafion of univerfal joy and con- gratulation ; fo that in three months after the acceffion of Caius to the empire, no lefs than 160,000 victims were facrificed in thank{giving to the gods; and nothing was feen for feveral months but feafting and rejoicing through the whole extent of the Roman empire. Caius began his reign by feveral popular atts, which feemed to encourage thefe high expeétations. He profeffed great refpeé&t for the fe- nate, releafed all that had been imprifoned by the orders of Tiberius, recalled all exiles, abolithed for the time to come all accufations of high treafon, and puta {top to all proceed- ings that had already began. He pretended to burn all papers relating to charges of this kind, left by Tiberius ; but in the iffue it appeared, that, whilft he preferved the ori- ginals, he burnt only copies. Healfo difplayed a pious and affeGtionate re{pet to the memory of all his deceafed rela- tions, and treated thofe who furvived with every token of honour. He difcharged all the legacies that had been be« 5 GAs queathed by Tiberius and Livia; and exhibited his genero- fity, as it was called, in largefies to the people, and in public fpectacles which were conduéted with extraordinary fplen- dour and magnificence. He even affected a regard for liberty, by reitoring to the people the right of eleGion to certain offices of which ‘Tiberius had deprived them, and by allowing the works of feveral patriotic writers to be freely circulated ; and with a pretended zeal for morals, he banifhed all the minifters of the 1nfamous debaucheries of his prede- ceffor. ‘This conduct was in a high degree gratifying to the people ; and a dangerous illnefs, with which the emperor was attacked at this period, caufed general alarm and produced expreffions of concern and wifhes for his recovery. As foon as he was reftored to his ufual health, his condu@t appeared to be quite changed, andto mark a character the moft de- praved and deteflable. The firft act by which he difcovered his natural ferocity was the death of the young and inoffen- five Gemellus ; and this was foon fueceeded by that of his father-m-law Silanus, and of his benefactors Macro and his wife. Many fenators and perfons of diftin@ion were alfo facrificed to his political jealoufy ; and others became vic- tims either to the mere wantonnefs of fport, or his innate love of cruelty. Of his inceftuous paffion he gave proof by marrying his fifter Drufilla, on occafion of whofe death he abandoned himfelf to the phrenzy of grief. As an inllance of his infanity, we may mention his claim of divine honours, together with his inftitution of priefts and ere¢tion of tem- ples for the worfhip of his own divinity; whilft he hurled defiance again{t Jupiter. Similar to this and more extrava- gant in degree was the honour he paid to his horfe « Inci- tatus ;”? for which he ereéted a palace, affigned domettics, and a public table, ard conftrued a marble {table and ivory rack, giving him gilt barley and wine out of a golden cup, and {wearing by his health and fortune; and, befides, he is faid to have defigned him for conful. He married and re- pudiated feveral wives, and at length his attachment was per= manently fixed to Cefonia, who, without youth and beauty, and although fhe hed been the mother of three children by another hufband, contrived to engage his affeCtion by a cor- refponding diflolutenefs of manners. Notwithftandirg innu- merable enormities, which rendered him the juit object of de- teftation, and for which the only plea muit be that of in- fanity, the Roman fenate and people difgraced themfelves by their bafe adulation and fervile fubmffion, Such was the degree of infatuation and depravity which this montter of folly and iniquity difplayed on a variety of occafions, that: he feemed to have loft all fenfe of fhame; and to have mani- felted, without difguife, his hatred of all human kind. He even lamented that his reign was not diltinguifhed by any of thofe public calamities, which had happened under his predeceffors ; and he openly uttered that moft execrable with « that the Roman people had but a fingle neck, which he might cut off at a blow.” His public tranfa&tions correfponded in the main tenor of them with his private condu&t. In imitation of Xerxes, the eaftern defpot, he caufed to be built, at an immenfe expence,. a bridge of boats acrofs the neck of the bay from Baiz to Puteoli. When he had twice triumphantly paffed it at the head of his troops, the whole ftructure was demolifhed. Refolving on an expedition into Gaul and Germany, he allembled a large army ; but having paffed the Rhine, and marched a few miles into Germany, he haftily returned, and. under an apprehenfion of danger, which was altogether un-. founded, he was conveyed over the heads of the crowd. that, covered the bridge, and thus reached the other fide in fafety.. On another occafion he caufed his troops to found a falfe- alarm, and fallying to the foreft from which the noife pro- ceeded, , . | | CAL ceeded, he employed his men in cutting down trees for ereét- ing trophies on account of his fignal vittory. After his return he oppreffed the province of Gaul with enormous exaGtions and confifcations, in order to fill his exhaufted treafury. In a pretended expedition againft* Britain, he marched his whole army to the coaft oppofite to the ifland, and having advanced in a magnificent galley to a {mail diftance from the fhore, he fuddenly returned and ordered a fignal of battle to be given; after which the foldiers, who were aftonifhed at this farce, were dire&ed to fill their helmets with cockle-fhells ; and the whole ended in a trifling donative to the victorious troops. This folly was fucceeded by a very ferious defign of cruelty, which was that of mafla- cring or at leatt of decimating all the legions of the German army, which had mutinied, in his infancy, againft his father Germanicus ; but the legionaries, fufpeCting his intention, took up their arms; and the favage fled haftily to Rome, and wreaked his vengeance on the paffive fenate. His na- tural ferocity was exafperated by the difcovery of a plot, which had been formed againft him, for which many perfons fuffered death, and his filters were banifhed and defpoiled of their property. At length he feems to have refolved upon the death of the whole fenate and principal knights; but his defigns were rendered abortive by the refentment of Caffius Chzrea, tribune of a pretorian cohort, whom the emperor had made the fubjeét of his indecent jeits and raillery ; accordingly he determined to difpatch the monfter, and to make an effort for the reftoration of a free govern- ment. Availing himfelf of the concurrence of fome perfons of fuperior rank, who had been infulted and injured by the emperor, a confpiracy was formed, of which Cherea was the principal agent. The games annually exhibited in January to the honour of Auguftus were chofen for the feafon of execution. While the emperor was paffing from the theatre to the palace, in a gallery leading to the baths, Chzrea gave him a wound in the neck. he other con- {pirators then rufhed on, and with redoubled blows dif- patched the moniter, in whofe defence no perfon appeared. His mangled Lody remained on the fpot till night, when his wife, or his friend, king Agrippa, caufed it, half burnt, to be Gepofited in the earth. In order completely to finifh the race of the tyrant, Chzrea deputed an officer to put to death his wife Czfonia, and his oe daughter, who was faid to refemble her father in ferocity. An univerfal hatred of the tyrant manifeited itfelf immediately after his death. His ftatues were demolifhed, his aéts abrogated, and his memory as much as poffible extinguifhed. After a rcign of three years and ten months, A. D. 41, Caligula perifhed, and left behind him a charaGter univerfally detefted. It is faid that his form, countenance, gefture, and manners, exhibited traces that were fhocking and portentous. Deltitute of natural talents and education, he merely applied with fome degree of diligence to the ftudy of clocution ; but his chief attention was directed to the arts of mufic, dancing, gladiatorial exer- cifes, and public fpeétacles. He was capricious and mutable toa degree bordering on madnefs; and was conitant only in referving fome form of vice or extravagance. Seneca ob- erves of him, “ that he feems to have been brought forth by nature for the exprefs purpofe of fhewing how much mif- chief could be effeéted by the greateft depravity, fupported by the highefk power.” Sucton. Dio. Caffius, Crevier. en. Biog. CALIGUS Aactus, in Entomology, the name by which Muller’ diftinguifhes the {pecies of Monocucus, riscixus. The Caligi of this writer confift of thofe Mo- noculi which have the eyes marginal, two fetaceous antennz, and from eight to ten legs, C AL CALILAYA, or Tayanas, in Geography, a province of the ifland Lucgon or Manilla in the Eatt Indies, adj ining to Balayan and Camarines, and extending to Cape Bondo, and up the country to Mauban, on the oppofite coalt of the ifland. It is larger than Bz’ayan and is more po- ulous. CALIMERE, Point or Cage. See Catymert Point. CALIMNA. See Carmina. CALIMUS. See Carrimus. CALIN, the name of a fort of mixed metal, feemingly compofed of lead and tin, It is prepared by the Chinefe, and they make feveral utenfils of it, as tea-cannilters, coffee- pots, and the like. In fome plac.s alfo they cover their houfes with it as we do with lead. CALINACRON, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of Bithynia, at a {mall diftance from the ‘Thracian Bofphos rus; called alfo Mélena. CALINDA, or Catypwa, a mzritime town of Afia Minor, in Caria; feated ona fimall navigable river at fome diftence from the fea. It gave name to mountains fituate on the N. W. of the town. CALIND@GA, a town of Macedonia, in Mygdonia. Alfo, a town of India, on this fide of the Ganges. Pto- lemy. CALINEA, in Botany. (Aublet, Jul.) See Dotto- CARPUS. CALINGAZ, in Ancient Geography, a~people of India, on the fouth-eaft coalt, on this fide of the Ganges, men- tioned by Pliny, and pertaining to the Brachmans. Cavinc# Gangaridz, a people of India, different from the former, on this fide of the Ganges, whofe capital was Parthalis. Pliny. CALINGAPATAM, in Geography, a town of Hin- dooftan, in the circar of Cicacole, 12 miles E. N.E. of Cica- cole. N.lat. 18°18’. E. long. 84° 20’. CALINGIL, in Ancient Geography, a people of Arabia Felix, whofe capital was Mariaba. Pliny. CALINGON, Segogora or Ponta de Palmeiras, a pro- montory of India, on this fide of the Ganges, S.W. of the moit wefterly mouth of the Ganges, on the confines of the country of the Calinge. Pliny places it at 625 miles from the mouth of the Ganges. CALINI, or Catrynuppi, in Geography, a river of Hindooftan, which joins the Ganges near Canoge. CALINIPAXA, in Ancient Geography, a town of In- dia, on this fide of the Ganges, mentioned by Pliny, and robably the fame with Canoce, which fee. CALJONG-Campany, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Borneo. CALIORDI, in Ancient Geography, a people of the Tauric Cherfonefus. * Pliny. CALIPH, or Kuatir, denotes a fucceffor of Maho- met, velted with fovereign dignity and abfolute authority, in the fpiritual as well as temporal empire ereéted by that le giflator. The word is ori inally Arabic, “ khalifah ;”’ which properly fignifies a Ideedlior or vicar. The caliphs among the Mahometans bear a near affinity to the popes among the Chriltians who profefs the catholic religion. After the death of Mahomet, who left no dire@ions concerning @ fucceffor, or at leaft none but which were known to his wives, who were in the intereft of Omar, very warm de- bates arofe between the Mohajerin and the Anfars about the right of electing a khalif. The former claimed that right from their having attended Mahomet in his flight to Medina, and from having declared themfelves in his favour before any of the other Arabs joined him ; but the latter 5 Ga founded CAL founded their claims on their having fupported him, when he was expelled his native city, and in their having enabled him to prevail again{t his encmics, when he and his follow- ers were in a ftate of perfecution. At length one of the Anfars propofed to compromife this difference by requefting that each of the contending parties might be allowed to chufe a khalif. The propofal, however, was not cordially approved by the Mohajerin ; and Abvbeker recommended two perfons, Omar Ebn Al Khattab and Abu Obeidah, to their choice, and propofed that they fhould recognize the one of thefe two perfons who obtained the fuffrages of both parties. Omar, however, terminated the difpute by {wear- ing fealty to Abubeker, and his example was followed by all the moflems that were prefent ; upon which, Abubeker was faluted khalif by both the Mohajerin and the Anfars, and acknowledged as rightful fucceffor of Mahomet. Abu- beker, having been thus elected by the Muffulmans, would affume no other title but that of Khalifah reffoul Allah, that is, vicar of the prophet, or meflenger of God. But Omar, who fucceeded Abubeker, reprefented to the Mahometan chiefs, that if he took the quality of vicar, or fucceffor of Abubeker, the vicar or fucceffor of the prophet, the ap- pellation of vicat would, in courfe of time, be repeated and multiplied without end; and, accordingly, at the motion of Mogairah, Omar affumed the title of Emir al Mou- menin, that is, lord or prince of the believers ; which appel- lation has been accepted and borne by all the legitimate caliphs or fucceffors of Mahomet, from that time; though they ftill retained the title of caliph, without any other ad- dition. After the elef@ion of Abubcker, Ali Ebn Abu Taleb, who, by hereditary right, ought to have fucceeded Ma- homet, expreffed his diffatisfaftion at the choice ; but find- ing that the people in general were prepoffefled in his fa- vour, he acquiefced and oppofed his refignation of the go- vernment. The Schiites, however, maintain, that the fu- preme authority, both in fpiritual and temporal concerns, rightfully belonged to the defcendants of Ali, and they do not acknowledge the three firft fucceflors of Mahomet, viz. Abubeker, Omar, and Othman, as legitimate. The go- vernment of Abubeker commenced in the year of the he- gira 11, A. D. 632; and terminated A. D. 634; when he was fucceeded in the regal and pontifical dignity by Omar. This caliph, before his deceafe, appointed 6 perfons to de- liberate concerning the eleGtion of a fucceffor ; all of whom had been intimately acquainted with Mahomet, and were ilyled, by way of eminence, his “Companions.” After his death they aflembled for the choice of a new caliph: and Abdalrahman renounced his pretenfions on condition of being allowed to nominate one of the 5 remaining compa- nions as emperor of the faithful. To this propofal all agreed except Ali, who thought himfelf injured, becaufe he was not the immediate fucceflor of the prophet ; and Othman was declared caliph, in the 24th year of thehegira, A.D. 644. Upon the death of Othman, Ali was unanimoufly elected to fucceed him, in the 35th year of the hegira, A. D. 655. The feat of government during the 3 preceding caliphates had remained fixed at Medina from the death of Mahomet ; but Ali removed it to Cufa. Ali was fucceeded in the ca- liphate by his fon Hafan in the goth year of the hegira, A. D. 660; but after a reign of about fix months, he abdi- cated the* government, and was fucceeded in the 41ft year of the hegira, A. D. 661, by Moawiyah I. the firft caliph of the houfe of Ommiyah ; who transferred the feat of go- vernment to Damafcus in Syria. The race of Ommiades terminated with Merwan IT. in the 127th year of the he- CAL gira, A.D, 744; and was fucceeded by the Abaffides. The firft caliph of this family was Abul Abbas al Saffah, who afcended the throne of the Moflems in the 132d year of the hegira, A. D. 749, and who removed the feat of govern- meni firft to Cufa, then to Anbar, a city on the confines of Chaldza and Arabia, and lait of all to Hafchemiyah, a city built by himfelf near the Euphrates, not far from Anbar, and fo denominated in honour of Hafchem, uncle of Maho- met, and one of his anceftors ; and from this circum{ftance the Abaffides obtained the appellation of Hafchemites. Abul Abbas was fucceeded by his brother Abu Jaafar al Manfar, who was proclaimed caliph in the imperial city of Anbar, then the capital of the Moflem empire, in the 138th year of the hegira, A.D. 754. He built the city of Bag- dad, which afterwards became the cuftomary refidence of the Abaffide caliphs, his fucceffors. This race terminated with Al Moftafem Billah, who was put to death by the Tartars, in the year of the hegira 656, A. D. 1258, when they captured the city of Bagdad. At the end of the firft century of the hegira, about A.D. 718, the caliphs were the moft potent and abfolute mo- narchs of the globe. Their prerogative was not circum- {cribed, either in right or in fa€&t, by the power of the nobles, the freedom of the commons, the privileges of the church, the votes of a fenate, or the memory of a free con- ftitution. The regal and facerdotal charafers were united in thefe fucceffors of Mahomet ; and the Koran was the rule of their actions. They were the fupreme judges and inter- preters of that book held to be divine. They reigned by the right of conqueft over the nations of the eaft, to whom the name of liberty was unknown, and who were accuftom- ed to applaud in their tyrants the aéts of violence and fe- verity that were exercifed at their own expence. Under the laft of the Ommiades, the Arabian empire extended 200 days’ journey from eaft to weft, from the confines of Tartary and India to the fhores of the Atlantic Ocean, And if we retrench the fleeve of the robe, as the long and narrow province of Africa was ftyled by their writers, the folid and compaét dominion from Fargana to Aden, from Tarfus to Surat, will fpread on every fide to the meafure of 4 or 5 months of the march of a caravan. Under the reign of the Ommiades, the ftudies of the Moflems were confined to the interpretation of the Koran, and the elo- quence and poetry of their native tongue. But the caliphs of the race of Abaffides, after their civil and domeftic wars, encouraged literature and fcience. See Armamon and ALMANSOR. After the period of the deftruétion of the caliphate by the capture of Bagdad, there were perfons who claimed the caliphate, under a pretence of belonging to the family of the Abaffides, and to whom the fultans of Egypt pafd great refpet at Cairo, as the true fucceffors of Maho- met; but this honour was merely titular, and the rights they claimed were only acknowledged in the province of religion ; and though they bore the title of caliphs, they were neverthelefs fubjeéts, and dependents of the Sultans. In the year of the hegira 361, A.D. 971, a kind of cali- phate was erected by the Fatimites in Africa and Egypt, and lafted till Saladin fuppreffed it by order of Noureddin, fultan of Syria. There was alfo a caliphate in Africa and Spain, which commenced under the reign of Jofef. Hifto~ rians alfo fpeak of a caliphate in Yemen or Arabia Felix, eftablifhed by fome princes of the race of the Aioubites, or Jobites. The emperors of Morocco affume the title of ‘¢ grand cherifs” and pretend to be the true caliphs, or fuc- ceflors of Mahomet, though under another name. Since the CAL the deftruétion of the caliphate, the Mahometan princes have a particular officer appointed in their refpeGtive domi- nions, who fuftains the facred authority of caliph. In Turkey he is denominated Mufti, and in Perfia Sadre. One of the principal fun@tions of the caliph, in quality of Imam or chief prieft of the Muffulman religion, was that of beginning the public prayers every Friday in the chief mofque, and of delivering the Ahothbah, which was a kind of fermon. In later times they had deputies or affiftants who performed the fecond fervice; but the firft was always ap- propriated to the caliph in perfon. He was alfo obliged to conduét the pilgrims to Mecca, and to march at the head of the armies of his empire. The caliphs alfo grant- ed letters-patent of inveftiture, as well as fwords, ftandards, robes, &c. to the Mahometan princes, who, though they had thrown off the yoke of the caliphate, neverthelefs held of it as vaffals. The caliphs ufually went to the mofques mounted on mules; and the fultans Selgiucides, although matters of Bagdad, held their flirrups, and led their ae by the bri- dles for fome diftance on foot, till fuch time as they received intimations from the caliphs to mount on horfe-back. At one of the windows of the caliph’s palace, there always hung a piece of black velvet, 20 cubits long, which reached to the ground, and was called the ‘‘caliph’s fleeve ;”” and the grandees of his court never failed to kifs it with great refpe¢t every day. ‘The honours paid to the caliphs were exceffive, and produced in them a degree of pride, of which they did not cafe to exhibit tokens, even when their autho- rity had declined and was reduced to its loweft ftate of de- gradation. Inthe period of their power, they affeGted very extraordinary magnificence and fplendour. Abulfaragius re- lates, that the caliph Motazem had 700 women in his fe- raglio, and 300 eunuchs to guard them. But this fplendour was much diminifhed, and, indeed, almoft annihilated during the reign of the Bouides in Perfia, who ftripped them of every thing, depriving them of their vifirs, and allowing them to retain no_officer of higher rank than a fe- cretary to take care of their affairs. At length, and parti- cularly under the reign of Radi Billah, the 20th caliph of the Abaffides, A.D. 934, the territories of the Mahometan empire were fo difmembered and divided, that this caliph was reduced to the fole dignity of the caliphate, and the poffeffion of the city of Bagdad. But Baffora, Vaffith, and Ahouaz, were under the TScoinios of the Bouides. They occupied the whole of Perfia; the Hamadanites reigned in Moful and Mefopotamia; Akfchid was mafter of Egypt and Syria; the Fatimites poffeffed Africa; the Ommiades governed Spain; the Samanides had Khorafau; the Car- mathii were in peaceable poffeffion of Arabia Felix and Ara- bia Petra; and the caliphs paid them tribute for the fe- curity of the pilgrims of Mecca: and, moreover, the Dile- mites were the fovereizns of Georgia and Tabniftan. Such was the flate of the caliphate in the 325th year of the hegira, A. D. 936. After the Bouides made themfelves matters of Bagdad, they were reduced to the mere exercife of the funétions of the mofque ; and thefe princes advanced or dethroned them at their pleafure. At length, the period of their total overthrow by the ‘Tartars, under the caliphate of Motazem, arrived, as we have already related ; and their temporal power became extin&. Herbelot, Bib. Or. Gib- bon’s Hift. vols. ix. x. xi. Mod. Un. Hift. vols. i. ii. iii. CALIPOS, or Cairus, in Ancient Geography, Sadao, a river of Lufitania, which rofe to the fouth of the moun- tains on the northern boundary of Cuneus, and running northwards, watered the town of Salaria, and then turning to the welt, difcharged itf{clf into the fea. CAL CALIPPIA, an ifland of the AEgean Sea. Antonin. Marit. Itin. CALIPPIC period, in Chronology, a feries of feventy- fix years, perpetually recurring ; which elapfed, the mid- dle of the new and full moons, as its inventor Cali pus, an Athenian, imagined, returns the fame day of the folar year. Meton, a hundred years before, had invented the period, or cycle, of nineteen years (fee Metonic Cycie) ; afluming the quantity of the folar year 365% 6" 18’ 56 503 314 345; and the lunar month 29* 12" 45/ 47” 26? 484 305: but Ca- lippus, confidering that the Metonic quantity of the folar year was not exact, multiplied Meton’s period by four, and thence arofe a period of 76 years, called the Calippic. At the end of this term it was neceffary to retrench a day : fo that his period was compofed of four of thofe of Meton, three of which confifted of 6940 days each, and one of 6939 days. For this purpofe, it was fufficient to change in the revolution of four periods one of the months from 3o to 29 days. The effe& of this correétion was to retard the anti- cipation of the new moons for more than 300 years, and at the fame time to render the whole period more correfpondent to the motion of the fun. The Calippic period, therefore, or the interval of four Metonic or lunar cycles, diminithed by a day, contains 27759 days; and fince the lunar cycle contains 235 lunations, and the Calippic period is quadruple of this, it contains 940 lunations, confifting of about 27758 days 18" 8’; and 76 revolutions of the fun compofe a fum of about 27758 days 10" 4’. The Calippic period began in the third year of the 112th olympiad, or the 4384th of the Julian period, B.C. 330, the 7th year of the 16th Metonic cycle. It is demonftrated, however, that the Calippic pe- riod itfelf is not accurate; that it does not bring the new and full moons precifely to their places: 8” 5’ 52” 60’”, being the excefs of g40 lunations above 76 folar years ; but brings them too late, by a whole day, in 225 years. This period was adopted by aftronomers, and is frequently mentioned by Ptolemy. It correfponds to our lunar cycle, combined with our Julian years, 76 of which form the Ca- lippic period ; and the anticipation of the moon is the fame in both. ‘This anticipation, together with that of the equi- noxes, gave rife to the reformation of the calendar, A. D. 1582. See Carenpar. The ancients were not unapprized of the defect of the Calippic period: at leaft, it did not ef- cape the penetrating fagacity of Hipparchus, who under- took to corre it. His obfervations led him to perceive, that the folar and lunar years were fomewhat lefs than Ca- lippus had fuppofed them to be; and purfuing his calcula- tion, which he conceived to be fufficiently exaét with regard to the moon, but more erroneous with refpeét to the fun, he found that the anticipation of the one and of the other was about a day in four periods. He therefore quadrupled the cycle of Calippus, and retrenched from it the day which he had found in excefs during four revolutions. This new period had the advantage of correfponding more exaétly with the motion of the moon, which was not retarded more than half an hour in 304 years. But it anticipated the mo- tion of the fun about a day and a quarter, which was an er- ror only equal to that of Calippus in a double interval. However, this invention fhared the fate of many others, no lefs ufeful and alike negle&ted. The Grecians, accuftomed to the cycles of Meton and of Calippus, difregarded that of Hipparchus, although it was more perfect. ALISIA, in Ancient Geography, a town placed by Ptolemy in the eaftern part of Germany, and fuppofed by Cluvier to be Kalifch in Poland. CALISPERMUM, in Botany, (xar0s, beautiful, and eT yey CAST arepux, feed.) Bofc. Nouv. did. Loureiro, Cochin. Clafs and order, petandria monogy nia. Gen. Ch. Calyx with five equal divifions, permanent. Corol. Petals five, ovate, concave. Svamens five. Pil. germ fupertor; ftyle one, ftigma thick. Peric. Berry nearly round, one-celled, many-feeded. Eff. Ch. Corolla five-petalled. Berry one-celled, many- feeded. Species. Califpermum /candens. A climbing fhrub. Leaves alternate, ovate, lanceolate, fcolloped, {mooth. Flowers white, in nearly terminal racemes. A native of Cochinchina. We fulpect, but not having Dr. Smith’s work at hand, have not the means of afcertaining, that Lou- reiro’s plant is the billardiera feandens of our excellent coun- tryman figured by him in his plants of New Holland, and adopted by Willdenow. As that article has not been in- ferted in our work in its proper place, we fhall fupply the -omiffion by giving it here. Billardiera fcandens, Wiillden. 440. Smith New Hol. r. p-1.Tab. 1. Petals five, alternating with the leaflets of the calyx. Nedary none. Stigma fimple. Berry {uperior, many-feeded. Peduncles folitary, one-flowered. Leaves fomewhat hairy. If the plants fhould turn out to be differ- ent, they ought certainly to be referred to the fame genus, and then the trivial name which we have ventured to give to Loureiro’s plant mutt be altered. CALISSA, in Ancient Geography, a people of India on the other fide of the Ganges. Pliny. CALISTA, in Fabulous Hifory, the daughter of Ly- ‘eaon, king of Arcadia, and one of the nymphs-of Diana. Being beloved by Jupiter, he aflumed the form of the god- defs of chaftity, and thus debauched her: but whilit fhe was bathing with her patronefs, her difgrace was revealed, and the incenfed deity converted her and the fon with whom fhe was pregnant into bears; upon which Jupiter, as the fable reports, compaflionating her fufferings, took them up into the heavens, and made them the conflellations Urfa Ma- jor, and Urfa Minor. CALISTE, in Conchology, a fpecies of Venus, the fhell of which is befet with acute tranfverfe flriz, becoming mem- branaceous in front; anterior flope fhort, and the potterior aperture incon{picuous. Gmel. Schroet. &c. Inhabits the Red Sea. CALITA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa in anterior Libya. Pliny. CALITOOR, in Geography. See CarTura. CALIUR, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, placed by Ptolemy on this fide of the Ganges. CALIX. See Caryxand Cuatice. CALIXTINS, in Ecclefiaflical Hiflory, a name given to thofe among the Lutherans, who follow the fentiments of George Calixtus, a celebrated Lutheran divine, who was born near Slefwick in Holftein, in 1586; and having ftu- died at moft of the proteftant {chools in Germany, was made profeflor of theology at Helmftadt in 1614, where he died in 1656. He was diftinguifhed by his zeal for forming an union between the Romifh, Lutheran and Reformed churches; or, at leaft, for joining them in the bonds of mu- tual forbearance and charity. Calixtus was the firft perfon that reduced theology into a regular fyftem, and gave it a truly fcientific and philofophical form. As he had imbibed the fpirit of the Ariftotelian fchool, he arranged the fub- ftance of Chriflianity according to the method of the Stagi- rite; and divided the whole fcience of divinity into three parts, viz. the end, the {ubje&, and the means. He was alfo the firft who feparated the obje&ts of faith from the du- ties of morality, and exhibited the latter under the form of CAL an independent fcience. Thefe innovations rendered him the objeét of much cenfure and oppofition. In his attempt to reunite the feveral bodies of Chriftiass, and to compre= hend the different churches ia one profeffion of religion, he. was a principal promoter of that fyftem, which was called fyncretifm. See Syncrrrists. The coutroverfy which was thus occafioned, fubfifted long after his death; and though he feemed, in his efforts for comprehenfion, to give advantage to the Romith church, no one attacked its ty- ranny and corruption with greater vigour. He was the au- thor of many works, which it is now needlefs to enumerate. Mohheim, Eccl. Hilt. vol. v. The Calixtins are efteemed a kind of Sem1-PELacrans. Cauixtins alfo denote a feét in Bohemia, derived from the Huffites, in the fifteenth century, A.D. 1420, wha afferted the ufe of the cup as effential to the eucharift. And hence their name; which is formed from the Latin calix, a cup. ; The Calixtins are not ranked by Romanifts in the lift of heretics, fince in the main they ftill adhered to the doGtrine of Rome. The reformation they aimed at terminated in the four following articles. 1. That the word of God fhould be explained to the peo- ple in a plain and perfpicuous manner, without the mixture of fuperititious comments or inventions, 2. That the facra- ment of the Lord’s fupper fhould be adminiltered in both kinds. 3. That the clergy, inftead of employing all their attention and zeal in the acquifition of riches and power, fhould turn their thoughts to objeés more fuitable to their profeffion, and be ambitious of living and ating as became the fucceffors of the holy apoftles. 4. That tranfgreffions of a more heinous kind, or ‘ mortal fins,” fhould be pu- nifhed in a manner fuitable to their enormity. In the two great factions of Calixtins and Taborites, into which the multitude was divided, there were fome fubordinate feéts, who differed in feveral other points. Mofheim, Eccl. Hift. vol. iii, See Tasorires. CALIXTUS, Georce. See CArixtins. CALI YUG, in the dfronomy of the Hindoos, a period of time, the commencement of which forms an epoch, in which the planets were fuppofed to have been in a line of mean conjunction, in the beginning of Aries. The Caly yug is fuppofed to have begun 3102 years before the com- mencement of the Chriltian era, or 3101 years before the year of Chrift’s birth ; or at the inftant of midnight, be- tween Thurfday the 17th, and Friday the 18th of Febru- ary, O.S. in the year of the Julian period 1612, when the planets were fuppofed to have had this afpe@ on the meri- dian of Lanka, about 75° 50’ E. of Greenwich: and the epoch founded on its commencement appears to have been fixed on by Varaha, the reputed author of the Surya Sid- dhanta, and fome other Hindu aftronomers fince his time ; for though the planets were not then actually in a line of mean conjunétion, yet, the differences between their re- fpeGtive pofitions, and that which was affumed, when di- vided among the years expired from that epoch to the time of Varaha, were confidered as too fmall to caufe any confi- derable difference between the mean annual motions, and thofe which it would be neceffary to affume, fo as to give the pofitions of the planets at that time, or even to caufe aay fenfible error in their computed places deduced from thence for many years. For a farther account of this aftro- nomical cycle, and its application to the Hindu chronology, &c. fee Bentley on the Antiquity of the Surya Siddhanta, in the Afiatic Refearches, vol. vi. p. 540, Svo. See alfo Surya’ SippHa’NTA. CALKA, in Geography. See Karxa. CAL CALKING, or Caurxina, in Sea-Languaze, &c. See Cavxinc. Catrina, in Painting. See Carquina. CALKINS, or Carxers, a part prominent from a horfe- fhoe, intended to fecure the bealt from aae The calkins are the end or extremity of horle-fhoes, turned er bent downwards, and forged to a fort of point, to make the beait ftep morefafe aud fkeady on the ice. The inconvenience of calkins is, that they hinder the horfe from treading evenly on the ground, and thus occafion wrenches on the foot, or ftrains in the finews ; efpecially in ftony ways, where the hardnefs of the bottom will not fuffer the calkins to penetrate: belides, they are apt to make a horfe cut. Calkins are either fingle or double, i. e. at one end of the fhoe, or at both ; the latter are reputed lefs hurtful, as they allow the creature to tread more even; fome are made large and f{quare; the beit are in form of the point of a hare’s ear. CALL, among Fowlers, means the noife or cry of a bird, efpecially to its young, or its mate in coupling time. The call of a bird, fays the hon. Daines Barrington, in his Experiments, &c. on the Singing of Birds (Phil. Tranf. vol, Ixiti. p. 250), is that found which it is able to make when about a month old: it is, he fays, in moft inftances, a repetition of one and the fame note, is retained by the bird as long as it lives, and is common, generally, both to the cock and hen. One method of catching partridges, is by the natural call of a hen trained for the purpofe, which drawing the cocks to her, gives opportunity for entangling them in a net. Cails are alfo a fort of artificial pipes, made to catch fe- veral forts of birds, by imitating their notes. Different birds require different forts of artificial calls ; but they are molt of them compofed ofa pipe or reed, with a little leathiern bag or purfe, fomewhat in form of a bellows, which, by the mo- tion given thereto, yields a noife like that of the fpecies of bird to be taken. The call for partridges is formed like a boat, bored through, and fitted with a pipe, or fwan’s quill, &c. to be blowa with the mouth, to make the noife of the cock partridge, which is very different from the call of the hen. Calls for quails, &c. are made of a leathern purfe in fhape like a pear, ftuffed with horfe hair, and fitted at the end with the bone of a cat’s, hare’s, or coney’s legs, formed like a flageolet: they are played by fqueezing the purfe in the palm of the hand, at the fame time ftriking on the flageolet part with the thumb to counterfeit the call of the hen quail. ln fome countries haresare very numerous, and from May until Avguft are taken with a call, which entices them within a proper diflance of the fport{fman. This call is a {queaking found, firft flow and then quicker, and is fup- pofed to refemble the call between the male and the female. In the country about Naples, where this pratice obtains, both hares and partridges are fo tame, that they will run under the carriage-wheels, Catt, in Hunting, Ggnifes a leffon blown upon the horn, to comfort the hounds. Cart, in Mineralogy, an Englith name for the mineral called Tungfen, or Wolfram, by the Germans. Cart, in Sea /anguage, a fort of whiltle or pipe, of filver or brafs,.ufed by the boat{wain and his mates to fummon the failors to their duty, and direét them in their feveral em. ploymensts, It is founded to various ftrains, adapted to the diffyrent exercifes, as hoilting, heaving, &c. and the piping of it ferves the fame purpofes among failors, as the beat of the drum among foldicrs. *C AVE Care of the houf, in a parliamentary’ fenfe, has been fometimes practifed, to difcover whether there be any in the houfe not returned by the clerk of the crown ; but more- frequently to difcover what members are abfent witliout leave of the houfe, or juit caufe. In the fermer cafe, the names of the members being. called over, every perfon anfwers to his name, and departs: out of the houfe, in the order wherein he is called. In the latter, each perfon ftands up uncovered, at the mentiom of his name. Cart of the plaintiff, in Law, See Non-suit-. CALLA, in Botany, (derived, according to fome aus thors, from xaAros, deauty ; but profeffor Martyn fays, from: xaddoior, the wattles of a cock ; the name occurs in Pliny.)! Linn. gen. 1030. Schreb. 1388. Gert. 522. Juff. p. 24. Vent. vol. ii. p.85. (Provenzalia, Petit. gen. 45. An- guina. Trew.) Clafs and order, gynandria polyandria, Linn, monecia monandria, Schreb. monecia polyandria, Dr. Smith, as appears from his remarks on Arum in his Flora Britannica, and Englifh Botany, Nat. ord. piperite; Linn. Aroidee Jul. and Ventenat. Gen. ch. Cal. fpathe one-leaved, acuminate, {preading, permanent ; fpadix -fimple, erect, covered with fruétifica- tions. Cor. none. Stam. either placed above or intermingled with the piltils ; anthers feffile, {imple, truncate. Pi/?, germ roundith obtufe; ifyle fimple, very thort; {tigma acute ; with feveral permanent, compreffed, truncate filaments in- termixed with the germs. Peric. berry tetragonally-globu- lar, one-celled (many celled, Gert.) ; feeds from ix to twelve, ereé, cylindrical, obtufe at both ends, Eff. Ch. Spathe fpreading, fpadix covered with florets ; corollanone. Berries many-leeded. Sp. t. C. athiopica, Linn. Sp, Gertner, Tab. 84. fig. 2. La Marck, Pl. 739, fig. 2. (Arum /Ethiopicum; Comm. hort. 1. p95. Tab. 50. Arum Africanum;- Fournef. 159. Rai. Sup. 576.). ** Leaves arrow-heartfhaped ; fpathe cowled ; ftamens placed above the pillils.? Perennial. Root thick, flefhy, with a brown fkin, and {trong, ficfhy fibres. Leaves in clotters from the root, eight or nine inches long, of a fhining green, ending in a fharp point, which turns backwards on petioles more than a foot long ; furrowed, and. fheathing at their bafe. Scape longer than the leaves, round, herbaceous, fmooth, green. Spathe white, alittle flefhy, twifted at the bottom, but {pread open at the top, fnddenly contracling, and ending ina point. Spadix cylindrical, yel- lowith, about half the length of the fpathe.. Stamens above, piflils below fet fo clofely together that they are not eafily diftinguifhed. Seeds roundifh, dark brown, {mooth, having on the inner fide a protuberant, comprefied eye extending from the umbilical aperture to the top of the feed. Miller, La Marck, and Gertner. A native of the Cape of Good Hope, fent to Commelin in.1687, and cultivated by Mr. Miller in 1731. It flowers from January to May. 2. C. palufiris, Linn, Sp. Pl. Flor. dan. Tab. 422. (Dracuncu- lus paluitris. Bauh, pin. 195. D. aquatilis. Dod. pempt. 33%- Rai. Hilt. 1210. Barrel, ic. 574. Anguina aquati- ca, Lob. ic. 600.) “ Leaves heart-fhaped ; f{pathe flat ; ftamens and pilftils intermingled with each other.” Perennial, Root creeping, from fix to eight inches long, fixing itfelf to the earth by capillary fibres from its knots, and throwing out leaves and {capes at different dittances.. Leaves peri- oled, acuminate, green, fmooth, alternately embracing. the ftem.. Stipules two, bluntifh-egg-fhaped at the bafe of the petioles. Scape round, thick, fucculent, fmooth, bright green. Spathe roundilh-egg-fhaped, rolled up. at the end into a bluntifh fpine, yellowifh-green below, white and {mooth above. Spadix egg-thaped, obtufe. Stamens white. Berries CAL Berries {mall, four or five-cornered, or round, wrinkled about the edge, {mooth, foft, flat at the top, crowned with a fhort ftyle. Seeds from fix to nine, fometimes only from one to three, in a vifcid mucilage. A native of marfhes in Holland, Germany, and the whole north of Europe. Its roots are very acrid; but Linnzus informs us, that the Laplanders extra& from them a fecula of which they make bread. 3. C. orientalis, Lian. Sp. Pl. (Arum Carfaami, Rauw. itin. 115. A. minus orientale, Mor. Hitt. 3. 544. Rai. Sup. 580.) <* Leaves egg-fhaped.’”? Perennial. Peti- oles long. Scape about fix inches high; flower white. A native of the mountains about Aleppo. This fpecies refts entirely on the authority of Rauwolf ; and, though admitted by Linnzus into his Species Plantarum, docs not appear in the laft edition of his Syftema Nature, and has fince been rejected by molt of the editors of the Syftema Vegetabilium. 4. C. occulta, Martyn’s Miller. Loureiro Cochinch. 532. * Leaves heart-egg-fhaped ; {pathe fpiral; fpadix with an- thers and filaments intermingled at the bottom ; anthers only at the top.”? Perennial. About a foot high, with fearcely any ftalk. Leaves many, {mooth, diffuled ; with long chan- nelled petioles, dilated at the bafe, embracing the inner ones. Spathe long, concealing the flowers even in their ftate of maturity. Spadix oblong. Stigma concave, trifid, feffile. Berry three-lobed, three-celled, yellow, containing many feeds. A native of Cochinchina in moift places. Propagation and Culture. The thiopica propagates very fait by offsets, which fhould be taken off about the end of Auguft, and each planted feparately in a pot filled with kitchen-garden earth. ‘They may be kept in the open air till winter, and then fhould be removed under cover. The plant will live in the open air in mild winters, without any cover, in a warm border and dry foil; and may always be preferved with a little fhelter from hard froft. The paluftris muft be planted in an artificial bog, or the mud of a pond, or tub fet in water. Miller. ; Carra-Sufung, in Geography, a town and capital of the ifland of Bouton, in the Indian fea, feated about a mile from the coaft, on an eminence furrounded with co- coa-nut trees. It has a bad harbour with a rocky bottom. The inhabitants are Mahometans, and fpeak the Malay language. CALLABASH-say, See Carapasn. CALLAGC, a town of France in the department of the North Coafts, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of Guingamp ; 34 leagues N. of Roftrenau. The place con- tains 1,543, and the canton 10,532 inhabitants; the terri- tory includes 3273 kiliometres, and 9 communes. CALLACALLES, a river of Chili which falls into the South Sea at Baldivia. CALLAF, or Cavar, in Botany. (Alpin.) See Sarix JEGYPTIACA. CALLAH, or Geran, in Geography, a town of Af- rica, in the country of Algiers, 50 miles S. of Bona.—Alfo, a town of Africa, in the country of Algiers; 35 miles W. of Suef. CALLAH, Et, a town of Africa, in the weftern pro- vince of Algiers, Tlemfan or Tremecen, fituate 5 leagues to the N. E. of Mafcar, and 40 miles E. of Oran, on an eminence, as the Arabic name imports, and in the midft of other mountains, which form part of Mount Atlas. It is larger than Mafcar, but a dirty ill-contrived town, without ~ drains, pavement, or caufeways. It is the greateft.market of this country for carpetsand burnoofes. Thereare feveral vil- lazes of the fame nature, and alike fituate round about it, all of which are profitably employed in the fame woollen manu- factures. ‘The Turks have here a {mall garrifon and citadel; 7 CAL and, from fome few large ftones and pieces of marble of ancient workmanfhip, we may infer that it was formerly a city of the Romans; perhaps the ‘* Gitlui,”” or “* Apfar,’’ of Ptolemy. CALLAICI, or Catreci, in Ancient Geography, a people of Spain, who inhabited the rorth-weftern part of the country. Their name feems to have been formed from © Calle,”? which was that of one of their ports. There were feveral different people comprehended under this deno- mination; fuch as the Bracari, Czlerini, ‘Gravii, Simici, Querquerni, Artabri, and others. Ptolemy divides them into the * Callaici Bracarii,’? and *‘* Callaici Lucenfes.’”’ The former extended themfelves from the Durius to the Minius ; and the latter from the Minius to Aftures. Their principal rivers were the Uia, Minius, and Durius; and their chief towns were Brigantium, Adrobicum, Lucus Augutti, Iria Flavia, Tyde, Bracara Augufta, Calle, and Aque Flavie. CALLAN, a mountain in the county of Clare, Ireland, near the Weftern Ocean, remarkable for a large ftone or monument, fuppofed to have an infcription in the Ogham or Ogum charaters. An account of it may be found in the tft vol. of the Tranfactions of the Royal Irith Academy, and in the 7th volume of, the Archzologia ; and fome re- marks on it in Ledwich’s Irifh Antiquities. CALLANORE, or Kutranort,a town of Hindooftan, in the county of Lahore, feated on the Rauvee, about E, 30° N. from Lahore, or diftant f-om it 35 common coffes, N. lat. 32° 30’. E. long. 74° 40’. CALLAO, a fea-port town of Spanifh South America, in Peru, feated on a river of the fame name near the Pa- cific Ocean, and ferving as a port tothe city of Lima, from which it is diftant about 5 miles. The harbour of Callao is the largeft, moft beautiful, moft convenient, and moft fecure in the South Sea; and the Spanifh government has, at different periods, expended large fums in improving and ftrengthening it. The largeft vellels may lie with perfe& fafety in the road of this port, as the water is very deep, without rocks, and always tranquil. - Two iflands, named St. Lawrence and Callao, and the peninfula which nearly reaches them, defend veffels, from the fouth wind ; and though the road is open to the north and north-north-welt, thefe winds fo feldom blow here, or with fuch inconfiderable force, that no danger is apprehended. The ifland of St. Law- rence breaks off the fea from the S. W. to the S.E. In this port every neceflary commodity which veffels need, may be procured. The fmall river that comes down from Lima, and difcharges itfelf into the fea under the walls of Callao, furnifhes plenty of good water; anda mole, on which cranes are erected, makes it eafy for fhips to load and unload. The town, which the Spaniards have confidered as almoft impregnable, was, before the calamity, which it fuffered by an earthquake, fortified by baftions and fome batteries, which have never been thoroughly repaired; and it is de- fended by a garrifon. There are two fauxbourgs inhabited by Indians. The trade of Callao is confiderable, in confe- quence of its convenience as a port, and its vicinity to Lima, which fee. This place, as well as the adjacent country, has frequently.fuffered much from earthquakes. The moft dread- ful earthquake, however, feems to have been that which commenced in 1746, and continued at intervals till 1747. On this occafion the port of Callao was totally fubmerfed ; nothing remained except a piece of the wall of the fort of Santa Cruz, asa memorial of this terrible devaftation. OF 23 fhips and veffels, great and fmall, which were then in the harbour, 19 were wholly funk, and the other four were carried by the force of the waves to a great diltance up the country. Of the number of inhabitants, amounting to about 4000, CAL 4000, 202 only efenped; and 22 of thefe were preferved by means of the above-mentioued fragment of a wall. Since that time Callao has been rebuilt upon the fame plan, but alittle farther from the fea, S. lat. 12° 1’ 53”. W. tong. 7 58’. : E Cacrao, as it is called by its inhabitants, but more ge- “nerally known to Europeans under the name of Camretto, isan ifland which lies oppofite to, and about 8 miles to the eaflward of, the mouth of a confiderable river on the coalt of Cochin-china, on the banks of which is fituated the town of Fairfoo, a place of fonte note, uot far from the harbour of Turan. Tne bearing of the hicheft peak of Callao from this harbour is about S. E. at the diftance of 30 miles. The extreme points of the ifland lie in N. lat. 15° 53’. and 15°57’. The greateit lenpth is from N. W. ‘to S. E, about 5 miles, and the mean breadth 2 miles. The, ‘only inhabited part is on the S. W. coalt, on a flip of ground rifing gently to the eaft, and contained between the bottom of a iemtlunar bay, and the mountains on each fide of it. Thefe mountains, at a diftance, appear like two diftin& iflands. ‘The fonthern mountain is the higheft, and is about 1500 feet. ‘The lower grounds contain about 200 acres. This imall but enchanting {pot is beautifully diverti- fied with neat houfes, temples, clumps of trees, imall hil- locks {welling from the plain, and richly decorated with fhrabbery aod trees of various kinds; among which the elegant areca, rifing like a Corinthian column, is eminently confpicuous. A rill of clear water oozing from the moun- tains, is carried along the upper ridges of the vale, whence it is occafionally conveyed through fluices, for the purpofe of watering the rice grounds, and for which it feems to be amply fufficient. The houfes, in general, were clean and decent : a few were built with ftone, and covered with tiles. One, probably the mantiion of the chicf perfon of the ifland, was inclofed by a ftone wall, and the accefs to it was through a gate-way between two ftone-pillars. The houfe was di- vided into a number of apartments, arranged with tafte and convenience. Tis building ftood at the head of the prin- cipal village, confifting of about 30 habitations built of wood, chicfly the bamboo. Behind the village, and on the fide of the hill, was a cave, acceflible only by one path through a range of rocks; and within the cave, near its mouth, wasa {mall temple, commanding a view of the whole vale. Several other temples were difperfed over the plain, all of which were open in front, with a colonnade before them of round wooden pillars, painted red and varnifhed. The number of houfes on the iflind fearcely exceeded Go. Behind every houfe, not immediately in the principal village, were inclofares of fugar-cancs, tobacco, and other vege- tables, yrowing in great luxuriance. ‘The mountains were covered with verdure, and {eemed well calculated for rearing goats, of which the ifland produced a few. Defide the principal bay, there were (cveral fandy inlets, in any of which boats might eafily land ; but a communication be- tween them b ‘hand is very difficult, if not impracticable, on account of the fteep and rugged ridges which feparate them from each other. Hence it appears that very flight works, and an eltablifhment of a few men would be fufficient for the defence of the ifland; a great part of its coat being impregnably fortified by nature. The depth of water in the bay and road is fuflicient for thips of any burden, and it affords perfe& fheier from every wiad except the S.W. to which quarter it was dire@ly open, The French, it is faid, aware of the infecurity of trad- ing to Tung quia and Cochin-china without fome in- dependent ATR had formerly in contemplation to mnppbate she ifland of Callao, lying a few miles to the or. V, CAL fouthwerd of Turon, But the want of thelter in the S.W> monfoon would foon induce them, if they were once in pof- feffion of Callao, to feek for a farther fectlement near it, upon the main-land of Cochin-china, Embeffy to China, vol. 1. CALLARIAS, by fome called afcellus callarius, in Ich- thyology, a filh of the truttaceous kind, called by Aldrovan- dus finca marina, and by Rondeletius and Gefner phycis. Tt ufually grows to about a foot in length, and is in fhape fomething flattify ; it is covered with {mall feales, and is of a greyifh colour, but fomewhat purple on the head ; its tail is roundifh, not forked; it isa very well talted fifh, and is common in the Mediterranean, and brought to market at Rome, Venice, &c. CALLAS, in Ancient Geograpky, a river of Greece, ia the ifland of Euboea. Caxras, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Var, and chief place of a canton in the diltriét of Draguignan, 13 league N.E. of it. The place cov- tains 2,108, and the canton 8,186 inhabitants: the terri- tory comprehends 272+ kiliometres, and 7 communes. CALLATII, and Catvastit, in Ancient Géography, a people of India, who have the cuftom, according to a dotus, of eating their parents. CALLATIS, Cacatis, or CALANTRA, a town feated on the weltern coaft of the Euxine fea, fouth of the mouth of the Ifter, and 300 ftadia diftant from Tomi. See Caratis. CALLE, Joun Francis, in Biography, a French ma~ thematician, was born on the 25th of October 1744, at Verfailles, where he received a good education, and acquired an early tafte for the mathematics:’’In 1768 he came to Paris, where he had an opportunity of being more thorough- lyinftruéted. In 1774 he formed fome diltinguithed pupils for the fchool of engineers, where the examinations were ftri&t, and admiffion difficult to be obtained. In 1779 he ined the prize propofed by the Society of Arts at Geneva, or efcapements. In 1783 he completed his edition of © Gardiner’s Tables of Logarithms,’? which were exceed- ingly convenient, of great utility, and very correét; and which poflcffed advantages above all the others. In 1788 he was appointed profeffor of hydrography at Vannes, after- wards at Dunkirk; and in 1792 he returned to Paris, and ° was for a few years profeflor des ingenieurs geographes at the depdt of war. This place having been fuppreffed, he con- tinued to teach in Paris, where he was always confidered as one of the beft mathematical malters to whom pupils could apply. In 1795 he publifhed the new ftereotype edition of the « Tables of Logarithms,” confiderably enlarged with loga- rithmictables of the fines, according to the new decimal divifion of thecircle, "hefe are the firft which ever appeared. To- wards the end of 1797 he prefenced to the National Inflitute the plan of a new telegraph and a telegraphic language, ac- companied with a dictionary of 12,000 French words adapted toit by a combination worchy of fo able a mathematician. Thefe labours had injured his health ; he had beena long time afthmatic, and, notwithftanding his condition, he pub- lifhed, that year, an excellent memoir on finding the longi- tude at fea, under the modctt title of “ A Supplement to the Trigonometry and Navigation of Bezout.’? He died on the 14th of November 1798, leaving behind him a daughter, born at Vannes in 1743. According to a tradi- tion in the family, he was defcended from Deicartes. La- Jande’s Hilt. Altron. for 1798. Carey in Ancient Geography, Porto, a town of Hifpa- nia Citerior, to the fouth, near the mouth of the river Du- rius, on the frontiers of Lufitania. This town, at firlta {mall port, became afterwards coufiderable among the Cal- 5 H laici, CAL laic}, to whom it belonged. It is now called Puerto by the Portuguefe, and Port-a-Port, or Porto by the French. From this name Calle, and that of Portus, the appellation of Portugal is faid to be derived. Cate, La, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the pro- vince ot Conftantina,{urrounded on three fides by the fea, and defended on the fourth fide by a ftrong wall. This place is inhabited by 3 or 400 Corficans and Provengals ; and it is the chief faétory of the French African company on this coaft. The edifices belonging to the company are the only regular buildings ; the reft of the inhabitants, coin- pofed of the fcum of the populace of Marfeilles, live in wretched huts. They are employed in packing and un- packing of goods, in the coral fithery, and in taking care of the cattle; they likewife perform military duty, and daily mount guard. Befides the advantage of the coral fithery, and of the whole trade of the circumjacent country, the French have alfo at Bona, Tuckuth, Sgigata, and Cull, the monopoly of corn, wool, hides, and wax; for which they pay yearly to the government of Algicrs, to the kaide of Bona, and tothe chiefs of the neighbouring Arabs, 30,000 dollars, 7. e. about 5000 guineas of our money. CALLEGAES, a name anciently given by the Spa- niards to the Abipons, on account of their fingular pratice of eradicating the hair over their foreheads, fo as to produce the appearance of baldnefs: but their featurcs refemble the European, and the nofe is commonly of an aquiline form. They carefully eradicate the beard, and mark their forcheads and temples with particu‘ar fears, by way of ornament. The males are accuftomed from childhood to the ufe of the bow. Hunger alone diftates the time to eat; and they confume vaft quantities of animal food. They preferve cleanlinefs by frequent bathing in the lakes and rivers. They have no idea of a monarch, but are ruled by many caciques, which they cail ** capitas,”’ from a Spamifh term. They feldom marry till the hufb:nd ard brice have exceeded their twentieth yea-; and the lady is purchafcd from her relations at the price of four horfes, and woollen cloths of various colours, fomewhat refembling ‘Turkey carpets. They pretend to expedite the birth by a mixture of cabbage juice and wine; and on the birth of acacque’s eld